Social Indicators Research (2007) 82: 233–264 Ó Springer 2006

DOI 10.1007/s11205-006-9032-z

YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN AN INTERNATIONAL

AND MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT: WHAT ARE MAJOR
PATHWAYS LINKING LEISURE TO QUALITY OF LIFE?

(Accepted 26 May 2006)

ABSTRACT. This paper aims at advancing the conceptualization of leisure as a contributor

to quality of life (QOL) in an international and multicultural context, based on an extensive
and critical review of literature on leisure and QOL from a global, international perspective.
Given the central role of culture in conceptualizing this notion, this paper gives attention to
various cultural contexts world-wide. To illustrate the diversity of our societies, examples are
introduced specifically from three culturally unique contexts in this paper – i.e., Asian,
Middle-East, and Indigenous contexts. Also, some examples are drawn from other cultural
groups in global and international contexts, particularly, in non-western contexts. Then, the
final section of this paper aims at integrating and synthesizing the knowledge gained from this
review to develop a tentative/working proposition about how leisure can contribute to QOL
from international and cross-cultural perspectives. Specifically, based on such integration, this
paper identifies and describes major pathways linking leisure to QOL. Overall, an overarching
theme common to almost all cultural contexts examined appears to be the role of leisure-like
activities as a context or space for creating meanings which then help to promote the quality
of people’s lives. Major pathways or mechanisms that can facilitate meaning-making and life-
quality-enhancement highlighted in this review include: (a) positive emotions and well-being
experienced from leisure, (b) positive identities and self-esteem gained from leisure, (c) social
and cultural connections and a harmony developed through leisure, and (d) leisure’s contri-
bution to learning and human development across the life-span. Also, emphasized in this
paper is the role of leisure as a context for realizing and utilizing human strengths and
resilience. It is important, however, to stress that in people’s quest for a meaningful life, the
benefits of meaning-making through leisure involve both ‘‘remedying the bad’’ and
‘‘enhancing the good,’’ as shown throughout this paper. Despite these benefits, we should not
ignore that leisure experiences are socially and culturally constructed and shaped by the
inequalities of society. Thus, the reality of power imbalance and inequalities should be
acknowledged and appropriately addressed socially, culturally, and politically. Particularly,
providing culturally relevant and meaningful leisure opportunities for less privileged popu-
lation groups world-wide is clearly a top priority.

KEY WORDS: leisure, quality of life, culture, meaning, diversity, strength

234 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

1. INTRODUCTION

Quality of life (QOL) is a complex yet vague term and, thus, is very
difficult to be defined (Cummins, 1998; Veenhoven, 2000). Bramston et al.
(2002) and Michalos (2003) all suggested that a little consensus has been
made on a definition of QOL, or on the factors that comprise QOL. As
emphasized by Lloyd and Little (2005), QOL is ‘‘considerably value-laden
and values differ across individuals and cultures’’ (p. 150). Nevertheless,
the notion of life quality seems to be concerned primarily with whether
people have a good life, and what constitutes a good life (Diener and Suh,
2000; Kovac, 2004), while contemporary definitions conceptualize QOL as
a socially and culturally constructed and multidimensional construct that
subsumes a number of related factors (e.g., life satisfaction, happiness;
Schalock et al., 2002). For example, the World Health Organization
(WHO, 1997) defined QOL as ‘‘individuals’ perception of their position in
life in the context of culture and value system and in relation to their
goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad ranging concept
affected in a complex way by the person’s physical health, psychological
state, level of independence, social relationships, and their relationships to
salient features of their environment’’ (p. 1).
This definition of QOL has proved to be useful in multicultural contexts.
For example, with the aim to construct a QOL assessment that would be
applicable cross-culturally, the WHO Quality of Life assessment (the
WHOQOL) was developed based on an extensive pilot test in 15 centres
around the world (Australia, Croatia, France, India, Israel, Japan, Neth-
erlands, Panama, Russia, Spain, Thailand, UK, USA, and Zimbabwe),
using over 4,500 subjects. This extensive testing led to the identification of
six domains and 29 facets of QOL (The WHOQOL Group, 1998) including:
Domain 1. Physical (e.g., pain discomfort, energy and fatigue); Domain 2.
Psychological (positive feelings, self-esteem, negative feelings); Domain 3.
Level of Independence (e.g., mobility, activities of daily living, work capac-
ity); Domain 4. Social Relationships (e.g., personal relationships, social
support); Domain 5. Environment (e.g., physical safety and security; home
environment; work satisfaction; financial resources; health and social care;
participation in and opportunities for recreation/leisure activities); and
Domain 6. Spirituality/Religion/Personal Beliefs. It is worth noting that
‘‘participation in and opportunities for recreation/leisure activities’’ was
found to be a significant contributor to QOL based on confirmatory factor
analysis, suggesting that leisure activity represents a key element of QOL
(The WHOQOL Group, 1998).
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 235

Similarly, the existing QOL literature highlights the role of leisure as a

contributor to QOL in studies conducted, for example, in Australia (Lloyd
and Auld, 2002), Canada (Michalos and Zumbo, 2003; Michalos, 2005),
Iran (Kousha and Mohseni, 1997), Israel (Ritsner et al., 2005), The Neth-
erlands (Wendel-Vos et al., 2004), and Taiwan (Kao et al., 2005). However,
our current conceptualization about leisure as a contributor to or a facili-
tator of QOL is very limited (Lloyd and Little, 2005; Baker and Palmer,
2006). Particularly, we have not yet gained a clear and systematic under-
standing about ‘‘how’’ leisure contributes to or facilitates QOL. To bridge
this gap, a useful and valuable effort may to extensively review the existing
literature on leisure, QOL, and related concepts and then, based on the
integration and synthesis of such knowledge, to identify major pathways or
mechanisms by which leisure can contribute to QOL.
Another key point that must be acknowledged in leisure and QOL
research is the fact that ‘‘people living in different situations see different
things as essential to a meaningful existence’’ (Shin and Rutkowski, 2003,
p. 511), given the diversity of our societies from a global and international
perspective. Particularly, culture is, perhaps, the most central and defining
concept to characterize our diverse societies (Salzman and Halloran, 2004;
Kitaoka, 2005). Thus, conceptualizing leisure and QOL in an international
context requires a careful and explicit attention to cultural factors and
contexts. Often, culture is broadly defined as the way of life of a society
(Gordon, 1964; Wearing, 1998), while leisure is considered an essential
part or attribute of culture (Shaw and Karlis, 2002). Gotay (2004) high-
lighted the need for ‘‘an enhanced appreciation of the importance of
cultural factors in all aspects of life’’ (p. 55). Similarly, emphasizing the
major role of culture in the conceptualization of QOL, Suh and Oishi
(2004) suggested that ‘‘the universal strive for a positive life, indisputably
takes place within the specifics of the person’s cultural environment’’
(p. 219, emphasis added).
This paper aims at advancing the conceptualization of leisure as a con-
tributor to QOL in an international and multicultural context, based on an
extensive and critical review of literature on leisure and QOL from a global,
international perspective. Given the central role of culture in conceptualiz-
ing this notion, this paper gives attention to various cultural contexts world-
wide. To illustrate the diversity of our societies, examples are introduced
specifically from three culturally unique contexts (among other cultural
contexts) in this paper. First, because a western domination is an apparent
phenomenon in both leisure research and QOL research (although efforts to
reverse this phenomenon have increasingly been made recently; e.g., Shin
236 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

and Rutkowski, 2003; Leung et al., 2004; Ng et al., 2005), a literature review
of this paper gives an explicit attention to eastern regions of the world,
particularly, China and some other Asian countries. Gaining eastern per-
spectives on leisure and QOL is very important to correct the ‘‘power
imbalance’’ (i.e., the western domination over east) in leisure and QOL
research literature.
Another specific section of the literature review is devoted to leisure
and QOL in Middle Eastern contexts. Despite the proximity of the
Middle Eastern region to the Asian region, the histories and cultural
contexts of the Middle East appear quite unique compared to the rest of
the regions of the world (Martin and Mason, 2003). Also, many people
in the Middle East seem to be oppressed and disadvantaged historically,
culturally, and politically, which has implications for their QOL (Shal-
houb-Kevorkian, 2003). Thus, it is worthwhile to give a special and
explicit attention to Middle Eastern contexts in order to facilitate an
enhanced understanding about leisure and QOL from international and
multicultural perspectives.
Another cultural group that deserves a well-respected special attention is
Indigenous peoples. One rationale is that Indigenous issues are globally
meaningful and important because significant portions of indigenous peo-
ples reside in various regions world-wide who face a variety of pressing
health and social problems (e.g., ‘‘deep-rooted racism’’ through the history
of colonization; Rock, 2003; Iwasaki et al., 2004, 2005). Another rationale is
that there appears to be the distinct division/separation between Indigenous
communities and non-Indigenous communities world-wide. Some scholars
even suggest that Indigenous peoples live in the fourth world (O’Neil, 1986),
being distinct from the third world, which often refers to the regions in
developing countries. Hence, it is both important and necessary to focus on
and bring forward the perspectives of Indigenous peoples into the concep-
tualizations of leisure and QOL.
On the other hand, I acknowledge that I should not ignore the perspec-
tives and contexts of other, equally important, cultural groups world-wide.
Thus, besides the above three population groups, in this paper I attempt to
introduce some examples from other cultural groups in global and
international contexts, particularly, in non-western contexts. Then, the final
section of this paper aims at integrating and synthesizing the knowledge
gained from my extensive review of literature in order to develop a tentative/
working proposition about how leisure can contribute to QOL from
international and cross-cultural perspectives. Specifically, based on such
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 237

integration, this paper identifies and describes major pathways linking

leisure to QOL.

2. LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN ASIAN CONTEXTS

Acknowledging the culturally based and complex nature of QOL and its
presumed key element, leisure, the following is an extensive review of the
literature on these topics from global and international perspectives. The
first literature review section addresses leisure and QOL in Asian contexts;
specifically, examples are drawn from China, India, and Japan. In terms of
China, a distinction is made among the mainland China, Hong Kong, and
Taiwan because China is a large diverse country geographically and cul-
turally (Wang, 2005).
From a philosophical and spiritual perspective, Wang and Stringer (2000)
described that Taoism as an essential part of Chinese culture strongly influ-
ences the lives of Chinese people including leisure. This influence is observable
in their close connections to the nature, holistic wellness, traditional and
martial arts, literature such as painting and poetry, cultural celebrations, and
tourism (e.g., visits to Taoist temples) (Wang and Stringer). Related to these
aspects, Yu and Berryman (1996) further indicated that leisure in traditional
Chinese society has the following characteristics. Many Chinese show a
preference for quiet and reflective activities (e.g., reading books, writing
poems, listening to music) rather than the strenuous physical exertion. Also,
many Chinese enjoy spending tranquil moments outdoors, appreciating the
nature to experience true rest and relaxation, and comprehending the har-
mony between their inner spirit and the objective world (Yu and Berryman,
1996). In fact, facilitating tranquility and peace of mind is an essential element
of leisure for many Chinese people, which is linked to understanding the
meaning of life (Gong, 1998; Yang, 1998). Historically, both the creation and
appreciation of cultural arts such as music, poetry, painting, sculpture, dance,
and theater have been a central element of Chinese culture (Wang and
Stringer, 2000). Also, Wang and Stringer noted that a number of Chinese
festivals (e.g., Chinese New Year, called Guo Nian, as the largest and most
important) provide one of the most prevalent opportunities for leisure in
China today. Furthermore, somewhat analogous to the western concept of
‘‘flow’’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), ‘‘Jing Jie’’ is considered the highest pursuit
of leisure for many Chinese people, which can be experienced through the
harmony with the nature and through creative or martial arts, meditation,
music, or poem (Gong, 1998; Yang, 1998). These experiences can provide
infinite happiness and joyfulness (Wang and Stringer, 2000).
238 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

T’ai Chi is a form of Chinese martial art developed 700 years ago, and
adopted by many Chinese as a low cost, safe, and enjoyable form of self-
strengthening and health maintenance exercise (Schaller, 1996). It also
provides an opportunity for meditation and spiritual well-being, as well as
physical, psychological, and therapeutic benefits (Sandlund and Norlander,
2000), and an opportunity for socialization since it is often practiced in a
group (Wolf et al., 1997). Using focus groups with older adults in Hong
Kong, Yau and Packer (2002) found that participation in T’ai Chi provides
meaning, a sense of structure, rhythm, and pattern to life. For many par-
ticipants, the early morning practice of T’ai Chi set the tone of the day.
Also, T’ai Chi as a form of exercise with its gentle and soft movements was
perceived to have a good fit and be appropriate to older adults who want to
remain active and healthy (Yau and Packer). In addition, the participants
noted that T’ai Chi provides an opportunity for deep meditation to develop
an inner calmness and strength, which enables them to deal with adversity or
times of stress. Many participants perceived that T’ai Chi has a ‘‘meditative
effect’’ to improve their emotional and mental well-being including en-
hanced cognitive function, and a stronger belief in their ability to take active
control over their lives, emotions, and health. As well, many participants
highly valued the positive atmosphere of practicing in groups, which pro-
vides a place for social support (Yau and Packer). In terms of the term,
quality of life (QOL), however, these older Chinese in Hong Kong did not
seem familiar with this term (Yau and Packer). But, once explained, they
perceived that health, social, and lifestyle benefits through the practice of
T’ai Chi are linked to enhanced QOL, while these benefits were perceived to
be extended to their family and work life, and daily interactions (Yau and
Packer).
Setting a context of her study in India, Nagla (2005) suggested that besides
as a major public health issue worldwide, the consumption of food is ‘‘an
important part of leisure all over the world’’ because ‘‘meal times are usually
social occasions when people not only satisfy their appetites but also
converse and enjoy each other’s company’’ (Nagla, 2005, p. 24). Particularly,
Nagla emphasized that dining in third world villages represents a ‘‘leisurely
collective ritual’’ (p. 25). In these villages, extended families and sometimes
entire villages congregate for celebrations such as religious festivals, wed-
dings, and birthdays, and food is always central to these occasions (Nagla).
Using interviews with 150 households in a rural village and a city district in
Harayana State, India, Nagla (2005) explored the practices of and attitudes
about food consumption among people in India, in relation to leisure and
health. The results suggested that participants value health – good health is
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 239

considered as a condition for maintaining high quality of their lives including

family, work, and leisure. The participants also realized that their diets and
other lifestyle options (including leisure) strongly influence their health.
Highlighting the significance of food and drink consumptions as a context of
leisure, Sivan et al.’s (2004) large-scale survey in Hong Kong reported that
‘‘the social activities of eating out and going to tea houses’’ usually with
family, relatives, or friends are among the top leisure activities, and retained
their popularity and high participation rates (p. 139). In his paper entitled,
‘‘Life of Leisure,’’ published in the Far Eastern Economic Review, Jennings
(2001) described that ‘‘every Chinese city has teahouses and plazas. Here
sitting around is a sacred subculture. This scene provides a release from the
humdrum. Tea rules the leisure scene, and locals believe it nurtures health’’
(p. 76).
Based on his analysis of national surveys in Japan, Harada (2004) high-
lighted Japanese people’s ‘‘shift toward a more leisure-oriented lifestyle’’
(p. 153). The 1983 Public Census on Lifestyles (Prime Minister’s Office, 1983)
recorded for the first time that Japanese people on average considered
‘‘leisure’’ as the most important aspect of daily life, compared to the other
aspects of life (e.g., work). In fact, ‘‘the proportion of respondents reporting
‘leisure’ in the highest importance category continued to increase into the
1990s’’ (Harada, 2004, p. 153). The surveys also suggested that ‘‘in the
1980s, personal preferences shifted away from materialistic concerns to
embrace more humanistic values and a desire for a better quality of life’’
(p. 160). Although by the early 1990s, bubble economy led to economy
stagnation, having an impact on leisure attitudes and behaviours of
Japanese, public interest in leisure and recreation has continued to grow as
facilitated by government policies such as resort developments and shorter
working hours (Harada).
From an Indian perspective, Sharma (2002) suggested that ‘‘leisure, in the
vedantic understanding, would be a state of being as against one of having or
doing,’’ and it is seen to be ‘‘the realization of human urge for happiness’’
(p. 18). Sharma also noted that through leisure ‘‘the mind is cleansed of
impurities’’ with the ‘‘identification of joy and fulfillment’’ (p. 18). For
example, speaking of yoga as ‘‘a discipline for the quietening of mental
modifications’’ (p. 19), Sharma (2002) explained that yoga enables one to
experience ‘‘true self,’’ by aligning the harmony among the body (action),
mind (thought), and awareness (spirit). A positive significant association
between participation in yoga and QOL was found in Damodaran et al.’s
(2002) study in Bombay, India. Having implications for one’s QOL, Kumar
(2004) described three major goals of human existence in India including:
240 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

hedonistic (pleasure oriented), collective (QOL and wellbeing of an indi-

vidual as inextricably bound with that of others), and transcendental (QOL
and wellbeing in spiritual terms). Furthermore, Sharma suggested that
religious rituals and activities can provide a ‘‘high degree of leisure,’’ and are
considered to be ‘‘a powerful cultural force that integrates individuals to the
larger society’’ and keeps people healthy physically and mentally (p. 22).
Leung et al. (2004) conducted a study to explore the components of QOL
among elderly Chinese in Taiwan. Their study yielded 15 QOL domains
grouped into six dimensions: physical health (physical well-being, impact of
illness, medical care), psychological health (mood states, life attitude and
retrospection, philosophy of living, self-efficacy), social function (connect-
edness, exercise and leisure activities, social activities and services), living
environment (environment, institutional factors), economic status, and reli-
gion and death. Leung et al. found that for elderly Chinese in Taiwan, a
person-environment interaction plays a key role in the evaluation of QOL,
family ties are a very important aspect of QOL, and traditional Chinese
values and beliefs exert a strong positive influence on their perceived QOL.
The importance of family ties was also emphasized in Tao et al.’s (1998)
study on QOL among elderly Mainland Chinese. Leung et al. (2004) high-
lighted that ‘‘the well-being of both the family as a whole and individual
family members was frequently placed as the first priority. This phenome-
non is compatible with Chinese culture’’ (p. 187).
It is important to emphasize that leisure activities such as dancing,
Karaoke, Tai-Chi, drawing, and volunteering were identified as a key con-
tributor to QOL in Leung et al.’s study. Speaking of volunteering as a
leisure activity, Leung et al. noted that ‘‘being able to help others can
strengthen the self-perception of competency, and the helping process may
also give elderly people a sense of fulfillment and self-satisfaction’’ (p. 186).
Also, these Chinese elderly expressed their vitality by engaging in leisure
activities (Leung et al., 2004), while vitality has been recognized as a key
component of QOL (Ren et al., 1998). Highlighting the important role of
being active in an older life, Kao et al.’s (2005) study with male residents of
veteran homes in Taiwan over the age of 65 years reported that during a
2-year follow-up period, 105 of the 689 subjects died, and the mortality rate
for the group which exercised ‘‘usually/everyday’’ was significantly lower
than the group that ‘‘never/seldom’’ exercised.
Marafa and Yung’s (2004) study in Hong Kong provided evidence that
leisure (particularly, outdoor recreation) can assist people to ‘‘resist the
onset of stress reactions in a situation of health scare such as the SARS
pandemic’’ (p. 45). They found that as people attempted to withstand any
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 241

direct or indirect effects of the SARS epidemic, there was a growing

awareness of health and environmental issues, and many individuals
maintained a healthy lifestyle, a large part of which involved outdoor rec-
reation activities. Marafa and Yung emphasized that in most societies
including Hong Kong, ‘‘leisure and recreation assumed a major part of
people’s lifestyle,’’ and ‘‘appreciating nature and becoming involved in
outdoor recreation is synonymous with promoting quality of life’’ (p. 41).
Yuen’s (1996) study in another urban Asian city, Singapore reported that
urban parks provide opportunities for social interactions and leisure activ-
ities with shared cultural values and meanings. Particularly, Yuen noted that
parks have the potential to provide a ‘‘backdrop’’ for public life as a context
for spending time with family and friends and participating in various cul-
tural festivals and events, which has implications for promoting QOL.

3. LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN MIDDLE-EASTERN CONTEXTS

The next section of a review of literature focuses on leisure and QOL in the
Middle East, including such countries as Egypt, Iran, Turkey, and Israel. To
be described are unique cultural characteristics of this region of the world in
relation to the ways and aspects of their lives including leisure, wellness, and
life quality.
First, Martin and Mason (2003) explored the relevance of the concept of
leisure to three countries in the Middle East, namely, Egypt, Iran, and
Turkey, based on their reviews of the literature and available statistics on
leisure engaged by people in these countries. They suggested that ‘‘leisure
time and leisure activities are topics of growing importance for countries of
the Middle East with an Islamic tradition’’ (p. 37). For many people in these
countries, however, ‘‘leisure opportunities are constrained by the pressures
of everyday existence on both time and money available’’ (Martin and
Mason, 2003, p. 42). For example, ‘‘recreation and amusements plus hotels
and travel account for less than 2% of Iranian consumer spending, and just
over 5% of that in Turkey, compared with over 17% in the UK’’ (p. 44).
Martin and Mason noted that this trend partly explains the continued
preference on traditional leisure activities with a low spending content,
notably socializing (e.g., meal times) with family and friends, and on reli-
gious festivals and activities. While this pattern of leisure is still dominant, a
relatively affluent urban middle class has developed in all three countries
with a gradual increase in a more western pattern of leisure (Martin and
Mason). However, ‘‘a uniquely Muslim state of mind and its potential
influence on leisure behaviour’’ (p. 45) is evidently very important, whereas
242 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

the prevalence of traditional cultural barriers (e.g., limited participation in

sports among women) and the lack of suitable facilities and resources should
not be ignored (Martin and Mason, 2003).
Next, Kousha and Mohseni’s (1997) study revealed that life satisfaction
among Iranian women (n = 335) in urban areas is directly linked to their
satisfaction with leisure experiences. A major conclusion from their study,
however, was that ‘‘elements that affect Iranian women’s satisfaction are
complex; they are the byproduct of the interaction of complex personal,
traditional, and societal forces that shape women’s role in the society’’ (p.
345). For example, as a form of leisure, shopping involves spending time
with family and friends and entering into ‘‘negotiations with shopkeepers
and clerks, a cultural maneuver occurring in most purchases, be it clothing
or groceries’’ (p. 347). More importantly, shopping also illustrates women’s
economic independence and spending capacity (Kousha and Mohseni).
Whereas the economic depression of the last decade and the 8-year war have
negatively affected many Iranians’ lives including their leisure, Kousha and
Mohseni found that ‘‘getting together with family and friends appears to be
one, if not the most, important pastimes of people’’ (p. 345). Furthermore,
as illustrated in an example of shopping above, ‘‘being able to devote some
time to leisure, in whatever form or shape, signifies women’s efforts to spend
time the way they wish and their attempt to overcome culture barriers to-
ward leisure’’ (p. 345). Besides other markers of life such as gender, class,
age, ability/disability, and sexual orientation, culture does shape the ways in
which Iranian women define leisure (Kousha and Mohseni, 1997), and ‘‘the
experience of leisure is in itself crucial to Iranian women’s lives’’ (p. 344).
More recently, Sheykhi (2004) observed that cultural changes due to the
development of new institutions and globalization have happened to Iran in
recent decades, similar to many other developing societies. He suggested
that this phenomenon has triggered new expectations among people in Iran,
including the need for leisure and tourism as a high priority. Sheykhi,
however, cautioned that with the absence of an infrastructure, the situation
is complicated and controversial. Nevertheless, a key message emphasized is
that ‘‘in Iran leisure is viewed as having a determining impact on quality of
life. It is regarded as a vital contributor to quality of human functions and
duties’’ (p. 62), whereas understanding unique cultural features is essential
to promoting the QOL of people in Iran and other Islamic countries. For
example, Sheykhi described religious and cultural tourism in Iran. He
observed that a growing number of Muslim tourists from the Middle East,
south, central, and even east Asian countries visit Islamic monuments in
Iran. Sheykhi suggested that this form of religious and cultural tourism can
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 243

provide an opportunity to enhance the QOL of many different population

groups. Also, Sheykhi brought other examples such as: the role of leisure
among adolescents in facilitating creativity, exploration, and education, as
well as the reemergence of old leisure repertoires (e.g., painting) among
some older women following the completion of their child rearing and
domestic responsibilities (Shoarinezhad, 1994). Sheykhi concluded that
‘‘leisure and tourism are considered as activities essential to the life of the
Iranian nation, because of their direct social, cultural, educational and
economic benefits. Proving for it would contribute to further individual and
social health, national unity, and integration’’ (p. 66).
In Israel, Ritsner et al. (2005) used the QOL Enjoyment and Satisfaction
Questionnaire (Q-LES-Q) in their study with 339 schizophrenia or schizo-
affective/mood disorders patients who were either Jewish or Arab Israelis.
Notably, Ritsner et al. found that leisure is one of the four factors essential
to QOL derived from their factor analysis on the Q-LES-Q, the other factors
being social relationships, physical health, and subjective feelings. Also, it is
important to emphasize that leisure time activities in the Q-LES-Q were
significantly associated positively with self-efficacy, self-esteem, and social
support, and negatively with depression and emotional distress.
Finally, Shalhoub-Kevorkian’s (2003) study aimed at uncovering the
voices of mothers of martyrs in Palestine who were destined to cope with the
agony and trauma of losing a child. These Palestinian women participated in
an empowerment group (termed a ‘‘voice therapy’’) which provided a safe
context for the women to unveil their narratives and feelings in order to
liberate these voices. Particularly, Shalhoub-Kevorkian found that building
connections among Palestinian women who have suffered in a similar way
was an essential part of healing and recovery. These women valued this
group in a family context because their ways of coping with their losses
centred around helping and supporting each other like family members do,
as illustrated by the following quote, ‘‘when I see the family content, it eases
my pain.’’ In this family-like context, these women involved in activities with
other mothers of martyrs such as ‘‘songs, gatherings, food, talks,’’ (p. 402),
‘‘praying’’ (p. 400), ‘‘poetry,’’ and ‘‘writings’’ (p. 405). Shalhoub-Kevorkian
described that ‘‘despite the enormous trauma inflicted upon these mothers,
and the continued incapacitation by political and social institutions, they
did not break down’’ (p. 404). Rather than becoming passive victims, they
proactively became ‘‘creators of safety nets’’ and demonstrated their
strengths in the company of other women (p. 404). As a result, this
empowerment group became ‘‘a safe milieu,’’ filled with care, love, support,
protection, and hope (Shalhoub-Kevorkian, 2003, p. 404).
244 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

The descriptions presented by Shalhoub-Kevorkian resemble Wearing’s

(1998) notion of ‘‘leisure space.’’ Discussing this notion, Wearing introduced
examples of writing, poetry, art, dance, singing, story-telling, and humour
engaged by Aboriginal Australian women and Bosnian women refugees,
which provided a context for finding meaning of life, and facilitating per-
sonal growth and empowerment. The detail about Wearing’s (1998) idea of
‘‘leisure space’’ will be provided in the next section of Leisure and Quality of
Life in Indigenous Contexts.

4. LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN INDIGENOUS CONTEXTS

According to Salzman and Halloran (2004), despite the oppressive colonial

systems burdened historically on Indigenous peoples throughout the world,
they are regaining cultural recovery and meaning by seeking their traditional
cultural worldviews. Salzman and Halloran described this aspect by intro-
ducing examples from the lives of Native Hawaiians, Native peoples of
Alaska, and Aboriginal Australians. First, Salzman and Halloran noted that
the Hawaiian renaissance period (late 1960s to 1970s) was characterized by
the recovery of traditional rituals and ceremonies including ‘‘the revival of
hula, language and culture study, music, and traditional forms of healing,’’
as well as arts, crafts, and literature, which served to reconstruct cultural
and spiritual meanings for Native Hawaiians (Salzman and Halloran, 2004,
p. 238). As written by Kanahele (1982), this helped to reassure their identity
and inspired stronger pride in their culture, and Hawaiians continue to
thrive in traditional and modern evolutions of Hawaiian culture.
As for cultural recovery among Native peoples of Alaska, efforts have
been made to recover ‘‘core values such as sharing, respect for elders,
cooperation, respect for others, avoidance of conflict, respect for nature,
spirituality, and humor’’ (Salzman and Halloran, 2004, pp. 238–239). In
terms of cultural recovery among Aboriginal Australians, rebuilding
indigenous culture, for example, through the use of traditional healing
ceremonies seems effective and culturally appropriate to address problems
(e.g., health-related) and facilitate healing among them (Atkinson and Ober,
1995; Tsey and Every, 2000). In these cases, indigenous cultural recognition
and recovery with the aim of promoting greater harmony and meaning
making is essential to their health, well-being, and QOL (Canales, 2004;
Salzman and Halloran, 2004).
As an example of the quest for meaning making in an indigenous context,
Lopez et al. (2002) emphasized the important role of spirituality and sug-
gested that ‘‘Native American spirituality involves the belief that all things
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 245

are connected and are worthy of respect’’ (p. 705). Often, the lives of
indigenous peoples are guided by seeking harmony and balance among
interrelated thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and the nature (Lopez et al.,
2002). Consequently, living a meaningful life involves ‘‘maintaining and
contributing to the reciprocal balance of family, clan, tribe, and community
in the context of personal, social, and natural environment’’ (Garrett and
Myers, 1996, p. 99).
Balsam et al.’s (2004) study on urban American Indian and Alaskan
Native (AIAN) adults including lesbian, gay, bisexual, and two-spirit par-
ticipants provided evidence that their traditional cultural and spiritual
practices (e.g., daily prayers or meditation, pow-wows, memorial feasts, and
ceremonies) can act as a buffer against the stresses experienced by AIAN.
Also, in an indigenous context, Thompson and Gifford (2000) suggested
that both family social system (active role in family; e.g., preparing or
sharing of ‘‘family food’’) and community social system (active role in
community; e.g., active maintenance of links with extended family and the
environment) can ‘‘protect the individual through real and symbolic con-
nection to family, community, land, and past, and therefore decrease an
individual’s vulnerability’’ (p. 1464).
In her book entitled, ‘‘Leisure and Feminist Theory,’’ Wearing (1998)
discussed her notion of ‘‘leisure space,’’ by describing personal narratives
about the lived experiences of Aboriginal women in Australia. She argued,
The spaces that they make in their day for themselves through activities such as reading,
writing, poetry, art, and music and dialoguing with other women are a matter of survival, as
well as chance to expand the self and relate to others .... The concept of leisure as ‘personal
space’ can incorporate both individual and autonomy and values of interpersonal and com-
munity relationships that are so important to colonized women. It can also incorporate pos-
sibilities for political action. (p. 167)

Wearing (1998) suggested that although Aboriginal women in Australia did

not use the term leisure, it is ‘‘woven into their everyday lives as a physical and
metaphorical, personal and communal space which has a meaning for them’’
(p. 167). She introduced comments made by several Aboriginal writers who
talked about activities such as sewing, craft circle, storytelling, poetry,
painting, and the use of humour and laugher, which provided a personal or
collective space for affirming self-worth, autonomy, pride, and strength; for
releasing stress and tension; and for gaining community spirit. Furthermore,
Wearing showed that activities like poetry, arts, Aboriginal music, and
Aboriginal dance which begun in a personal space expanded and became
‘‘political tools to make the voices of Aboriginal women heard in the public
arena and their needs heeded, which enable communal action’’ (p. 174).
246 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

Based on their extensive review of the literature, McDonald and

McAvoy (1997) indicated that leisure of Indigenous peoples is insepa-
rable from and well reflective of pervasive worldviews maintained and
valued widely by Indigenous populations. According to McDonald and
McAvoy, the elements of these worldviews include: (a) the belief in the
sacredness of life, emphasizing the spiritual aspects of individuals,
communities, and the nature; (b) a reciprocal and interdependent rela-
tionship with all creations that values harmony and balance; (c) a
heightened sense of place or connection to the land/environment; and (d)
the cyclical pattern of life exemplified through cultural rituals and tra-
ditions. McDonald and McAvoy then admitted that these ‘‘well be found
in leisure as well’’ (p. 161). For example, dance, music, sport, art, reli-
gion, and spiritual practices by Aboriginal persons have been identified
to have connotations with the above worldview elements (McDonald and
McAvoy).
Also, the centrality and meaning of place among Indigenous peoples
should not be ignored, which has implications for nature-based recreation
and tourism. In their case study using archive materials and interviews on
place attachment to park lands among First Nations people in British
Columbia, Canada, McAvoy et al., (2003) found that First Nations people
hold ‘‘deep emotional, symbolic and spiritual meanings of places that ...
influence their lifestyles, environment, and perceived quality of life’’ (p. 100).
Specifically, the spiritual nature of life and the land, as well as the collective
orientation of Aboriginal peoples were highlighted as essential and pervasive
to all aspects of life including leisure. Similarly, Fox and colleagues (1998)
noted that ‘‘leisure is integral to Aboriginal culture and cannot be separated
from the spiritual, cultural, social, and physical connections’’ essential to
Aboriginal peoples (p. 152).
The National Recreation Roundtable on Aboriginal/Indigenous People
was held in Maskwachees, Canada in February 2000. Its purpose was to
adopt a holistic approach through an understanding of Aboriginal cultures
and traditional lifestyles, while exploring how recreation and leisure can be
used to preserve Aboriginal culture, promote balance, and enhance the
quality of their lives (Karlis, 2004). As clearly documented in the Mas-
kwachees declaration, the delegates of the roundtable recognized that leisure
and recreation is vital for health, wellness, cultural survival, and QOL of
Aboriginal/Indigenous peoples, as well as for addressing social issues
encountered by Aboriginal communities (e.g., poverty, health concerns) in
Canada and around the world.
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 247

5. LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE IN OTHER CULTURAL CONTEXTS

The literature reviewed up to this point demonstrates the centrality of leisure

as an element of or a contributor to QOL of people in three distinct cultural
contexts: Asian, Middle-Eastern, and Indigenous. Given the global and
international nature of leisure, this section attempts to explore leisure and
QOL in other cultural contexts worldwide. Not only are examples from
different countries drawn to further describe the nature of leisure and QOL,
but attention is also given to unique individual characteristics and identities
including the lived experiences of people with disabilities, those living with
chronic illnesses, elderly, and individuals with unique sexual orientation.
First, a literature review paper by Bramante (2004) indicated that people
in Brazil value gaining meaningful leisure experiences as a ‘‘significant hu-
man life dimension’’ (p. 225). Similarly, commenting on leisure in Brazil as a
cultural manifestation, Cabeza (2000) described his ‘‘humanistic concept of
leisure in its solidarity dimension, emphasizing its altruistic and social
coexistence’’ (p. 231). Stebbins and Graham’s (2004) recent book that
highlights ‘‘the international volunteer scene’’ from various countries
including Britain, Brazil, Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, and USA,
lent extensive support for the idea of volunteering as leisure in the forms of
serious, casual, or project-based, which can provide a variety of benefits
including the promotion of individual and community QOL.
Based on their study with 1,654 Batswana aged 15–30 years, Amusa et al.
(2001) showed that ‘‘leisure is a necessary part of life’’ among many young
Batswana (p. 271). Within a unique cultural context of Batswana, Amusa
et al. suggested that participation in indigenous games, pastimes, and sports
is important for youth to restore and maintain ‘‘the cultural values of the
country’’ (p. 289), to counter ‘‘ever increasing everyday social problems’’
such as poverty (p. 271), and to improve ‘‘the quality of life of the people’’
(p. 288). Amusa et al. argued that these activities can provide ‘‘opportunities
for enjoyment, entertainment, meaningful involvement in community
activities, success and being valued as a person’’ (p. 271) to achieve these
goals. Because they found that the respondents had very limited knowledge
about the concept of leisure and the role of leisure in their lives, they
emphasized the importance of leisure education for young Batswana
including the use of leisure as a developmental tool. The findings, however,
indicated that many respondents seem to recognize recreation and leisure as
‘‘a valuable tool for social improvement and economic development’’
(p. 288) although there is the need to provide better infrastructures and
facilities.
248 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

According to Stathi and Avgerinos (2001), health tourism (i.e., travel for
health and well-being) is a growing industry world-wide due to an increased
interest in and a rising demand for alternative medical treatments. Partic-
ularly, Europe is well known for its ‘‘spa baths and the therapeutic power of
thermal waters’’ where Germany, Italy, and France are the popular desti-
nations in Europe for health tourism (Stathi and Avgerinos, 2001, p. 42).
Such popularity and growth in health tourism is understandable because
‘‘the natural environment affects human health’’ (Stathi and Avgerinos,
2001, p. 41). For example, Sukenik et al. (1999) found that natural cures
including Spa therapies contribute to better health and QOL.
As an important outcome from the Fifth World Leisure Congress held in
Sao Paulo, Brazil in October 1998, a book entitled ‘‘Leisure in a Globalised
Society’’ features a collection of papers written from a global, international
perspective. Some selected papers are briefly summarized here. First, based
on her analysis of the connection between leisure and urban space in
Campinas, Brazil, Rolnik (2000) suggested that leisure is socially and cul-
turally embedded in the city and is recognized as an important public
dimension. Rolnik also emphasized the function of leisure as a significant
anti-exclusion instrument, consistent with the European Union’s (EU) ap-
proach to social inclusion (Ravenscroft et al., 2005). Also, as an UNESCO’s
representative from Brazil, Werthein (2000) noted that the constructive use
of free time, particularly, meaningful forms of leisure participation, is an
important part of the reconstruction process in Brazil, which is driven by the
culture of peace and solidarity.
Mantero (2000) suggested that leisure is a symbolic activity in community
life of people in Argentina that generates and integrates meanings of life.
Particularly, Mantero emphasized that cultural spaces are an essential
context for people to enjoy leisure best. Mantero also argued that in these
cultural spaces meaningful to people in Argentina, leisure can provide an
opportunity to rest, regain balance, and facilitate growth and development
at both personal and social levels. In their action-research project in Boca-
Barracas, Argentina, Moore and Cosco (2000) examined the role of women
in supporting ‘‘rich lives in poor neighbourhood,’’ by focusing on culture
and children’s opportunities for play. Their study highlighted the critical
aspect of immediate and extended families and supportive institutions to
provide a space for play and cultural activities in order to enrich cultural
identity of children from low income families and overcome marginalized
living conditions (i.e., poverty). However, Rondon (2003) cautioned that
‘‘efforts at improving quality of life for women in Latin America should
include consideration of local cultural, political and economic peculiarities’’
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 249

(such as violence against women and girls) that have been prevalent his-
torically in Latin America (p. 157).
Kloeze (2001) explored the nature and role of leisure in the lives of
Turkish families in Dutch cities. Kloeze found that even after several gen-
erations, these Turkish families are still strongly oriented towards their
original cultural traditions, values, and ways of life. It was shown that their
free time is spent frequently with family members, which can take place
within the neighbourhood or city (e.g., ‘‘meadows and parks’’), outside the
city, in nearby countries, or even visiting family in the original homeland,
Turkey. Demonstrating the cultural tradition in Turkish society, this study
revealed that the lives of Turkish families are strongly shaped by gender-
based power imbalance. This unequal power relation is evident in their
leisure domain, and the notion that married women have the right to free
time is not strong among Turkish women. For example, mosque and café
are a popular place for leisure, but only for Turkish men, not for women
(Kloeze, 2001).
Based on his own research and a review of literature on serious leisure
(such as amateurism, hobbies, and volunteering) among individuals with
disabilities world-wide, Patterson (2001) suggested that this type of leisure
forms ‘‘the basis for self-respect and self-esteem and leads to greater
acceptance and social inclusion in the community’’ (p. 16), which can then
promote greater QOL for people with disabilities. Also, Nosek et al.’s
(2004) study on women with physical disabilities provided evidence that the
engagement in rewarding leisure activities helped them promote self-esteem
and self-fulfillment, and experience greater life satisfaction. In Bishop’s
(2005) study, leisure activities were identified as one of the 10 domains of
QOL in a QOL-based model of psychosocial adaptation to chronic illness
and disability, which represents ‘‘a conceptual synthesis of several existing
theories and models, drawn from the quality-of-life, rehabilitation coun-
seling, and rehabilitation psychology literature’’ (p. 219).
Silverstein and Parker (2002) analyzed a longitudinal national sample of
324 community-living Swede elderly, who were surveyed in 1981 and 1992,
to examine their leisure participation during their transition to late old ages.
These researchers found that meaningful leisure activities helped Swede
elderly adapt to a period of later life and promote QOL ‘‘when deficits in
physical and social resources place older adults at greater risk of disen-
gagement and distress’’ (p. 546). Wendel-Vos et al., (2004) conducted a
longitudinal analysis of data from 2,129 participants living in three towns in
The Netherlands (1995–1996 and 2000–2001), and found a significantly
positive association between an increase in leisure time physical activity and
250 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

an improvement in health-related quality of life for social functioning

among both men and women.
In his participatory action research that used documentary photography
and storytelling, Graziano (2004) found that gay men and lesbians in South
Africa show signs of strength, hope, and optimism despite the prevalence of
oppression and adversity in their lives. Particularly, he reported that ‘‘warm
and friendly interactions with family and friends’’ and ‘‘safe, social spaces’’
(e.g., Black churches) play a key role in challenging discrimination, fighting
social injustices, honoring life, and maintaining hope. One participant of his
study mentioned, ‘‘I am satisfied with the happiness I have. I will remain
strong’’ (p. 311). Also, Bowleg et al.’s (2003) study revealed that one way
that racial and sexual minority women demonstrate resilience is tied to the
meanings that they attach to their experiences. For example, several par-
ticipants emphasized the uniqueness of being a Black lesbian, while others
valued the freedom or liberation that they experienced (e.g., through social
leisure activities), which enabled them to live according to their own desires,
rather than following societally prescribed stigma.
Wearing’s (1998) notion of leisure space, described earlier in the context
of Aboriginal Australians, has also been shown to be relevant to explaining
the strengths and resilience of people in various cultural contexts world-
wide. For example, Wearing (1998) illustrated the lives of Bosnian women
refugees who created spaces for themselves and fellow refugees, by engaging
in voluntary activities, knitting, and sewing to gain ‘‘meaning for survival,
self-respect, support and communal agenda’’ (p. 173). One Bosnian female
refugee commented, ‘‘I discovered so much about myself. I am a strong
woman. When I look at other refugees, I see many strong women’’ (p. 172).
Wearing summarized,
They can speak of their everyday experiences and of the strategies they use to counter their
subordination. They do not speak of leisure in the conventional sense of the term as non-work,
but rather of their own ways and means of making spaces for themselves and meaning for their
lives in oppressive circumstances. Leisure as personal space provides an avenue for self-expan-
sion, which has the possibility of moving from the self to others and to communal action. (p. 173)

Recently, Lloyd and Little (2005) conducted a qualitative, interpretive study

to examine the meaning of QOL for women who participated in an outdoor
adventure recreation program, and its relationship to leisure (particularly,
outdoor adventure recreation). Their participants were 20 women in Bris-
bane, Australia, of whom three were unemployed, and two of the unem-
ployed women were with physical disabilities. The program these women
participated was called ‘‘Real Adventure Women (RAW),’’ which has
provided ‘‘an opportunity to try outdoor activities in non-competitive and
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 251

supportive environment’’ (p. 147). Lloyd and Little found that these women
understood QOL as the combination of: access to opportunities (which in-
volves financial security, affordability, and the ability to make choices),
maintaining a positive attitude toward life, developing a positive self-per-
ception, finding balance in life, and experiencing social belonging. Also, they
found that participation in RAW contributed to greater QOL, with a spe-
cific impact on four of these factors by offering an opportunity for: access to
new opportunities, improved self-perception, finding a sense of balance, and
experiencing a sense of belonging. For example, concerning a positive self-
perception, participants mentioned greater confidence, a sense of achieve-
ment, doing something for themselves, and feeling better about themselves
as key outcomes from these experiences, as illustrated by one person com-
menting, ‘‘You understand yourself better, and you then understand other
people better’’ (Lloyd and Little, 2005, p. 170).

6. CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF LEISURE AND QOL IN AN

INTERNATIONAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL CONTEXT: WHAT ARE
MAJOR PATHWAYS LINKING LEISURE TO QOL?

Based on the above extensive literature review on leisure and QOL in var-
ious cultural contexts, in this concluding section I attempt to integrate/
synthesize and make sense of this diverse collection of evidence by high-
lighting major pathways or mechanisms by which leisure can contribute to
people’s QOL from international and cross-cultural perspectives. Overall,
an overarching theme common to almost all cultural contexts examined
above appears to be the role of leisure-like activities as a context or space for
creating meanings which then help to promote the quality of people’s lives.
To describe this overarching theme, however, it becomes clearly evident
from the above review that culture plays an essential role in facilitating this
meaning-making and life-quality-enhancing mechanism of leisure. Particu-
larly, meaning-making through leisure seems to be concerned with personal,
social, cultural, spiritual, altruistic, and developmental meanings generated
from a variety of leisure-like pursuits relevant to a particular cultural con-
text. Consequently, this meaning-making through leisure appears to facili-
tate the promotion of QOL in culturally appropriate ways. These
observations seem to be supported by the extensive review of literature
documented above in various cultural contexts world-wide. In this section, I
critically discuss this meaning-making and life-quality-enhancing mecha-
nism of leisure at a conceptual level, built from the collection of evidence
252 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

from around the world presented above, in comparison to the existing

knowledge about leisure and QOL from additional sources of literature.

6.1. Meaning-Making through Leisure in Cultural Contexts

Understanding how people gain meanings through leisure is considered a
major research agenda in leisure studies (Samdahl and Jekubovich, 1997),
given that ‘‘searching for meaning is the primary motivation in life’’ (Frankl,
1985, p. 121). It has also been acknowledged that such understanding has
implications for the value and contribution of leisure to the QOL of people
and their communities (Juniu and Henderson, 2001).

6.1.1. Positive Emotions and Well-being Experienced from Leisure. One

major source of meaning-making through leisure seems to be positive emo-
tions and wellbeing gained from leisure pursuits. As shown above in the review
of literature in various cultural contexts and also emphasized by Folkman and
Moskowitz (2000) and Hutchinson (2004), people can find positive meaning
within ordinary daily events and activities (e.g., social leisure, spiritual leisure)
by discovering positive values and having positive experiences from these
events and activities. For example, as noted earlier, Yau and Packer’s (2002)
study with older adults in Hong Kong highlighted a ‘‘meditative effect’’ of T’ai
Chi to enhance their emotional and mental well-being (e.g., cognitive function,
control over their lives). Also, Gong (1998) and Yang (1998) suggested that
facilitating tranquility and peace of mind is an essential element of leisure for
many Chinese people (e.g., hiking in the mountains, visiting a temple, or
drinking tea or wine), which is tied to understanding the meanings of life. In
terms of the origin of positive emotions, Frederickson (2002) suggested that
‘‘positive emotions results from finding positive meaning’’ (p. 130). Sup-
porting this idea, Tugade and Frederickson’s (2004) study provided evidence
that the experience of positive emotions contributed, in part, to people’s
abilities to achieve emotional regulation, by finding positive meanings in
negative, stressful circumstances. Finding positive meanings can also have
significant therapeutic effects, such as recovery from depressed mood and
distress and improvements in health and well-being (Keltner and Bonanno,
1997; Davis et al., 1998). In fact, Frederickson’s (2002) ‘‘broaden-and-build’’
theory of positive motions rests on the idea that ‘‘positive emotions are
markers of optimal well-being’’ (p. 120).

6.1.2. Positive Identities and Self-esteem Gained from Leisure. Through

finding positive meanings in life, one seems to be able to maintain positive
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 253

identity and self-esteem. The literature review documented above contains a

number of examples to suggest that leisure can provide a context for people
with different cultural backgrounds to enhance their self and social identi-
ties, which are tightly linked to promoting their self-esteem. For example,
speaking of Native Hawaiians, Native peoples of Alaska, and Aboriginal
Australians, Salzman and Halloran (2004) described how the engagement in
Indigenous activities such as music, arts, crafts, literature, and traditional
ceremonies and festivals can facilitate to reassure their identities, inspire
stronger pride and self-esteem, and regain cultural recovery and meaning.
Also, as noted earlier, Ritsner et al.’s (2005) study on Jewish or Arab Israelis
with mood disorders reported that leisure time activities were significantly
and positively associated with self-esteem. Generally, self-esteem is a con-
struct related to how an individual values oneself (Porter and Washington,
1993). According to Hewitt (2002), self-esteem is an element of a culture,
and ‘‘the language of self-esteem translates deeply rooted cultural issues into
personal terms’’ (p. 139).

6.1.3. Social and Cultural Connections and a Harmony. Another key

meaning-making mechanism through leisure seems to involve social and
cultural connections in interpersonal and community contexts and a har-
mony with the environment. In fact, the above review of literature presented
is filled with a number of culturally relevant examples to suggest that social
and environmental connections developed through leisure contribute to
meaning-making and life-quality-enhancement. For example, besides the
central role of family ties in various cultural contexts (e.g., Middle-East;
Martin and Mason, 2003), Wang and Stringer (2000) described that Taoism,
which strongly influences the lives of many Chinese people including leisure,
values a close connection to the nature, holistic wellness, arts, literature,
cultural celebrations, and spiritual tourism (e.g., visits to Taoist temples).
Also, Sharma (2002) indicated that maintaining the harmony among the
body (action), mind (thought), and awareness (spirit) is essential in yoga to
experience ‘‘true self,’’ while a positive significant association between par-
ticipation in yoga and QOL was found in Damodaran et al.’s (2002) study in
Bombay, India. Consistent with such evidence, Baumeister and Vohs (2002)
argued that ‘‘the essence of meaning is connection’’ (p. 608), while Lopez
et al. (2002) suggested that seeing ‘‘the possible connections among things,
events, and relationships’’ is important to achieve life meaning (p. 705). Ryff
and Singer (2000) emphasized that having quality ties with others is ‘‘a core
feature of quality living across cultures and across time’’ (p. 30). For
example, as noted in the above literature review, Nagla (2005) described the
254 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

role of dining among extended families in third world villages as a ‘‘leisurely

collective ritual’’ (p. 25).

6.1.4. Quest for a Meaningful Life: Major Needs for Meaning. Based on
his extensive review of evidence from several scholarly fields, Baumeister
(1991) concluded that the quest for a meaningful life can be facilitated by
four main needs for meaning. The first need is for purpose. This need is
concerned with the connection between the present and the future, while
goals and fulfillments are critical elements of purpose. The second need is
for values, which can ‘‘lend a sense of goodness or positivity to life and can
justify certain courses of action’’ (Baumeister and Vohs, 2002, p. 610). The
third need is for a sense of efficacy, which is facilitated by ‘‘a belief that one
can make a difference’’ and can control over their lives and themselves
(Baumeister and Vohs, 2002, p. 610). The fourth and last need is for a basis
for self-worth. Pursued individually or collectively, ‘‘most people seek rea-
sons for believing that they are good, worthy persons’’ (pp. 610–611).
Baumeister and Vohs (2002) emphasized that culture does offer varied and
powerful means of satisfying the needs for meaning and of facilitating one’s
quest for a meaningful life. As evident in the review of literature docu-
mented above, leisure does seem to provide an opportunity to satisfy all of
these needs in culturally meaningful ways. For example, Lopez et al. (2002)
and McDonald and McAvoy (1997) emphasized the centrality of spirituality
in Indigenous peoples’ search for meaning in life, since spirituality guides
them to assure the purpose and value in life and to find self-worth and
control over their lives. Also, Harada (2004) showed that many Japanese
people have increasingly acknowledged leisure as a most important aspect of
their lives in order to satisfy their need for more humanistic values and their
desire for a better QOL.

6.1.5. Benefits of Meaning-making: Remedying the Bad and Enhancing the

Good. According to Baumeister and Vohs (2002), the power of a mean-
ingful life ‘‘goes beyond the fact that meaningfulness reduces suffering’’;
meaning making is powerful ‘‘both for remedying the bad and for enhancing
the good’’ (p. 616). In fact, meaning-making is integral to happiness, ful-
fillment, and other forms of positive well-being, while a meaningful life is
itself a highly positive outcome (Baumeister and Vohs). This idea seems
particularly relevant to leisure as a means of dealing with life difficulties and
of producing positive outcomes in various cultural contexts, as shown in the
literature review presented above. For example, Shalhoub-Kevorkian (2003)
found that despite the trauma of losing a child, Palestinian mothers of
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 255

martyrs ‘‘did not break down’’ and proactively became ‘‘creators of safety
nets’’ and showed their strengths in the company of other women, filled with
care, love, support, protection, and hope (p. 404), through being involved in
such activities as songs, gatherings, praying, poetry, and writing. In their
study on QOL among Chinese elderly in Taiwan, Leung et al.’s (2004)
analyses identified leisure as a key contributor to QOL, particularly as a
means of expressing their vitality by engaging in such activities as dancing,
Karaoke, Tai-Chi, and drawing.

6.1.6. Human Strengths and Resilience as a Pathway to Meaning-making

and Life-quality-Enhancement. Extended from the above discussion and
widely demonstrated in the literature review above, another key aspect of
leisure is that it can provide a context for revealing and utilizing personal,
collective, or cultural strengths of people to deal with life challenges. For
example, Salzman and Halloran (2004) and Wearing (1998) showed that
despite the oppressive colonial systems historically affecting Indigenous
peoples throughout the world, they are regaining cultural and spiritual
recovery and meaning through the involvement in Indigenous music and
dance, arts and crafts, storytelling and literature, traditional rituals, and the
use of humour and laugher. Lopez et al. (2002) argued that identifying ‘‘the
diverse strengths of individuals and cultural groups’’ and valuing ‘‘diverse
meanings of the good life’’ can encourage ‘‘optimal functioning of indi-
viduals and communities’’ (p. 700). Clearly, there is the need to acknowledge
human diversity and broadly deal with racial, ethnic, and cultural issues by
recognizing ‘‘unique differences, strengths, and histories’’ because cultural
factors strongly influence the meanings of life and the clues to the good life
(Lopez et al., 2002, p. 702). As reminded by Chin (1993), each person has a
unique culture, both independently and connected to the larger society. The
central role of human strengths and resilience as a pathway to meaning-
making and life-quality-enhancement is consistent with Ryff and Singer’s
(2003) argument that
It is not the absence of negative experience or negative emotion that defines the good, well-
lived, richly experienced life, but how challenges and difficulties are managed, dealt with, and
transformed... The deepest levels of human meaning and connection are frequently found when
individuals come face to face with their vulnerabilities, insecurities, or pain... through profiles of
action and reaction that deepen self-knowledge and meaning, enrich social bonds, and expand
personal effectiveness (p. 279).

Ryff and Singer also suggested that ‘‘engaged living’’ through the use of
human strengths in dealing with life challenges is a ‘‘core ingredient of life
quality’’ (p. 282). As evident elsewhere in this paper, leisure appears to act as
256 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

one essential facilitator to this strength-based pathway leading to meaning-

making and life-quality-enhancement. For example, as described earlier by
Yau and Packer (2002), T’ai Chi as a form of Chinese martial art provides
an opportunity for deep meditation to develop an inner calmness and
strength, which can help to deal with challenges in life. Also, Marafa and
Yung’s (2004) study in Hong Kong provided evidence that leisure can act as
a valued buffer against stress at the time of health scare such as the SARS
pandemic. Based on their study with Iranian women, Kousha and Mohseni
(1997) suggested that leisure can provide these women with an opportunity
to ‘‘spend time the way they wish and their attempt to overcome culture
barriers’’ (p. 345). For example, they described the act of shopping, which
not only involves spending time with family and friends, but also shows
women’s economic independence and power.
The resilience of gay men and lesbians in South Africa was emphasized in
Graziano’s (2004) participatory action research, particularly, through
‘‘warm and friendly interactions with family and friends’’ and ‘‘safe, social
spaces’’ (e.g., Black churches) as a way of dealing with oppression and
maintaining hope (p. 311). Also, Wearing (1998) showed that Bosnian
women refugees created spaces for themselves and fellow refugees, by
engaging in such activities as volunteering, knitting, and sewing not only to
gain meanings for survival, self-respect, and self-enlargement, but also to
have an impact on community empowerment and political activism at a
broader level.

6.1.7. Human Development Across the Life-span. Furthermore, the con-

tribution of leisure to learning and development across the life-span is an-
other key theme relevant to almost all cultural contexts reviewed in the
previous sections. For example, Amusa et al. (2001) emphasized the
importance of leisure education for young Batswana including the use of
leisure (e.g., Indigenous games, pastimes, and sports) as a developmental
tool, and its contribution to strengthening their cultural identity and QOL.
According to World Leisure (2000a) position statement on leisure education
and community development, leisure opportunities are considered ‘‘con-
ducive for learning,’’ ‘‘leisure is a most valued component of community
development inter-culturally,’’ and meaningful and lifelong leisure (includ-
ing serious leisure) provides ‘‘opportunities for self-actualization, self-defi-
nition and self-determination and further contribution to the quality of
community life’’ (p. 55). In addition, emphasizing ‘‘the universality of need
for leisure’’ (p. 57), World Leisure (2000b) position statement on leisure
education and populations of special needs indicated that leisure education
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 257

for people with special needs is important to ‘‘develop their human capac-
ities to an optimal degree. Through leisure experiences, individuals are en-
abled to live more satisfying, enjoyable and productive lives than when such
opportunities are not accessible. Quality of life should be fundamental for
all’’ (pp. 57–58). In a context for life-long learning, Spector and Cohen-
Gewerc (2001) argued that leisure is a ‘‘journey’’ of discovering one’s
uniqueness to grow and experience a meaningful and enriched life because
‘‘in leisure, one can be oneself’’ (p. 53).
Highlighting the developmental value of leisure, Kleiber (2001) suggested
that the experience of disengagement is as important as a context for
engagement (e.g., serious leisure) to facilitate optimal human development.
Integrating these two opposing frameworks, Kleiber described several key
functions of leisure for learning and development including: becoming capable
(‘‘the cultivation of leisure-related interests and skills,’’ p. 6), becoming secure
(mainly through relaxing leisure as a context for recovery and reflection),
defining self in relation to others (leisure as an opportunity to enrich self and
social identities), connecting intimacy with others (e.g., love and companion-
ship throughout the life-span), and playing a part in something bigger than
oneself (specifically through volunteerism for self-renewal). Also, Kleiber
emphasized the function of creating meaning through feeling capable,
becoming secure, defining oneself, connecting with others, and contributing
to others or society, as pointed out above. Kleiber concluded that leisure is an
important context for education and human development throughout the life
course to effectively deal with developmental challenges whenever they occur,
which is then critical to enhance the quality of people’s lives.

6.2. Concluding Remarks

Recent leisure literature has emphasized the significant role of leisure in
meaning-making explicitly, which has implications for promoting people’s
QOL. For example, Hutchinson (2004) argued that ‘‘leisure can be generative
of a range of personal, familial, social, and cultural meanings,’’ possibly
facilitated by ‘‘a sense of connection, accomplishment, self/relationship/cul-
tural affirmation, hope, control, etc.’’ (p. 31). Caldwell (2005) identified sev-
eral, intertwined aspects of leisure that can generate meanings including a
context for: self-determined behaviour, competence, social relationships, self-
reflection and -affirmation, identity development, and transcending negative
life events. Iwasaki et al.’s (2006) qualitative, interpretive study in Winnipeg,
Manitoba provided evidence that active leisure can offer an opportunity
for gaining one’s valued meanings such as: social, spiritual, cultural,
258 YOSHITAKA IWASAKI

altruistic, and/or empowerment, which are closely tied to the identities of

people and the cultural contexts of their lives. For example, Aboriginal par-
ticipants emphasized the use of culturally appropriate forms of leisure-like
activities (e.g., social gatherings, Aboriginal dancing) in coping with stress
(e.g., racism, health-related stress), as illustrated by one Aboriginal woman
with a disability to gain social and cultural meanings – ‘‘Belonging to groups,
just for get-togethers. They’re all my culture, they’re all Native. They share so
many wonderful stories with me, and it makes me feel good and happy.’’
Based on her own research and extensive literature review on the topic of
leisure space among women (particularly, disadvantaged and marginalized
groups of women world-wide), Wearing (1998) concluded that people from
different cultural backgrounds can gain a diverse array of meanings from
enriching leisure experiences, and leisure spaces can provide the context for
personal, communal, and political growth. Likewise, Henderson and Frelke
(2000) suggested that ‘‘leisure spaces can be constructed as meaningful pla-
ces’’ particularly in a culturally safe and relevant context (p. 23).
Meaning-making through leisure can then potentially lead to the promo-
tion of people’s life quality in various cultural contexts, as evident in the
review of literature in this paper. Major pathways or mechanisms that can
facilitate meaning-making and life-quality-enhancement highlighted in this
review paper include: (a) positive emotions and wellbeing experienced from
leisure, (b) positive identities and self-esteem gained from leisure, (c) social
and cultural connections and a harmony developed through leisure, and (d)
leisure’s contribution to learning and human development across the life-
span. Also, emphasized in this paper is the role of leisure as a context for
realizing and utilizing human strengths and resilience. It is important, how-
ever, to stress that in people’s quest for a meaningful life, the benefits of
meaning-making through leisure involve both ‘‘remedying the bad’’ and
‘‘enhancing the good,’’ as shown throughout this paper. Despite these bene-
fits, we should not ignore that leisure experiences are socially and culturally
constructed and shaped by the inequalities of society (Sasidharan, 2002).
Thus, the reality of power imbalance and inequalities should be acknowl-
edged and appropriately addressed socially, culturally, and politically. Par-
ticularly, providing culturally relevant and meaningful leisure opportunities
for less privileged population groups world-wide is clearly a top priority.
Although I have attempted in this paper to highlight perspectives about
leisure and QOL in non-dominant cultural contexts beyond Euro-North
American contexts, there is clearly imbalance with respect to our under-
standing about these perspectives in a global, international context. Thus, a
more systematic and intensive effort is needed to uncover the realities of lives
 LEISURE AND QUALITY OF LIFE 259

among non-dominant groups of people worldwide including the contribu-

tion of leisure to meaning-making and life-quality enhancement. The voices
of these people around the world should be respectfully acknowledged and
brought forward to facilitating empowerment and positive social change in
culturally appropriate ways. As emphasized by Shin and Rutkowski (2003),
‘‘quality, like beauty, lies in the eyes of the beholder’’ (p. 511).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the World Leisure

Consensus Symposium, World Leisure Expo 2006, Hangzhou, China.

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Department of Therapeutic Recreation

College of Health Professions
Temple University
Suite 313, 1700 North Broad Street
PA 19122, Philadelphia
E-mail: yiwasaki@temple.edu