nngin    Cross-Cultural
UNIT 14 CROSS-CULTURAL Communication 

COMMUNICATION

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
● Understand culture and its constituents; 
● Interpret the differences between different cultures; 
● Synthesize strategies for handling cross-cultural communication. 
Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Characteristics of Culture
14.3 Theories of Culture
14.4 Cross-Cultural Communication
14.5 Hofstede’s cultural dimension model
14.6 Hall’s Cultural Model
14.7 Cross-cultural Communication Barriers
14.8 Overcoming Cross-cultural Communication Barriers
14.9 Lean Media, Rich Media and Social Media
14.10 Summary
14.11 Keywords
14.12 Self-Assessment Questions
14.13 References and Further Readings

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Culture has a complicated manifestation, especially with the world consisting
of nationalities exhibiting cultures that lie on extremes of the continuum of
measuring culture. In the present era, when global business activities are
indispensable, working with colleagues and/or clients from different cultures
is common place. Irrespective of the industry that you belong to, ability to
effectively communicate is the core for modulating businesses. Organisations
are located in a world that is interconnected in all manners. The changing
norms of operations, workplaces have spread to accommodate remote teams
operating in different parts of the globe catering to a culturally diverse
customer base and handling supplier bases from wide-ranging locations.
Hence, command on cross-cultural communication offers an edge to
organisational supremacy. The most interesting aspect of culture is that even
though it has a complex constitution, there is an evident pattern that can be
discovered and interpreted.
“Cultura '' the Latin word meaning care of body, predominantly mind, is the
source of the present word Culture. Culture is a complex compilation of 231
 
  
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Headingin beliefs, cusstoms, law, knowledge,
k t
traditions, ettc. that a hum
man being acquires
a
Orgganisation
while beinng a membeer of a partticular socieety. Culturee is somethiing we
experience by aligning to the peoplle who havee been a part of the cultuure. The
most comm mon definitiions of cultuure include music, art and theatre as the
integral parrts. Culture could exist in various macro and micro system ms and
hence national culturee, regional culture, corporate cultture, food cculture,
traditional culture are ccommon term minologies uused to reflect the accepted and
expected behavioural
b patterns of people beloonging to a society. A macro
culture couuld be constiituted of mu ultiple sub-cuultures, like Indian cultuure is a
blend of diverse
d cultuural backgroounds. It can be appliied to any human
collectivelyy or categoory wise. Culture
C has a significaant impact on our
attitudes annd actions, not only on how
h we behaave but how we w expect otthers to
behave.
For simplicity, the unnit will use an operatioonal definittion which defines
Culture as““inherent coore values of a societyy promulgatted throughh social
interaction and teachinggs.”

14.2 CHARAC
C CTERIST
TICS OF CULTU
URE
There are certain
c charaacteristics of culture whicch define it. These are:
● Acquirred 
● Collecttive 
● Value system 
● Stabilitty 
● Differeentiator 
● Contexxtual 
● Comm
mon yet differrent 
Now, let us
u discuss eeach of theese characteeristics one by one forr better
understandiing.
Acquired
Culture is what we accquire from the individduals alreadyy experiencing the
culture. These could bee family mem mbers, teachhers, school mates
m or collleagues
in an organnisation. They are groom med on the basic rules of languagee, body
language, gestures,
g exppressions as well
w as usagge of slangs. Once acquirred and
imbibed, it becomes soo much part of us or we are a part of o it that we tend to
use it onlly for diffe ferentiating between ri
ight or wroong or forr being
judgementaal. Observatiion is an opeerative tool in
i acquiring cultural skillls. It is
rightly sugggested that when you joinj a new organisationn or shift to a new
housing socciety or visitt a new counntry, observe how peoplle are doing things.
This helps you grasp thhe prevailingg culture theere and you can attune yyourself
faster. Thiss also givess a certain kind
k of exposure whichh makes youu more
broad mindded.
Collective
Culture is not
n a thing tthat can be separated
s froom people. It
I is somethiing that
thrives with
hin people. It is a comm
mon way inn which mosst people thiink and
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Communication 
have drastically different cultures depending upon the collective
understanding of the people in that particular culture. There is no right or
wrong culture, it becomes what is best accepted by people constituting that
culture. This may be something which may or may not be acceptable to
people belonging to another culture.

Value System
Culture contributes to our value system. We tend to adhere to the core values
postulated by our culture. This in turn tunes us to trust a particular set of
values. Thus a group belonging to similar culture holds preeminent values.
Individuals respect others who follow the core values as disseminated in the
culture, for example, value towards saving versus spending; value of family
oriented behaviour, etc.

Stability
The core values of culture fundamentally remain the same and stable over
long periods of time. Any deviation from the core values may be
reprimanded. Being a primer for our value system, being something that does
not have a form in itself, is largely only shared and has only referential rules.
Culture is something which if changes with time takes a long time to be
imbibed. It requires considerable efforts to change the existing culture
especially when we are doing so towards the betterment of the society. The
minor changes in culture do not show a significant change in our core values.
The changes in culture take time to be noticed and acknowledged and cultural
consciousness is built over a period of time.

Differentiator
Culture operates as a collective set of mindful minds that is a distinguisher
between members of one group from those of the other group. It is true that
within the group the individuals would have varying characteristics, yet
collectively the culture they belong to will significantly vary from other
cultures.

Contextual
The manifestation of culture occurs through social actions which in turn
experience varying contexts. Even though the context does not change
culture, the interpretation or sometimes misinterpretation of culture happens
during one of these fluctuating contexts. Since culture is complex and
dynamic, there seems to be no method to accurately measure or assess it.
There is no precise definition and no form that culture takes. It is represented
by people belonging to the culture and interpreted by people belonging to the
same or different culture. Thus the only thing evident is the consequences of
culture.

Common yet different

There could be some aspects of culture that could be common between
certain cultures and yet there could be demarcated differences. Certain
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mmunication countries shharing the ssame language may projject differennt cultures annd vice
Orgganisation
versa. This possibly coould be due to
t the reigns through whhich the counntry has
passed. Ceertain clusterrs of countrries may prroject culturres similar to
t each
other. While interpretiing cultures in context of communication proccess, an
understandiing of the hhistory of thee country caan assist in making the correct
interpretations.

14.3 THEORIE
ES OF CULTURE
E
Culture is based
b on howw it is perceiived. There are commonnly three theooretical
perspectivees in the coontext of whhich culture is viewed viz. functionalism,
conflict theeory and symmbolic interaactionism. LLet us discusss these theoories in
detail.

Functionallist View
Functionaliism refers tto the persp pective of vviewing cultture as a mode
m of
smootheninng the functtion of the society.
s Socciety is a system with itts parts
working in tandem withh each otherr to create a whole systeem. Culture offers
o a
bonding to this system m. It creates a synergy ammongst mem mbers of the society
and offers a guide for making appropriate chooices. Culturre also facilitates in
classifying the importaance laid on various matterial and no on-material aspects
of the socieety. Culture inculcates what
w is deem
med as essenntial and im
mportant
for the sociiety, for exam
mple, educattion in the U
USA.

Conflict View
This view suggests thhat society is i constituteed of indiviiduals who can be
classified on
o the basis of gender, class,
c race, age,
a etc. and
d hence therre is an
inequality that is creeated. Accoording to tthis view, culture creeates a
demarcation, sometimees a discrim mination for some peoplle because of o their
value systeem. Culture, in this casee operates asa a norm, formal
f or innformal,
which bennefits some people andd hurts otheers. Hence, cultural diiversity
derived duee to this dellineation couuld be basedd on several fronts for innstance
racism, gennder bias etcc. Business culture
c variees from coun ntry to counntry, for
example, business
b cultture in the USA
U propelss profit seek
king as the primary
p
objective of
o business. On the con ntrary, Koreaan and Japaanese culturees seek
consumer confidence
c aand market share as thee primary business
b objeectives.
People beloonging to theese cultures exercise thee same sentim ment while making
m
decisions and
a runningg action plaans. Thus, thhis view off culture prromotes
conflict of interest betwween individduals dependding on which strata of society
they represent.

Symbolic View
V
The proponnents of thee symbolic view assum me culture too be based on the
interpretation that peoople lay on the converssations they initiate. Thhus this
view emph hasises facee-to-face orr one-to-onne conversaations more while
deducing culture. It is suggested thhat culture eevolves withh conversatioons and
thus is highhly malleablle and dynammic. It is intterpreted as per the sym
mbolism
aligned witth it. The ppeople repressent objects, individuals and enviroonment
during theiir conversatiions and cu
ulture develoops as a prooduct of thee same.
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Communication 
will have different cultures because of the various ways in which they use
words or symbols. For example, a season in which a large number of people
get infected with viral infections is considered to be a bad season from the
viewpoint of the medical fraternity due to more load on hospitals and
healthcare workers. However, it might be considered as a good season from
the viewpoint of the pharmaceutical industry due to the rise in sale of
medicines. The most important factor about this view is that there is nothing
like the ‘right’ view.

14.4 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Definition of cross-cultural communication
It is the study of understanding the differences and similarities of different
cultural groups so as to effectively participate within an organisation. In other
words, it refers to the adaptations done by the people from different cultural
backgrounds to make the communication effective. It is very important to
understand the influence of cultural factors in a workplace in the present
competitive environment. The better the cross-cultural communication
abilities, the better is the work environment as it will avoid the
communication gaps and make the environment congenial.

Need for Cross-Cultural Communication

Why is it necessary to understand the concept of cross-cultural
communication?
It is important for the organisations to understand the communication patterns
of employees and the stakeholders to be successful in any business. The
ability to adapt, irrespective of cultural values, makes a lot of difference.
While communicating with the individuals or groups from varied cultural
backgrounds, the transmission of knowledge and the behaviour play an
important role. It is therefore important to comprehend how culture affects
communication in turn affecting organisational operations.

Elements of cross-cultural communication

Many organisations which go through the process of mergers and
acquisitions across the globe face the communication gap due to cultural
differences. Culture is deeply ingrained in the system. Culture is something
which creates a sense of security. The way we portray ourselves to the way
we do business, everything has a connection. It therefore becomes pertinent
to understand the basic element of cross-cultural communication. These are:

● Awareness 
● Preparation 
● Language 
● Humour 
● Openness 
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mmunication Awarenesss
Orgganisation
Every orgaanisation hass its own way y of workingg. It is impoortant that thhere is a
common culture
c in thhe organisaation which helps the employees of the
organisation from diffferent backggrounds to ccommunicatte effectivelyy. This
requires aw
wareness aboout the differrent cultures and patiencce to understtand the
way the emmployee can bbe motivatedd.

Preparatioon
You need to be prepared at leasst in terms of greetinggs when youu meet
internationaal colleaguees. It is not necessary
n thhat you shouuld know eaach and
everything about theiir cultures but the facct that you u at least trried to
communicaate in their own culturre shows the concern. Hugs, taps on the
shoulder, and
a nods are common inn some counntries but maay be considdered as
harassmentt in other couuntries.

Language
Language isi one of the most imporrtant parts off communicaation. Each countryc
has its ownn language ffor the purpo ose of comm munication. India
I is suchh a vast
country wiith diverse llanguages accross the coountry. You can roughlyy place
them in a geographical region annd a social//cultural groouping as soon s as
anyone talkks. To avoidd misundersttandings, it iis very impoortant to undderstand
the languagge, be it verbbal or non-vverbal. It is nnot necessarry that if youu speak
the same laanguage, thee problem off communicaation is solveed. Like in IIndia, if
you are speeaking in Hinndi, it may have
h certain colloquial words
w too whhich the
other persoon who may also be speaaking Hindi m may not com mprehend to.

Humour
A saying goes
g that jokkes do not trranslate the ttrue meanin
ng. It can be true at
certain occcasions wherre a humourr in good sennse can be taken
t seriously and
may resultt in conflicct. Thereforre, it is im mportant thatt in cross-ccultural
communicaation unneceessary humoour should be b used witth extreme caution
especially at
a the workpplace.

Openness
Apprehensiive behaviouur is commoon but there iis no need too be shy aboout it. It
is not a siggn of weakness, instead it shows thaat you are cautious
c not to pass
comments which may turn out to be inapproppriate. Howeever, it is im mportant
to be open while givingg commentss and the feeedback regarrding the sam me may
be requesteed. This willl help you and
a your coolleagues to connect witth each
other.
The undersstanding of ffive elements of cross-cuultural comm munication hhelps in
building a strong annd competitiive organisation. Orgaanisations thhat are
culturally competent have policiies, strategies, and sysstems in pllace to
promote annd encourage effective cross-cultura
c al interactionns in all asppects of
human relaations, includding recruitm
ment, hiring, and retentioon.

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14.5 HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSION Cross-Cultural
Communication 
MODEL
Geert Hofstede and Edward T. Hall are the two of the most prominent
contributors who have given some unique perspectives on culture in their
theories. We will now discuss these theories in the following sections.

Culture has been deeply explained by Edward Hall, an anthropologist and

author of books like ‘The Silent Language’, ‘The Hidden Dimension’,
‘Beyond Culture’, ‘Understanding Cultural Differences’, etc. where he
suggests that culture is a form of communication, governed by hidden rules,
that involves both speech and actions. He termed culture as a vast unexplored
region of human behaviour that exists outside the range of people’s conscious
awareness. Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the
mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from
others” (Hofstede, 2013).Based on research conducted in more than 50
countries, Hofstede identified a total of six dimensions which could be used
to distinguish one culture from another. These are as follows:
1) Power Distance Index:This index defines the degree of inequality that is
accepted and actually exists within people of a particular culture.
Cultures showing high scores have an unequal distribution of power
across hierarchies. In countries like Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, etc.
having high power distance index (PDI) scores, all actions have to be
initiated from top. Guidance, advice and directions flow essentially from
top to bottom. No initiation will happen bottom up. Decisions will also
be concentrated at the top level of the organisation. Business processes
may take longer due to complex hierarchies. Status, age, power, seniority
are respected and the lower cadre individuals take orders on this basis.
Subordinates do not take decisions or any initiative, instead will wait for
orders to come from the superior. They will offer their suggestions only
when asked for. Countries like Austria and Denmark with low PDI
scores have societies where unequal distribution of power is not
acceptable. Activities are delegated appropriately and decision making is
faster as decisions are taken by people who are directly affected by the
decisions. This means that your questions will be answered faster or your
issues will be resolved easily if you approach the right person.
2) Individualism versus Collectivism: This parameter makes an effort to
measure the propensity towards attributing achievements and designing
connections to an individual or a group. Societies high on individualism
indicate that more importance is given to individuality. For instance, in a
society with high scores on individualism, success as well as failure is
attributed to an individual. On the other hand, in a society with a higher
score on collectivism, there exist very close ties amongst members of the
society. There exists high loyalty to the group which they represent.
They take care of each other’s benefits, decisions and well-being.
Countries like the USA, Australia and the United Kingdom are high on
individualism and hence communication has to focus on individual and
not group unlike in countries like Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, etc.
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mmunication where communicaation benefittting groupss would be appreciatedd more.
Orgganisation
Individdual accompplishments are appreciiated more on Individdualistic
countriies.
3) Mascu ulinity versu
us Femininiity: This atttribute indiccates who has h the
concenntration of poower and coontrol in the society. It compares bettween a
masculline work role
r model and a society which has low leevel of
discrim
mination andd distinction
n between geenders. In masculine
m soocieties,
men annd women play differentt roles with m men being more
m assertivve, play
dominaating defineed roles annd demonstrrating succeess. Countries like
Japan, Hungary annd Austria project
p high levels of masculinity.
m On the
other hand,
h Sweden, Norway, Netherlands
N , etc. rank lo
ow on mascuulinity.
4) Uncerttainty Avoiddance Indexx: Countriess can also be b classified on the
basis of
o Uncertaintty Avoidancce Index (UA AI). This ind
dex is a meaasure of
the levvel of ambiguuity and unccertainty whiich is accepttable in the society.
s
Countrries low on UAI
U are morre flexible annd tolerant tot a variety ofo ideas
and op pinions. Couuntries like Singapore,
S Sweden, Hon ng Kong, Deenmark,
etc. faall under thhis category y. On the other
o hand, Belgium, Greece,
G
Portuggal, etc. are on
o the higherr side of the UAI and heence do not tolerate
t
uncertaainty and ammbiguity.
5) Long versus
v Shorrt Term Orieentation: Thhe fifth dimeension as sugggested
by Hoffstede is Lonng Term Orientation. Thhis dimension n defines thee extent
of commmitment too the traditioonal values. Countries high on lonng term
orientaation take a long tim me to channge due too their longg term
embraccement and rrespect to thhe traditionall values. Thiis is what is evident
in counntries like C
China, Japann, South Koorea, Hong Kong K and Taiwan.
T
These countries invest in developing and mainttaining longg term
commiitments and relationships. This is visible when they t deal wiith their
mers, other ccountries, employees annd all the other
custom o stakehholders.
This orientation
o iis very diff
fferent in TTurkey, Vennezuela, UA AE and
Switzeerland whereein the resisstance to change is low w and adoptiion and
movem ment to noveel things is swifter. Theyy are eager to
t and less reesistant
to channge.

6) Indulggence versu us Restraint: Hofstedee refers to indulgencee as a

tenden ncy to free gratification
g of basic neeeds, enjoyinng, having fun
f and
fulfillinng desires. Social freeddom is highh. Residentss of countriies like
Venezuuela, Mexicco, Sweden, Puerto Ricco, etc. are not motivaated by
materiaalistic driveers. They arre not statuss conscious,, freely fulffil their
desiress, don’t commpare and arre self-indulgent. Sociall status is off prime
importtance. Mateerialistic po ossessions and motivvations alluure the
residennts.

Activity 1
Develop a short story incorporating
i g the learninngs from Hoofstede’s conncept of
culture.
……………
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Communication 
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14.6 HALL’S CULTURAL MODEL

Edward T. Hall is known for his contribution to the understanding of
cultures. He coined the term, intercultural communication and suggested that
in different cultures, individuals use different means to communicate which
may range from using just words to using body language, touch behaviour
and also para-verbal communication. He has classified the analysis and
interpretation of how communication and interactions take place between
cultures, under three categories i.e. context, space and time. Let us discuss
these in detail for a better understanding.

Context
The context refers to how a message is communicated. In a high context
culture, the most important part of the message is the physical context. This
means that message is expected to be interpreted in the same context in which
it is crafted. Extensive care is taken at both the sender’s and receiver’s end in
creating and interpreting the message. Body language accompanying the
message plays a crucial role and sometimes may be even more important than
words. High context communication, using hand and arm gestures (kinesics),
is more prevalent in Latin American, Asian and African cultures. United
States and Northern European countries exhibit a low context culture where
the message is constructed as it is meant. The message is direct and clear,
reducing no scope for misunderstanding. The message is straight and precise
without any adornments or unnecessary formalities. Challenges occur when
individuals from high context cultures communicate with those from low
context cultures. The low context culture people may miss on the important
contexts provided by the body language along with the specific message and
reduce the comprehensibility of the message. Largely Asian societies lay less
trust on words, more on context, while European and other English speaking
countries lay more emphasis on specific words and details (Kulich and
Condon, 2015).

Space
Hall refers to space as the study of physical space and people which is termed
technically as proxemics. It refers to the distance between the people who are
communicating. Americans prefer to stand apart while communicating in
workplace settings as compared to individuals from Spain and Philippines
where people prefer to stand closer. This trait basically indicates how much
one is ready to share their space with others in different settings.
Communication becomes effective when the comfort zone is not intruded.

Time
Cultures also differ on the basis of how they handle time. In polychronic
cultures, individuals indulge into multiple activities at the same time whereas 239
 
  
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Headingin in monochrronic culturee, people tennd to do onee task at a tim
me. Europeaans and
Orgganisation
Americans,, of monochhronic culturre, keep thee scheduled time. All business
b
meetings coommence annd end at thee scheduled time. They strictly folloow time
even in infformal settinngs. In case of any spillover of agen nda points, another
a
meeting iss scheduledd instead of extending the im mmediate meeting.
m
Polychronic cultures, oon the other hand,
h respecct people and
d relationships over
and above time. Time schedules are relaxed aand they are flexible to overlapo
activities or
o stretch thee activity beeyond scheddule. They prefer
p to finnish the
task at hand and can exxtend their time
t schedulles to accommmodate spillovers.
Individualss from each of the culttures find itt difficult orr uncomforttable to
switch to thhe other cultuure.
Table 1 reppresents a coomparison am mong four different cultuures on the basis
b of
their businness networkks and relattionship cultture. New Zealand
Z andd South
Africa hav ve an egalitarian cultu ure where everyone is i seen as equal.
Communication strateggies are not power centtric. Contrarry to this arre India
and China where the relationshipps are poweer centric an nd while haandling
business, communicati
c ion should be designedd to route as a per the flowf of
power. Sim milarly, prevvalence of collectivism m in the Inndian and Chinese
C
culture is represented through
t the sentiment off a group annd thereby reesulting
in interdeependent coommunicatio on, as compared to an indeppendent
communicaation in indivvidualistic cultures. New w Zealand an nd South Afrfrica are
monochronnic since theey aim and achieve thee single objeective of achhieving
business traansactions aas compared to their couunterparts who
w are polycchronic
and intendd to align rrelationship goals durinng business transactions. This
comparisonn is an exammple of how cultures
c signnificantly difffer from few
w other
cultures but are quite siimilar to som
me geographhically distannt cultures.

Table 1: Comparison of fourr cultures accross develooping busineess

networks and relation nships

Neew
Strategies China a
India Sou
uth Africa
Zealland
Uniquenesss Soccial Unique Uniquue Social
Replaceabilit
R ty Replacceable Irrreplaceable Irreplaceeable Repplaceable
In
nterdependennce Indepeendent Intterdependentt Interdepeendent Inddependent
Littlee self- Frrequent self- Frequentt self- Little self-
Disclosure
discloosure disclosure
d disclosuure disclosure
Intrinsic Tanggible Booth tangible Both tanggible Tangible
T
rewards goals annd intrinsic and intriinsic goals
Monochroni
M ic
Monocchronic Polychronic Polychroonic Monnochronic
vss. Polychronnic

(Sourcce: Yunxia et al.,

a 2006)

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14.7 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Cross-Cultural
Communication 
BARRIERS
Observation and interpretation are distinct when viewed in reference to cross-
cultural communication (Barna, 1982). Barriers in cross-cultural
communication can be classified under five heads as given by Hofstede
(2010). These are as follows:
● Language barrier 
● Nonverbal communication 
● Stereotypes 
● Cultural Bias 
● Anxiety 
Now let us discuss each of these barriers one by one in detail below.

Language Barrier
The knowledge of language is way more than just vocabulary and grammar.
Your competence in language extends to acquiring the ability to know what
needs to be said, when it needs to be said, how to frame it and why or why
not to say it. Shallow knowledge of language may prove to be harmful,
especially in cases where one word could have multiple meanings when used
in different situations. An ideal learner would want to learn the language
from a native who knows in and out of the language per se and its
applications.

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication forms an inevitable co-partner of verbal
communication. This includes gestures, posture and demeanour which
elevates the language and sometimes replaces words. This unspoken
language has become so much a part of us that we use it not just frequently
but also habitually. During cross-cultural communication, it is best to observe
nonverbal communication that is prevalent. One should be aware of those
gestures or postures that may be natural to them but may be considered
offensive in the other cultures. For example, crossing of legs or pointing of
index finger is treated as an insult in some cultures. It is best to reconfirm in
case you are not sure of the meaning of any nonverbal communication of
some other culture.

Stereotypes
Stereotyping is preconceiving interpretations about people belonging to
certain cultures. For example, if we assume that citizens of one country are
aggressive and unfriendly, we will interpret all their verbal and nonverbal
communication that way only. In order to remove this form of stereotyping,
take the individual on his or her face value and judge them as individuals and
not just as representatives of one culture. Even after being part of the same
culture, they may have significantly different actions. Culture being in a fluid
state may take different forms and may be represented differently. There will
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mmunication always be certain things that needd to be interrpreted outside the purvview of
Orgganisation
culture. Reelinquishing your set steereotypes annd grasping afresh the cultural
c
perspectivees of anotheer culture will
w help yoou acclimatize, appreciaate and
apply them
m during crosss-cultural coommunicatioon.

Cultural Bias
B
This dealss with the predisposittion to asseess behavio our of indiividuals
belonging tot other culttures. There could be a propensity to t assess behhaviour
as good or o bad. Cuultural bias is an integral barrierr of cross-ccultural
communicaation. We teend to comppare amongsst cultures, primarily ouur own
culture. The ideal thingg to do in succh a situationn is to removve all preconnceived
notions and become aware a of thhe other cullture. It is not approprriate to
classify thiings but to aaccept the way
w they aree. Watching the culture from a
distance annd compreheending the bigger
b picturre will help one removee cross-
cultural barrriers and assist in effecttive communnication.

Anxiety
While com mmunicatingg with indivviduals of another cullture, most people
experience anxiety. The unfamiliarr experience causes stresss. This anxiety and
stress mouunts further in case knoowledge of the other culture
c is minimal.
m
Accommoddating the unncertainty of cross-cultuural situation ns and mainntaining
scope of mistake
m will hhelp reduce anxiety. One must also be assured tthat the
blind spot exists
e at bothh ends and thus
t what shhould be expected by eacch from
the other is
i unclear. Be B vocal ab bout what is expected in a good way to
amplify com mmunicationn and develoop trust amonngst each otther. Requestting for
small tips on
o cultural aspects
a can help both parties. Tolerrance also plays
p an
important role
r in reducing anxiety.

14.8 O
OVERCO
OMING CROSS-C
C CULTUR RAL
C
COMMUNNICATIO
ON BAR
RRIERS
Cross-cultu ural communnication stan nds as a proocess which not only iddentifies
and addresses differencces but also similarities amongst cuultural groupps so as
to effectiveely engage within
w a givenn context. It is more aboout adjustments that
individuals belonging to differentt cultural backgrounds make in order o to
improve intterpersonal aand inter gro oup communnication.In order
o to colleectively
reduce all barriers to cross-culturral communnication it is best to bee more
patient andd tolerant durring all step
ps of commuunication. Appproaching with w an
open mind,, without anyy prejudice helps
h both parties. Reiteerating messaages by
checking iff the meaninng interpreteed by the otther person is i the same as you
intended will
w assist. A Accommodaating for thiings that do o not immeediately
match yourr reference to context is i essential. The most ideal act willl be to
pause duriing the com mplete proccess of com mmunication n, beginningg from
perception, interpretattion and evaluation
e aand most essentially before
responding g.
Flexibility in thought and
a action are the prereqquisites for success todaay. The
same appliees to commuunication whherein abilityy and willinggness to adaapt is an
opportunityy to master ccross-culturaal communiccation. Cultuural differennces are
2422
  
nngin  on many occasions complex and create anxiety amongst individuals Cross-Cultural
Communication 
belonging to different cultures. Acceptance is the first step, followed by
flexibility to adapt without the fear to lose your identity. There is no rule
book that one can follow to get started, it is the mind-set to embrace new
ideas. The best strategy is awareness. Most of the cross-cultural differences
can be classified as follows:
1) Language: The speed of language differs across different cultures.
Indians tend to speak English faster since they are used to speaking their
native languages at a good speed. People lay emphasis on different
places in a sentence, thus hinting towards where the importance needs to
be put. It could lay on important words or at the end of the sentence. The
emphasis and hence the focus will have to be adjusted according to the
language. This variation of focus also comes due to intonation and
volume. Stronger intonations indicate intensified emotions while louder
voices are linked to dominance and arrogance. The rate at which one
seeks responses or gives responses also changes as per nationalities.
Western speakers would instantly respond as compared to Asian
speakers who accept silence as a response. Japanese culture also has very
strict norms on speaking in turn. They do not accept conversational
overlap and treat it as impolite. Accents at times operate as a barrier to
intercultural communication. Individuals speak the same language, for
example English, with different accents and interpretation in this case
becomes a challenge. The most apt way to overcome this barrier is to
articulate clearly and speak slowly. One should also consider knowing
the exact meaning of words in different languages before intermixing
them. The meaning of words often changes with the situation and context
in which they are being used. Care should be exercised while using
words with multiple meanings.
2) Written Communication: The formality involved in written
communication changes from culture to culture. Latin and Asian cultures
are very formal in their communication contrary to their counterparts in
the UK and USA who believe in brief and efficient communication. In
order to overcome this barrier, it is suggested that the format of written
communication should be first understood and then executed. The style
of written communication has to be learnt and not assumed.

Electronic communication has made the world closer and may take
different forms, email, voice communication, video communication, etc.
Different social media platforms require different skills to communicate.

3) Listening: Both passive and active listening skills add extensive value to
effective communication. This process assists in decoding messages and
interpreting what is being said. The process involves receiving the
message, interpreting it using a frame of reference, remembering or
storing the message, evaluating the accuracy of the content and finally
responding using verbal and/or non-verbal response. In countries like
Japan, China and Finland, listening is a reflective process wherein the
listener maintains silence till the time the speaker finishes speaking. This
is their way of active listening and helps in absorbing what the speaker is
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mmunication saying before responding. Sileence in thesee cultures shhould not be treated
Orgganisation
as a syymbol of nonn-attentiveneess. Some lissteners may tend to jumpp in the
converrsation beforre the speakeer is able to ccomplete hiss message.
4) Non-VVerbal Comm munication: This comm munication goes
g beyond words,
sometimes compplementing and soometimes replacing verbal
commuunication. N Non-verbal communication contributtes a major portion
of the message. IIt can take the form of gestures, facial expreessions,
posturee, appearancce, touch, distance,
d paaralinguistic,, colour or odour.
Gesturres offer richhness to com
mmunicationn in several cultures.
c Jappan and
China are two couuntries wherre gestures are largely restrained and a not
used freely.
f Africcans and Latin
L Americans use gestures
g andd facial
expressions to addd emotionaal touch to the words they use. Caution C
d be exerciseed in how these
should t gesturres are interrpreted in ddifferent
culturees. Posture may add to t the perceeption peopple have abbout an
dual. For insstance, standding tall is sseen as a siggn of confidence in
individ
the western countries but is treeated as arroggance in the eastern counntries.
Body languuage also reequires to be b understoood with its norms. n In order
o to
interpret body
b languaage correcttly,one shouuld understtand the poostures,
gestures, coomments orr situation.The famous w wobbling off the head inn India
has differennt meanings depending uponu the situuation in whhich it is perfformed.
It could sommetimes meean no, while at times itt is an act off affirmationn to the
speaker. Thhe direction of wobble could
c sometiimes be teassing and som metimes
authoritativ
ve. One needds to match it i with the siituation, movvement of eyyes and
sometimes movement of hands, to o understandd the accuraate meaningg of the
message. Eye
E contact, ttechnically called
c oculessics, is an esssential part of non-
verbal commmunication.. Western cuulture promootes eye con ntact with lissteners.
Eastern cullture, contrarrily, suggestts that direct eye contactt with peoplee senior
or elder to oneself is diisrespectful. Similarly, smiling
s at sttrangers is a sign of
happiness ini the USA A but is regaarded as strrange and innappropriatee in the
Eastern culltures.
Touch beh haviour (happtics) and facial expreessions varyy from cultture to
culture,so does para-vverbal comm munication llike voice volume,
v the use of
silence, andd conversatioonal overlap
p. Touching each other most
m often inndicates
personal reelationships. People embbrace each other during meetings in Russia
whereas Britishers
B prrefer to avvoid touchinng except handshakes. Firm
handshakess during meeetings are a sign of ccollaborationn in most Western
W
countries. Japanese,
J hoowever, avooid body coontact and prefer
p to bow
w. The
extent to which
w they bow
b dependds on the seeniority of th
he person opposite
o
them.
Figure 1 reepresents thee strategies which one ccan follow to
t overcomee cross-
cultural com
mmunicationn.

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nngin  Cross-Cultural
Communication 

Figure 1: Strategies to Overcome Barriers of Cross-cultural Communication

It is often noticed that the cause of communication problems or

misunderstanding, which could lead to conflict, occur due to cultural
differences amongst individuals. Hofstede suggests that in order to overcome
these cross-cultural communication barriers, it is best suited to interpret the
conversation only after deep diving into the other culture. More than half the
battle in building rapport across very different cultures is understanding.
Observation must precede interpretation and attribution. The largest
challenges are faced by businesses who as a product of globalization have to
operate in multiple countries. The demarked differences between cultures are
faced on a daily basis. This demands development of intercultural
communication skills amongst individuals of both cultures.Cultural
differences have an impact on how we conduct our relationships. They
determine, in part, how easily we can build rapport.

Activity 2
You have a Japanese colleague, Ms A, whom you have known for the past so
many years. You are currently working on a project with Ms A and have been
giving time and energy into the project while also balancing other work too.
You have a deadline to meet on Ms A’s project, but it now seems as if you
will not be able to meet the deadline because of some technical challenges.
Your staff also has a summer vacation schedule. You know that Ms A will
get upset, and that she has little respect for the fact that so many of your staff
goes on leave at the same time. You want to reassure Ms A that you are doing
your best and will sincerely try to meet the deadline.

Please e-mail Ms A to let her know about the situation keeping in mind her
communication style as Ms A tends to value and express concern for others;
social necessities, such as apologies for difficulties; a strong work ethic; and
predictability and commitment.

…………………………………………………………………………………
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14.9 LEAN ME
EDIA, RIICH ME
EDIA AN
ND SOCIA
AL
M
MEDIA
Media hass taken vaarious form ms thus prroviding diifferent forrms of
communicaation. Lean media
m is meddia that is geenerally asynnchronous inn nature
and thus saacrifices thee possibility of immediaate feedback k and possibbility of
social cues during commmunication.. Lack of vissual cues or limited verbbal cues
could causee ambiguity in interpretaation and with no chancce to counterr check
the contentt, may lead to misunderrstanding. Most M popularr examples of lean
media inclu
ude text messsages, emaills, bulletin bboards, etc. While
W choossing the
most effecttive channel for enhancing the efffectiveness of a messagge, one
must analy yse the naature of th he informattion that iss required to be
communicaated. Lean media
m is mosst suited forr messages thhat are routiine and
unambiguoous.

Media richn ness is the inndicator of the

t impact off information on understtanding
within a deefined time interval. Richness relattes to the level of learnning the
communicaation offers. Face-to-facce, telephoniic, live chat sessions aree media
rich as com
mpared to em mail. Media richness theeory relates tot giving maanagers
an aid to in
ncrease effecctiveness off communicaation. Richneess of messaage can
be evaluateed using parameters likke capacity to include personal
p foccus and
immediate feedback, laanguages useed, multiple hints etc. Messages
M em
mbedded
with uncleaar informatioon with mulltiple interprretations shoould use richh media
like face-tto-face or telephonic communicaation. Inforrmation meeant to
communicaate only puree facts can be b conveyedd using mediia which aree low in
richness likke business letters, texxt message, etc. Figuree 2 depicts certain
characteristtics of mediaa.

Figure 2: Characteristics
C s of Media thaat determines richness of information proocessed
2466
  
nngin  (Source: Daft and Lengel, 1984) Cross-Cultural
Communication 
Social media uses multiple online platforms. It helps in sharing and
collaborating information online. Communication on these platforms is
crucial since organisations while communicating with other stakeholders
build in a virtual image and equity. Today, the younger population procures
most of their information through these social media platforms. The actions
and reactions have been loud since information at times is unfiltered. There is
a sense of urgency for receiving responses. Social media has also created a
pressure to share something. This could sometimes create information that is
not required. The language used in social media has become more informal,
abbreviated, unfiltered, and emotional and oozes with catchy things that
make the information viral. Social media has definitely given traditional
media, run for its money. It offers options to brands to connect directly and
personally with its audiences. Social media definitely is a powerful
communication media with a huge impact in contemporary times.

14.10 SUMMARY
Culture is the inherent core values of a society promulgated through social
interaction and teachings. It is acquired and collective. It has a value system
and is largely stable. It operates as a differentiator between members
belonging to different cultures and it changes with context. Some societies
have similar cultures but a few are significantly different from others.

The theories of culture suggest three contexts under which culture can be
viewed as functionalist view, conflict view and symbolic view. Hofstede’s
cultural dimension model suggests that cultures could be classified on the
basis of power distance index, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity
versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance index, long versus short term
orientation and indulgence versus restraint. Edward T. Hall has classified the
analysis and interpretation of how communication and interactions between
cultures, under three categories, context, space and time.Communication gets
significantly impacted due to differences in cultures. These cross-cultural
barriers could be due to the language spoken, non-verbal communication,
stereotypes, cultural bias or anxiety. Awareness, acceptance and adjustment
are the key to overcoming barriers of cross-cultural behaviour. In order to
excel cross-cultural behaviour caution attention should be placed on
language, written communication, listening and non-verbal communication
which includes body language, touch behaviour, eye contact, gestures and
space.
Lean media and rich media theories highlight the two different versions of
communication channels. Lean media is suitable for unambiguous messages
as there is a lack of immediate feedback. Rich media consists of telephonic
and face-to-face communication where immediate feedback can be taken
from the listener. Such rich media channels are suitable for transmitting
ambiguous messages. With the emergence of social media platforms, various
newer means of communication has become a rage among the younger
population. Communication through social media platforms is much swifter
and widely accessible. It is a beneficial tool for marketing and easy 247
 
  
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H thiis can lead to spread of
o fake
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informationn and at timees chaos.

14.11 KEYWOR
K RDS
Culture: Culture
C is a complex x compilatioon of belieefs, customss, law,
knowledge, traditions,, etc. that a human being
b acquirres while being
b a
member off a particular society.
Stereotyping: Stereotyyping is pree conceivingg interpretattions about people
belonging to
t certain cuultures.

Power DisttanceIndex: The degreee of inequaliity that is acccepted and actually

a
exists withiin people.
Proxemics: The study of physical space and peeople.
Polychroniic: Ability too handle mu
ultiple activitties at the sam
me time.

Monochronic: Handlinng only one activity at one time.

14.12 SE
ELF-ASS
SESSME
ENT QUE
ESTION
NS
1) Evaluaate the cultuure of the United
U Statees of Americca on the basis
b of
Hofsteede’s culturall dimensionss.

2) Assesss two ways inn which verb

bal languagee and body laanguage mayy differ
betweeen different cultures.
c
3) Compaare Eastern and Westerrn culture on
o at least five parameeters as
propossed by Hofstede and Hall.

4) Explain
n the possiible barrierss that couldd occur du
uring cross-ccultural
commuunication.
5) “Awarreness, accepptance and addjustment arre the key to
o overcomingg cross-
culturaal communiccation.” Com
mment.

14.13 REFEREN
R NCES AN
ND FUR
RTHER READING
R GS
Barna, LaRRay (1982). “Stumbling g Blocks in Interculturall Communiccation.”
In Interculttural Commuunication: A Reader, 330–38, editedd by Larry Saamovar
& Richard Porter. Belmmont, CA: Wadsworth.
W

Brian J. Hurn and Barrry Tomaliin (2013).Cross- C

Cultural
Communicaation.Theoryy and Practiice. Palgravee Macmillan.
Hofstede, G. H. (20001). Cultu ure’s consequences: Comparing
C values,
behaviors, institutions and organnisations acrross nationss. Thousandd Oaks:
Sage.

Hofstede, G. H. (20113). National Culture. Retrieved from: http://geert-

hofstede.coom/national-culture.htmll

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nngin  Kulich, S. J. & Condon, J. C. (2015). Culture and communication: Cross-Cultural
Communication 
Celebrating a centennial of E. T. Hall’s contributions. The FutureLearn
Intercultural Communication Course. Shanghai, China: Shanghai
International Studies University.
Lengel, R.H. and R.L. Daft (1989).The Selection of Communication Media as
an Executive Skill. Academy of Management Executive, 2, 3, 225-232.

Tomalin, B. and Nicks, M. (2010).The World’s Business Cultures and How

to Unlock Them (London: Thorogood Publishing).
Yunxia Zhu, Pieter Nel& Ravi Bhat (2006).A Cross-cultural Study of
Communication Strategies for Building Business Relationships.International
Journal of Cross-cultural Management, 6; 319.

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