CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Water is essential to practically all life forms on the planet, and it is thought that life began in

water. Although water covers more than 70% of the earth’s surface, the bulk of it is unfit for

human consumption, and only a limited amount of drinkable water is available. The widespread

use of chemicals for a variety of purposes in everyday life, as well as the expanding

Industrialization resulted in the unintentional contamination of our natural resources. A variety

of organic and inorganic contaminants are released into the water system (Ramakrishna, 2013).

Dye is a visible pollutant that is found in industrial wastewaters and is considered to be one of

the most important pollutants from an aesthetic standpoint. Dyes are typically synthetic and

contain complicated aromatic molecular structures, making them more difficult to work with.

They are commonly utilized in textiles, paper, plastic, and leather, and are more stable and

harder to biodegrade. Colorants are used by the cosmetics and food industries to color their

goods. The widespread use of dyes frequently resulted in problems with pollution in the form of

colored wastewater dumped into the environment human beings (Aseel M. and Kadim Aljebori,

2010).

More than 100,000 commercially accessible dyes exist now, with over 7105 metric tons of

dyestuff manufactured each year. Azo dyes are the most versatile of the chemical classes of dyes,

accounting for more than half of yearly dye production. It is estimated that 2% of the population

colors generated each year are dumped in wastewater from various manufacturing processes.

While 10% to 15% of the dye used in the textile industry is thought to be toxic, during the

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production of textile items, chemicals are released into the environment all over the world once a

year (Tan J. R., 2010).

In Ethiopia, reactive azo dyes are widely used in the textile dying process because they are water

soluble and easily hydrolyzed into insoluble forms. Wastewater from textile dyes, in particular

characterized by intense color, a high level of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the presence

of dissolved pH of solids that varies greatly (Meroufel & Zenasn, 2013). The first color is among

all of these because a very small amount of dye concentration in wastewater can be detected,

even small amounts of water (1ppm) are highly visible, affecting aesthetic value, transparency,

and water-gas solubility (Adamu, 2008). As a result, it is preferable to remove dyes from colored

fabrics to keep the environment sustainable, effluents must be safely discharged into receiving

water bodies.

To remove colours from textile wastewater, a variety of treatment methods have been used,

including physical, chemical, and biological methods. The adsorption process is one of the most

effective and cost-effective physicochemical procedures for dye removal from textile wastewater

method among a wide range of natural dye adsorbents in the literature, there have been reports of

removal (Beyene, 2014). Plantain is a biological color in many regions of the world, resources

are readily available in vast amounts. Specifically, plantain peel cellulose, hemicelluloses,

chlorophyll pigment, lignin, and other low molecular weight compounds hydrocarbon. Various

functional groups, such as carboxyl, are present in these components. Plantain peel has hydroxyl

groups, making it a promising adsorbent material for eliminating various ionic chemicals from

aqueous solution (Said & Mansour, 2012)

The goal of this work was to use orange peel as a low-cost bio adsorbent to remove Congo red

dye from aqueous solutions. In this study, the effects of operating factors such as beginning pH,

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contact time, adsorbent dosage, and initial dye concentration were examined batch adsorption

strategies, as well as the effective equilibrium conditions for these variables were assessed

Adsorption isotherms and kinetics were investigated, and the best fit was found. It was suggested

that models for the dye adsorption process be developed. These essential facts will come in

handy. (Tan J. R., 2010)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Economic development and people's desire to better their quality of life inevitably result in

environmental contamination. As the demand for textiles grows in Ethiopia, so does the amount

of colorful effluents discharged. Textile manufacture by Idea Fabrics Industry is one of Nigerians

most important economic sectors, with 1,800m3/day of waste produced each year, colors the

wastewater and discharges it into surrounding bodies of water. These colored effluents give

undesirable perspective to the water streams whereas some dyes and their metabolites pose toxic,

carcinogenic and mutagenic effects (Adamu, 2008).

Dyes also block light from entering water streams, reducing photosynthetic activity and

disrupting aquatic homeostasis. Dye-containing wastewater is also challenging to manage since

dyes are abrasive organic compounds that defy biological breakdown and are chemically

persistent. Because of their complex aromatic molecular structures, they are sensitive to light and

other forms of exposure. As a consequence, the removal of dyes from wastewater has received a

lot of attention in recent decades lessen their environmental impact (Seeds & Sepehr, 2011).

Synthetic dyes have been removed from wastewater using a variety of physical, chemical, and

biological approaches. Until now, Nigerian textile wastewater treatment has primarily relied on

aerobic biological processes followed by chemical coagulation. Although while chemical and

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biological procedures are successful at removing dyes, they do necessitate the use of specialized

equipment and the equipment are typically extremely energy consuming; also, vast quantities of

wastes are produced creating a secondary disposal concern that necessitates proper disposal.

(Adamu et al., 2008).

Because of the high costs and disposal issues associated with the aforementioned procedures,

more research into novel ways has been undertaken. Physical approaches, primarily adsorption

on various substrates, have been identified as a viable and effective method for removing dyes

derived from textile wastewater. The search for good low-cost and non-conventional adsorbents

could be fruitful and contribute to the environment's long-term viability and provide hopeful

benefits for the future potential commercial purposes (Durairaj & Shankar, 2012).

Several researchers have successfully removed dye using low-cost adsorbents. (S. Lairini, 2017)

investigated the removal of crystal violet dye using potato peels and it was extracted from

aqueous solutions. Furthermore, natural materials such as rice Husks, several bio-sorbent peels,

and wheat straw are also used in the production of Low-cost adsorbents for removing non-

biodegradable organic compounds such as synthetic dyes derived from wastewater (Eng-Cheong

Khoo, 2011). As a result, there has been an increase in interest in the subject of dye molecule

adsorption from textile wastewaters. As a result, investigating the plantain peel’s suitability as a

low-cost alternative and effective adsorbent for removing textile dye is discovered that aqueous

solution is required.

1.3 Significance of the Study

This study should be significant in the sense that:

 Add to the knowledge of dye adsorption process by plantain peel adsorbent.

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  Its application in textile wastewater treatment method can be a choice, to reduce the

impact of dyes colored wastewater on the environment.

 Improve the value such a material is important for the economy of the countries where

this species grows abundantly by reducing cost of solid waste management.

1.4 Aim and Objective of the study

1.4.1 Aim

The main objective of this study is to investigate dye removal efficiency of plantain peel from

aqueous solution.

1.4.2 Objectives

 Preparation of activated plantain peel adsorbent (APP), and characterize by proximate

analysis

 Investigate the effect of variation parameters for initial solution pH, POPA dose, contact

time and initial RR-DEXF dye concentration in order to determine effective condition for

adsorption of the dye by the adsorbent

 Determine dye removal efficiency of the adsorbent

 Study the equilibrium adsorption isotherm and kinetics of dye adsorption by the

adsorbent

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Plantain Peel

Plantain is an important staple food in many developing countries, especially in Africa. It

provides food security and income for small-scale farmers who represent the majority of

producers (Akyeampong, 1999). Only about 15% of the global plantain production is involved in

international trade; most production is consumed domestically FAO (2005). Plantains, like

banana, are believed to have originated in Southeast Asia, having been cultivated in south India

by 500 BC. From here, ancient trade routes distributed it to Africa through Madagascar. By 1000

AD, plantains had spread eastward to Japan and Samoa. It arrived in the Caribbean and Latin

America by 1500 AD. Since then, it has spread widely throughout the tropics Oladele and Aina

(2007). The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminate and Musa

balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The plantain peel principally consists of

cellulose, pectin, pigment and proteins (Microsoft Encarta, 2009; Fortier et al., 1953).

2.2 Dye

Dyes are substances that are used in textile, paper, or leather industry to import color on

textile, paper, leather and some other materials such that the colors are not easily altered by light,

heat and washing. Dyes are said to be different from pigment as they contain carbon (i.e. they are

organic compounds) while pigments are inorganic compounds (i.e. they do not contain carbon).

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2.2.1 Classification of Dye

Below are the broad classifications of dye as researched from different literature. Dyes

are broadly and generally classified into two:

2.2.1.1 Natural Dye

These are the type of dye that are obtained from renewable source, they are

biodegradable and cause no disposal problem.

2.2.1.2 Synthetic Dye

Synthetic dyes, if at all degraded are full of by-products that are directly or indirectly

proven to be health hazards. Synthetic dyes tend to remain quite stable to common oxidation and

reduction process as per their designing and so are very difficult to remove from textile industry

effluents.

2.2.2 Textile Dye

Textile dyes as the name implies are used on fabrics, hey are classified according to their

chemical structure, such as (Azo dyes, Nitro dyes, Indigo dyes, Anthraquinone dyes, Phthalein

dyes, Trphenyl methyl dyes, Nitrated dyes, e.t.c.) or their industrial application. An example of

textile dye is a basic dye named Crystal violet.

2.2.2.1 Crystal Violet Dye

The crystal violet (also known in medicine as Gentian violet) dye is a synthetic cationic

dye and transmits violet color in aqueous solution. It is also known as Basic Violet 3, gentian

violet and methyl violet 10B, belonging to the group of triarylmethane (Adak, A, 2005). This dye

is used extensively in the textile industries for dying cotton, wool, silk, nylon, in manufacture of

printing inks and also the biological stain, a dermatological agent in veterinary medicine (Ayed,

L, 2009). The CV is toxic and may be absorbed through the skin causing irritation and is harmful

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by inhalation and ingestion. In extreme cases, can lead to kidney failure, severe eye irritation

leading to permanent blindness and cancer (Mittal, A, 2010). It is the active ingredient in a Gram

stain, used to classify bacteria. It destroys cells and can be used as a disinfectant. Compounds

related to methyl violet is potential carcinogens. 10B also inhibits the growth of many Gram

positive bacteria, except streptococci. When used in conjunction with nalidixic acid (which

destroys gram-negative bacteria), it can be used to isolate the streptococci bacteria for the

diagnosis of an infection. Methyl violet also binds to DNA. This means it can be used in cell

viability assays in biochemistry. However, this binding to DNA will cause replication errors in

living tissue, possibly leading to mutations and cancer.

Figure 1. Chemical Structure of CV.

IUPAC name: 4-[(4-dimethylaminophenyl)-phenyl-methyl]-N, N-dimethyl-aniline

Other name: Methyl Violet 10B, Gentian Violet, Aniline Violet, Viola Crystallina

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General Characteristics of Crystal Violet Dye

Chemical name: Crystal Violet

Color index: CI 42555

λmax (nm): 590

Molar mass (g mol-1): 407.979

Molecular formula: C25H30N3Cl

Appearance: violet

Melting point: 215 °C (Decomposes)

Crystal violet is often used as a bactericide and an antifungal agent, the Primary agent

used in the Gram stain test, perhaps the single most important bacterial Identification test in use

today, and it is also used by hospitals for the treatment of Serious heat burns and other injuries to

the skin and gums. Typically prepared as a Weak (e.g. 1%) solution in water, it is painted on skin

or gums to treat or prevent Fungal infections. Gentian violet does not require a doctor’s

prescription (in the US), But is not easily found in drug stores. Tampons treated with gentian

violet are Sometimes used for vaginal applications.

2.3 Adsorption

Adsorption is defined as the deposition of molecular species onto the surface. The

adsorbate is the molecular substance or specie that got adsorbed at the surface and the adsorbent

is the surface in which the adsorption occurs.

There are various adsorbent employed in adsorption process, however he common examples of

adsorbent are char, rice husk, papaya seed, watermelon, plantain peel etc.

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Adsorption is a surface phenomenon. The removal of adsorbent from the surface of adsorbate is

known as desorption.

2.3.1 Characteristics of Adsorption

Adsorption process is characterized with the following properties which are listed as

follows:

 Adsorption rate tends to increase initially then later decreases.

 It is an exothermic reaction and it is affected by temperature.

 It is a surface phenomenon.

2.3.2 Mechanism of Adsorption

Enthalpy of adsorption is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of the adsorbate is

adsorbed on adsorbent. Adsorbent is an exothermic process and enthalpy change is always

negative. Decrease in entropy occurs when adsorbate molecules are adsorbed on the surface and

freedom of movement of molecules become restricted. Adsorption is a spontaneous process at

constant pressure and temperature, thus Gibb’s free energy is also decreased.

2.3.3 Types of Adsorption

Generally, there are two types of adsorption, namely:

 Physical Adsorption: this involve the adsorption of gasses on solid surface via weak van

der waals force. This type of adsorption can easily be reversed by heating or by

decreasing the pressure, due to the weak attraction between the adsorbate and adsorbent.

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  Chemical Adsorption: when fluid molecules are held to the solid surface via chemical

bond. In chemisorption, the force of attraction is very strong, therefore adsorption cannot

be easily reversed.

2.4 Literature Review On Past Researches

There have been many researches concern in the adsorption of metal ions and dyes on

activated carbon surface. This interest is based on the importance of the following process:

surface chemistry, water chemistry, analytical chemistry, chemical engineering and

environmental studies. Many researchers have studied adsorption of metal ions and dye on

activated carbon such as:

2.4.1 Review of past researchers on the removal of Crystal Violet Dye

Meikap, et al., (2006) studied the adsorption onto activated carbons which is a potent

method for the treatment of dye-bearing effluents because it offers various advantages. In this

study, activated carbons, prepared by a new technique from low cost rice husk by sulfuric acid

and zinc chloride activation, were used as the adsorbent for the removal of crystal violet, a basic

dye, from aqueous solutions. The effects of various experimental parameters, such as adsorbent

dosage and size, initial dye concentration, pH, contact time, and temperature, were investigated

in batch mode. The kinetic data were well fitted to the Lagergren, pseudo-second-order, and

intraparticle diffusion models. It was found that intraparticle diffusion plays a significant role in

the adsorption mechanism. The isothermal data could be well described by the Langmuir and

Freundlich equations. The maximum uptakes of crystal violet by sulfuric acid activated (RHS)

and zinc chloride activated (RHZ) rice husk carbon were found to be 64.875 and 61.575 mg g-1

11
of adsorbent, respectively. The results indicate that RHS and RHZ could be employed as low-

cost alternatives to Commercial activated carbon in wastewater treatment for the removal of

basic dyes.

Pattabhi, et al., (2009) studied activated carbon prepared from Ricinus communis

Pericarp (RCP) was used to remove a crystal violet dye from aqueous solution by an adsorption

technique under varying conditions of agitation time, dye concentration, adsorbent dose and pH.

The removal of dye increased with increasing carbon dosage and attained a maximum (100%) at

a particular carbon dosage.

Adsorption is influenced by pH, dye concentration, carbon concentration and contact time.

Equilibrium was attained within 60 min. The kinetic data were well fitted to the Lagergren

model. Adsorption followed both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The Langmuir

constant were Qm = 106.95 mg g-1 and b = 0.4770 L mg-1 of the dye. The Freundlich constants

were KF = 53.3676 and n = 5.6980 for 25 mg L-1 of the dye. Desorption studies reveals that

recovery of dye from adsorbent was possible.The percent desorption increased with increasing

CH3COOH concentration in the aqueous medium and attained a maximum desorption at 0.8 N

CH3COOH solutions.

Rajeswari, et al., (2017) study has dealt with the biosorption of CV using water hyacinth

root powder. The potential of water hyacinth was studied for decolonization of CV. Influence of

different parameters such as initial pH (2.0–10.0), initial dye concentration for CV (100–500

ppm), contact time (10–240 min), biosorbent dosage (0.5–5 g/l) and temperature (300–323 K) on

biosorption of CV were examined. Thermodynamic analysis suggests that the biosorption of CV

is spontaneous process and endothermic in nature. Maximum removal of dye was observed at pH

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7.8 and the biosorption process has reached equilibrium at 120 min.The best fit for the

equilibrium data was found in the Freundlich isotherm. The maximum biosorption capacity was

found to be 322.58 mg/g, which is high when compared to other biosorbents. The biosorption

process followed the pseudo second order kinetic model. It seems that the use of readily

available water hyacinth weed offers an alternative economic and environment-friendly process

in the treatment of dye effluents.

Chekwube N, and Dominic O.O. (2017) study adsorption of CV from aqueous solution

using kolanut pod husk activated carbon as a low cost adsorbent. The conclusions drawn from

the study are: Kola nut pod husk which is an environmental pollutant have been found to be good

activated carbon precursor to adsorb dyes and achieve a cleaner environment. The kinetic data

fits very well with the pseudo-second order equation. The experimental data were analyzed using

Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm models. The Langmuir model

provides the best correlation of the experimental equilibrium data. The energy of adsorption of

CV using the KPAC indicates that it is a physiosorption. The negative values of the

thermodynamics parameters evaluated shows that theadsorption process is exothermic in nature.

Usman L.M., et al (2019) shows the possibility of using cornstalk for the uptake of

crystal violet dye. Effects of contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial Dye concentration, and pH on

the % removal of the dye suggested an equilibrium adsorption time of 80 min for CS, optimum

weight of 0.25g/50 cm3 of the dye and at a pH of 8. The adsorption data was well described by

the Freundlich isotherm equation. The rates of sorption were found to conform to pseudo-

second-order kinetics with good correlation. This study reveals that Cornstalk can be employed

as a low cost adsorbent for the removal of crystal violet from aqueous solutions.

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2.4.2 Review of past researches using Plantain Peel

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 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials

The building blocks to the successful completion of this research work are detailed here.

The materials used for the successful completion of this project are:

 Sodium bicarbonate

 Crystal Violet dye

 Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

 Plantain Peel

 Water

3.2 Equipment

 Shaker: It was used for the agitation of the solution which contain a mixture of

adsorbent and adsorbate under controlled temperature.

 Beaker: It was used for washing the preparation of the Sulfuric acid plantain peel.

 Conical Flask: It was used for the preparation of adsorbate (i.e. crystal violet dye

based wastewater)

 Oven: It was used for drying washed adsorbent and also for drying shaker bottles.

 Bottles of Different Sizes: They were used for storing adsorbate and for shaking.

 Desiccator: It was used for cooling samples to avoid moisture.

 pH meter: it was used to check the pH of the washed adsorbent.

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3.3 Preparation of Adsorbent

3.3.1 Collection of Plantain Peel:

Plantain peel were gotten from Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. They were collected

randomly from local markets and vendors before been sundried in an open, fully aerated

environment.

3.3.2 Preparation of Activated Plantain Peel

Plantain peel were properly sundried then cut into smaller sizes to make it easier to grind.

The pawpaw peel in the dried form was activated using H2SO4 and it was oven dried at 1600C for

15 hours. It was then washed with Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) which was prepared by

dissolving 20g of it in 1000ml volumetric flask and diluted up to the mark with distilled water. It

was then washed with distilled water until pH of 6.64 was obtained. It was then heated in the

oven at 400C. After heating, the particle size of 40BSS were obtained using analytical grade

sieve, it was stored in and air tight container and labeled as Activated Plantain Peel (APP).

3.4 Preparation of Adsorbate

In order to prepare 100 ml stock solution of crystal violet dye in the laboratory, 0.1 g of

crystal violet dye was weighed and was dissolved in 100 ml volumetric flask and filled up to the

mark with distilled water. The solution was shaken vigorously for some minutes to ensure

homogeneity of the mixture. We proceeded to preparing different concentrations from stock

solution using the dilution formula:

C 1 V 1=C 2 V 2

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Where C1 = initial concentration,

C2 = Final concentration,

V1 = Volume of dye to be taken from the stock,

V2 = Volume of dye to be prepared.

3.5 Batch Adsorption Experiment

The effects of concentration, dose, time and initial concentration of dye solution in the

adsorption of crystal violet on activated plantain peel were examined.

The adsorption process was determined by batch process using a rotary shaker. The

sample solutions were then removed at stipulated interval to determine the residual concentration

by doing UV-analysis using UV-visible spectrophotometer at maximum wavelength of 590 nm.

The percentage removal of crystal violet dye was calculated using

Co −Ce
%R= × 100
Co

Where Co and Ce (mg/L) are the initial and final concentration of adsorbate respectively.

3.5.1 Effect of Contact Time

Series of adsorption experiment were carried out at different contact time with a dye

concentration of 50 mg/L at volume of 50 ml in different glass bottles at room temperature. It

was then agitated for 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150, 210, 240 minutes respectively. The

solution was then filtered and the absorbance was measured at wavelength of 590 nm using UV-

visible spectrophotometer.

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3.5.2 Effect of Dose

Various adsorption experiment was carried out using different dose of adsorbent (APP)

ranging from 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0 g with dye concentration of 50

mg/L and volume 50 ml in different glass bottles.

This was further agitated in a shaker at a temperature of 300C and 60 rpm. The solution

was then filtered and the absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 590 nm using UV-Visible

spectrophotometer.

3.5.3 Effect of Initial Dye Concentration

Adsorption experiment with different dye concentration ranging from 20, 40, 60, and 100

mg/L were also carried out, each with a volume of 50 ml in different labeled glass bottle at room

temperature.

It was also agitated for 5 hours in shaker after which the resultant solution were filtered

and the absorbance was measured at wavelength 590 nm using UV-visible spectrophotometer.

3.5.4 Effect of Temperature

The effect of temperature on the removal of crystal violet dye was tested by accurately

weighing 0.1 g of adsorbents into clean labeled bottles. 50 ml of the adsorbate were added into

the and shake for 5 hours at different temperatures ranging from 300C, 400C, 500C respectively.

Each sample were later filtered after the stipulated time was up and analyzed using UV-visible

spectrophotometer.

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