Module 1: Rizal and the Theory of Nationalism

Unit Summary
As a jargon in Social Sciences, a nation refers to an entity in which people of
common cultural orientation or belief system (ideology and historical experiences) are
gathered. The Book of Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, provided
operational concepts about nationalism for it analyzed salient historical developments
among modern - day societies.

As defined, nationalism, a paradoxical concept, is a unifying factor among people

in the community at the same time a differentiating factor in the global society when
people of different races encounter each other. The discussion started by examining
the impacts of Marxism in countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia and China. Notably,
the war in these countries are of world historical importance. Social imperialism
(defending socialism) can be a useful analytical tool in analyzing the Sino -Soviet
border clashes of 1969 and Soviet Military Intervention in Germany in 1953.

The Vietnamese invasion of 1978, occupation of Cambodia in 1979 and China’s

assault on Vietnam can be treated as large -scale conventional war rooted on a firm
nationalist sentiment. In the later discussions, Anderson analyzed the concept of
nationalism into three paradoxes:
1. The objective modernity of nations to the historian’s eye vs. subjective
modernity in the eyes of the nationalists
2. The formal universality of nationality as socio-cultural concept vs. irremediable
particularity of its concrete manifestations
3. The “political power of nationalism” vs. its philosophical poverty and incoherence

Moreover, the theories on nationalism were broadly divided into three

perspectives namely:

1. Primordialism: the national identity can be reinforced by the existing and

deep- rooted features of a group of people like race, language and religion such
that nations have “ethnic core”.
2. Modernity Theory of Nationalism: National identity is a product of modern
conditions and shaped by modernity as gleaned on the events of capitalism,
industrialization, secularization and urbanization.
3. Constructivism: Nationalism is socially constructed and imagined by people
who identify themselves in a group. In relation to this perspective, Anderson
(1991) argued that nationalism is a virtue embedded in the imagined
communities.

However, it has been substantially argued that the concept of nationalism has never
produced grand thinkers unlike the Social Contract Theory (the state/society exists
due to the agreements and consent of the people) that produced Thomas Hobbes, John
Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. With this weakness, Tom Nairn purports that
nationalism is the pathology of modern developmental history since through
nationalism, people could be less adaptable with the integration and amalgamation of
culture as well as collaboration with other races.
 With these theoretical deficiencies, Anderson (1991) redefined nationalism in terms
of treating a nation (both a place and a context) as an imagined political community
that is both limited and sovereign in nature. Anderson characterized nation as:

1. Imagined: the members can be hardly recognized by his/ her

fellow members
2. Limited: the nation has limited and inelastic territory
3. Sovereign: the concept was traced back to the era of Enlightenment
and Scientific Revolution that destroyed the legitimacy of
divinely- ordained hierarchical dynasties.
4. Community: manifest deep, horizontal sense of comradeship.

Another perspective that can be gleaned is that nationalism could be an active

social force that promotes territorial stretch of a certain culture such as the Islamization
from Morocco to Sulu archipelago in the Philippines, the Christianization from Paraguay
to Japan and the growth of Buddhist Philosophy from Sri Lanka to the Korean
peninsula. Hence, nationalism could also denote a process wherein a certain belief is
reinforced for the benefit of a particular group.
To contextualize these assumptions, nationalism must
also be anchored on the concept of culture and the current
social condition in such a way that nationalistic sentiments
can also be rooted to the sufferings and challenges faced by
a nation. For instance, Rizal’s struggles in the late 19th
century were triggered by the abuses of Spanish authorities
to the Filipinos. On the Contrary, Juan Luna’s painting,
Espana Guia a Filipinas por el camino del Progreso
(inspired by the ideas of Sinibaldo de Mas) perceived
nationalism as an act of Spain, considered to be the mother
nation of the Philippines. For Spanish thinkers at that time,
Philippine nationalism was rooted in the Spanish efforts to
civilize the Philippines in line with the attainment of national
Fig. 3: De Mas’ Painting progress.

In promoting genuine Filipino nationalism, Jose Rizal employed an intellectual

means originated in the history of the Filipino race, the “construction of the usable
past” to liberate the manipulated masses or the so- called “pobres y ignorantes” and to
promote genuine nation building among Filipinos. However, Rizal being an ilustrado
(belonging to economically competent class) had the tendency to neglect the mass
culture in reference to favoring his ilustrado driven belief such as the belief that
Filipinos during the colonialism of Spain must only need to seek reforms and work for
assimilation instead of totally separating from mother Spain through revolution.

As stated in the book of John Phelan entitled The Hispanization of the

Philippines (1959), the nature of the hispanization in the Philippines elucidated the
incontrovertible fact that Indios were converted to Christianity. As to whether or not
Christianity caused salvation or alienation among Filipinos, the conversion of the Indios
brought civilization, salvation and unity to the island. Thus, the original Indios, in general,
can be described as passive recipients. However, the history of failure among Filipinos
ends with the birth of a secular progressive
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 and enlightened republic in 1898 when Emilio Aguinaldo’s government declared its
independence from the mother colonial country.

The revolutionary sentiments of the Filipinos that seemed to unify the islands
were triggered by Spanish malpractices in the country such as racial discrimination,
polo y servicios, bandala and more. Thus, it was only in the founding of Bonifacio's
Katipunan that Filipinos obtained clear and strategic goals of being an independent
nation, and to have a Filipino inspired government.

Moreover, the call for genuine independence by the revolutionary group was
further triggered by the death of Rizal on December 30,1896 when he was ordered to
be executed through firing squad with the crime of rebellion and illegal association by
Governor General Camilo Polavieja. Rizal’s death infuriated a drastic nationalist
sentiment that transcended beyond social expectations. Rizal’s death was
contextualized into political and religious movements. Several groups in the Philippines
were forged to venerate the sacrifices of Dr. Jose Rizal.

1. Knights of Rizal: an organization consisting of different professionals that

considered Rizal to be the greatest Filipino hero.

2. Philippine Independent Church (Aglipayan Church): Religious sect founded in

1902 as a result of the schism from the Catholic Church by
the Union Democratica Filipina due to the mistreatment of the Spanish friars and
the execution of Rizal. It appointed Gregorio Aglipay as its supreme bishop and
canonized Rizal as saint of the Philippine Independent Church.

3. Sambahang Rizal: founded by atty. Basilio Aromin in Cuyapo, Nueva Ecija in 1918.
This religious sect believed that Rizal was sent by Bathala to redeem his race and
people and acted like Christ in sacrificing his life to save the Filipinos.

4. Bathalismo (Inang Mahiwaga): founded by Venancio P. Wagan. This

sect believed that the last days of the tagalog civilization commenced
right after the Spanish Colonialism in the Philippines.

5. Adarnista/ Iglesiang Pilipina: Founded by Candida Balantac in Bangar, La Union

in 1901. This sect believed that Rizal is a god of the Filipino people and Rizal was
not really executed as popularly claimed by historians but Rizal is still living
today in the caves of Bongabon, Nueva Ecija together with Virgin Mary.

6. Iglesia Sagrada Filifina: founded by Purificacion and Severo Aviela in 1926 in

Candelaria, Quezon. This sect believed that Rizal was a second Christ and the
place of Mt. Banahaw is the new Jerusalem.
7. Watawat ng Lahi: organized by Jose B. Baricanosa in 1914 in Masbate.
Baricanosa argued that the “mysterious voice” of Rizal commanding his
fellowmen was the primary force that established the sect.

8. Colorum Sects:

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10
 In Tayabas Quezon: this sect founded at the foot of San Cristobal popularly
known as Mt. Banahaw, believed that Rizal was a god.

In Concepcion, Tarlac: founded the Rizalina, a group of priestesses that prohibits

its members to marry during certain periods and are sent to Calamba Laguna for
religious trainings.

Regarding the establishment of various groups, sects and cults that adored/
venerated Rizal, it can be inferred that a high sense of nationalism was attained for
it somehow unified the sentiments and aspirations of the people who believed in the
sacrifices of Rizal. Deciphering its anthropological aspect, Sir James G. Frazer noted
that conceptualization of man-god is a natural phenomenon and conceived a divine
entity based on anthropomorphic attributes to serve as an inspiration for the perfection
of particular human attributes such as self-sacrifice, nobility and courage. However,
considering the presence of other religious entities such as the Catholic Church, the
thesis on the divine entity of Rizal must be treated with utmost caution in such a way
that Rizal must be studied using the “plain-view” approach. Hence, Jose Rizal and his
contributions in the emergence of Filipino Nationalism should be treated as an
inspiration for the Filipinos to do good for their society and Rizal’s sacrifices with the
other heroes are intended for the liberation of the Filipinos.

References:

Anderson, B. (1991). Introduction. In Imagined communities: Reflections on the

origins and spread of nationalism. 1-7. Revised ed. London and New York:
Verso Pasig City: Anvil,2003 PH Edition.

Anderson, B. (1991). Cultural roots. In Imagined communities: Reflections on the

origins and spread of nationalism. 9-36. Revised ed. London and New York:
Verso Pasig City: Anvil,2003 PH Edition.

Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of

nationalism. Verso books. pp. 1-36. Available online at
http://pips.uinsu.ac.id/assets/plugins/content_upload/files/Benedict_Anderson_Ima
gined_Communities_Reflections_on_the_Origin_and_Spread_of_Nationalism 2006(1
)(1).pdf

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly
prohibited.
 Foronda, M. A. Jr. (2009). Cults honoring Rizal. In Historical Bulletin 50th
Anniversary Issue,46-79. Manila: National Historical Institute,46-79. Manila: National
Historical Institute.

Goh, R. (22 March 2016). Benedict Anderson’s Theory of Imagined Communities.

Retrieved from https://youtu.be/hNXZHF0Nl60

Ileto, R. (1998). Rizal and the underside of Philippine history. In Filipinos and their
revolution: Event, discourse, and historiography, 29-78. Quezon City: Ateneo de
Manila University Press.

Pineda, A. “The Apl Song”. Elephunk, Black Eyed Peas, 2003. Track 11.
Retrieved from
https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/blackeyedpeas/theaplsong.html

Luna, J. (1886). España y Filipina. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/url?

sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fkumusta2012.weebly.com%2F uploads
%2F1%2F2%2F5%2F5%2F12550939%2Fprogreso.pdf&psig=AOvVaw1MwkE4pIL Ogb-
mUrsxZDTy&ust=1590816821371000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAMQjB1qFwoT
CKDotdGs2OkCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD

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any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly
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