3

Analyzing Arguments
From Reading to Writing

H ave you ever changed your mind about something? What caused you to
re-examine a belief or idea? Most likely, you read or heard someone
else’s perspective that challenged you to think about an issue in a different way.
It might have been a clear, thoughtful presentation of information, a personal
story that tugged at your conscience, a startling statistic, or even a bit of humor
or satire that presented a familiar issue in a new and enlightening way. It’s less
likely that you were bullied into reconsidering your opinion by a loud voice
that belittled your ideas. By carefully and respectfully reading the viewpoints of
others and considering a range of ideas on an issue, we develop a clearer under-
standing of our own beliefs — a necessary foundation to writing effective argu-
ments. In this chapter, we’re going to analyze elements of argument as a means of
critical thinking and an essential step toward crafting your own argumentative
essays.

What Is Argument?
Although we have been discussing argument in previous chapters, the focus has
been primarily on rhetorical appeals and style. We’ll continue examining those
elements, but here we take a closer look at an argument’s claim, evidence, and
organization.
Let’s start with some definitions. What is argument? Is it a conflict? A contest
between opposing forces to prove the other side wrong? A battle with words? Or
is it, rather, a process of reasoned inquiry and rational discourse seeking common
ground? If it is the latter, then we engage in argument whenever we explore ideas
rationally and think clearly about the world. Yet these days argument is often no
more than raised voices interrupting one another, exaggerated assertions without
adequate support, and scanty evidence from sources that lack credibility. We
might call this “crazed rhetoric,” as political commentator Tom Toles does in the
following cartoon.

81

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 82 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

(see insert for color version.)

source: Toles © 2005 The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission of universal uclick. All rights
reserved.

This cartoon appeared on January 16, 2011, a few days after Arizona congress-
woman Gabrielle Giffords was the victim of a shooting; six people were killed and
another thirteen injured. Many people saw this tragedy as stemming from vitri-
olic political discourse that included violent language. Toles argues that Uncle Sam,
and thus the country, is in danger of being devoured by “crazed rhetoric.” There
may not be a “next trick” or a “taming” if the rhetorical lion continues to roar.
Is Toles’s view exaggerated? Whether you answer yes or no to that question, it
seems quite clear that partisanship and polarization often hold sway over dia-
logue and civility when people think of argument. In our discussions, however,
we define argument as a persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered move-
ment from a claim to a conclusion. The goal of this chapter is to avoid thinking
of argument as a zero-sum game of winners and losers but, instead, to see it as a
means of better understanding other people’s ideas as well as your own.
In Chapter 1 we discussed concession and refutation as a way to acknowledge
a counterargument, and we want to re-emphasize the usefulness of that approach.

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 WHAT is ARgumEnT? 83

Viewing anyone who disagrees with you as an adversary makes it very likely that
the conversation will escalate into an emotional clash, and treating opposing
ideas disrespectfully rarely results in mutual understanding. Twentieth-century
psychologist Carl Rogers stressed the importance of replacing confrontational
argument tactics with ones that promote negotiation, compromise, and coopera-
tion. Rogerian arguments are based on the assumption that having a full under-
standing of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and
refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating. Ultimately, the
goal of a Rogerian argument is not to destroy your opponents or dismantle their
viewpoints but rather to reach a satisfactory conclusion.
So what does a civil argument look like? Let’s examine a short article that
appeared in Ode magazine in 2009 entitled “Why Investing in Fast Food May Be
a Good Thing.” In this piece Amy Domini, a financial advisor and leading voice
for socially responsible investing, argues the counterintuitive position that invest-
ing in the fast-food industry can be an ethically responsible choice.

Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing

Amy Domini
my friends and colleagues know i’ve been an advocate of the slow Food move-
ment for many years. Founded in italy 20 years ago, slow Food celebrates har-
vests from small-scale family farms, prepared slowly and lovingly with regard for
the health and environment of diners. slow Food seeks to preserve crop diversity,
so the unique taste of “heirloom” apples, tomatoes and other foods don’t perish
from the Earth. i wish everyone would choose to eat this way. The positive effects
on the health of our bodies, our local economies and our planet would be incalcu-
lable. Why then do i find myself investing in fast-food companies?
The reason is social investing isn’t about investing in perfect companies. (Per-
fect companies, it turns out, don’t exist.) We seek to invest in companies that are
moving in the right direction and listening to their critics. We offer a road map to
bring those companies to the next level, step by step. no social standard causes
us to reject restaurants, even fast-food ones, out of hand. Although we favor local,
organic food, we recognize it isn’t available in every community, and is often
priced above the means of the average household. many of us live more than 100
miles from a working farm.
Fast food is a way of life. in America, the average person eats it more than
150 times a year. in 2007, sales for the 400 largest u.s.-based fast-food chains
totaled $277 billion, up 7 percent from 2006.
Fast food is a global phenomenon. major chains and their local competitors
open restaurants in nearly every country. For instance, in greece, burgers and
pizza are supplanting the traditional healthy mediterranean diet of fish, olive oil
and vegetables. Doctors are treating greek children for diabetes, high cholesterol
and high blood pressure — ailments rarely seen in the past.

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The fast-food industry won’t go away anytime soon. But in the meantime, it 5
can be changed. And because it’s so enormous, even seemingly modest changes
can have a big impact. in 2006, new york City banned the use of trans-fats (a
staple of fast food) in restaurants, and in 2008, California became the first state to
do so. When mcDonald’s moved to non-trans-fats for making French fries, the
health benefits were widespread. Another area of concern is fast-food packaging,
which causes forest destruction and creates a lot of waste. in the u.s. alone,
1.8 million tons of packaging is generated each year. Fast-food containers make
up about 20 percent of litter, and packaging for drinks and snacks adds another
20 percent.
A north Carolina–based organization called the Dogwood Alliance has
launched an effort to make fast-food companies reduce waste and source paper
responsibly. Through a campaign called no Free Refills, the group is pressing fast-
food companies to reduce their impact on the forests of the southern u.s., the
world’s largest paper-producing region. They’re pushing companies to:

• Reduce the overuse of packaging.

• maximize use of 100 percent post-consumer recycled boxboard.
• Eliminate paper packaging from the most biologically important endangered
forests.
• Eliminate paper packaging from suppliers that convert natural forests into indus-
trial pine plantations.
• Encourage packaging suppliers to source fiber from responsibly managed for-
ests certified by the Forest stewardship Council.
• Recycle waste in restaurants to divert paper and other material from landfills.

Will the fast-food companies adopt all these measures overnight? no. But
along with similar efforts worldwide, this movement signals that consumers and
investors are becoming more conscious of steps they can take toward a better
world — beginning with the way they eat.
While my heart will always be with slow Food, i recognize the fast-food indus-
try can improve and that some companies are ahead of others on that path.

Domini begins by reminding her readers of her ethos as “an advocate of the
Slow Food movement for many years.” By describing some of the goals and tenets
of that movement, including the “positive effects” it can have, she establishes
common ground before she discusses her position — one that the Slow Food
advocates are not likely to embrace, at least not initially. In fact, instead of assert-
ing her position in a strong declarative sentence, Domini asks a question that
invites her audience to hear her explanation: “Why then do I find myself investing
in fast-food companies?” She provides evidence that supports her choice to take
that action: she uses statistics to show that slow food is not available in all com-
munities, while fast food is an expanding industry. She uses the example of Greece

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to show that fast food is becoming a global phenomenon. She gives numerous
examples of how fast-food companies are improving ingredients and reducing
waste to illustrate how working to change fast-food practices can have a signifi-
cant impact on public health and the environment. After presenting her view-
point, Domini ends by acknowledging that her “heart will always be with Slow
Food”; but that fact should not preclude her supporting those in the fast-food
industry who are making socially and environmentally responsible decisions.

• ACTIVITY •
Identify at least two points in Domini’s article where she might have given
way to accusation or blame or where she might have dismissed the Slow Food
movement as being short-sighted or elitist. Discuss how, instead, she finds
common ground and promotes dialogue with her audience through civil
discourse.

• EssAY In PRogREss: selecting a Topic •

What are two controversial topics that interest you? Brainstorm how you
might develop an argument about each from two different viewpoints. Con-
sider the potential for volatile or highly emotional responses to each. What
could you do to encourage a civil tone and approach? Make sure to choose
ideas that you could develop into a full essay. You will have an opportunity to
return to them throughout the chapter.

Staking a Claim
Every argument has a claim — also called an assertion or proposition — that
states the argument’s main idea or position. A claim differs from a topic or a sub-
ject in that a claim has to be arguable. It can’t just be a simple statement of fact; it
has to state a position that some people might disagree with and others might
agree with. Going from a simple topic to a claim means stating your informed
opinion about a topic. In the essay you just read, the general topic is social
investing — specifically, social investing in the fast-food industry. The arguable
claim, however, is that investing in fast-food companies can be socially respon-
sible. Notice that the topic may be a single word or a phrase, but the arguable
claim has to be stated as a complete sentence.
It’s important to note that neither a published author nor a student writer is
likely to develop a strong claim without exploring a topic through reading about
it, discussing it with others, brainstorming, taking notes, and rethinking. After
looking into a topic thoroughly, then you are ready to develop a position on an

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issue. For example, let’s use the topic of single-sex classrooms. You will notice,
first of all, that a simple statement of the topic does not indicate whether you
support the notion or challenge it. Let’s consider several directions to take with
this topic.
• Many schools have single-sex classrooms.
• Single-sex classrooms have been around for years, especially in private
schools.
• Single-sex classrooms are ineffective because they do not prepare students
for the realities of the workplace.
The first statement may be true, but it is easily verified and not arguable;
thus, it is simply a topic and not a claim. The second statement has more detail,
but it’s easy to verify whether it is true or not. Since it is not arguable, it is not a
claim. The third statement is a claim because it is arguable. It argues that single-
sex classrooms are ineffective and that preparation for the workplace is an impor-
tant way to measure the effectiveness of an education. There are those who would
disagree with both statements and those who would agree with both. Thus, it
presents an arguable position and is a viable claim.

• ACTIVITY •
For each of the following statements, evaluate whether it is arguable or too
easily verifiable to develop into an effective argument. Try revising the ones
you consider too easily verifiable to make them into arguable claims.
1. SUV owners should be required to pay an energy surcharge.
2. Charter schools are an alternative to public schools.
3. Ronald Reagan was the most charismatic president of the twentieth
century.
4. Requiring students to wear uniforms improves school spirit.
5. The terms global warming and climate change describe different perspec-
tives on this complex issue.
6. Students graduating from college today can expect to have more debt
than any previous generation.
7. People who read novels are more likely to attend sports events and mov-
ies than those who do not.
8. Print newspapers will not survive another decade.
9. The competition among countries to become a site for the Olympic
Games is fierce.
10. Plagiarism is a serious problem in today’s schools.

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Types of Claims
Typically, we speak of three types of claims: claims of fact, claims of value, and
claims of policy. Each type can be used to guide entire arguments, which we would
call arguments of fact, arguments of value, and arguments of policy. While it is
helpful to separate the three for analysis, in practice it is not always that simple.
Indeed, it is quite common for an argument to include more than one type of
claim, as you will see in the following examples.

Claims of Fact
Claims of fact assert that something is true or not true. You can’t argue whether
Zimbabwe is in Africa or whether restaurants on Main Street serve more custom-
ers at breakfast than at lunch. These issues can be resolved and verified — in the
first case by checking a map, in the second through observation or by checking
sales figures. You can, however, argue that Zimbabwe has an unstable government
or that restaurants on Main Street are more popular with older patrons than
younger ones. Those statements are arguable: What does “unstable” mean? What
does “popular” mean? Who is “older” and who is “younger”?
Arguments of fact often pivot on what exactly is “factual.” Facts become
arguable when they are questioned, when they raise controversy, when they chal-
lenge people’s beliefs. “It’s a fact that the Social Security program will go bank-
rupt by 2025” is a claim that could be developed in an argument of fact. Very
often, so-called facts are a matter of interpretation. At other times, new “facts” call
into question older ones. The claim that cell phones increase the incidence of
brain tumors, for instance, requires sifting through new “facts” from medical
research and scrutinizing who is carrying out the research, who is supporting it
financially, and so on. Whenever you are evaluating or writing an argument of
fact, it’s important to approach your subject with a healthy skepticism.
In “Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing,” Domini makes two
claims of fact. The argument in paragraph 3 is guided by the claim of fact that
“fast food is a way of life.” Is it? She supports this claim with sales statistics and
information on the growth of this industry. Paragraph 4 is guided by the claim of
fact that “fast food is a global phenomenon.” She supports this claim with an
explanation of fast-food restaurants opening “in nearly every country” and a spe-
cific example discussing the changing diet in Greece.
We commonly see arguments of fact that challenge stereotypes or social beliefs.
For instance, in Chapter 8, Gender, there is an argument of fact by Matthias Mehl
and his colleagues about whether women are more talkative than men (p. 557).
Mehl and his colleagues recorded conversations and concluded that the differ-
ences are, in fact, very minor. Their findings call into question the stereotype that
women are excessively chatty and more talkative than their male counterparts.
Mehl’s essay is a clear argument of fact that re-evaluates earlier “facts” and chal-
lenges a social myth.

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Claims of Value
Perhaps the most common type of claim is a claim of value, which argues that
something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Of course,
just like any other claim, a claim of value must be arguable. Claims of value may
be personal judgments based on taste, or they may be more objective evaluations
based on external criteria. For instance, if you argue that Brad Pitt is the best lead-
ing man in Hollywood, that is simply a matter of taste. The criteria for what is
“best” and what defines a “leading man” are strictly personal. Another person
could argue that while Pitt might be the best-looking actor in Hollywood, Leon-
ardo DiCaprio is more highly paid and his movies tend to make more money.
That is an evaluation based on external criteria — dollars and cents.
To develop an argument from a claim of value, you must establish specific
criteria or standards and then show to what extent the subject meets your cri-
teria. Amy Domini’s argument is largely one of value as she supports her claim
that investing in fast-food companies can be a positive thing. The very title of
Domini’s essay suggests a claim of value: “Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a
Good Thing.” She develops her argument by explaining the impact that such
investing can have on what food choices are available, and what the impact of
those choices is.
Entertainment reviews — of movies, television shows, concerts, books — are
good examples of arguments developed from claims of value. Take a look at this
one, movie critic Roger Ebert’s 1977 review of the first Star Wars movie. He raved.
Notice how he states his four-star claim — it’s a great movie! — in several ways
throughout the argument and sets up his criteria at each juncture.

Star Wars
roger ebert
Every once in a while i have what i think of as an out-of-the-
body experience at a movie. When the EsP people use a phrase
like that, they’re referring to the sensation of the mind actually
Ebert’s first
leaving the body and spiriting itself off to China or Peoria or a
criterion is
galaxy far, far away. When i use the phrase, i simply mean that whether a film
my imagination has forgotten it is actually present in a movie transports him.
theater and thinks it’s up there on the screen. in a curious sense,
the events in the movie seem real, and i seem to be a part of
Ebert’s claim of
value. Stated them.
more formally, Star Wars works like that. my list of other out-of-the-body
it might read: films is a short and odd one, ranging from the artistry of Bonnie
“Star Wars is
and Clyde or Cries and Whispers to the slick commercialism of
so good that it
will completely Jaws and the brutal strength of Taxi Driver. On whatever level
draw you in.” (sometimes i’m not at all sure) they engage me so immediately

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 sTAking A ClAim 89

and powerfully that i lose my detachment, my analytical reserve.

The movie’s happening, and it’s happening to me.
What makes the Star Wars experience unique, though, is Ebert asserts
that Star Wars
that it happens on such an innocent and often funny level. it’s usu-
is not just
ally violence that draws me so deeply into a movie — violence different from
ranging from the psychological torment of a Bergman character the other films
to the mindless crunch of a shark’s jaws. maybe movies that scare he has cited; it
is “unique.”
us find the most direct route to our imaginations. But there’s hardly
any violence at all in Star Wars (and even then it’s presented as
Ebert elaborates essentially bloodless swashbuckling). instead, there’s entertain-
on why it is ment so direct and simple that all of the complications of the
“unique” —
pointing out that
modern movie seem to vaporize.
its power lies in Star Wars is a fairy tale, a fantasy, a legend, finding its roots Another
directness and in some of our most popular fictions. The golden robot, lion-faced criterion is the
simplicity rather effectiveness of
space pilot, and insecure little computer on wheels must have the storytelling.
than violence
and brutality.
been suggested by the Tin man, the Cowardly lion, and the Here it is
scarecrow in The Wizard of Oz. The journey from one end of the literally the
galaxy to another is out of countless thousands of space operas. stuff of legends,
managing
The hardware is from Flash Gordon out of 2001: A Space Odys- somehow to be
sey, the chivalry is from Robin Hood, the heroes are from West- both new and
erns, and the villains are a cross between nazis and sorcerers. nostalgic.
Star Wars taps the pulp fantasies buried in our memories, and
because it’s done so brilliantly, it reactivates old thrills, fears, and
exhilarations we thought we’d abandoned when we read our last
copy of Amazing Stories.
Ebert The movie works so well for several reasons, and they don’t 5
addresses a
all have to do with the spectacular special effects. The effects
counterargument.
He knows that are good, yes, but great effects have been used in such movies
many people will as Silent Running and Logan’s Run without setting all-time box-
praise the special office records. no, i think the key to Star Wars is more basic
effects in the film.
than that.
He acknowledges
The movie relies on the strength of pure narrative, in the most Ebert moves
that they are
into his
“good” — but that basic storytelling form known to man, the Journey. All of the best
principal
is not one of his tales we remember from our childhoods had to do with heroes criterion: the
chief criteria.
setting out to travel down roads filled with danger, and hoping value of the
to find treasure or heroism at the journey’s end. in Star Wars, classic hero’s
journey that
george lucas takes this simple and powerful framework into
Star Wars
outer space, and that is an inspired thing to do, because we no embodies.
longer have maps on Earth that warn, “Here there be dragons.”
We can’t fall off the edge of the map, as Columbus could, and
we can’t hope to find new continents of prehistoric monsters or
lost tribes ruled by immortal goddesses. not on Earth, anyway,
but anything is possible in space, and lucas goes right ahead

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Another and shows us very nearly everything. We get involved quickly,

criterion: The because the characters in Star Wars are so strongly and simply
movie is good
because the drawn and have so many small foibles and large, futile hopes for
characters are us to identify with. And then lucas does an interesting thing. As
both familiar . . . he sends his heroes off to cross the universe and do battle with the
Forces of Darth Vader, the evil Empire, and the awesome Death
star, he gives us lots of special effects, yes — ships passing into
hyperspace, alien planets, an infinity of stars — but we also get a
. . . and
unfamiliar.
wealth of strange living creatures, and lucas correctly guesses
that they’ll be more interesting for us than all the intergalactic
hardware.
The most fascinating single scene, for me, was the one set in
the bizarre saloon on the planet Tatooine. As that incredible collec-
tion of extraterrestrial alcoholics and bug-eyed martini drinkers
lined up at the bar, and as lucas so slyly let them exhibit charac- Ebert applies
his criteria to
teristics that were universally human, i found myself feeling a com- one specific
bination of admiration and delight. Star Wars had placed me in scene.
the presence of really magical movie invention: Here, all mixed
together, were whimsy and fantasy, simple wonderment and qui-
etly sophisticated storytelling.
When stanley kubrick was making 2001 in the late 1960s,
he threw everything he had into the special effects depicting
outer space, but he finally decided not to show any aliens at
all — because they were impossible to visualize, he thought. But
they weren’t at all, as Star Wars demonstrates, and the movie’s
delight in the possibilities of alien life forms is at least as much fun
He reiterates as its conflicts between the space cruisers of the Empire and the
his claim by Rebels.
emphasizing And perhaps that helps to explain the movie’s one weakness, Ebert
that it is not concedes
the technology which is that the final assault on the Death star is allowed to go
that the
of special on too long. maybe, having invested so much money and sweat film does
effects but the in his special effects, lucas couldn’t bear to see them trimmed. But have a flaw.
humanity of the magic of Star Wars is only dramatized by the special effects;
the characters
that makes the the movie’s heart is in its endearingly human (and non-human)
film great. people.

• ACTIVITY •
Find a review of a movie, a television show, a concert, an album or a song, or
another form of popular culture. Identify the claim in the review. What cri-
teria does the reviewer use to justify a thumbs-up or a thumbs-down?

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Claims of Policy
Anytime you propose a change, you’re making a claim of policy. It might be local:
A group at your school proposes to raise money to contribute to a school in Haiti.
You want your parents to let you spend more time with friends on weeknights. Or
it might be a bigger issue such as a proposal for transitioning to alternative energy
sources, a change in copyright laws for digital music, a shift in foreign policy, a
change in legislation to allow former felons to vote.
An argument of policy generally begins with a definition of the problem
(claim of fact), explains why it is a problem (claim of value), and then explains
the change that needs to happen (claim of policy). Also, keep in mind that while
an argument of policy usually calls for some direct action to take place, it may be
a recommendation for a change in attitude or viewpoint.
Let’s take a look at the opening paragraphs of an argument of policy. In this
piece, published in 1999 in Newsweek, Anna Quindlen argues for a change in atti-
tude toward the treatment of mental illness. Notice how she combines claims of
fact and value to ground her claim of policy — that is, that attitudes toward men-
tal illness must change so that treatment options become more available.

from The C Word in the Hallways

AnnA QuinDlen
The saddest phrase i’ve read in a long time is this one: psycho-
logical autopsy. That’s what the doctors call it when a kid kills
himself and they go back over the plowed ground of his short life,
and discover all the hidden markers that led to the rope, the
blade, the gun.
There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t
announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has
Claim of value
gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where it
has been laying waste. The number of suicides and homicides
Claim of fact committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in
the last three decades, until it has become commonplace to have
black-bordered photographs in yearbooks and murder suspects
with acne problems. And everyone searches for reasons, and
scapegoats, and solutions, most often punitive. yet one solution
continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about
Claim of policy
mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into
the mainstream where it belongs. As surely as any vaccine, this
would save lives.
so many have already been lost. This month kip kinkel was
sentenced to life in prison in Oregon for the murders of his par-
ents and a shooting rampage at his high school that killed two

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students. A psychiatrist who specializes in the care of adolescents

testified that kinkel, now 17, had been hearing voices since he
was 12. sam manzie is also 17. He is serving a 70-year sen-
tence for luring an 11-year-old boy named Eddie Werner into his
new Jersey home and strangling him with the cord of an alarm
clock because his sega genesis was out of reach. manzie had
his first psychological evaluation in the first grade.

Quindlen calls for “ending the ignorance” about mental health and its care.
As she develops her argument, she supports this claim of policy by considering
both personal examples and general facts about mental health in America. To
arrive at this claim of policy, however, she first makes a claim of value — “There’s
a plague on all our houses”: that is, this is a problem deserving of our attention.
She then offers a claim of fact that demonstrates the scope of the problem: teen-
age suicide and homicide in the last decades have “exploded.” Granted, all three of
these claims need to be explained with appropriate evidence, and Quindlen does
that in subsequent paragraphs; but at the outset, she establishes claims of value
and fact that lay the foundation for the claim of policy that is the main idea of her
argument.

• ACTIVITY •
Read the following argument of policy that appeared as an editorial in the
New York Times in 2004. Annotate it to identify claims of fact, value, and
policy; then describe how these interact throughout the argument.

Felons and the Right to Vote

New York Times eDitoriAl boArD

About 4.7 million Americans, more than 2 percent of the adult population, are
barred from voting because of a felony conviction. Denying the vote to ex-
offenders is antidemocratic, and undermines the nation’s commitment to reha-
bilitating people who have paid their debt to society. Felon disenfranchisement
laws also have a sizable racial impact: 13 percent of black men have had
their votes taken away, seven times the national average. But even if it were
acceptable as policy, denying felons the vote has been a disaster because of
the chaotic and partisan way it has been carried out.
Thirty-five states prohibit at least some people from voting after they have
been released from prison. The rules about which felonies are covered and
when the right to vote is restored vary widely from state to state, and often
defy logic. in four states, including new york, felons on parole cannot vote,
but felons on probation can. in some states, felons must formally apply for

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 sTAking A ClAim 93

restoration of their voting rights, which state officials can grant or deny on the
most arbitrary of grounds.
Florida may have changed the outcome of the 2000 presidential election
when secretary of state katherine Harris oversaw a purge of suspected felons
that removed an untold number of eligible voters from the rolls. This year, state
officials are conducting a new purge that may be just as flawed. They have
developed a list of 47,000 voters who may be felons, and have asked local
officials to consider purging them. But the Miami Herald found that more than
2,100 of them may have been listed in error, because their voting rights were
restored by the state’s clemency process. last week, the state acknowledged
that 1,600 of those on the list should be allowed to vote.
Election officials are also far too secretive about felon voting issues, which
should be a matter of public record. When ms. Harris used inaccurate stan-
dards for purging voters, the public did not find out until it was too late. This
year, the state tried to keep the 47,000 names on its list of possible felons
secret, but fortunately a state court ruled this month that they should be open
to scrutiny.
There is a stunning lack of information and transparency surrounding felon 5
disenfranchisement across the country. The rules are often highly technical,
and little effort is made to explain them to election officials or to the people
affected. in new york, the Brennan Center for Justice at new york university
law school found that local elections offices often did not understand the law,
and some demanded that felons produce documents that do not exist.
Too often, felon voting is seen as a partisan issue. in state legislatures, it is
usually Democrats who try to restore voting rights, and Republicans who
resist. Recently, Republicans and election officials in missouri and south
Dakota have raised questions about voter registration groups’ employment of
ex-felons, although they have every right to be involved in political activity. in
Florida, the decision about whether a felon’s right to vote will be restored lies
with a panel made up of the governor and members of his cabinet. some vot-
ing rights activists believe that gov. Jeb Bush has moved slowly, and reinstated
voting rights for few of the state’s ex-felons, to help President Bush’s re-election
prospects.
The treatment of former felons in the electoral system cries out for reform.
The cleanest and fairest approach would be simply to remove the prohibitions
on felon voting. in his state of the union address in January, President Bush
announced a new national commitment to helping prisoners re-enter society.
Denying them the right to vote belies this commitment.
Restoring the vote to felons is difficult, because it must be done state by
state, and because ex-convicts do not have much of a political lobby. There
have been legislative successes in recent years in some places, including
Alabama and nevada. But other states have been moving in the opposite
direction. The best hope of reform may lie in the courts. The Atlanta-based

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united states Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit and the san Francisco–
based Court of Appeals for the ninth Circuit have ruled recently that dis-
enfranchising felons may violate equal protection or the Voting Rights Act.
until the whole idea of permanently depriving felons of their right to vote is
wiped away, the current rules should be applied more fairly. The quality of
voting roll purges must be improved. Florida should discontinue its current
felon purge until it can prove that the list it is using is accurate.
mechanisms for restoring voting rights to felons must be improved. Even in 10
states where felons have the right to vote, they are rarely notified of this when
they exit prison. Released prisoners should be given that information during
the discharge process, and helped with the paperwork.
The process for felons to regain their voting rights should be streamlined.
in nevada, early reports are that the restoration of felon voting rights has had
minimal effect, because the paperwork requirements are too burdensome.
Ex-felons who apply to vote should have the same presumption of eligibility as
other voters.
Voting rights should not be a political football. There should be bipartisan
support for efforts to help ex-felons get their voting rights back, by legislators
and by state and local election officials. American democracy is diminished
when officeholders and political parties, for their own political gain, try to
keep people from voting.

• EssAY In PRogREss: staking a Claim •

Choosing one of the topics you explored initially (p. 85), write three differ-
ent claims that could focus an essay. Be sure each is arguable. Comment on
whether your overall argument will likely include more than one type of
claim.

From Claim to Thesis

To develop a claim into a thesis statement, you have to be more specific about
what you intend to argue. In her essay “The C Word in the Hallways,” Anna
Quindlen states her main idea explicitly:
Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental
health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it
belongs. As surely as any vaccine, this would save lives.
The “policy” that Quindlen advocates changing is removing the stigma from
mental illness so it can be properly treated. Her second sentence emphasizes her
thesis by drawing an analogy: just as vaccines save lives by preventing disease, a
shift in policy toward mental illness would save lives by preventing violence.

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 sTAking A ClAim 95

Sometimes in professional essays the claim may be implicit, but in the formal
essays that you will write for your classes, the claim is traditionally stated explic-
itly as a one-sentence thesis statement that appears in the introduction of your
argument. To be effective, a thesis statement must preview the essay by encapsu-
lating in clear, unambiguous language the main point or points the writer intends
to make. Let’s consider several different types of thesis statements: a closed thesis,
an open thesis, and a thesis that includes the counterargument.

Closed Thesis Statements

A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews
the major points the writer intends to make. It is “closed” because it limits the
number of points the writer will make. For instance, here is a closed thesis on the
appeal of the Harry Potter book series:
The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of
the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children’s books but
enduring literary classics.
This thesis asserts that the series constitutes a “literary classic” and specifies three
reasons — characters, plot, and theme — each of which would be discussed in the
argument. A closed thesis often includes (or implies) the word because. This one
might have been written as follows:
The Harry Potter series has become legendary children’s books and endur-
ing literary classics because of its three-dimensional characters, exciting plot,
and complex themes.
Indeed, that statement might be a good working thesis.
A closed thesis is a reliable way to focus a short essay, particularly one written
under time constraints. Explicitly stating the points you’ll make can help you
organize your thoughts when you are working against the clock, and it can be a
way to address specific points that are required by the prompt or argument.

Open Thesis Statements

If, however, you are writing a longer essay with five, six, or even more main points,
then an open thesis is probably more effective. An open thesis is one that does
not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay. If you have six or
seven points in an essay, for instance, stringing them all out in the thesis will be
awkward; plus, while a reader can remember two or three main points, it’s con-
fusing to keep track of a whole string of points made way back in an opening
paragraph. For instance, you might argue that the Harry Potter series is far from
an enduring classic because you think the main characters are either all good or
all bad rather than a bit of both, the minor characters devolve into caricatures, the

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plot is repetitious and formulaic, the magic does not follow a logical system of
rules, and so on. Imagine trying to line all those ideas up in a sentence or two
having any clarity and grace at all. By making the overall point without actually
stating every subpoint, an open thesis can guide an essay without being cumber-
some:
The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps
complexity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

Counterargument Thesis Statements

A variant of the open and closed thesis is the counterargument thesis, in which
a summary of a counterargument usually qualified by although or but precedes
the writer’s opinion. This type of thesis has the advantage of immediately
addressing the counterargument. Doing so may make an argument seem both
stronger and more reasonable. It may also create a seamless transition to a more
thorough concession and refutation of the counterargument later in the argu-
ment. Using the Harry Potter example again, let’s look at a counterargument
thesis:
Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popular-
ity has less to do with storytelling than with merchandising.
This thesis concedes a counterargument that the series “may have some literary
merit” before refuting that claim by saying that the storytelling itself is less popu-
lar than the movies, toys, and other merchandise that the books inspired. The
thesis promises some discussion of literary merit and a critique of its storytelling
(concession and refutation) but will ultimately focus on the role of the merchan-
dising machine in making Harry Potter a household name.
Note that the thesis that considers a counterargument can also lead to a
position that is a modification or qualification rather than an absolute state-
ment of support or rejection. If, for instance, you were asked to discuss whether
the success of the Harry Potter series has resulted in a reading renaissance, this
thesis would let you respond not with a firm “yes” or “no,” but with a qualifica-
tion of “in some respects.” It would allow you to ease into a critique by first rec-
ognizing its strengths before leveling your criticism that the popularity was the
result of media hype rather than quality and thus will not result in a reading
renaissance.

• ACTIVITY •
Develop a thesis statement that could focus an argument in response to each
of the following prompts. Discuss why you think that the structure (open,
closed, counterargument) you chose would be appropriate or effective.

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 97

1. Same-sex classrooms have gone in and out of favor in public education.

Write an essay explaining why you would support or oppose same-sex
classrooms for public schools in grades 10 through 12.
2. Write an essay supporting, challenging, or qualifying English author E. M.
Forster’s position in the following quotation: “I hate the idea of causes,
and if I had to choose between betraying my country and betraying my
friend, I hope I should have the guts to betray my country.”
3. Today’s world is full of conflicts and controversies. Choose a local or
global issue, and write an essay that considers multiple viewpoints and
proposes a solution or compromise.
4. Write an essay explaining why you agree or disagree with the following
quotation: “Advertising degrades the people it appeals to; it deprives them
of their will to choose.”
5. Plagiarism is rampant in public high schools and colleges. In fact, some
people argue that the definition of plagiarism has changed with the pro-
liferation of the Internet. Write an essay explaining what you believe the
appropriate response of a teacher should be to a student who turns in a
plagiarized essay or exam.

• EssAY In PRogREss: Developing a Thesis •

Now that you understand the different types of claims and how to develop
them into thesis statements, you can begin drafting an argument. Select one
of the claims you worked with in the activity on page 95. Draft two different
thesis statements that might guide an essay on the subject. Which one do you
think is more promising for a full argumentative essay? Why?

Presenting Evidence
Once a writer has established a claim and developed a thesis statement, the next
step is to support it with effective evidence. What evidence to present, how much
is necessary, and how to present it are all rhetorical choices guided by an under-
standing of the audience. A person speaking to a group of scientists will more
likely need facts and figures to persuade her audience, while one writing an essay
for a local newspaper might want to use an anecdote to grab the audience’s atten-
tion. Amy Domini, knowing that her audience — the generally affluent and liberal
readers of Ode magazine — will include many who are hostile to fast food, pre-
sents evidence regarding the positive changes that fast-food companies are mak-
ing, as well as numerical evidence showing that fast food is a growing phenomenon

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 98 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

that could have either a positive or a negative impact on health and the environ-
ment. Keep audience in mind throughout this discussion of evidence, particu-
larly in terms of whether your audience would be persuaded more by formal or
informal sources.

Relevant, Accurate, and Sufficient Evidence

Regardless of the type of evidence a writer chooses to use, it should always be
relevant, accurate, and sufficient. Relevant evidence is evidence that specifically
applies to the argument being made. To argue that a particular car is superior
from a dependability standpoint, bringing in evidence about its maintenance
record would be relevant, but talking about its hand-tooled leather seats would
not. Generally, good writers do not leave the relevance of a piece of evidence to
the reader’s imagination; they explicitly spell out what the relationship is between
an example and the argument at hand.
Presenting accurate information means taking care to quote sources cor-
rectly without misrepresenting what the sources are saying or taking the infor-
mation out of context. One way to ensure that you have accurate evidence is to
get it from a credible source. Think carefully about the bias any source might
have. Is it partisan or backed financially by a company or industry group? Even
statistical data can be inaccurate if it is from a source that has gathered the data
in a way that fits its own agenda. Accuracy can also be a matter of the audience’s
perception. You should choose sources that they will find credible. If you want
accurate dependability information about a car, some reliable sources might be a
reputable mechanic, a magazine reviewer who has compared the car’s perfor-
mance to other similar cars, or simply someone who has owned the car for a long
time.
Finally, you should include a sufficient amount of evidence to support your
thesis. If you based your entire argument about the car’s dependability on an
interview with a single mechanic, that would not be persuasive. A mechanic only
sees the cars that break down, so perhaps his viewpoint is overly negative.

Logical Fallacies
Before we turn to specific types of evidence, let’s consider logical fallacies: poten-
tial vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. Practically speaking, the logical
breakdown in most weak arguments occurs in the use of evidence, since evidence
is what we use to prove arguments. So a more practical definition of a fallacy
might be a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evi-
dence used to support that claim. Fallacies may be accidental, but they can also be
used deliberately to manipulate or deceive.
Regardless of whether they are intentional or unintentional, logical fallacies
work against the clear, civil discourse that should be at the heart of argument. By

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 99

checking for logical fallacies in a published argument that you’re analyzing, you
can identify weak points; by checking for fallacies in your own writing, you can
revise to strengthen your argument. It’s more important that you notice these
fallacies and be able to describe what you see than it is to be able to label them by
their technical name. The concepts are more important than the terms.

Fallacies of Relevance
One characteristic of evidence we have just discussed is relevance. Fallacies that
result from using evidence that’s irrelevant to the claim fall under the general head-
ing of red herrings. (The term derives from the dried fish that trainers used to
distract dogs when teaching them to hunt foxes.) A red herring occurs when a
speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discus-
sion. If Politician X says, “We can debate these regulations until the cows come
home, but what the American people want to know is, when are we going to end
this partisan bickering?” she has effectively avoided providing evidence on the
benefits or detriments of the regulations by trying to change the subject to that of
partisanship.
One common type of red herring is an ad hominem fallacy. Ad hominem is
Latin for “against the man”; the phrase refers to the diversionary tactic of switch-
ing the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. If
you argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the
person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute, then you are guilty
of ad hominem — arguing against the person rather than addressing the issue.
This fallacy is frequently misunderstood to mean that any instance of questioning
someone’s character is ad hominem. Not so. It is absolutely valid to call a person’s
character into question if it is relevant to the topic at hand. For example, if a court
case hinges on the testimony of a single witness and that person happens to be a
con artist, then his character is absolutely relevant in deciding whether he is a
credible witness.
Analogy is the most vulnerable type of evidence because it is always sus-
ceptible to the charge that two things are not comparable, resulting in a faulty
analogy. However, some analogies are more vulnerable than others, particularly
those that focus on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities between two things.
Whenever analogy is used, it’s important to gauge whether the dissimilarities
outweigh the similarities. Advertisements sometimes draw faulty analogies to
appeal to pathos; for example, an ad for a very expensive watch might picture a
well-known athlete or a ballet dancer and draw an analogy between the precision
and artistry of (1) the person and (2) the mechanism. When writers use analogy
to add drama to a claim, it’s important to question whether the similarities really
fit and illuminate the point or simply add emotional appeal. For instance, to
argue that “we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we
should do the same for people” asks the reader to ignore significant and profound

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differences between animals and people. The analogy may at first glance appeal to
emotions, but it is logically irrelevant.

Fallacies of Accuracy
Using evidence that is either intentionally or unintentionally inaccurate will
result in a fallacy. The most common example of inaccurate evidence resulting in
a fallacy is one called the straw man. A straw man fallacy occurs when a speaker
chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and
refute an opponent’s viewpoint. For example, consider the following scenario.
Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Poli-
tician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little
green men in outer space.” Politician Y is committing a straw man fallacy by in-
accurately representing Politician X’s proposal, which is about space exploration
and scientific experimentation, not “little green men.”
Another fallacy that results from using inaccurate evidence is the either/or
fallacy, also called a false dilemma. In this fallacy, the speaker presents two
extreme options as the only possible choices. For instance:
Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired
in debt.
This statement offers only two ways to view the issue, and both are extreme and
inaccurate.

Fallacies of Insufficiency
Perhaps the most common of fallacies occurs when evidence is insufficient. We
call this a hasty generalization, meaning that there is not enough evidence to
support a particular conclusion. For instance: “Smoking isn’t bad for you; my
great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.” It could be that the story of
the speaker’s aunt is true, but this single anecdote does not provide enough evi-
dence to discredit the results of years of medical research.
Another fallacy resulting from insufficient evidence is circular reasoning.
Circular reasoning involves repeating the claim as a way to provide evidence,
resulting in no evidence at all. For instance, a student who asserts, “You can’t
give me a C; I’m an A student” is guilty of circular reasoning; that is, the “evi-
dence” that she should get an A is that she is an A student. The so-called
evidence is insufficient because it is a mere repetition of the claim. You can fre-
quently spot circular reasoning in advertising. For instance: “Buy this shampoo
because it’s the best shampoo!” or “Shop at this store because it’s a shopper’s
paradise.”
We will discuss other common logical fallacies as we examine specific types
of evidence.

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 101

First-Hand Evidence
First-hand evidence is something you know, whether it’s from personal experi-
ence, anecdotes you’ve heard from others, observations, or your general knowl-
edge of events.

Personal Experience
The most common type of first-hand evidence is personal experience. Bringing
in personal experience adds a human element and can be an effective way to
appeal to pathos. For example, when writing about whether you do or do not
support single-sex classrooms, you might describe your experience as a student,
or you might use your observations about your school or classmates to inform
your argument. Personal experience is a great way to make an abstract issue more
human, and it is an especially effective technique in the introduction and conclu-
sion of an argument. Personal experience can interest readers and draw them in,
but they’ll need more than just your perspective to be persuaded.
Personal experience works best if the writer can speak as an insider. For
instance, you can speak knowledgeably about the issue of single-sex classrooms
because you have inside knowledge about classrooms and how they work. In the
following essay about the environmentalist movement, Jennifer Oladipo argues
that minorities need to become more involved: “The terms environmentalist and
minority conjure two distinct images in most people’s minds — a false dichotomy
that seriously threatens any chance of pulling the planet out of its current eco-
logical tailspin.” As a member of a minority group herself, she uses her personal
experience as both an entrance into the essay and a source of evidence.

Why Can’t Environmentalism Be Colorblind?

Jennifer olADipo
in nearly two years of volunteering and working at an urban nature preserve, i
have never seen another face like mine come through our doors. At least, i’ve not
seen another black woman come for a morning hike or native-wildlife program.
The few i do encounter are teachers and chaperones with school groups, or aides
assisting people with disabilities. When i commute by bus to the preserve, located
in the middle of louisville, kentucky, i disembark with blacks and other minorities.
yet none of them ever seems to make it to the trails.
i might have assumed they simply weren’t interested, but then i saw that none
of the center’s newsletters were mailed to predominantly minority areas of town,
nor did any press releases go to popular minority radio stations or newspapers.
not ever, as far as i could tell. Although the nature center seeks a stronger com-
munity presence and feels the same budget pinch as other small nonprofits, it has
missed large swaths of the community with its message.

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The terms environmentalist and minority conjure two distinct images in most
people’s minds — a false dichotomy that seriously threatens any chance of pull-
ing the planet out of its current ecological tailspin. some people think this country
is on the precipice of a societal shift that will make environmental stewardship an
integral part of our collective moral code. But that is not going to happen as long
as we as a nation continue to think and act as if “green” automatically means
“white.”
Assumptions about who is amenable to conservation values cost the environ-
mental movement numbers and dollars. Religion, capitalism, and even militarism
learned ages ago to reach actively across the racial spectrum. in terms of winning
over minorities, they have left environmentalism in the dust. not until i joined an
environmental-journalism organization was my mailbox flooded with information
about serious environmental issues — even though i have been volunteering in
organic gardens, hiking, and camping for years. i had received solicitations for
credit cards and political parties, fast-food coupons, and a few Books of mormon —
but i had to seek out environmental groups.
minorities make up one-third of the population, and we are growing as an 5
economic and financial force as our numbers increase. We are a key to maintain-
ing the energy that environmentalism has gained as a result of intense mainstream
attention. That momentum will peter out without more people to act on the present
sense of urgency. imagine the power of 100 million Asians, African Americans,
latinos, and native Americans invested in sustainable living, joining green orga-
nizations, voting for politicians and laws that protect the environment.
nobody benefits from the perception that enjoying and caring for the environ-
ment is an exclusively white lifestyle. The truth is that brown, yellow, red, and black
people like to go backpacking, too. Those of us with the means are buying organic,
local, and hybrid. if environmentalism continues to appear mostly white and well-
off, it will continue to be mostly white and well-off, even as racial and economic
demographics change. The environmental movement will continue to overlook the
nuances, found in diversity of experience, that reveal multiple facets of environ-
mental problems — and their solutions.
sooner or later, even global warming will be pushed off magazine covers,
television screens, and the congressional floor. Before that time, we need to have
in place something even more impressive: a racially diverse, numerically astound-
ing mass of environmentalists ready to pick up the ball and run with it.

Oladipo writes most of her essay around her personal experience working
in a Kentucky nature preserve, explaining why she chose the work and pointing
out the lack of “another face like mine” in that setting. She also describes her
experience working for an “environmental-journalism organization” and spend-
ing time outdoors. Although she primarily draws on her own experiences in
her essay, she also uses some statistics and a reasonable tone to make a persua-
sive case.

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FALLACy ALERT: Hasty Generalization

As we described previously (p. 100), a hasty generalization is a fallacy in
which there is not enough evidence to support a particular conclusion. When
using personal experience as evidence, it is important to remember that
while it might provide some ethos to speak on a topic and it may be an effec-
tive way to appeal to pathos, personal experience is rarely universal proof.
exAmple: Pulling wisdom teeth is just another unnecessary and painful
medical procedure. I still have all of mine, and they haven’t
given me any problems.

Anecdotes
First-hand evidence also includes anecdotes about other people that you’ve either
observed or been told about. Like personal experience, anecdotes can be a useful
way to appeal to pathos.
In the following excerpt from an op-ed piece, Fabiola Santiago argues against
the policy that children born in the United States to immigrants, including those
who are undocumented, must be treated as nonresidents when it comes to receiv-
ing state services. To make the case about the specific unfairness of imposing out-
of-state tuition on Florida residents who fall into this category, Santiago uses an
anecdote as part of her evidence.

In College, These American Citizens Are Not Created Equal

fAbiolA sAntiAgo
“i lift my lamp beside the golden door!” — lady liberty

On saturday, the day after its 125th anniversary celebration, the statue of liberty
will close its doors for a year-long, $27 million renovation of the monument’s inte-
rior. One could only hope that the nation’s soul will undergo some transformation
as well. Emma lazarus, the descendant of sephardic Jews expelled from spain
who wrote in 1883 “The new Colossus,” the moving sonnet at the base of the
statue in new york harbor, would shed mournful tears at the lack of compassion
for immigrants these days. she would weep at the ease with which words of dis-
dain are spoken by some who lead and aspire to lead, and at the underhanded
way in which ill-willed actions are taken against immigrants and their children.
lady liberty’s “golden door” is not only jammed, slammed shut, or slightly ajar
depending on where you come from, but we’ve fallen so low on the scale of our
founding values that in the united states of America of today not all u.s. citizens
are created equal. There are states like Florida, Alabama, and Arizona where
politicians and bureaucrats use the system to discriminate, to create classes of

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 104 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

Americans, to disenfranchise some of the most deserving among us. The latest low
blow was unveiled by a class-action lawsuit and a bill filed in the Florida legisla-
ture last week. under rules established by the state’s Department of Education and
the university system’s Board of governors, students like Wendy Ruiz — born and
raised in miami — have to pay out-of-state tuition at rates that are more than three
times what other Florida resident students pay for their education. Ruiz has lived in
the state all her life. she has a Florida birth certificate, a Florida driver’s license,
and is registered to vote in Florida. But while other miami Dade College students
pay about $1,266 per term in tuition, she must pay $4,524 because the state
considers her a dependent of nonresidents. Here’s an institution that is supposed to
defend education punishing a young American for the sins of her parents, who are
undocumented immigrants. But we should all aspire to have neighbors like the
Ruizes, who raised a daughter like Wendy, willing to work three part-time jobs to
pay her tuition while maintaining a 3.7 grade-point average. “i know that i will be
successful because i have never wanted something so bad in my life like i want
this,” Ruiz said of her education. Who knows what more Wendy Ruiz might accom-
plish, what more she could become if she were able to pay all of her attention to
her education without the unfair financial burden of paying extravagantly unfair
fees.

Santiago could have provided facts and figures about the legislative policy in
question. Instead, she focuses on one person, Wendy Ruiz. Santiago points out
that Ruiz “has lived in the state all her life. She has a Florida birth certificate, a
Florida driver’s license, and is registered to vote in Florida.” Santiago then explains
the difference in tuition for residents vs. nonresidents, noting that Wendy is a
model citizen “willing to work three part-time jobs to pay her tuition.” She even
quotes Wendy’s comments about the premium she places on education. In
this example, Santiago is not writing about herself, but she is telling an anec-
dote about another person that gives a human face to the argument. She appeals
to pathos by describing the situation of Wendy Ruiz, being careful to point
out that her situation typifies that of others who would suffer from a proposed
policy.

Current Events
Current events are another type of evidence that is accessed first-hand through
observation. Staying abreast of what is happening locally, nationally, and globally
ensures a store of information that can be used as evidence in arguments. Remem-
ber that current events can be interpretted in many ways, so seek out multiple
perspectives and be on the lookout for bias. Here is an example from an essay by
the political analyst Fareed Zakaria about the plight of the American education
system. He wrote the article around the time of the death of Steve Jobs, the
founder of Apple, when details of Jobs’s life were in the national news. In “When

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 105

Will We Learn?” Zakaria argues for the improvement of our public education
system, citing Jobs and his partner, Steve Wozniak, as evidence of the impact of a
strong high school education.
For the past month, we have all marveled at the life of steve Jobs, the adopted son
of working-class parents, who dropped out of college and became one of the great
technologists and businessmen of our time. How did he do it? He was, of course,
an extraordinary individual, and that explains much of his success, but his envi-
ronment might also have played a role. Part of the environment was education.
And it is worth noting that Jobs got a great secondary education. The school he
attended, Homestead High in Cupertino, Calif., was a first-rate public school that
gave him a grounding in both the liberal arts and technology. it did the same for
steve Wozniak, the more technically oriented co-founder of Apple Computer,
whom Jobs met at that same school.
in 1972, the year Jobs graduated, California’s public schools were the envy
of the world. They were generally rated the finest in the country, well funded and
well run, with excellent teachers. These schools were engines of social mobility that
took people like Jobs and Wozniak and gave them an educational grounding that
helped them rise.

Second-Hand Evidence
second-hand evidence is evidence that is accessed through research, reading,
and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion,
and quantitative data. Anytime you cite what someone else knows, not what you
know, you are using second-hand evidence. While citing second-hand evidence
may occasionally appeal to pathos and certainly may establish a writer’s ethos, the
central appeal is to logos — reason and logic.

Historical Information
A common type of second-hand evidence is historical information — verifiable
facts that a writer knows from research. This kind of evidence can provide back-
ground and context to current debates; it also can help establish the writer’s ethos
because it shows that he or she has taken the time and effort to research the mat-
ter and become informed. One possible pitfall is that historical events are compli-
cated. You’ll want to keep your description of the events brief, but be sure not to
misrepresent the events. In the following paragraph from Hate Speech: The His-
tory of an American Controversy (1994), author Samuel Walker provides historical
information to establish the “intolerance” of the 1920s era.
The 1920s are remembered as a decade of intolerance. Bigotry was as much a
symbol of the period as Prohibition, flappers, the stock market boom, and Calvin
Coolidge. it was the only time when the ku klux klan paraded en masse through

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the nation’s capital. in 1921 Congress restricted immigration for the first time in
American history, drastically reducing the influx of Catholics and Jews from south-
ern and eastern Europe, and the nation’s leading universities adopted admission
quotas to restrict the number of Jewish students. The sacco and Vanzetti case, in
which two italian American anarchists were executed for robbery and murder in a
highly questionable prosecution, has always been one of the symbols of the anti-
immigrant tenor of the period.

To support the claim that the 1920s was a period characterized by bigotry, Walker
cites a series of historical examples: the KKK, immigration laws, restriction tar-
geting certain ethnicities, and a high-profile court case.
Historical information is often used to develop a point of comparison or
contrast to a more contemporary situation. In the following paragraph from
Charles Krauthammer’s op-ed “The 9/11 ‘Overreaction’? Nonsense,” the political
commentator does exactly that by comparing the War on Terror to previous mil-
itary campaigns in U.S. history.
True, in both [the iraq and Afghanistan] wars there was much trial, error and tragic
loss. in Afghanistan, too much emphasis on nation-building. in iraq, the bloody
middle years before we found our general and our strategy. But cannot the same
be said of, for example, the Civil War, the terrible years before lincoln found his
general? Or the Pacific campaign of World War ii, with its myriad miscalcula-
tions, its often questionable island-hopping, that cost infinitely more American
lives?

Notice that Krauthammer’s historical evidence is brief but detailed enough to

both show his grasp of the history and explicitly lay out his comparison. Simply
saying, “These wars are no different from the Civil War or World War II” would
have been far too vague and thus ineffective.

FALLACy ALERT: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc

The name of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy is Latin for “after which
therefore because of which.” What that means is that it is incorrect to always
claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. In other
words, correlation does not imply causation.
exAmple: We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us:
hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.
That’s a simple example, but in reality causality is very tricky to prove because
few things have only one cause. When using historical evidence, you should
be especially aware of this fallacy. Check your facts. Consider the complexity
of the situation. Proceed with caution.

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 107

Expert Opinion
Most everyone is an expert on something! And how often do we bolster our view-
point by pointing out that so-and-so agrees with us? Expert opinion is a more
formal variation on that common practice. An expert is someone who has pub-
lished research on a topic or whose job or experience gives him or her specialized
knowledge. Sometimes, you might cite the viewpoint of an individual who is an
“expert” in a local matter but who is not widely recognized. If, for instance, you
are writing about school policy, you might cite the opinion of a teacher or student
government officer. The important point is to make certain that your expert is
seen as credible by your audience so that his or her opinion will add weight to
your argument.
Following is an excerpt from “Just a Little Princess” by Peggy Orenstein in
which she critiques what she calls “the princess culture” that Disney promotes. In
this paragraph, she is commenting on the phenomenon of “Supergirl.” Note the
use of an expert — and how that expert is identified — as evidence.
The princess as superhero is not irrelevant. some scholars i spoke with say that
given its post - 9/11 timing, princess mania is a response to a newly dangerous
world. “Historically, princess worship has emerged during periods of uncertainty
and profound social change,” observes miriam Forman-Brunell, a historian at the
university of missouri–kansas City. Francis Hodgson Burnett’s original Little Prin-
cess was published at a time of rapid urbanization, immigration and poverty;
shirley Temple’s film version was a hit during the great Depression. “The original
folk tales themselves,” Forman-Brunell says, “spring from medieval and early mod-
ern European culture that faced all kinds of economic and demographic and social
upheaval — famine, war, disease, terror of wolves. girls play savior during times
of economic crisis and instability.” That’s a heavy burden for little shoulders. Per-
haps that’s why the magic wand has become an essential part of the princess
get-up. in the original stories — even the Disney versions of them — it’s not the girl
herself who’s magic: it’s the fairy godmother. now if Forman-Brunell is right, we
adults have become the cursed creatures whom girls have the thaumaturgic [mirac-
ulous] power to transform.

Orenstein is careful to present credentials (in this case, a university professor) and
to either quote or paraphrase the relevant information as evidence. She quotes
Forman-Brunell and then comments on this expert’s viewpoint. Orenstein may
have held the same opinion about fairy godmothers and their impact on girls’ views
of themselves, but the findings of a researcher add credibility to the argument.

FALLACy ALERT: Appeal to False Authority

Appeal to false authority occurs when someone who has no expertise to
speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not a

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 108 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

medical expert, even though pharmaceutical advertisements often use celeb-

rity endorsements. When choosing whom to cite as an expert, be sure to
verify the person’s background and qualifications.

Quantitative Evidence
Quantitative evidence includes things that can be represented in numbers: sta-
tistics, surveys, polls, census information. This type of evidence can be persuasive
in its appeal to logos. Amy Domini cites numerical evidence in her essay to sup-
port her contention that “[f]ast food is a way of life. In America, the average
person eats it more than 150 times a year. In 2007, sales for the 400 largest U.S.-
based fast-food chains totaled $277 billion, up 7 percent from 2006” (see p. 83).
Quantitative evidence need not be all percentages and dollar figures, how-
ever. In the article on American education, Fareed Zakaria compares the edu-
cation situation of the United States with that of other countries by citing
quantitative information without a lot of numbers and figures.
u.s. schoolchildren spend less time in school than their peers abroad. They have
shorter school days and a shorter school year. Children in south korea will spend
almost two years more in school than Americans by the end of high school. is it
really so strange that they score higher on tests?
if south korea teaches the importance of hard work, Finland teaches another
lesson. Finnish students score near the very top on international tests, yet they do
not follow the Asian model of study, study and more study. instead they start school
a year later than in most countries, emphasize creative work and shun tests for
most of the year. But Finland has great teachers, who are paid well and treated
with the same professional respect that is accorded to doctors and lawyers. They
are found and developed through an extremely competitive and rigorous process.
All teachers are required to have master’s degrees, and only 1 in 10 applicants is
accepted to the country’s teacher-training programs.

Zakaria includes quantitative data — two more years of school for Korean stu-
dents than their American counterparts, a highly competitive process for teacher-
training programs that accept only one of every ten applicants — as part of his
overall discussion. He could have cited dollar amounts as evidence of how well
paid teachers are in Finland, but in the context of this column he makes the point
and moves on; perhaps if he were writing for a more scholarly or skeptical audi-
ence, he would have thought it necessary to provide even more information.

FALLACy ALERT: Bandwagon Appeal

Bandwagon appeal (or ad populum fallacy) occurs when evidence boils
down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.” Sometimes,

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 PREsEnTing EViDEnCE 109

statistics can be used to prove that “everybody’s doing it” and thus give a
bandwagon appeal the appearance of cold, hard fact.
exAmple: You should vote to elect Rachel Johnson — she has a strong lead
in the polls!
Polling higher does not necessarily make Senator Johnson the “best” candi-
date, only the most popular.

• ACTIVITY •
Identify the logical fallacy in each of the following examples.
1. What’s the problem? All my friends have a curfew of midnight!
2. A person who is honest will not steal, so my client, an honest person,
clearly is not guilty of theft.
3. Her economic plan is impressive, but remember: this is a woman who
spent six weeks in the Betty Ford Center getting treatment for alcoholism.
4. Since Mayor Perry has been in office, our city budget has had a balanced
budget; if he were governor, the state budget would finally be balanced.
5. If we outlaw guns, only outlaws will have guns.
6. Smoking is dangerous because it is harmful to your health.
7. He was last year’s MVP, and he drives a Volvo. That must be a great car.
8. A national study of grades 6–8 showed that test scores went down last year
and absenteeism was high; this generation is going to the dogs.

• ACTIVITY •
Annotate the essay below by identifying the different types of first- and second-
hand evidence presented to develop the argument. Analyze how each type of
evidence appeals to ethos, logos, pathos, or a combination of those.

Terror’s Purse Strings

DAnA thomAs

luxury fashion designers are busily putting final touches on the handbags they
will present during the spring-summer 2008 women’s wear shows, which
begin next week in new york City’s Bryant Park. To understand the impor-
tance of the handbag in fashion today consider this: According to consumer
surveys conducted by Coach, the average American woman was buying two

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new handbags a year in 2000; by 2004, it was more than four. And the aver-
age luxury bag retails for 10 to 12 times its production cost.
“There is a kind of an obsession with bags,” the designer miuccia Prada
told me. “it’s so easy to make money.”
Counterfeiters agree. As soon as a handbag hits big, counterfeiters around
the globe churn out fake versions by the thousands. And they have no trouble
selling them. shoppers descend on Canal street in new york, santee Alley in
los Angeles and flea markets and purse parties around the country to pick up
knockoffs for one-tenth the legitimate bag’s retail cost, then pass them off as real.
“Judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys shop here,” a private investigator
told me as we toured the counterfeit section of santee Alley. “Affluent people
from newport Beach.” According to a study by the British law firm Davenport
lyons, two-thirds of British consumers are “proud to tell their family and
friends” that they bought fake luxury fashion items.
At least 11 percent of the world’s clothing is fake, according to 2000 fig- 5
ures from the global Anti-Counterfeiting group in Paris. Fashion is easy to
copy: counterfeiters buy the real items, take them apart, scan the pieces to
make patterns and produce almost-perfect fakes.
most people think that buying an imitation handbag or wallet is harmless,
a victimless crime. But the counterfeiting rackets are run by crime syndicates
that also deal in narcotics, weapons, child prostitution, human trafficking and
terrorism. Ronald k. noble, the secretary general of interpol, told the House
of Representatives Committee on international Relations that profits from the
sale of counterfeit goods have gone to groups associated with Hezbollah, the
shiite terrorist group, paramilitary organizations in northern ireland and
FARC, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia.
sales of counterfeit T-shirts may have helped finance the 1993 World
Trade Center bombing, according to the international AntiCounterfeiting
Coalition. “Profits from counterfeiting are one of the three main sources of
income supporting international terrorism,” said magnus Ranstorp, a terrorism
expert at the university of st. Andrews, in scotland.
most fakes today are produced in China, a good many of them by chil-
dren. Children are sometimes sold or sent off by their families to work in
clandestine factories that produce counterfeit luxury goods. many in the West
consider this an urban myth. But i have seen it myself.
On a warm winter afternoon in guangzhou, i accompanied Chinese
police officers on a factory raid in a decrepit tenement. inside, we found two
dozen children, ages 8 to 13, gluing and sewing together fake luxury-brand
handbags. The police confiscated everything, arrested the owner and sent the
children out. some punched their timecards, hoping to still get paid. (The aver-
age Chinese factory worker earns about $120 a month; the counterfeit fac-
tory worker earns half that or less.) As we made our way back to the police
vans, the children threw bottles and cans at us. They were now jobless and,

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 111

because the factory owner housed them, homeless. it was Oliver Twist in the
21st century.
What can we do to stop this? much like the war on drugs, the effort to 10
protect luxury brands must go after the source: the counterfeit manufacturers.
The company that took me on the Chinese raid is one of the only luxury-goods
makers that works directly with Chinese authorities to shut down factories, and
it has one of the lowest rates of counterfeiting.
luxury brands also need to teach consumers that the traffic in fake goods
has many victims. But most companies refuse to speak publicly about counter-
feiting — some won’t even authenticate questionable items for concerned cus-
tomers — believing, like Victorians, that acknowledging despicable actions
tarnishes their sterling reputations.
so it comes down to us. if we stop knowingly buying fakes, the supply
chain will dry up and counterfeiters will go out of business. The crime syndi-
cates will have far less money to finance their illicit activities and their terrorist
plots. And the children? They can go home.

• EssAY In PRogREss: Using Evidence •

Choose one of the thesis statements you developed on page 97, and develop
three paragraphs of support, using a different type of evidence in each. You
will probably have to do some research if you want to use historical informa-
tion, expert testimony, or quantitative data.

Shaping Argument
The shape — that is, the organization or arrangement — of an argument reflects
a host of factors, including audience and purpose, but it usually follows one of
several patterns. We’ll discuss classical oration, induction and deduction, and the
Toulmin model as four common ways to structure an argument. Keep in mind
that writers often modify these structures as needed. The essential point to
remember is that the organization should fit the ideas, rather than forcing ideas
to fit into a prescribed organizational pattern.

The Classical Oration

Classical rhetoricians outlined a five-part structure for an oratory, or speech, that
writers still use today, although perhaps not always consciously:
• The introduction (exordium) introduces the reader to the subject under
discussion. In Latin, exordium means “beginning a web,” which is an apt

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 112 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

description for an introduction. Whether it is a single paragraph or several,

the introduction draws the readers into the text by piquing their interest,
challenging them, or otherwise getting their attention. Often the introduc-
tion is where the writer establishes ethos.
• The narration (narratio) provides factual information and background
material on the subject at hand, thus beginning the developmental para-
graphs, or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.
The level of detail a writer uses in this section depends largely on the audi-
ence’s knowledge of the subject. Although classical rhetoric describes nar-
ration as appealing to logos, in actuality it often appeals to pathos because
the writer attempts to evoke an emotional response about the importance
of the issue being discussed.
• The confirmation (confirmatio), usually the major part of the text, in-
cludes the development or the proof needed to make the writer’s case —
the nuts and bolts of the essay, containing the most specific and concrete
detail in the text. The confirmation generally makes the strongest appeal to
logos.
• The refutation (refutatio), which addresses the counterargument, is in
many ways a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion. Although
classical rhetoricians recommended placing this section at the end of the
text as a way to anticipate objections to the proof given in the confirmation
section, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. If opposing views are well known
or valued by the audience, a writer will address them before presenting his
or her own argument. The counterargument’s appeal is largely to logos.
• The conclusion (peroratio) — whether it is one paragraph or several —
brings the essay to a satisfying close. Here the writer usually appeals to pathos
and reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier. Rather than simply
repeating what has gone before, the conclusion brings all the writer’s ideas
together and answers the question, so what? Writers should remember the
classical rhetoricians’ advice that the last words and ideas of a text are those
the audience is most likely to remember.
An example of the classical model at work is the piece below written in 2006
by Sandra Day O’Connor, a former Supreme Court justice, and Roy Romer, then
superintendent of the Los Angeles Unified School District.

Not by Math Alone

sAnDrA DAy o’connor AnD roy romer
Fierce global competition prompted President Bush to use the state
of the union address to call for better math and science educa- Introduction
tion, where there’s evidence that many schools are falling short.

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 113

We should be equally troubled by another shortcoming in

American schools: most young people today simply do not have
an adequate understanding of how our government and political
system work, and they are thus not well prepared to participate
as citizens.
This country has long exemplified democratic practice to the
rest of the world. With the attention we are paying to advancing
democracy abroad, we ought not neglect it at home.
Two-thirds of 12th-graders scored below “proficient” on the
last national civics assessment in 1998, and only 9 percent could
list two ways a democracy benefits from citizen participation.
yes, young people remain highly patriotic, and many volunteer in
their communities. But most are largely disconnected from current
events and issues.
A healthy democracy depends on the participation of citi- 5
Narration
zens, and that participation is learned behavior; it doesn’t just
happen. As the 2003 report “The Civic mission of schools”
noted: “individuals do not automatically become free and respon-
sible citizens, but must be educated for citizenship.” That means
civic learning — educating students for democracy — needs to be
on par with other academic subjects.
This is not a new idea. Our first public schools saw education
for citizenship as a core part of their mission. Eighty years ago,
John Dewey said, “Democracy needs to be reborn in every gen-
eration and education is its midwife.”
But in recent years, civic learning has been pushed aside.
until the 1960s, three courses in civics and government were
common in American high schools, and two of them (“civics” and
“problems of democracy”) explored the role of citizens and
encouraged students to discuss current issues. Today those courses
are very rare.
What remains is a course on “American government” that
usually spends little time on how people can — and why they
should — participate. The effect of reduced civic learning on civic
Confirmation
life is not theoretical. Research shows that the better people
understand our history and system of government, the more likely
they are to vote and participate in the civic life.
We need more and better classes to impart the knowledge of
government, history, law and current events that students need to
understand and participate in a democratic republic. And we also
know that much effective civic learning takes place beyond the
classroom — in extracurricular activity, service work that is con-
nected to class work, and other ways students experience civic life.

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Preserving our democracy should be reason enough to pro- 10

mote civic learning. But there are other benefits. understanding
society and how we relate to each other fosters the attitudes
essential for success in college, work and communities; it
enhances student learning in other subjects.
Economic and technological competitiveness is essential,
and America’s economy and technology have flourished because
of the rule of law and the “assets” of a free and open society.
Democracy has been good for business and for economic well-
being. By the same token, failing to hone the civic tools of democ-
racy will have economic consequences.
Bill gates — a top business and technology leader — argues
strongly that schools have to prepare students not only for college
and career but for citizenship as well.
none of this is to diminish the importance of improving math
and science education. This latest push, as well as the earlier
emphasis on literacy, deserves support. it should also be the occa- Refutation
sion for a broader commitment, and that means restoring educa-
tion for democracy to its central place in school.
We need more students proficient in math, science and engi-
neering. We also need them to be prepared for their role as citi-
zens. Only then can self-government work. Only then will we not Conclusion
only be more competitive but also remain the beacon of liberty in
a tumultuous world.

Sandra Day O’Connor retired as an associate justice of the

Supreme Court. Roy Romer, a former governor of Colorado, is
superintendent of the Los Angeles Unified School District. They
are co-chairs of the national advisory council of the Campaign for
the Civic Mission of Schools.

Sandra Day O’Connor and Roy Romer follow the classical model very closely.
The opening two paragraphs are an introduction to the main idea the authors
develop. In fact, the last sentence of paragraph 2 is their two-part claim, or the-
sis: “Most young people today simply do not have an adequate understanding
of how our government and political system work, and they are thus not well
prepared to participate as citizens.” O’Connor’s position as a former Supreme
Court justice establishes her ethos as a reasonable person, an advocate for jus-
tice, and a concerned citizen. Romer’s biographical note at the end of the article
suggests similar qualities. The authors use the pronoun “we” in the article to refer
not only to themselves but to all of “us” who are concerned about American soci-
ety. The opening phrase, “Fierce global competition,” connotes a sense of urgency,

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 115

and the warning that we are not adequately preparing our young people to
participate as citizens is sure to evoke an emotional response of concern, even
alarm.
In paragraphs 3 to 6 — the narration — the authors provide background
information, including facts that add urgency to their point. They cite statistics,
quote from research reports, even call on the well-known educator John Dewey.
They also include a definition of “civic learning,” a key term in their argument.
Their facts-and-figures appeal is largely to logos, though the language of “a
healthy democracy” certainly engages the emotions.
Paragraphs 7 to 12 present the bulk of the argument — the confirmation —
by offering reasons and examples to support the case that young people lack the
knowledge necessary to be informed citizens. The authors link civic learning to
other subjects as well as to economic development. They quote Bill Gates, chair-
man of Microsoft, who has spoken about the economic importance of a well-
informed citizenry.
In paragraph 13, O’Connor and Romer briefly address a major objection —
the refutation — that we need to worry more about math and science education
than about civic learning. While they concede the importance of math, science,
and literacy, they point out that it is possible to increase civic education without
undermining the gains made in those other fields.
The final paragraph — the conclusion — emphasizes the importance of a
democracy to a well-versed citizenry, a point that stresses the shared values of
the authors with their audience. The appeal to pathos is primarily through the
vivid language, particularly the final sentence with its emotionally charged
description “beacon of liberty,” a view of their nation that most Americans hold
dear.

Induction and Deduction

Induction and deduction are ways of reasoning, but they are often effective ways
to structure an entire argument as well.

Induction
Induction (from the Latin inducere, “to lead into”) means arranging an argument
so that it leads from particulars to universals, using specific cases to draw a con-
clusion. For instance:
Regular exercise promotes weight loss.
Exercise lowers stress levels.
Exercise improves mood and outlook.
generAlizAtion: Exercise contributes to better health.

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 116 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

We use induction in our everyday lives. For example, if your family and
friends have owned several cars made by Subaru that have held up well, then you
are likely to conclude inductively that Subaru makes good cars. Yet induction is
also used in more technical situations. Even the scientific method is founded on
inductive reasoning. Scientists use experiments to determine the effects in certain
cases, and from there they might infer a universal scientific principle. For instance,
if bases neutralize acids in every experiment conducted, then it can reasonably be
inferred that all bases neutralize acids. The process of induction involves collect-
ing evidence and then drawing an inference based on that evidence in order to
reach a conclusion.
When you write a full essay developed entirely by reasons, one after another
supporting the main point, then your entire argument is inductive. For instance,
suppose you are asked to take a position on whether the American Dream is alive
and well today. As you examine the issue, you might think of examples from your
own community that demonstrate that the Dream is not a reality for the average
citizen; you might study current events and think about the way societal expecta-
tions have changed; you might use examples from fiction you have read, such as the
novel Tortilla Curtain by T. Corraghessan Boyle or movies such as Boyz N the Hood,
where economic pressures limit the characters’ horizons. All of this evidence
together supports the inference that the American Dream no longer exists for the
average person. To write that argument, you would support your claim with a series
of reasons explained through concrete examples: you would argue inductively.
Arguments developed inductively can never be said to be true or false, right
or wrong. Instead, they can be considered strong or weak, so it’s important to
consider possible vulnerabilities — in particular, the exception to the rule. Let’s con-
sider an example from politics. An argument written in favor of a certain political
candidate might be organized inductively around reasons that she is the best
qualified person for the job because of her views on military spending, financial
aid for college students, and states’ rights. However, the argument is vulnerable to
an objection that her views on, for instance, the death penalty or environmental
issues weaken her qualifications. Essentially, an argument structured inductively
cannot lead to certainty, only probability.
Let’s look at an excerpt from Outliers by Malcolm Gladwell for an example of
how an argument can be structured largely by induction. Gladwell uses various
types of evidence here to support his conclusion that “[w]hen it comes to math . . .
Asians have a built-in advantage.”

from Outliers
mAlcolm glADwell
Take a look at the following list of numbers: 4, 8, 5, 3, 9, 7, 6. Read them out loud.
now look away and spend twenty seconds memorizing that sequence before say-
ing them out loud again.

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 117

if you speak English, you have about a 50 percent chance of remembering

that sequence perfectly. if you’re Chinese, though, you’re almost certain to get it
right every time. Why is that? Because as human beings we store digits in a
memory loop that runs for about two seconds. We most easily memorize whatever
we can say or read within that two-second span. And Chinese speakers get that
list of numbers — 4, 8, 5, 3, 9, 7, 6 — right almost every time because, unlike
English, their language allows them to fit all those seven numbers into two seconds.
That example comes from stanislas Dehaene’s book The Number Sense. As
Dehaene explains:

Chinese number words are remarkably brief. most of them can be uttered in
less than one-quarter of a second (for instance, 4 is “si” and 7 “qi”). Their
English equivalents — “four,” “seven,” — are longer: pronouncing them takes
about one-third of a second. The memory gap between English and Chinese
apparently is entirely due to this difference in length. in languages as diverse
as Welsh, Arabic, Chinese, English and Hebrew, there is a reproducible cor-
relation between the time required to pronounce numbers in a given language
and the memory span of its speakers. in this domain, the prize for efficacy
goes to the Cantonese dialect of Chinese, whose brevity grants residents of
Hong kong a rocketing memory span of about 10 digits.

it turns out that there is also a big difference in how number-naming systems in
Western and Asian languages are constructed. in English, we say fourteen, sixteen,
seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen, so one might expect that we would also say
oneteen, twoteen, threeteen, and fiveteen. But we don’t. We use a different form:
eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fifteen. similarly, we have forty and sixty, which sound
like the words they are related to (four and six). But we also say fifty and thirty and
twenty, which sort of sound like five and three and two, but not really. And, for
that matter, for numbers above twenty, we put the “decade” first and the unit num-
ber second (twenty-one, twenty-two), whereas for the teens, we do it the other
way around (fourteen, seventeen, eighteen). The number system in English is highly
irregular. not so in China, Japan, and korea. They have a logical counting system.
Eleven is ten-one. Twelve is ten-two. Twenty-four is two-tens-four and so on.

That difference means that Asian children learn to count much faster than 5
American children. Four-year-old Chinese children can count, on average, to forty.
American children at that age can count only to fifteen, and most don’t reach forty
until they’re five. By the age of five, in other words, American children are already
a year behind their Asian counterparts in the most fundamental of math skills.
The regularity of their number system also means that Asian children can per-
form basic functions, such as addition, far more easily. Ask an English-speaking
seven-year-old to add thirty-seven plus twenty-two in her head, and she has to
convert the words to numbers (37 + 22). Only then can she do the math: 2 plus 7
is 9 and 30 and 20 is 50, which makes 59. Ask an Asian child to add three-tens-

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 118 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

seven and two-tens-two, and then the necessary equation is right there, embedded
in the sentence. no number translation is necessary: it’s five-tens-nine.
“The Asian system is transparent,” says karen Fuson, a northwestern univer-
sity psychologist who has closely studied Asian-Western differences. “i think that it
makes the whole attitude toward math different. instead of being a rote learning
thing, there’s a pattern i can figure out. There is an expectation that i can do this.
There is an expectation that it’s sensible. For fractions, we say three-fifths. The
Chinese is literally ‘out of five parts, take three.’ That’s telling you conceptually
what a fraction is. it’s differentiating the denominator and the numerator.”
The much-storied disenchantment with mathematics among Western children
starts in the third and fourth grades, and Fuson argues that perhaps a part of that
disenchantment is due to the fact that math doesn’t seem to make sense; its linguis-
tic structure is clumsy; its basic rules seem arbitrary and complicated.
Asian children, by contrast, don’t feel nearly the same bafflement. They can
hold more numbers in their heads and do calculations faster, and the way fractions
are expressed in their languages corresponds exactly to the way a fraction actually
is — and maybe that makes them a little more likely to enjoy math, and maybe
because they enjoy math a little more, they try a little harder and take more math
classes and are more willing to do their homework, and on and on, in a kind of
virtuous circle.
When it comes to math, in other words, Asians have a built-in advantage. 10

In each paragraph, Gladwell provides reasons backed by evidence. He begins

in the opening two paragraphs by drawing in the reader with an anecdotal exam-
ple that (he assumes) will demonstrate his point: if you speak English, you won’t
do as well as if you speak Chinese. In paragraph 3, he provides additional support
by citing an expert who has written a book entitled The Number Sense. In the next
two paragraphs, he discusses differences in the systems of Western and Asian lan-
guages that explain why Asian children learn certain basic skills that put them
ahead of their Western counterparts at an early age. In paragraphs 6 and 7, he
raises another issue — attitude toward problem solving — and provides evidence
from an expert to explain the superiority of Asian students. By this point, Gladwell
has provided enough specific information — from facts, experts, examples —
to support an inference that is a generalization. In this case, he concludes that
“[w]hen it comes to math . . . Asians have a built-in advantage.” Gladwell’s rea-
soning and the structure of his argument are inductive.

Deduction
When you argue using deduction, you reach a conclusion by starting with a gen-
eral principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific
case (a minor premise). Deductive reasoning is often structured as a syllogism, a
logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a neces-

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 119

sary conclusion. Let’s use the same example about exercise that we used to dem-
onstrate induction, but now we’ll develop a syllogism to argue deductively:
mAJor premise: Exercise contributes to better health.
minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise.
conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.
The strength of deductive logic is that if the first two premises are true, then
the conclusion is logically valid. Keep in mind, though, that if either premise is
false (or questionable in any way), then the conclusion is subject to challenge.
Consider the following:
mAJor premise: Celebrities are role models for young people.
minor premise: Lindsey Lohan is a celebrity.
conclusion: Lindsey Lohan is a role model for young people.
As you can see in this example, the conclusion is logically valid — but is it true?
You can challenge the conclusion by challenging the veracity of the major prem-
ise — that is, whether all celebrities are role models for young people.
Deduction is a good way to combat stereotypes that are based on faulty
premises. Consider this one:
mAJor premise: Women are poor drivers.
minor premise: Ellen is a woman.
conclusion: Ellen is a poor driver.
Breaking this stereotype down into a syllogism clearly shows the faulty logic. Per-
haps some women, just as some men, are poor drivers, but to say that women in
general drive poorly is to stereotype by making a hasty generalization. Breaking
an idea down into component parts like this helps expose the basic thinking,
which then can yield a more nuanced argument. This example might be qualified,
for instance, by saying that some women are poor drivers; thus, Ellen might be a
poor driver.

• EssAY In PRogREss: shaping an Argument •

Write an outline that shows how you could structure the argument you are
crafting either inductively or deductively. If you are using induction, cite at
least four specifics that lead to your generalization (claim). If using deduc-
tion, break the overall reasoning of the essay into a syllogism with both a
major and a minor premise and a conclusion.

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 120 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

Combining Induction and Deduction

While some essays are either completely inductive or completely deductive, it’s
more common for an essay to combine these methods depending on the situa-
tion. Induction — a series of examples — may be used to verify a major premise,
then that premise can become the foundation for deductive reasoning. The Dec-
laration of Independence is an example of deductive and inductive logic at work.
Thomas Jefferson and the framers drafted this document to prove that the colo-
nies were justified in their rebellion against King George III.

The Declaration of Independence

thomAs Jefferson
In CONGRESS, July 4, 1776
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dis-
solve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws
of nature and of nature’s god entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of
mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the
separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that
they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are life, liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights,
governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent
of the governed, — That whenever any Form of government becomes destructive
of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute
new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its pow-
ers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and Happi-
ness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not
be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath
shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when
a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their
duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future
security. — such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now
the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government.
The history of the present king of great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and
usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny
over these states. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the
public good.

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 121

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing

importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained;
and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of 5
people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the
legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable,
and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of
fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly
firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be
elected, whereby the legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned
to the People at large for their exercise; the state remaining in the mean time
exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these states; for that pur-
pose obstructing the laws for naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others
to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropria-
tions of lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to laws 10
for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers
to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing Armies without the Con-
sent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the Civil
Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our con- 15
stitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pre-
tended legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any murders which
they should commit on the inhabitants of these states:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury: 20
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbouring Province,
establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as
to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute
rule into these Colonies:

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 122 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable laws and altering
fundamentally the Forms of our governments:
For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with
power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and 25
waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and
destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat
the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of
Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally
unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high seas to bear
Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Breth-
ren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to
bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless indian savages whose
known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and
conditions.
in every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the 30
most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated
injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a
Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have
warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwar-
rantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our
emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and
magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and
correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan-
guinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our sepa-
ration, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace
Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united states of America, in general
Congress, Assembled, appealing to the supreme Judge of the world for the recti-
tude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by Authority of the good People of
these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and
of Right ought to be Free and independent states, that they are Absolved from all
Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
the state of great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and
independent states, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract
Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which indepen-
dent states may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 123

reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other

our lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

The argument of the entire document can be distilled into this syllogism:
mAJor premise: Citizens have a right to rebel against a despot.
minor premise: King George III is a despot.
conclusion: Citizens have a right to rebel against King George III.
However, most of the text is inductive evidence — or “facts . . . submitted to a
candid world,” as Jefferson called them. The document lists one example (“fact”)
after another of the king’s behavior that support the generalization that he is a
despot. For instance, “He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone,” “He has
affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power,”
“He has plundered our seas,” and “He has excited domestic insurrections amongst
us.” The evidence is overwhelming: the king is a despot; the colonists have every
right to declare their independence.

• ACTIVITY •
Modeled on the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of Sentiments
by Elizabeth Cady Stanton was presented on July 19, 1848, at the Seneca Falls
Convention. Analyze the use of induction and deduction to support the
claim and develop the argument.

The Declaration of Sentiments

elizAbeth cADy stAnton

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one portion of
the family of man to assume among the people of the earth a position different
from that which they have hitherto occupied, but one to which the laws of
nature and of nature’s god entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of
mankind requires that they should declare the causes that impel them to such
a course.
We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created
equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights;
that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure
these rights governments are instituted, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed. Whenever any form of government becomes destruc-
tive of these ends, it is the right of those who suffer from it to refuse allegiance
to it, and to insist upon the institution of a new government, laying its founda-
tion on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them
shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed,

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 124 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light
and transient causes; and accordingly, all experience hath shown that man-
kind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a
long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object,
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their duty to
throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security.
such has been the patient sufferance of the women under this government,
and such is now the necessity which constrains them to demand the equal sta-
tion to which they are entitled.
The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on
the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of
an absolute tyranny over her. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid
world.
He has never permitted her to exercise her inalienable right to the elective
franchise.
He has compelled her to submit to laws, in the formation of which she had 5
no voice.
He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and
degraded men — both natives and foreigners.
Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective franchise,
thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of legislation, he has
oppressed her on all sides.
He has made her, if married, in the eye of the law, civilly dead.
He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns.
He has made her, morally, an irresponsible being, as she can commit many 10
crimes with impunity, provided they be done in the presence of her husband.
in the covenant of marriage, she is compelled to promise obedience to her
husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her master — the law giv-
ing him power to deprive her of her liberty, and to administer chastisement.
He has so framed the laws of divorce, as to what shall be the proper
causes of divorce; in case of separation, to whom the guardianship of the
children shall be given; as to be wholly regardless of the happiness of
women — the law, in all cases, going upon the false supposition of the suprem-
acy of man, and giving all power into his hands.
After depriving her of all rights as a married woman, if single and the
owner of property, he has taxed her to support a government which recog-
nizes her only when her property can be made profitable to it.
He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from those
she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty remuneration.
He closes against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction, which he
considers most honorable to himself. As a teacher of theology, medicine, or
law, she is not known.

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 125

He has denied her the facilities for obtaining a thorough education — all 15
colleges being closed against her.
He allows her in Church as well as state, but a subordinate position, claim-
ing Apostolic authority for her exclusion from the ministry, and, with some
exceptions, from any public participation in the affairs of the Church.
He has created a false public sentiment, by giving to the world a different
code of morals for men and women, by which moral delinquencies which
exclude women from society, are not only tolerated but deemed of little
account in man.
He has usurped the prerogative of Jehovah himself, claiming it as his right
to assign for her a sphere of action, when that belongs to her conscience and
her god.
He has endeavored, in every way that he could to destroy her confidence
in her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make her willing to lead
a dependent and abject life.
now, in view of this entire disfranchisement of one-half the people of this 20
country, their social and religious degradation, — in view of the unjust laws
above mentioned, and because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed,
and fraudulently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist that they have
immediate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as
citizens of these united states.
in entering upon the great work before us, we anticipate no small amount
of misconception, misrepresentation, and ridicule; but we shall use every
instrumentality within our power to effect our object. We shall employ agents,
circulate tracts, petition the state and national legislatures, and endeavor to
enlist the pulpit and the press in our behalf. We hope this Convention will be
followed by a series of Conventions, embracing every part of the country.

Using the Toulmin Model

A useful way of both analyzing and structuring an argument is through the Toulmin
model, an approach to argument created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin
in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model is an effective tool
in uncovering the assumptions that underlie arguments. Although at first this
method — particularly its terminology — may seem complicated, it is actually
very practical because it helps with analysis, structuring, qualifying a thesis, and
understanding abstract arguments. Once mastered, it can be a very powerful tool.
The Toulmin model has six elements: claim, support (evidence), warrant
(the assumption), backing, qualifier, and reservation. We have already discussed
claims, which are arguable assertions. Toulmin defined a claim as “a conclusion
whose merits we are seeking to establish.” You have also already learned about
support or evidence. A warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by

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 126 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

the speaker and the audience. Similar to the minor premise of a syllogism, the
assumption links the claim to the evidence; in other words, if the speaker and
audience do not share the same assumption regarding the claim, all the evidence
in the world won’t be enough to sway them. Backing consists of further assur-
ances or data without which the assumption lacks authority. The qualifier, when
used (for example, usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, most likely), tempers
the claim a bit, making it less absolute. The reservation explains the terms and
conditions necessitated by the qualifier. In many cases, the argument will contain
a rebuttal that gives voice to objections.
The following diagram illustrates the Toulmin model at work:

Evidence Claim

Assumption Qualifier Reservation

Backing

A Toulmin analysis will follow this form:

Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (assumption), on
account of (backing), unless (reservation).
If there is a qualifier (such as usually or maybe), it will precede the claim.
Here is a simple illustration:
Because it is raining, therefore I should take my umbrella, since it will keep
me dry.
You will immediately recognize the tacit assumption (that an umbrella will keep
you dry) given explicit expression in the warrant. The backing would be “on
account of the fact that the material is waterproof,” and the reservation might be
“unless there is a hole in it.” In this case, the backing and reservation are so obvi-
ous that they don’t need to be stated. The diagram below illustrates this argu-
ment — a simple one indeed, but one that demonstrates the process:

Evidence Claim
(It is raining.) (I should take my umbrella.)

Assumption Qualifier Reservation

(An umbrella will keep me dry.) (Probably.) (Unless it has a hole in it.)

Backing
(The material is
waterproof.)

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 127

Fully expressed, this Toulmin argument would read:

Because it is raining, therefore I should probably take my umbrella, since it
will keep me dry on account of its waterproof material, unless, of course,
there is a hole in it.

Analyzing Assumptions
You will note how the Toulmin model gives expression to the usually unspoken
but necessary assumption. The Toulmin model shows us that assumptions are the
link between a claim and the evidence used to support it. And, really, we should
say “assumptions” here, because arguments of any complexity are always based
on multiple assumptions. If your audience shares those assumptions, it is more
likely to agree with the claim, finding the argument to be sound; if your audience
does not, then the assumption becomes yet another claim requiring evidence.
And if you were asked to analyze an argument in order to determine whether you
support or challenge its claim, finding vulnerabilities in the assumptions would
be the place to begin.
Let’s take a look at how assumptions can become arguable claims by revis-
iting a piece that you read earlier in this chapter, Amy Domini’s article “Why
Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing.” We will see that by using the
Toulmin method you could paraphrase her argument as follows:
Because the fast food industry continues to grow and is not going away,
therefore even those of us who support Slow Food should invest in it, since
investing has the power to persuade businesses to change.
The last part expresses one of the assumptions the audience must agree on in
order for Domini’s argument to be persuasive. Does investing have the power to
persuade business to change?
Two examples from the education article by Fareed Zakaria will further illus-
trate the method. Paraphrased according to Toulmin, one of Zakaria’s arguments
would run as follows:
Because Chinese and South Korean children spend almost two years more
in school than do Americans, therefore they outperform Americans on
tests, since increased instructional time is responsible for increased test
scores.
Do you agree with the assumption that increased instructional time is respon-
sible for increased test scores? Alternatively, revealing another assumption, one
might say:
Because foreign students spend more time in school and achieve higher test
scores, therefore they receive a better education, since quality of education
and learning is indicated by test scores, on account of their accuracy in
assessing learning.

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 128 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

Again, the assumption here might very well be debatable. Is learning indicated by
test scores?
Sometimes, in the development of an argument, claims are presented implic-
itly early in the piece and more explicitly later. For an example, let’s return to “The
C Word in the Hallways” by Anna Quindlen. In the article, she makes several
claims and supports them with credible evidence. Still, if you are to agree with her
position, it is necessary to agree with the assumptions on which her arguments
rest. Using the Toulmin model can help you to discover what they are, especially
when the claim is implicit, as in the following:
So many have already been lost. This month Kip Kinkel was sentenced to life in
prison in Oregon for the murders of his parents and a shooting rampage at his high
school that killed two students. A psychiatrist who specializes in the care of adoles-
cents testified that Kinkel, now 17, had been hearing voices since he was 12. Sam
Manzie is also 17. He is serving a 70-year sentence for luring an 11-year-old boy
named Eddie Werner into his New Jersey home and strangling him with the cord of
an alarm clock because his Sega Genesis was out of reach. Manzie had his first psy-
chological evaluation in the first grade.

Using the Toulmin model, Quindlen’s implicit argument here might be para-
phrased as follows:
Because Kinkel’s and Manzie’s mental illnesses were known for several years
before they committed murder, therefore mental health care could have
saved lives, since psychological intervention would have prevented them
from committing these heinous acts.
As you finish the article, you come to realize that the entire argument rests on that
assumption. Indeed, would psychological intervention have had that result? It
certainly provokes discussion, which means that it is perhaps a point of vulnera-
bility in Quindlen’s argument.

• ACTIVITY •
For each of the following statements, identify the assumption that would link
the claim to its support. Use the following format to discover the assump-
tion: “Because (support), therefore (claim), since (assumption), on account
of (backing), unless (reservation).” Decide whether each of the statements
would require a qualifier.
1. Grades should be abolished because they add stress to the learning
experience.
2. Until you buy me a diamond, I won’t know that you love me!
3. Everyone should read novels because they make us more understanding
of human foibles and frailties.

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 sHAPing ARgumEnT 129

4. If we want to decrease gang violence, we should legalize drugs.

5. Don’t get married if you believe that familiarity breeds contempt.
6. WiFi should be available to everyone without cost since the Internet has
become a vital part of our lives.
7. You must obey her because she is your mother.
8. Because improving the educational system in this country is essential to
competing with the other industrialized nations, we need to equip all
classrooms with the latest computer technology.

From Reading to Writing

The Toulmin model can help you not only analyze the arguments that you read
but also to bring logic and order to those that you write. Of course, the Toulmin
language shouldn’t be used directly in your essays because it often sounds stiff
and lacks the nuance of more natural writing. But if you eliminate some of
the artificial constructions and awkward phrasings — because, therefore, since —
it can help you create a strong thesis statement, or at least think through the
logic of your argument fully so that you can compose one that is strong and per-
suasive.
Let’s walk through the process of refining an argument topic using the Toulmin
model. We’ll begin by responding to an argument about the increased visual
nature of our print media, including textbooks:

One reason education in this country is so bad is that the textbooks are
crammed full of fluff like charts and graphs and pictures.

Let’s restate this argument using the Toulmin model and look at its component
parts.

Because textbook authors are filling their books with charts, graphs, and
pictures, therefore the quality of education is declining in this country, since
less written information equals less learning.

Evidence Claim
(Textbooks contain charts, graphs, pictures.) (Education is declining.)

Assumption
(Learning comes from written text.)

Backing
(Traditionally, students have been learning from written text.)

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 130 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

Studying the argument this way, we find that the original argument has a vulner-
ability in that it assumes students only learn from printed text and not from
visual material.
We can also use Toulmin to craft a response, using a simple template such as
this: “Because __________, therefore __________, since __________, on account
of __________, unless __________.” Just because it’s a template doesn’t mean it
has to tie your hands intellectually. You can put forth any viewpoint you like.
Here is one response, just as an example:
Because charts, graphs, and pictures provide information, therefore they do
not hinder the education system, since that information is a supplement to
written text.
In this case, we did not include a qualifier or a reservation.

Evidence Claim
(Charts, graphs, pictures provide information.) (Visuals do not hinder education.)

Assumption
(Visual information supplements written text.)

Backing
(Students learn from a variety of media.)

You would then use that statement to develop your position and to write the
thesis for your essay. The following example presents the claim but doesn’t argue
with the data: it acknowledges its validity, as far as it goes (this creates a reason-
able tone and appeals to ethos and logos), and then zeros in on the assumption
with a pair of rhetorical questions:

Much of the argument is indisputable; however, some of it can be interpreted

in different ways. Take, for instance, the criticism of textbooks for using too
many visuals, particularly of a map replacing a topographical description. Is
the map really a bad thing? Are any of the charts and graphs bad things?

The essay would then go on to argue the value of visuals not as replacements for but
as supplements to written texts, developing a qualified and reasoned argument.

• ACTIVITY •
Complete each of the following templates, using an argument from this
chapter (e.g., “Crazed Rhetoric” by Tom Toles, “Why Investing in Fast Food

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 AnAlyzing VisuAl TExTs As ARgumEnTs 131

May Be a Good Thing” by Amy Domini, or “Star Wars” by Roger Ebert). Use
at least two different texts.
1. In his/her argument concludes and
supports the conclusion with such evidence as and
. To link this conclusion with the evidence, he/she
makes the assumption that .
2. Although what says about may be
true in some cases, his/her position fails to take into
account. A closer look at reveals .
3. While the position advanced by X may seem reasonable, it assumes
. If that were so, then . It might be
more reasonable to consider .
4. One way to look at X would be to say ; but if that
were the case, then . Of course, another view might
be . Yet another way to consider X might be
.
5. Position X would be sound only if we chose to ignore .
When we consider , then . In addi-
tion, .
6. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if we could all agree about ?
The trouble is, . X says and Y says
. How can we come to a compromise that recognizes
?

Analyzing Visual Texts as Arguments

In this section, we’ll focus on how to analyze visual texts that present arguments.
A visual argument can be an advertisement, a political cartoon, a photograph, a
bumper sticker, a T-shirt, a hat, a Web page, or even a piece of fine art. Yet the
tools to analyze argument — identifying the claims, analyzing the way evidence is
used, thinking critically about the artist’s assumptions, examining how the piece
is structured, considering appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos — are fairly similar
for both visual and written arguments.
Although the tools that artists use to make their arguments are primarily
visual strategies such as the placement of figures and objects and the use of color,
the process of analysis is the same as with any text: look carefully, take note of
every detail, make connections about your observations, and draw conclusions.
Again, as with any written text, it’s important to know what occasioned the visual
image and, if possible, who the artist intended as his or her audience.
Following is a checklist to use with any visual text:

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 132 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

• Where did the visual first appear? Who is the audience? Who is the speaker
or artist? Does this person have political or organizational affiliations that
are important to understanding the text?
• What do you notice first? Where is your eye drawn? What is your overall
first impression?
• What topic does the visual address or raise? Does the visual make a claim
about that topic?
• Does the text tell or suggest a narrative or story? If so, what is the point?
• What emotions does the visual text evoke? How do color or light and
shadow contribute to evoking emotions?
• Are the figures realistic, caricatures, distorted? What is the effect?
• Are any of the images visual allusions that would evoke emotions or mem-
ories in viewers?
• What cultural values are viewers likely to bring to the images?
• What claim does the visual make about the issue(s) it addresses?

Let’s use this checklist to analyze a four-frame cartoon entitled Rat Race that
appeared on the United Kingdom Web site polyp.org.uk.

• Where did the visual first appear? Who is the audience? Who is the
speaker? Does this person have political or organizational affiliations
that are important to understanding the text? This cartoon first appeared
in Ethical Consumer magazine, a publication whose mission is to provide
information to consumers about products and brands that are socially and
environmentally responsible. The magazine has an obvious bias against
buying products for the sake of status rather than necessity, and against
companies or organizations motivated primarily by profit. The readers of
Ethical Consumer are likely to be practical or even frugal, to frown upon
materialism, and to be skeptical of big business.
• What do you notice first? Where is your eye drawn? What is your overall
first impression? Although there’s quite a bit going on in these frames, your
eye is probably drawn most immediately to the written text that is in bold:
WORK HARDER / EARN MORE MONEY / BUY MORE THINGS / KEEP
GOING. Since the written text appears in the same place within each frame,
it also might be seen as a way to structure the piece.
• What topic does the visual address or raise? Does the visual make a claim
about that topic? With rats racing all over the place within frames and
from frame to frame, clearly the topic is the rat race — an allusion to the
well-known expression. Even at this early stage of analysis, the artist’s claim
that the rat race is a never-ending cycle of working to earn money to buy
material possessions becomes pretty clear.

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 AnAlyzing VisuAl TExTs As ARgumEnTs 133

(see insert for color version.)

source: www.polyp.org.uk.

• Does the text tell or suggest a narrative or story? If so, what is the point?
The frames constitute a story, a narrative: the key “characters” are rats that
seem to be caught in a maze; the idea of a trap is emphasized by the rats’
bodies appearing in pieces, fragmented, with only one example of a whole
body being in the picture. The sign at the top (“Happiness is just around
the corner!”) is repeated in each frame, a slogan that seems to cheer the rats
on and keep them on task.
• What emotions does the visual text evoke? How do color or light and
shadow contribute to evoking emotions? You might feel a range of emotions
being evoked. First of all, it’s hard not to see something comic about the
bug-eyed rats with human expressions who are frantically running either
from or toward something, though it’s not clear which. Red usually evokes
an alarm button in viewers. The background is a little more subtle, but the
closer you look, the world beyond the “maze” goes from lighter to darker
shades, suggesting a workday, the morning-until-night routine. That back-
ground does not have any trees or natural shapes but, rather, industrial-
looking smokestacks and buildings.
• Are the figures realistic, caricatures, distorted? What is the effect? The
rats themselves are caricatures, distortions with huge heads and eyes. They

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 134 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

never interact with one another but are depicted as looking at the signs or
maybe watching one another; there’s no contact between or among them.
• Are any of the images visual allusions that would evoke emotions or
memories in viewers? We’ve already noted the overarching allusion to “the
rat race,” a common expression people use to refer to a situation that
involves ceaseless activity with little meaning. In addition, the signs on the
walls of each frame remind us of advertisements that entice us to buy
things or acquire luxuries. They’re promises of a better physical appearance
or lifestyle.
• What cultural values are viewers likely to bring to the images? Viewers
are likely to be familiar with the cultural values implicit in such advertising
ploys, though maybe more subtle ones, to grab their attention and make
them want to spend money. The artist leads us clearly to the irony of com-
mitting to the draining rat race in order to “spoil yourself ” and “escape
from it all.”
• What claim does the visual make about the issue(s) it addresses? Let’s
take stock of what we have observed thus far and connect some of those
observations. We have exaggerated images of rats in a maze working to
make money to buy things that require them to continue working to make
money to pay for those things and the next things that promise happiness.
The red color and the exaggerated characteristics of the mice signal a
fevered urgency that the cartoon’s overall message mocks. The rats live
crowded, frantic lives driven by the pursuit of material goods and fueled by
ads, slogans, and other external stimuli. It’s true that we are making an
inferential leap, but given all these specifics, we can fairly conclude that the
artist’s claim is one of value: “the rat race just isn’t worth it!” Or, to state it
more formally, “the constant striving to make money in order to spend
money can never bring satisfaction, only more striving.”

If we think about this analysis in the terms of argument we have used

throughout this chapter, each of the four frames might be thought of as a para-
graph. In each one the artist refutes a counterargument: happiness is just around
the corner if you work harder, if you earn more money, if you buy more things, if
you keep going. These slogans become assertions that the drawings refute as the
rats become increasingly frantic within the confines of the boxes and as day turns
to night. The argument seems to be organized inductively because as each slogan
(assertion) is refuted by the images of the rats who are anything but happy as they
face yet another “corner,” the viewer draws the conclusion that the rat race is
thankless, useless, and never a route to happiness.

Photographs are another type of visual text that can make powerful argu-
ments. How often do we look at the photograph on the front page of a newspaper

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 AnAlyzing VisuAl TExTs As ARgumEnTs 135

or news site before we read the lead story? The photo in that case may greatly
impact how we read the written text by shaping our attitude toward the piece,
or even by leading us to form conclusions before reading so much as a single
word.
In fact, photographic images carry additional power because they seem “real,”
authentic, images of truth frozen in time. No political cartoon has ever claimed
to be “reality.” But it is important to understand that while photographs may be
more “real” than a drawing, they nevertheless are artificial. The photographer
must decide how to light a scene, what to focus on, when to take the picture, what
to put inside the frame and outside of it, and how to compose the shot in order
to convey the desired meaning. Unfortunately, combining the power of the pho-
tographic image has at times resulted in the irresistible temptation to pose or
construct an image to make a point. But even if the image is not doctored, a
photograph is constructed to tell a story, evoke emotions, and make a strong
argument.
Let’s examine an iconic photograph called The Steerage, taken in 1907 by
photographer Alfred Stieglitz (see p. 136). We might start with a definition of
steerage, which is the cheapest accommodation on a passenger ship — originally
the compartments containing the steering apparatus. Stieglitz did not take the
photograph for a particular publication because by this point he was already a
highly regarded artist who championed the relatively new medium of photogra-
phy as an art form. The context is the early twentieth century, when immigration
to the United States was at a high point. The photograph depicts the wealthier
classes aboard ship on the deck above the poorer classes, who are housed in the
steerage. Notice how your eye is immediately drawn to the empty gangway that
separates the two groups. This point of focus raises the issue of separation, even
segregation.
This time, instead of going through the checklist step-by-step as we did with
Rat Race, let’s just think about how the style of this photo might be seen as evi-
dence used to make its claim. In what ways might that gangway be symbolic? Why
would Stieglitz choose the moment when it is empty? What story is this photo-
graph telling? Note the similarities and differences between the two groups
depicted. Stieglitz juxtaposes them. Some differences, such as dress, are stark;
yet what similarities do you see? How does Stieglitz want his audience — his
viewers — to experience the people in this scene? Why do you suppose we see the
group in the top more straight on, face-to-face, while the people in the lower level
in many instances have their backs to us? Think about the time period, and ask
yourself what cultural values the viewers — those who frequent art galleries and
are familiar with artists of the day — bring to this image. Granted, the technology
did not make color photos an option, but notice the many shades of light and
dark, the shadows, the highlighted areas: What mood does this moment frozen in
time suggest? How does the evocation of mood add to the pathos of the scene?
What claim — or claims — is Stieglitz making through this visual image?

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 136 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

Alfred stieglitz, The Steerage. source: Digital image © The museum of modern Art / licensed by
sCAlA / Art Resource, ny.

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 AnAlyzing VisuAl TExTs As ARgumEnTs 137

• ACTIVITY •
The Heroes of 2001 stamp depicts a photograph taken at Ground Zero after
the September 11 terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers in New York City.
Analyze the photograph’s argument, and explain why it is or is not an effec-
tive choice for a stamp for the U.S. Postal Service.

(see insert for color version.)

• EssAY In PRogREss: Using Visual Evidence •

Find a visual text — a political cartoon, advertisement, photograph, or the
like — that supports or enhances the argument you have been developing. Write
a paragraph or two explaining how the visual text makes its own argument.

• CUlmInATIng ACTIVITY •
The political cartoon and article that follow make similar claims about the
Nobel Peace Prize awarded to President Barack Obama in 2009, but in very
different ways. The Tom Toles cartoon appeared in the Washington Post; the
article appeared in the London Times. Discuss the way each argument is
developed and the likely impact of each on its audience.

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 138 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

source: Toles © 2009 The Washington Post. Reprinted with permission of universal uclick. All rights
reserved.

Comment: Absurd Decision on Obama Makes a Mockery of the

Nobel Peace Prize
michAel binyon

The award of this year’s nobel Peace Prize to President Obama will be met
with widespread incredulity, consternation in many capitals and probably
deep embarrassment by the President himself.
Rarely has an award had such an obvious political and partisan intent. it
was clearly seen by the norwegian nobel Committee as a way of expressing
European gratitude for an end to the Bush Administration, approval for the
election of America’s first black president and hope that Washington will hon-
our its promise to re-engage with the world.
instead, the prize risks looking preposterous in its claims, patronising in its
intentions and demeaning in its attempt to build up a man who has barely
begun his period in office, let alone achieved any tangible outcome for peace.
The pretext for the prize was mr. Obama’s decision to “strengthen interna-
tional diplomacy and co-operation between peoples.” many people will point
out that, while the President has indeed promised to “reset” relations with Rus-

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 AnAlyzing VisuAl TExTs As ARgumEnTs 139

sia and offer a fresh start to relations with the muslim world, there is little so
far to show for his fine words.
East–West relations are little better than they were six months ago, and any 5
change is probably due largely to the global economic downturn; and Amer-
ica’s vaunted determination to re-engage with the muslim world has failed to
make any concrete progress towards ending the conflict between the israelis
and the Palestinians.
There is a further irony in offering a peace prize to a president whose
principal preoccupation at the moment is when and how to expand the war in
Afghanistan.
The spectacle of mr. Obama mounting the podium in Oslo to accept a
prize that once went to nelson mandela, Aung san suu kyi and mother
Theresa would be all the more absurd if it follows a White House decision to
send up to 40,000 more u.s. troops to Afghanistan. However just such a war
may be deemed in Western eyes, muslims would not be the only group to
complain that peace is hardly compatible with an escalation in hostilities.
The nobel Committee has made controversial awards before. some have
appeared to reward hope rather than achievement: the 1976 prize for the
two peace campaigners in northern ireland, Betty Williams and mairead
Corrigan, was clearly intended to send a signal to the two battling communi-
ties in ulster. But the political influence of the two winners turned out, sadly, to
be negligible.
in the middle East, the award to menachem Begin of israel and Anwar
sadat of Egypt in 1978 also looks, in retrospect, as naive as the later award
to yassir Arafat, shimon Peres and yitzhak Rabin — although it could be
argued that both the Camp David and Oslo accords, while not bringing
peace, were at least attempts to break the deadlock.
mr. Obama’s prize is more likely, however, to be compared with the most 10
contentious prize of all: the 1973 prize to Henry kissinger and le Duc Tho for
their negotiations to end the Vietnam War. Dr. kissinger was branded a war-
monger for his support for the bombing campaign in Cambodia; and the
Vietnamese negotiator was subsequently seen as a liar whose government
never intended to honour a peace deal but was waiting for the moment to
attack south Vietnam.
mr. Obama becomes the third sitting u.s. President to receive the prize.
The committee said today that he had “captured the world’s attention.” it is
certainly true that his energy and aspirations have dazzled many of his sup-
porters. sadly, it seems they have so bedazzled the norwegians that they can
no longer separate hopes from achievement. The achievements of all previous
winners have been diminished.

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 140 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

• EssAY In PRogREss: First Draft •

Write a full argument that includes at least three different types of evidence
and a visual text. You have been developing this essay throughout the chap-
ter: use the texts and drafts you’ve developed thus far, as you like, but do not
hesitate to rethink and revise. Suggested length: 500–700 words.

Glossary of Argument Terms and Fallacies

ad hominem Latin for “against the man,” this fallacy refers to the specific diver-
sionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the charac-
ter of the other speaker. If you argue that a park in your community should not
be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic
dispute, then you are guilty of ad hominem.
ad populum (bandwagon appeal) This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down
to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.”
You should vote to elect Rachel Johnson — she has a strong lead in the polls!
Polling higher does not necessarily make Senator Johnson the “best” candidate,
only the most popular.
appeal to false authority This fallacy occurs when someone who has no exper-
tise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not
a medical expert, even though pharmaceutical advertisements often use celeb-
rity endorsements.
argument A process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a
coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.
assumption See warrant.
backing In the Toulmin model, backing consists of further assurances or data
without which the assumption lacks authority. For an example, see Toulmin
model.
bandwagon appeal See ad populum.
begging the question A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support
that is in doubt. It “begs” a question whether the support itself is sound.
Giving students easy access to a wealth of facts and resources online allows them to
develop critical thinking skills.
circular reasoning A fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to
provide evidence.
You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!
claim Also called an assertion or a proposition, a claim states the argument’s
main idea or position. A claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has
to be arguable.

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 glOssARy OF ARgumEnT TERms AnD FAllACiEs 141

claim of fact A claim of fact asserts that something is true or not true.
The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men,
has exploded in the last three decades . . .
— Anna Quindlen
claim of policy A claim of policy proposes a change.
Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental
health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it
belongs.
— Anna Quindlen
claim of value A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, right or
wrong.
There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t announce itself with lumps or
spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities
where it has been laying waste.
— Anna Quindlen
classical oration, the Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetori-
cians. The five parts are:
introduction (exordium) Introduces the reader to the subject under dis-
cussion.
narration (narratio) Provides factual information and background mate-
rial on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that
needs addressing.
confirmation (confirmatio) Usually the major part of the text, the confir-
mation includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case.
refutation (refutatio) Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge be-
tween the writer’s proof and conclusion.
conclusion (peroratio) Brings the essay to a satisfying close.
closed thesis A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument
that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.
The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry
Potter series make them not only legendary children’s books but also enduring literary
classics.
deduction Deduction is a logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by
starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and
applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process of deduction is
usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism:
mAJor premise: Exercise contributes to better health.
minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise.
conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.

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 142 CHAPTER 3 • AnAlyzing ARgumEnTs

either/or (false dilemma) A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme
options as the only possible choices.
Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.
fallacy See logical fallacy.
faulty analogy A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are
not comparable. For instance, to argue that because we put animals who are in
irreversible pain out of their misery, we should do the same for people, asks the
reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people.
first-hand evidence Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether
it’s from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.
hasty generalization A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because
of inadequate evidence.
Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.
induction — From the Latin inducere, “to lead into”; a logical process whereby the
writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to
draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.
Regular exercise promotes weight loss.
Exercise lowers stress levels.
Exercise improves mood and outlook.
generAlizAtion: Exercise contributes to better health.

logical fallacy Logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an

argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between
the claim and the evidence used to support it.
open thesis An open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer
intends to cover in an essay.
The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complex-
ity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.
post hoc ergo propter hoc This fallacy is Latin for “after which therefore because
of which,” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause
just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by
saying that correlation does not imply causation.
We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock
market crashes.
qualifier In the Toulmin model, the qualifier uses words like usually, probably,
maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less abso-
lute. For an example, see Toulmin model.
quantitative evidence Quantitative evidence includes things that can be mea-
sured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers — for instance, sta-
tistics, surveys, polls, census information.

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 glOssARy OF ARgumEnT TERms AnD FAllACiEs 143

rebuttal In the Toulmin model, a rebuttal gives voice to possible objections. For
an example, see Toulmin model.
reservation In the Toulmin model, a reservation explains the terms and condi-
tions necessitated by the qualifier. For an example, see Toulmin model.
Rogerian arguments Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, Rogerian argu-
ments are based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an
opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in
a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.
second-hand evidence Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and
investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion,
and quantitative data.
straw man A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or
oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.
Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politi-
cian Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green
men in outer space.”
syllogism A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to
reach a necessary conclusion.
mAJor premise: Exercise contributes to better health.
minor premise: Yoga is a type of exercise.
conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health.
Toulmin model An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created
by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument
(1958). The Toulmin model can be stated as a template:
Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on
account of (backing), unless (reservation).
Because it is raining, therefore I should probably take my umbrella, since it will keep
me dry on account of its waterproof material, unless, of course, there is a hole in it.
warrant In the Toulmin model, the warrant expresses the assumption necessar-
ily shared by the speaker and the audience.

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