Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Henryk Jurkowski is a former Professor at the Krakow and Warsaw
Superior schools of Theatre. He is Expert Editor of the World
Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Theatre and author of History of the
European Puppet Theatre, volumes 1 and 2. Throughout his distin-
guished career he has collected a number of awards, including the
Polonia Restituta, one of Poland’s highest Orders for services to culture.
Penny Francis is Honorary Fellow of the Central School of Speech and
Drama, London, UK, where she is Lecturer in Puppetry. She co-founded
the Puppet Centre Trust in 1974 and was awarded an MBE for services
to puppetry in 1988. She is author of Puppetry: A Reader in Theatre
Practice, and has written numerous articles for international conferences
and journals.
Aspects of Puppet
Theatre
Second Edition
Henryk Jurkowski
Edited by Penny Francis
Compilation and Foreword © Penny Francis 2013
Individual chapters © Henryk Jurkowski 1988, 2013
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
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Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of
this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition published 1988 by
PUPPET CENTRE TRUST
Second edition published 2013 by
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List of Illustrations viii
Acknowledgements ix
Foreword x
1 Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 1
2 Towards a Theatre of Objects 69
3 Between Literature and Plastic Art 76
4 The Language of the Contemporary Puppet Theatre 83
5 The Sign Systems of Puppetry 90
6 Puppets and the Power of the State 115
7 Eroticism and Puppetry 125
8 The Human among Things and Objects 141
9 Craig and Puppets 154
10 Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 165
11 The Acting Puppet as a Figure of Speech 193
Index 203
v
About the author and editor
Author
Professor Henryk Zdzislaw Jurkowski
Professor Jurkowski, historian, writer, teacher, essayist. He taught the
theory and history of puppetry in the Higher Theatre Schools of Krakow
and Warsaw, and as visiting lecturer and speaker in institutions all over
the world, including Charleville-Mézières, London, Seville, Chicago,
Tokyo, Barcelona, Prague and Sofia.
He is the author of hundreds of essays published in many interna-
tional journals, and of books in Polish, translated widely. In English his
best-known works are A History of European Puppetry (1996 and 1998) in
two volumes and the first edition of Aspects of Puppet Theatre (1988)
which has become required reading in the increasing numbers of educa-
tional establishments where puppetry is taught.
Editor
Penny Francis is a co-founder of the Puppet Centre Trust established in
1974 in Battersea Arts Centre to promote and develop the arts of
puppetry in contemporary theatre. She is an editor, critic and until
recently lecturer at the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama of
which she is an Honorary Fellow. Her book Puppetry. A Reader in Theatre
Practice was published in 2012. She was awarded the MBE for services to
puppetry in 1998.
vii
List of Illustrations
Figure 1.1 From a production of Der aufhaltsame Auforry des 19
Arturo Ui by Bertolt Brecht in the Chelabinsk
puppet theatre, Russia, 1982 from the collection
of Henryk Jurkowski
Figure 1.2 Sicilian marionette. Photo by Carl Schroder 50
from the collection of Henryk Jurkowski
Figure 3.1 From the Hungarian State puppet theatre 80
production of Motel by Van Itallie. Designer Ivan
Koos from the collection of Henryk Jurkowski
Figure 6.1 19th century Punch figure from the collection of 120
John M. Blundall. By kind permission.
Figure 7.1 Killekyatha, comic figure in Karnataka, India. 128
By Mel Helstien from the collection of Henryk
Jurkowski
Figure 8.1 From the Hungarian State puppet theatre 149
production of Aventures. With music by Gyorgy
Ligeti. Designer Ivan Koos from the collection of
Henryk Jurkowski
Figure 8.2 From the Voronezh puppet theatre production of 151
The Lake Boy. By Pavel Vezhinov. 1987. from the
collection of Henryk Jurkowski
Figure 10.1 Sainte Trinité figurines from Ethiopia. 1977. Photo 168
by Denis Nidzgorski. By kind permission of
Olenka Darkowska-Nidzgorski
Figure 10.2 The sculptor Victor Bazibadi sculpting an ancestor 179
figure, Lilieville. 1977. Photo by Denis Nidzgorski
By kind permission of Olenka Darkowska-Nidzgorski
Figure 10.3 Folk group with musicians and hand puppets 180
Figure 10.4 Diagram by A.J. Greimas 189
Figure 10.5 Comparative diagram of the ritual and 190
shamanistic session
Figure 11.1 From the Banialuka Theatre production of Dead 200
Words, directed by François Lazaro, 1996
viii
Acknowledgements
This volume follows the previous edition of Aspects of Puppet Theatre
published by the Puppet Centre Trust (London 1988) thanks to the
initiative of Penny Francis.
I owe her thanks also for her editing of my English – not quite
adequate for the enterprise – and for her help in making known my
writings and thoughts on puppetry in the English-speaking hemisphere.
Aspects was recognized as an important work, and I have had the pleas-
ure of being quoted by many western writers and academics in discus-
sions on the formal and aesthetic aspects of puppetry.
This edition is supplemented by four new essays, most of them
edited by Dr. Mischa Twitchin, to whom I also address warm thanks.
I acknowledge the generous assistance of Olenka Darkowska-
Nidzgorski and John M. Blundall in giving permission for the use of
photographs from their collections.
Finally, I feel obliged to express thanks to all my puppeteer friends
whose creative work and talents were the springboard for my delibera-
tions.
Thank you my friends.
Henryk Jurkowski
Warsaw 2013
ix
Editor’s Foreword to the Second
Edition
Penny Francis
London, 2013
x
1
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre
Performances with puppets are attended mostly by children, a tradition
that was established – albeit unconsciously – in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, and in even earlier times when French and Italian
showmen presented their shows in the palace and gardens of St
Germain-en-Laye, to entertain the young Dauphin through many
months of the year.
This is not to say that the puppet theatre of the past was only for
children; on the contrary, it was a theatre for all ages, enjoyed by all.
Children attended performances meant for adults, because in those days
the idea of art especially for children was unknown. They were taken,
indiscriminately, to see everything.
Some might say that adults enjoyed puppet theatre in the past
because of the naivety of the public of those times, but this is not quite
true. The main categories of theatre in those days were court theatre and
popular theatre, and puppets played the same repertoire for the same
classes of audience. Their theatre developed in tandem with actors’
theatre, and was accepted in the same way.
In the world beyond Europe puppets have been recognized as a part
of theatre for centuries. In the Japan of the seventeenth century it was
held in higher esteem than any other form of theatre, and in Indonesia
it was almost the only available form, leaving little room for others to
develop.
On researching European theatre, the presence of the puppet player
is to be found at every stage. Indeed, for many theatre companies, actors
and puppets were for a long time simple alternatives.
The classical mimes, Greek, Roman and Byzantine, the members of
the Craft Guilds, the priests who organized the Mystery Plays, comme-
dia dell’arte players, the English Comedians touring the Continent in
the seventeenth century – all these recognized the puppet as an
attractive means of theatrical expression. The public was fascinated
by the Mystery Play whether performed by puppet or actor; it awaited
1
2 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Since the most ancient times, puppet theatre has been an illuminating
source of metaphors, some of which illustrate the relationship
between the Creator and his creation. The Creator used often to be
presented as an unknown and powerful being, sometimes without a
name, omnipresent, pulling the strings of human actions. The
metaphor referred both to the relationship between God and man
and, equally, to the links between man and man. Horace wrote in his
‘Satires’:
… what am I to you?
Look how you who lord it over me
Bow and scrape for others like a puppet on a string!1
The notion of God as manipulator was actually introduced by the Arabs,
whose poets and philosophers expressed Arab determinism. Birri, an
Anatolian poet of the thirteenth century, wrote in his ghazal:
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 3
Wise man seeking for Truth
Look up at the tent of the sky
Where the Great Showman of the world
Has long ago set up his Shadow Theatre.
Behind his screen he is giving a show
Played by the shadows of men and women of his creation.2
One could quote hundreds of examples of the use and development of
this metaphor. Notice how today it contains new meanings. Vladimir
Sokolov, a twentieth-century dancer and puppeteer, expressed it thus:
Striving to reach artistic freedom for his creative will, man invented
the puppet theatre. Through its discovery he freed himself from the
threat of destiny, creating for himself a world of his own and –
through the characters which owe him total dependence – he
strengthens his will, his logic, and his aesthetic. In short, he becomes
a little god in his own world.3
So we see that through the centuries the relationship between the
creator and the created, so well illustrated by the mechanism of the
puppet theatre, has not changed very much. The only significant
change is one of function: the ‘Demonstrator of the World’ has been
replaced by the ‘little god’; the ‘created’ has in a sense taken the func-
tion of ‘creator’ and has grasped his independence. This is evidenced in
all forms of contemporary art. The metaphorical use of the structure of
the puppet theatre would not be so important if it were not for the fact
that it expresses so well the psychological attraction of creative
puppetry: the complete, the ‘divine’ liberty of self-expression, to be
found by an artist only in puppet theatre. This question of freedom –
autonomy – is valued by many artists other than puppeteers, and partic-
ularly by writers and directors of the ‘live’ theatre.
Lemercier de Neuville, famous satirist and puppet player, wrote about
his own experience: ‘being unable to find competent actors, the author,
wishing to see his plays performed, was obliged to cut his company out
of paper!’4
Eleanora Duse’s opinion of puppets was similar: she wrote to the
Italian puppet master, Vittorio Podrecca, ‘I envy you. I should have been
a director of puppet theatre myself. Your actors do not speak and are
perfectly obedient: mine can speak and are not obedient at all.’5
These quotations are amusing, but they contain a deeper meaning:
they highlight the unique characteristic of the puppet, that it has only
4 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
one identity whereas the actor has many. The puppet has no private life,
living only on stage: to the reformers of theatre at the beginning of the
twentieth century this was its special value. They were striving towards
a harmonious reality in theatre, one in which there was no contradic-
tion between the artificiality of the scenography and the reality of the
actor.
In any theory of puppet theatre, the most important factor is the
relationship between puppeteer and puppet. This relationship has
changed down the centuries. Very often the puppet players themselves
have not been conscious of the change, especially the folk puppeteers
of past times who invariably performed spontaneously. They inherited
and passed on their professional experience and their repertory from
generation to generation, not caring whether they left any recorded
evidence of their artistry or of the content of their shows. The first
records we have (not counting the written records of the satirical attacks
made by fairground ‘Polichinelles’ on the monopoly of the ‘official’
theatre in Paris) date only from the second half of the eighteenth
century. The author of this evidence was Samuel Foote, actor and play-
wright, whose company played in London from 1758 to 1773. Before
the first performance of The Primitive Puppet Show on 15 January 1773 at
his theatre in the Haymarket, Foote gave a long talk whose subject was
the ‘glory of the primitive puppet show’. He insisted that this form of
art had bloomed in Ancient Rome and had unfortunately disappeared
together with Rome. Foote wished to revive it, and described how
actors,
Foote’s interpretation of the theatre of antiquity is very personal, not to
say idiosyncratic, but it makes us notice that he was in favour of a
theatre of convention, which disguises real life and which, most impor-
tantly, even disguises humans. He expressed his interest in theatricality
thus:
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 5
Foote’s conception of puppet theatre derived from his views on live
theatre. In Tragedy à la Mode he used flat figures and only one actor who
spoke all the roles. In The Primitive Puppet Show he applied the principle
of the play within a play. When the puppets had finished performing, a
second part was played by actors, during which a ‘Constable’ entered
and arrested Foote and his puppets ‘under the Vagrancy Act’. The next
scene took place in the courtroom where the Constable was found to
have no case because, as ever, the puppets brought with them their
normal illusoriness. They were not real, therefore they could not be
judged – you cannot pass judgment on an object. What was more, Foote
himself was equally invulnerable, because, having an artificial leg, he
was ‘one quarter puppet’! In modern terms, he was a practitioner of
‘mixed-media’ theatre, mixing humans with puppets on stage, and thus
underlining the alienation of the stage character from its surroundings.
However, Foote’s ideas on theatricality and his sense of humour were
too advanced for the public of the time, which preferred another kind
of puppet show, that of ‘Punch’ and his wife ‘Joan’.
With the Romantic Movement in Germany came a new appreciation of
the puppet theatre. Lothar Buschmeyer, a twentieth-century writer,
said:
The revival of puppetry today would have been impossible without
Goethe and the Romantics, because it was they who won for the
puppet theatre the interest of the educated classes and of the artists
so necessary for its renaissance.8
6 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
In Germany especially, the help of the Romantics was very necessary as
it was here in the previous period that the Rationalists, for example
Gottsched, expressed a desire ‘to liquidate this tasteless genre’.
Romantic writers and their precursors, however, were enthusiastic about
anything to do with folk art.
It is interesting to note that, as in older times, the Romantic writers
considered the puppet theatre as a source of metaphor. First it served as
a satirical analogy of mankind’s small-mindedness, so much accentu-
ated during the so-called ‘Sturm und Drang’ period. The best example
of this is in the words of Goethe’s Young Werther, expressing his feel-
ings about the unreality of the world:
In Goethe’s early plays similar comparisons appear. In Jahrmarktfest von
Plundersweilen (Fairground of Plundersweilen), he presents an image of the
fairground of life, or ‘the little theatre of the world’, meaning the
puppet theatre. The same idea was revived in Hanswursts Hochzeit
(Hanswurst’s Wedding), published posthumously.
The Polish Romantics exploited the puppet theatre as a source of
metaphor to express their opinions on the rules of life. For Adam
Mickiewicz, as for Goethe, the puppet theatre was a good analogy for
the pettiness of mankind and the world. He wrote:
It is easy to recognise a talented man from his accomplishments, his
arguments, his work. But how deeply hidden are his true character
and his soul! These artificial marionettes we call people may embrace
us in friendship, smile at us, cry sometimes, but underneath you find
egoism, greed and pride manipulating their strings, dominating
these figures.10
Sl⁄owacki, in his drama Kordian, mentioned the English ‘Punch’ to illus-
trate the machinations of political activity, while Zygmunt Krasiński
similarly called politicians ‘Polichinelles manipulated by hidden
powers’.11
Having been used as a symbol of the world to the satirical observer,
the puppet theatre then took on a new role, exemplified by Schiller in
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 7
his concept of Spiel des Lebens (the game of life). In the period of early
Romanticism it preserved its symbolic function in the so-called
Schicksaltragödie (the tragedy of fate). Ludwig Tieck, in his novel Gelehrte
Gesellschaft (Learned Society), inserts a story of a puppet performance on
this same theme: the hero Hanswurst is a marionette, a symbol of
humanity. He is bound – although he does not know it – to another
character, undefined, unnamed, disguised. Whenever Hanswurst wishes
to take action, for example to meet friends or to give help to another,
this other ‘formless figure’ pulls him back. Hanswurst is at a loss to
understand what is wrong.
A little later the marionette acquired an aesthetic importance, also
illustrated in the works of Tieck. The negative aspects of the marionette
(Leblosigkeit, lifelessness) he treated as something of value, since it made
the puppet a dependant of the writer’s imagination. He also drew atten-
tion to the inappropriateness of puppets in the roles they usually
portrayed: the lifeless puppet pretending to be a live actor playing
‘Faust’ or ‘Genoveva’ seemed to Tieck to be not only grotesque, but
ironic. He decided that the writer or the puppet player should exploit
this inherent limitation of the puppet for the sake of ‘romantic irony’,
as he did in his own play Prince Zerbino. The puppet player should have
more importance than the puppet itself; the player should direct its
application and use.
Although the Romantics did not write treatises on the aesthetics of
puppet theatre, their ideas were expressed within their works, very often
works for the stage. Some were specifically written for puppets, and were
performed by professional, often folk, puppeteers. When they spoke of
the aesthetic value of the puppet, the Romantics clearly thought of it as
a virtual actor: one could go so far as to say that they had their own
theory of the über-marionette. They were not always satisfied with ‘live’
actors, whom they frequently found motivated by personal ambition,
unfaithful to the author’s intentions and over-influenced by traditional,
outmoded methods of staging:
but the marionette, an excellent mechanical creature, overcomes all
biological and individual human limitations and appears before us as
a first class performer, especially in burlesque and comedy.12
Whilst I was spending the winter of 1801 in M–, I met Mr. C. in a park
one evening. He had recently become principal dancer at the Opera in
the town, and was enjoying an extraordinary success with the public.16
This Mr. C. appeared to be a great lover of the puppet theatre, and the
author ascribes to him arguments to convince the reader as well as
himself, the partner in the dialogue, that the puppet has a real and
important value which can creatively influence the live theatre, partic-
ularly the ballet:
He assured me that the pantomimes of these puppets gave him much
pleasure and stated emphatically that any dancer who wished to
improve his art could learn a great deal from them.17
Each movement, he said, had a centre of gravity; it sufficed to
control the centre of the figure. The limbs, which were no more than
pendulums, followed mechanically of their own accord without any
prompting.18
Naturally, the artist and his talents were not thereby diminished:
curved, the curve seemed to be of the first, or at the most, of the
second order. Even in this case it was just an ellipse, a form which
was the natural movement of the human body (owing to its joints):
it did not therefore demand any great skill from the puppeteer.
On the other hand, this line was something very mysterious, for
it was no less than the path of the dancer’s soul, and he doubted that
it could be found except by the puppeteer transposing himself into
the centre of gravity of the marionettes: in other words, by danc-
ing.19
With the marionette, the artistry of the performance is not jeopardised
by any temptation of the performer to ‘charm’. Mr. C. further explains
the puppet’s advantage over the human:
The advantage? Firstly a negative one, my good friend: that a puppet
does not give itself airs and graces. Affectation appears, as you know,
when one’s soul (vis motrix or moving energy) is elsewhere than at
the centre of gravity of a movement. Since the puppeteer has only
that single point under his control, through the string, all the other
limbs are as they should be: dead, mere pendulums which simply
obey the law of gravity, an excellent characteristic which one seeks
in vain in most of our dancers.20
Affectation or the desire to charm is much connected with the selfish-
ness of the actor/dancer who places his own soul before the public eye
instead of hiding it in the invisible ‘point of gravity’. Trying to charm
actually results in a lack of charm in the stage character, according to
Kleist, who cites many examples to prove his thesis. His conclusion is
considerably to the disadvantage of the live performer:
so grace returns after understanding has passed through infinity. It
thus appears in those human forms which either have no conscious-
ness at all or have an infinite one: in the marionette and in the god.21
However, Kleist’s theory in all its simplicity had no practical influence,
inspiring neither the artists of the live theatre nor the puppeteers to
transform their fairground booths into an artistic theatre. It was neces-
sary to wait almost a hundred years to see the ideas of the Romantics
bear fruit, and for Kleist’s theory to evoke the interest of other artists
and authors. We cannot be certain of Kleist’s influence on Edward
Gordon Craig with his own famous theory of the über-marionette –
10 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
If someone insisted that I give him a reason for my choice of such an
unusual subject, and I felt naturally bound to answer, I would have no
difficulty in giving him examples of many profound and acknowl-
edged thinkers who were not afraid to compromise their reputation as
scholars, poets, even theologians and philosophers, by their close asso-
ciation with these nice, seductive wonders. How many piquant essays,
scientific lectures, wise thoughts, caprices or poems could I cite from
the work of the greatest writers of all countries and of all times who
were inspired by the marionette. I may surprise some of my readers
with no more than an introductory list of such excellent patrons:
Plato, Aristotle, Horace, Marcus Aurelius, Petronius, Galen, Apuleius,
Tertulian; among modern writers: Shakespeare, Cervantes, Ben Jonson,
Moliere, Hamilton, Pope, Swift, Fielding, Voltaire, Goethe, Byron.27
Magnin was trying to convince his readers that puppets were part of the
art of theatre and were thus subjects worthy of research. He wrote:
A surprising thing! We shall find in the history of these wooden
actors the identical stages of development (hieratic, aristocratic and
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 11
popular) which we have already noted and which have served us as
useful measures in our researches into the grand, real drama. In fact
the humble domain of the puppet is like a sort of theatrical micro-
cosm, in which the entire history of theatre is concentrated and
reflected, and in which the critic’s eye can, with perfect clarity,
discern the whole set of laws which regulate the advance of the
universal dramatic genius.28
Magnin’s book determined the views of researchers for many years. In
addition, his furnishing of proof of so many famous writers’ and
philosophers’ interest became excellent advocacy for the puppet
theatre’s re-consideration and re-evaluation.
George Sand and her son Maurice were among the first of his
contemporaries to be influenced by Magnin. Maurice Sand made his
mark on theatre history as the author of a book on the commedia
dell’arte, as the author of plays for puppets, as well as a puppet player in
his own theatre, in both Nohant and Passy. His work on the commedia
contains many pages of reference to the puppet theatre. All the infor-
mation on Polichinelle and Punch, however, he obtained from
Magnin’s book.29
Much more interesting are his mother’s views. She took Magnin’s
theories on the importance of the art a stage further, giving them
coherence. Her formulae were probably born in Nohant during the
long winter evenings dedicated to theatrical exercises involving live
performers as well as puppets. Their parallels of expression as applied
in her Nohant theatre strongly influenced her views on puppet
theatre.
George Sand considered the history of puppets to be a part of theatre
history in general with a common source, their development condi-
tioned by the same factors. They were, she wrote, a common genre in
that they were a response to the same human need to enter a world of
fiction. The puppet theatre, she concluded, is ruled by the same princi-
ples of evolution as the actors’ theatre:
There are not two dramatic arts, there is only one. The introduction
of puppets onto a stage is an art that demands as much work and
knowledge as the introduction of real actors … The long history of
puppets provides many proofs that they are capable of presenting
any subject: these fictive beings are brought to life by man’s will so
that they move and speak and to some extent become human,
inspired with life for good or ill, to move or entertain us.30
12 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Most important for her was the creative act achieved by the manipula-
tor of the puppet. Consequently, she declared her doubts about
mechanical puppets. They are, she said, ‘capable only of astonishing,
never of moving their audience’. George Sand’s position differed from
that of the German Romantics. She did not place puppets in opposition
to live actors, but stressed their common factors, showing her deep
understanding of the theatrical function of the puppet, conscious of the
evolutionary analogy between live and puppet theatre. Here we have
two extremes of approach to the relationship between human and
puppet drama, both of which were fruitful in their creative and
aesthetic conclusion. However, they could not both be applied at once,
being mutually exclusive. In one period researchers were striving to find
the common features of both genres, and in others they wished to
demonstrate their differences. Their positions depended very much on
the contemporary situation of drama in general.
At the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth, a
new consideration of the actor vis-à-vis the puppet emerged. The major-
ity of new writers and directors thought theatre to be in a poor way,
dominated by the egotistical actor. They called for a new type of
performer who could faithfully interpret the ideas contained in the
modern, symbolic drama. One of the calls came from Maurice
Maeterlinck, who confessed in Menus Propos (1890):
It is possible that we have to remove the living being from the stage.
I do not deny that in this way we would return to the art of ancient
times, in which the masks of the Greek tragic writers were the last
remains. Perhaps someday a sculpture will be used in this respect, for
people begin to ask some strange questions about sculpture. Or
perhaps the human being will be replaced by a shadow, a reflection
thrown on the screen, by symbolic forms or by some being that has
the appearance of life but which is lifeless. I do not know: but the
absence of the human seems to me essential. When a man enters
into a poem, the great poem of his presence dims everything around.
A man can speak in his own name only; he has no right to speak in
the name of the whole world of the dead.31
The tendency was best expressed by Edward Gordon Craig in his theory
of the über-marionette,32 which has provoked a long history of discus-
sion and has given rise to much misunderstanding. Craig was also
unhappy with contemporary actors, stating that they were not creative
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 13
artists. He wanted them replaced by a breed which he chose to call
‘über-marionettes’ (super-puppets). In his essay ‘The Actor and the
Über-marionette’ he wrote:
The actor must go and in his place come the inanimate figure – we
may call him the über-marionette, until he has won for himself a
better name. Much has been written about the puppet, or mari-
onette. There are some excellent volumes upon him, and he has also
inspired several works of art. Today in his least happy period many
people have come to regard him as rather a superior doll – and to
think he has developed from the doll. This is incorrect. He is a
descendant of the stone images of the old temples – he is today a
rather degenerate form of a god.33
As we see, Craig was not choosing a puppet for his model of the future
actor: he was thinking of a de-personalized figure. However, ‘Puppet’
was for him a symbol of creation, so his theory is in support of the
dignity of the puppet. At the end of the same essay he wrote:
Do you see then what has made me love and learn to value that
which today we call the ‘puppet’ and to detest that which we call
‘life’ in art? I pray earnestly for the return of the image – the Über-
marionette – to the Theatre; and when he comes again and is but
seen, he will be loved so well that once more it will be possible for
the people to return to their ancient joy in ceremonies – once more
will Creation be celebrated – homage rendered to existence – and
divine and happy intercession made to Death.34
It is not surprising, then, that some people understood this to mean
that Craig wished the live actor to be driven away from the stage alto-
gether. This was not the case: he wanted only to transform actors into
beings properly sensitive to the ideas of the play, meaning that they
should serve not their egotism but their art. The old ideas of Kleist were
being revived in a new form.
Craig was indeed interested in the puppet, but it would be wrong to
judge his views on puppetry only from his essay ‘The Actor and the
Über-Marionette’. We can find out much more from his periodicals The
Mask and The Marionette, and from his short essay ‘Puppets and Poets’.35
Like Kleist’s Mr. C., Craig believed that ‘the puppet is the actor’s
primer’.36 The puppet is able to help the actor overcome the ‘realistic
cliché’ and find the way to a new form of gesture and expression. He
14 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
recognized, however, that the puppet was also itself, with its own
expressive capabilities. The puppet theatre owes Craig much, as he gave
it new directions. He advised that it should rid itself of the old practice
of the imitation of actors’ theatre, saying that ‘everything is Creation as
in Poetry’.37 Like Kleist, he recognized the puppet’s intrinsic value,
found only if its own mechanical features are respected. Referring to
puppet manipulation he stated: ‘You don’t move it, you let it move:
that’s the art.’38
The renaissance of puppetry today is owed to a large extent to
Gordon Craig. His ideas were developed by other writers and in the
practice of puppeteers of the twentieth century. All reveal the impor-
tance of the puppet theatre as an artistic genre, corresponding entirely
to the evolution of live theatre and many of its artists. Starting with
Jarry and Maeterlinck, via Piscator, the Bauhaus and Gaston Baty to
Dario Fo and Peter Brook, these and many others have been successors
to Gordon Craig through their interest in the use of puppets. We have
to take seriously the judgement of so many major artists.
Craig’s deliberations were based on his admiration of folk puppetry
as it existed in the nineteenth century. He did not, however, examine
its nature. Analysis of its features was left to another author, the
Bohemian scholar Otakar Zich, one of the Prague Circle, who published
a study entitled Drobné umeˇni – wytwarne snahy (Small art – great arte-
facts) in 1923.39
Zich treated the folk puppet theatre as an imitation of the live theatre
of the time, and was convinced by his research that the public regarded
it in the same way. In his opinion the folk public did not see any differ-
ence between the human and the puppet theatre. It regarded the puppet
as an actor and judged the one from experiences gathered from the
other. It might thus be assumed that in those days the puppet theatre
did not possess its own system of signs, but used the same as that of live
theatre. However, Zich knew that in puppet theatre there exists an
important aesthetic opposition or contradiction between the lifeless
figure, a kind of sculpture, and its live voice offstage.
In order to resolve the contradiction, Zich suggested that the puppet
be treated either as a live actor or as a lifeless doll. It is important to note
that he saw no other solution, no middle way. To regard a puppet as a
doll, said Zich, we have to stress its lifelessness. It appears comic or
grotesque simply because of its uncanny imitation of human movement:
it is not primitive but refined amusement that these little figures
induce in us as they pretend to look and move like real people. We
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 15
regard them as puppets when they wish to be regarded as people, and
that amuses us.40
It has already been stated that the Romantics were intrigued by the
grotesque aspect of the puppet. They recognized its irony of expression,
inherent in the opposition between its role as a human being and its
limitations as a puppet. On the other hand, said Zich, regarding the
puppet as a live thing, imbued with movement and speech, the audi-
ence forgets what it is made of and sees it metamorphosed into a magi-
cal, mystical creature, beyond rational understanding. The magical
aspects of puppetry have their origin in the Middle Ages and were
preserved in folk puppet theatre.
However, to categorize the puppet as either ‘grotesque’ or ‘magical’ is
not enough if we are to define its artistic value. This was a weakness of
Zich’s theorizing, and one that has provoked much discussion. Erich
Kolar pointed out that even in the old Czech puppet theatre the
researcher was offered more than two aesthetic categories, as the reper-
tory was rich, including a number of aesthetic values.41
Zich was the first scholar to discuss the puppet theatre from a semi-
otic point of view; even so, he did not believe that the public recognized
in it a distinct system of signs. Another scientist of the Prague Circle, a
Russian, Petr Bogatyrev, opposed Zich’s theories and believed that every
genre of theatre has its own distinct system of signs, which the specta-
tors need to learn and recognize if the performance is to be properly
received:
puppet theatre is its visual one, derived from fine art. Naturally, he
admitted that the puppet had to be a dramatic character, thereby limit-
ing the freedom of the designer or sculptor; nevertheless, he thought
the puppet had to be stylized:
It should be the result of an unrealistic concept of its model; thus it
should become a true symbol of a human being, a type, not an indi-
vidual, according with the unreality of stylisation.43
Zich belonged to that group of puppeteers wishing to renew the
Bohemian puppet theatre through the expressive changes in contempo-
rary art. His perception of puppetry as fine art was typical of his time,
and can be confirmed by the interest taken in puppets by great masters
of that period: Klee, Léger, Picasso, Miró and many others who actually
designed puppets for performance. The significance of these perform-
ances lay solely in the artistic importance of the figures.
The fascination with puppetry as fine art was also characteristic of
the Polish puppet theatre. The director Janina Kilian Stanisl⁄awska
confessed:
I was and am attracted by the sculpture, the ineffable charm of
movement, gesture – in fact the superiority of form over action, the
domination of what is seen over what is heard in the puppet
theatre. 44
At the beginning of the twentieth century the main interest for
researchers into puppet theatre lay in the definition of its essence and
in the discovery of themes accessible to it. The majority of studies are
superficially written, but some more profound writing on the aesthetic
problems of puppetry is to be found in German literature. I have in
mind three examples: the studies of Lothar Buschmeyer on the aesthetic
characteristics of the puppet; of Holger Sandig on the relative values of
plays written for puppets and on the expressive potential of the string
puppet; and of Fritz Eichler on the essence of the hand puppet and the
string puppet.
Lothar Buschmeyer45 founded his considerations on Schasler’s
theory of art, perceiving it as the subjective expression of the spirit. This
can be easily discerned through a study of his analyses, elaborated from
a psychological base of subjective evidence and biographical informa-
tion. Through these he arrived at his conclusions on the aesthetic influ-
ence of the puppet:
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 17
This work of art, the product of a human being, is born through the
experience of emotion; it is a product which both embodies this
emotion and which can, at the same time, transmit this emotion to
others.46
Deliberating on the problem of the position of puppet theatre in ‘arts
systems’, Buschmeyer posed the familiar question: ‘Are we talking about
mobile sculptures or is this in essence Spiel (theatre)?’47 The second case
seemed to him to be ‘diminished dramatic art’ (verminderte dramatische
Kunst). In the transition of the puppet from the territory of fine art to
that of dramatic art, it changes from object to subject, thanks to its
apparent freedom of action. Viewed thus, the puppet may indeed be
said to satisfy the requirements of dramatic art.
‘Diminishment’ (Verminderung) and other limitations of the puppet
as a vehicle of dramatic expression might even be regarded as evidence
of its artistic value. Art is, after all, a transformation of reality, and such
a transformation may proceed in one of two directions, either to elimi-
nate or to intensify some elements of reality. Thus one writer at least
defended the ‘minor’ art of the puppet theatre, invoking the theory of
the ‘small’ in art.
According to Buschmeyer, there are two groups of characteristics of
puppet theatre: drawbacks and advantages. One of the advantages,
generally recognized, is the total identification of the puppet with the
character it portrays; for example, the puppet figure of ‘Kasperle’ pres-
ents exclusively the character and dramatic function of ‘Kasperle’. (This
is a re-statement of the observation of the Romantics.)
However, Buschmeyer thought that this characteristic, based on the
unity of the scenographic elements of a performance, was over-estimated
by theoreticians from the actors’ theatre. In reality, it is the use made of
the puppet when it is onstage that determines its value in its setting.
In his analysis of the puppet’s expressivity, Buschmeyer revealed
himself as a clear opponent of the use of puppets as imitators of real life,
and a partisan of ‘stylization’ and archetypes. He believed that each
puppet has its own peculiarity of movement, dictated by its centre of
gravity and by the materials of which it is made. Puppets, he declared,
frequently transcend the limitations of reality (as imposed on living
actors) and this is due to the technical peculiarities of their construc-
tion: for example, the technique of the shadow puppet is determined by
the fact that it is two-dimensional, and so on.
In the main part of his study Buschmeyer confronts the four so-
called classic puppet techniques – glove, string, rod and shadow – with
18 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
various literary forms, such as the fairy tale and the epic saga, and vari-
ous aesthetic categories, such as the tragic, the sublime, the comic, the
parodic and the humorous – altogether 14 genres and categories. He
concludes that the expressive capability of the puppet is advantageous
in almost every case, though he believes that the ‘sublime’ and the
‘satiric’ are accessible only to the shadow theatre. (This conclusion is
surprising if we consider the success of the Polish Szopka, which
includes a kind of satirical revue of famous personalities, played with
rod puppets.) The puppets which Buschmeyer finds the most successful
in most aesthetic categories are the string and the rod puppet, with the
shadow puppet not far behind. He considers glove puppets the least
useful, with only 6 out of the 14 categories accessible to it.
At the end of his book, Buschmeyer changed his approach to his
subject, abandoning scholarship for a more partisan stance and becom-
ing a propagandist for puppetry. Puppet theatre, he said, should be
developed as a panacea for the advancing dangers of industrialization,
an aid to the retention of the old values and relationships of society. He
believed puppetry to be a rare branch of art, preserving folk customs
and thus fulfilling an important role in the revitalization of spiritual
vigour against the domination of materialism. Like many other writers
of his time in many other countries, including Poland, he strongly
supported folk theatre. He was of course right to do so; nonetheless, his
views were somewhat limiting to the future of puppet theatre.
Most of Buschmeyer’s study, consisting as it does of the confronta-
tion of puppets and their various techniques with dramatic forms and
aesthetic categories, is important as the first of its kind. His views are
typical of the perception of the puppet theatre during the first decades
of the twentieth century. He virtually analyses the puppet as an actor,
concluding that although it is an object, it is in its ‘materiality’ that its
greatest value lies. His theories are still valuable today and may be a
basis for further deliberation. The weakness of his work lies in the pres-
entation of conclusions as objective facts, although they are based only
on subjective premises. For example, his last experiments, on audience
reception of dramatic categories as presented by puppet theatre, prove
only his personal experience and the influence of a particular environ-
ment, separate from other contemporary examples of theatre practice.
His opinions and claims tell us only about his perceptions of the puppet
as actor, and have little to do with the more general reality of the
puppet theatre of the time. His views seem to be desiderata.
Holger Sandig, author of a second study,48 limits his examination of
the subject to the discovery of the expressive potential of one technique
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 19
Figure 1.1 From Der aufhaltsame Auforry des Arturo Ui by Bertolt Brecht,
Czelabinsk Puppet Theatre, Russia, 1982
of puppetry only – that of the string marionette. He discusses the dram-
aturgy of the puppet theatre and the accessibility of the string puppet
to some forms of drama and to some aesthetic categories. He lists the
characteristics of string puppets, drawing on other theoretical studies,
and is fascinated by the aesthetic consequences of the materiality of the
stringed figure, believing it superior to the live actor. He is thus in agree-
ment with Buschmeyer’s conclusions, and actually goes even further in
his enthusiasm for the expressive possibilities of puppets.
In his consideration of the archetypal nature of all puppets, Sandig
distinguishes the string puppet as existing on the borderlines of the
‘typical’ and the ‘individual’. He considers its relationship with
surrounding objects and concludes that it is well suited to the theatre of
surrealism. Sandig looks for the peculiar style of the string puppet – in
its natural estrangement from reality – in the ‘alienation effect’
(Verfremdungseffekt), using the theory and practice of Bertolt Brecht.
Sandig thus arrived at what is undoubtedly the right conclusion,
namely that the string puppet’s repertory should be drawn from that
which best suits its expressive capabilities; the demands of the play
must accord with what it can actually do. He was inspired by George
Polti’s Les Trente-Six Situations Dramatiques, devoted to the dramatic
20 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
works of Carlo Gozzi.49 Of these 36 situations he maintained that
puppet theatre might effectively interpret 12: those marked by clear
intention, simplicity, potential stylization and the introduction of
symbols, with a structure founded on ‘pure’ action and expressive
gesture. This analysis demonstrates beyond doubt the limits of puppet
expression vis-à-vis those of the live actor; similarly, Sandig leaves no
room for doubt about its repertoire, which should, according to him,
differ from that of the actors’ theatre. The puppet’s links with literature
are also limited, which is why Sandig prefers the term ‘scenic action’
(scenisches Spiel), because the characteristics of the marionette lead it to
mime-play rather than scripted drama. He argues, against Buschmeyer,
that tragedy and sublimity can be successfully applied to the marionette
stage. He differs from the other also in not attempting to be a propagan-
dist for puppets: he was not as far removed as Buschmeyer from current
theatre practice and practitioners. He provides many actual descriptions
of puppet shows, although these were, I fear, especially selected to
confirm his own theories and preconceptions. His conclusions might
have been different had he analysed more diverse material from a wider
geographical area.
The studies of Buschmeyer and Sandig arose out of a kind of vogue
for puppet theatre at that period. This renaissance, and the interest
shown by other kinds of artists, as well as the continuing theory of the
über-marionette, provoked a need to define this surprising phenome-
non. Scientific investigators, Buschmeyer and Sandig included, as well
as puppeteers themselves, believed that the most important problem
was to define the peculiar characteristics of the puppet theatre, and to
fix its place firmly in the hierarchy of contemporary art.
The majority of those investigators had much sympathy and respect
for puppetry, so perhaps it is necessary to note another writer whose
views were decidedly more sceptical, Fritz Eichler. His scepticism was
based on an analysis of the characteristics of puppet theatre practice in
Germany through direct observation.
Eichler simplified his task by limiting his examination to only two
techniques of puppetry, the glove and the string figure, then the most
popular in Germany. Nevertheless, his analysis was comprehensive and
wide-ranging. He was profoundly convinced that one can discover
factors of style and the limits of a genre only while observing the
creative process, noting therein the relationship between puppet and
animator, and the applied technique of the piece to be performed. This,
he said, was the only way to establish the place of the puppet and its
links to the notion of ‘theatre’.50
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 21
Today his principles are accepted by many authors, but at the time
he was alone in reaching one relatively extreme conclusion: that the
glove puppet is not to be considered as a ‘pure’ puppet, for it is actually
the hand of the puppet-player which is its soul. The glove puppet is thus
a ‘prolongation’ of the actor. Contrary to the string puppet, the glove
puppet acts directly, spontaneously, which is why it should be consid-
ered as an extension of mime theatre. From mime, the glove puppet has
inherited archetypal characters, above all the ‘folk-fool’ of Germany,
Kasper. Any puppeteer who would animate Kasper – or Kasperle – has to
identify with him to achieve success. Everything depends on the
performer, on his invention, on his ability to project his folk character-
istics to the full.
Kasper has constantly to improvise, especially when talking directly
to the audience. He is a comic in the tradition of burlesque, using robust
language rich in proverbs, gibberish, idioms and a primitive playing
with words: ‘The art of mime defines the limits of the glove puppet
theatre … Glove puppet theatre is not an art of style. It is vulgar, coarse,
full of rude, simple vitality – it is folk art.’51 He is right: there is no need
to provide proof of the fact that folk art, however well nurtured,
becomes less and less vivid, and slowly enters museums.
The string puppet, however, is different; it is an objectum, says Eichler.
It is separated from the body of its manipulator and has its own
mechanical laws, so strongly stressed by Kleist and Craig. Physical sepa-
ration causes psychic separation and this, Eichler claims, adversely
influences the string puppet and explains its passive nature: ‘The mari-
onette theatre is a theatre deprived of life, deprived of mimicry.’52 The
statement forms the basis of his dismissal of the whole style of the
theatre of the string marionette.
According to Eichler, the marionette theatre has always been a
dependant of the live theatre, although the dependence has manifested
itself in different ways over the centuries. It is possible for the mari-
onette to achieve its particular and authentic style, but first it must be
emancipated from the ‘drama’ theatre as well as from the mime theatre
as represented by glove puppets. A search must be made for what truly
suits the genre – for puppenhaft. The marionette’s best opportunities lie
in the grotesque, in fantasy, in poetics. But this is only a theory: Eichler
does not really believe that the aesthetic of the marionette theatre can
ever attract a wide public, at least in Germany.
This pessimism about the future of glove puppets and marionettes is
based on reasoned analysis, and the scholar is left with a feeling of
regret, however partisan he may be for this type of theatre. This regret
22 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
is shared by many of today’s marionettists who suffer from the lack of
interest, if not of the public, certainly of theatre critics.
These three German studies – by Buschmeyer, Sandig and Eichler –
deal with those features of the puppet theatre which distinguish it from
other kinds of theatre. This differentiation is well served by the word
puppenhaft and its opposite nichtpuppenhaft, ‘puppetlike’ and ‘unpuppet-
like’. Their use was common to both theoreticians and practitioners
from the 1930s to the 1950s. In puppenhaft they looked for the essence
of the puppet theatre and for its raison d’être. Take, for example, the
words of the most eminent puppet-player of the first half of the twenti-
eth century, Sergei Obraztsov:
What is the position of the puppet theatre in the contemporary
family of genres of the performing arts, and what are the prospects
for its development? Answers to these questions demand proof that
puppet theatre is necessary to the public at all. This proof will come
only when it has been demonstrated beyond doubt that what may be
expressed by a puppet cannot be expressed by a human actor.53
wished to promote the puppet theatre. One chapter of interest is
concerned with ‘the aesthetic values of marionettes’.
Jan Sztaudynger was in favour of a clear differentiation between
puppet and actors’ theatre. He was closer to the German theories than
to Obraztsov, and was rather attached to the old metaphor which
compared the destiny of the marionette in the hands of the puppeteer
with the destiny of man in the hands of God. Taking his starting point
from this metaphor, Sztaudynger argues with Kleist’s theory:
It seems to me that Kleist was wrong in attributing the charm of the
marionette to its complete lack of self-consciousness. Its charm more
probably lies simply in the point of contact between matter and
spirit, particularly when that matter takes on life, completely and
without resistance. 57
He clearly did not understand Kleist’s meaning, although he was fasci-
nated by some aspects of his theorizing. Sztaudynger concluded that the
puppet theatre was:
a theatre which permits us to feel the tragedy of the human through
that of the puppet; a theatre which gives us the delightful power of
the God-substitute; a theatre which enters into the secrets of the
human spirit; a theatre which can be an exquisite example of the
radiating force of spirit and the metamorphosis of psychic forces into
matter – this is something quite different from the usual theatre. The
theatre of live people is a human theatre, but the marionette theatre
is fashioned after the divine. The human theatre is for adults. The
puppet theatre is for children, for simple people, for people of
humble spirit and for artists – for all those who are close to God. 58
There were not many publications on this subject after the Second
World War, although some interest remained in Craig’s theory of the
über-marionette, especially from the famous Polish director Leon
Schiller, a correspondent with Craig over many years and in sympathy
with many of his theories.
Schiller (1887–1954) spent his youth in Krakow, and became influ-
enced by the ideas of Polish Modernism, including an interest in the
puppet theatre, which resulted in a projected foundation of his own
puppet company in Krakow in 1917. Unfortunately this was never
accomplished and he became a director of actors’ theatre, developing
the idea of a ‘monumental theatre’, one which would present imposing
24 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
It is clear that the puppet (the über-marionette) was gaining more and
more consideration, even if at first this was only among theoreticians
and theatre connoisseurs.
After 1945, with the end of the Second World War, puppeteers and crit-
ics resumed their deliberations on puppets, and again discussed their
specificity. Everybody had something to say, so we have many points of
view. The situation in France, where hand (or glove) puppets have
always received much appreciation among puppeteers, was interesting
due equally to George Sand’s enthusiasm for them and to the important
role of the hand puppet Guignol in French popular culture. Very influ-
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 25
Dorst is right to observe … that the illusionist stage and the psycho-
logical theatre are dying out. A new interest is born in other genres
of art, in other forms, more appropriate to our times. We agree with
him that puppet theatre is this ‘old-new’ kind of form. It is important
however that it exploits its own territory, its own signs, which,
26 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
together with the laws of any theatre art, will determine its auton-
omy. There is no doubt that its specificity will grow and that the
puppet theatre will constantly move away from the actors’ theatre.63
In his 26 ‘points’, Kolar collected all the characteristics of the puppet,
but he did so in an eclectic way, with no selection, and here we find
puppet characteristics taken from various different aesthetics. When
Kolar says, quoting Bogatyrev, that puppets cannot replace humans as
they constitute a sign (symbol) of the human, and more precisely a sign
of dramatic character; or when he refers to Obraztsov, presenting the
puppet’s capabilities not available to the live actor, the puppet player
may bring to the audience ‘the miracle of a sculpture brought to life’.
Kolar quotes his Soviet master:
The puppet does not need to take off its hat and then put it back on
to make an impression on its spectators. When a puppet simply sits
down on a chair, crosses its legs and smokes a cigarette – that is,
when it executes the simplest acts – this is enough to provoke great
applause and a fervent reaction from audiences. Why is this the case?
Because each act of the puppet transforms immediately into an
image (a picture). Spectators see any drawing and any puppet as an
object that is not alive. That is why everybody sees its alive-ness as a
sort of miracle.64
This is a new version of Otakar Zich’s earlier observations, and we might
think that the circle of deliberation on the nature of the puppet is
already closed; that all its expressive possibilities and functions are
already researched and described. But the following period shows that
such a judgment would be incorrect. Semioticians had many things to
say in this respect, but the semiotic theory of theatre needs special treat-
ment, to which I will return later on. For the moment, to complete
earlier phases of research, I would like to point to some anthropological
aspects of the puppet’s evaluation.
It is true that puppet theatre up until now had not elicited the inter-
est of anthropologists. However, we can find this kind of deliberation in
the anthroposophist activists from the circle of Rudolf Steiner, who used
puppets for education and treated them as having an ‘aprioristic value’.
Elke Blattmann, for instance, placed the puppet in a system of human
values, as can be seen when reading her definition of the puppet, as well
as her differentiation of two types of puppets: the hand puppet and the
marionette:
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 27
The marionette depends on its central point, the point of gravity. As
in the temple of Apollo, where the central point is the most impor-
tant, so the marionette circles its own ‘omphalos’. Its limbs move
with charm and harmony, oriented by this point. It follows that as
Apollo belongs to the higher gods, a marionette is manipulated from
on high. It depends on a dynamic power located above it in the most
profound sense of the word. The utterances of the Delphic Oracle
signal this unavoidable dependency. The laws of destiny are fulfilled
pitilessly in the face of human opposition, as the myth of Oedipus
demonstrates. However, the manipulators of the marionette put their
trust in these laws and are subordinate to their power. Apollo’s instru-
ment is the lyre: in the same way that he moves the strings externally
to give them sound, so the marionette player dominates the strings
of his puppet from without.
The case of the hand puppet player, who performs the part of
Kasperle, is completely different. He himself fills his puppet. His
consciousness is so much oriented to contact with an audience that
he loses awareness of his own hand. This is because he lets himself
identify with this character which is so full of contradictions, who is
only the ‘clothing’ of his hand, and though without legs yet appears
to stand firmly on the ground, which can catch things strongly with
its rudimentary hands, speak vividly through solid lips, excite the
spectators by its careless, anarchic acts. Besides, Kasperle loves play-
ing with words, transformations, and all kinds of contradictions and
paradoxes. Dionysus’ instrument is the flute, its interior breath
causes its sounds. The puppet player slips into Kasperle and lives in
his interior. Dionysus belongs to the powers of the underworld. The
hand puppet too comes from the depths; it receives its life from
below.65
At the end of the 1950s a new tendency started to develop within
puppetry. I would call this ‘centrifugal’, because it opposes the puppet’s
specificity for the sake of enriching its means of expression. The first
natural complement of the puppet on the puppet theatre stage was the
human being. Humans have performed with puppets for centuries, for
instance the musician in the Petrushka play, or as a character and thus
the partner of the puppet in a special repertory such as Gulliver in
Lilliput. Miroslav Česal, from the Prague Academy of Fine Art, has
published a study of all the possible reasons for such a partnership.66
The presence of actors in a puppet production used to be accepted as
natural, as long as they acted in the role of compère or the puppet’s
companion. Although these actors belonged in the puppet’s world, crit-
ics and historians of puppet theatre did not allow themselves the
thought that any mixture of the ‘puppet-like’ and the human means of
expression could be possible. A representative of this conservative way
of thinking is the German theoretician Hans Richard Purschke. In an
article from 1953, he rejected the possibility of any cooperation of man
and hand puppet in a scenic situation:
The human who appears in the world of hand puppets immediately
destroys its puppet-like illusion. Hand puppets immediately lose their
power in convincing and charming their spectators, because they are
seen in their true nature as papier-mâché, wood, and cloth. Because of
this human appearance the spectator can compare the puppet and the
human and sees the imperfection of the hand puppet image and its
movements. The world of puppets and the world of humans are sepa-
rate, they exclude each other. This is self-evident especially in the case
of the marionette and in the case of the unreal play of shadows. It
would be appropriate to adapt Kipling’s words: human is human, and
puppet is puppet, and never the twain shall meet.67
The marionette maintains a distance from the spectator in the same
way as the ‘thing’ which it represents. Its movements are not ‘natu-
ral’. This is true in moments when it is imitative; it affords distance,
because it is not presenting but only ‘showing’ the stage character’s
acting. Here is the source of the comical acting of the figure, that
imitation of the piano virtuoso. One should understand this as some-
thing important for the style of performance. If in the 19th century
one tried to animate figures in the most invisible, secret and myste-
rious manner, so today one accepts the revelation of the human who
manipulates the puppet … And this is not an inconsequential
thought, simply replacing the threads applied in the 19th century by
visible iron wires to operate the figures. The spectators should be
aware that the figures are puppets made for acting, that puppet
theatre is performing the parable of our reality – a performance
observed by those who participate in it.68
Tankred Dorst was reacting to the new practices and to the fact that
puppet theatre had started to include new forms of expression, such as
masks and live actors, giving rise to a new approach to the über-mari-
onette theory. At the 8th UNIMA Congress in Warsaw, Krystyna Mazur
gave a lecture on ‘The Romance of the Marionette’, offering a nice
metaphor for the new relationship of the puppet to the live theatre.
Recalling Craig, Leon Schiller and the Bauhaus artists, Mazur declared
the puppet theatre to be a ‘convention of total theatre’, the synthesis of
every means of dramatic expression, through puppet, mask and living
body.
She also listed all the elements of the puppet to be found in the
actors’ theatre, stating that the renaissance of the puppet was a result of
the same development that had brought about the ‘objectivization’ of
the face of the actor:
The relationship between the actor and the puppet figure has been
re-evaluated. Today nobody speaks about their competition. On the
one hand there is the development of a drama of ideas, alongside the
drama of moral sentiment, which is going in the direction of cham-
ber forms, with only limited spectacle. Since the era of extermination
camps and the atomic bomb, the human being has given expression
to his tragic monologue on a bare stage. The puppet figure tactfully
stays away from such territory for which it is inadequate. But when
anti-naturalistic tendencies return from time to time to the stage, the
door is open for this figure to enter, but this time with no wish to
30 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
fight the actor, but rather to cooperate with him. The figure has thus
become his perfect companion, to present the grotesque and absurd
mechanism of the contemporary world.69
Insisting on the independence of the puppet as a theatre genre,
trying not to see the links with live theatre, though they certainly
exist, seems to be pushing puppetry into an artistic backwater, which
will sooner or later cause its artistic decline.70
Krystyna Mazur’s reasoning was developed by the German artist Harro
Siegel, who confirmed the rise of interest in the potential links between
puppetry and other kinds of theatre when he wrote:
As puppeteers, we should look at our artistic genre as at an element
of a larger whole. We should not be afraid of some sallies into unex-
plored territory, nor of new means of expression. Within the bound-
aries of each particular area of theatre, we should not stress what
divides but what unites us, to encourage a mutual approach and to
strengthen bonds.71
The views of Mazur and Siegel were based on their observation of the
realities of theatre in the 1950s. Their conclusions, while sounding
rather biased in favour of particular artistic tendencies, were in fact
confirmed more and more by the development of contemporary puppet
theatre practice.72
Since then, many writers have continued to concern themselves with
the discovery of the essence of puppet theatre and its constitutive char-
acteristics. Janusz Galewicz, another Pole, undertook an experiment to
try to define puppet theatre as an art form. He took as his starting point
a definition of live theatre elaborated by Janina Makota73 using a termi-
nology drawn from the aesthetics of Roman Ingarden. Ingarden’s theory
was that any work of art is a purely intentional entity. It exists through
the support given by its material base, the material being of many differ-
ent things: objects, humans, sound waves and so on. To put it more
simply, we can imagine the creator of a work of art as making an
‘impression’ on a material base after which it is taken over by the
‘receiver’ (the spectator, the audience etc.).
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 31
An actor in the puppet theatre does not take part in the visual appear-
ances, which are left to the puppet. He is responsible for the ‘appearance
of movement’, which he shares with the puppet. The ‘word sounds’ are
exclusively his, to the same extent as in the live theatre. From this one
could say that the actor’s concessions to the puppet are relatively minor,
and therefore the similarity of the two genres is relatively major.
The same problem aroused the curiosity of Erik Kolar, who viewed it
from another angle: ‘Puppetry – Fine Art or Theatre?’ The answer to this
question, the title of his essay, was, as we might have anticipated, that
puppetry is a genre of theatre for these reasons:
• puppet theatre, like live theatre, is an art form developed within
time and space;
• it symbolizes the unfolding of characters and events;
• its ‘receivers’ are the witnesses of a process of creation;
• it is a constantly renewed interaction between puppeteers and
public;
• it is always a collective or group work;
• it is always a synthetic work of art.
The difference between live and puppet theatre lies in the fact that the
actor is the essence of the first, and the puppeteer is the essence of the
second, with the puppet as his instrument.76
Galewicz and Kolar were interested in the puppet theatre for itself, as
a separate theatre genre. Although puppeteers were searching for means
32 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
of expression far beyond their own theatre, Kolar and Galewicz deliber-
ately ignored the fact. They did so to stress the essence of puppet
theatre, so one could say that their conclusions had a normative inten-
tion: they meant to assist in the preservation of puppet theatre as a
genre of its own, with its own specific qualities.
An important work concerned with the aesthetics of puppet theatre in
recent years was a study by Roger Daniel Bensky entitled Recherches sur
les structures et la symbolique de la marionnette (Research on the Structures
and Symbolism of the Puppet).77 He was interested in three aspects:
aesthetics, psychology and metaphysics. The importance of the work
lies in Bensky’s additions to the modern understanding of the puppet
theatre. Bensky is a theoretician; he knows his subject more from his
reading than from first-hand observation of performance. He finds it
easy to deliberate on the nature of the puppet, which he defines as
follows:
The puppet is, in exact terms, a mobile object, un-derived, made for
dramatic action, operated either visibly or invisibly by whatever
techniques its inventor has chosen. Its use is for theatrical perform-
ance.78
And what is puppet play?
As a phenomenon of theatre, puppet play implies a dramatic action,
a representation of reality, a playing or stage area and an audience.
The puppet is first a form of theatrical expression before it is trans-
formed into an expressive idea.79
The puppet is an object. Though it is capable of action onstage, its life
is nothing more than a projection of the human imagination. This
projection is a characteristic of certain human recreational activities
(fantasies) that are not always to do with making theatre:
And so the object offers itself to the individual as an extension of his
being in the surrounding universe, an augmented affirmation of his
total existence. The ‘I’ duplicates itself in order to confirm its being.80
The works of theory discussing ontological and aesthetic principles had
no influence on the puppet theatre, which goes its own way according
to the fashionable impulses of the time. Thus theatre practices using
various figures – actors, masks and objects – on the puppet stage, all in
one show, demand a critical evaluation. I tried to respond to this in
1966 in an article entitled ‘Perspectives of Puppet Theatre’s
Development’.82 Having described the tendency to combine ‘live’ and
‘puppet-like’ means of expression, I proposed the name ‘third genre’ for
this new style. I meant by this a middle ground between human
dramatic expression and the expressiveness of the material puppet. This
was not a discovery, but only a statement of fact. In any case, this state-
ment did not disturb the status of ‘classical’ puppet theatre.
34 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
The ‘third genre’ consists in the mixing of the means of expression
of puppet and actors’ theatre. It breaks the conventions or principles of
the puppet’s ‘magic’ life, but it is not able to break the convention of
the actor’s biological life. Thus the destruction of the magic of the
puppet is not followed by any similar breakdown in the treatment of
the actor, and the third genre does not result in an equivalence of
aesthetic form. The mixing of the means of expression favours only the
actor. Even so, the coexistence on stage of actor and puppet elements
does create the opportunity for a new metaphorical language of theatre.
The arrival of the third genre has not impeded the development of
the puppet theatre in its pure form: it will always exist as an attractive
alternative to the actors’ theatre. There will always be a place for it in
the theatre, as there has been until now, both in avant-garde and in so-
called traditional performance. Besides, we live at a time when the actor
wants to present as much artifice in his work as possible, so there is no
reason why the artificial puppets should not represent as much realism
as possible.
In considering the characteristics of the third genre, I exposed its
limitations when simply and mechanically applying it as a means of
expression, without any dramatic reason or regard for its consequences.
This is why I took the liberty of posing various questions:
An interesting problem arose – to what extent might the ‘third genre’
be an extension of puppet theatre? Might its demystification be
equally its extension? Certainly it might be. However, the third genre
has a certain defect, which warns us to be cautious in formulating
our opinions. Breaking the taboo of the magic life of the puppet, the
third genre does not intend to break ‘the last taboo’ – that of the
‘physical corporeality of the live actor’. The third genre acts unilater-
ally: it follows the attitude of the reformers of dramatic theatre from
the beginning of the twentieth century, who deliberated on the use
of puppets to oppose the domination of the live actor. However, the
third genre did not propose a change of theatre philosophy, but
limited itself to an enlargement of the means of expression.
Naturally, it has its place among the visual arts, but only as a symbio-
sis of the two genres, which were not transformed into a new quality
(as an autonomous genre).83
This view of the third genre was the basis of my defence of the values
of the puppet theatre – sensu stricto. I treated the third genre as a new
phenomenon and, in my own sense of it, the presence of the third
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 35
There is a place for the puppet in avant-garde theatre, as has been the
case up until now. Besides there are still other territories of theatrical
art, addressed to spectators of other, less refined, artistic expecta-
tions. The theatre has responded to them for many centuries and
puppet theatre has done the same. It will continue its art, surprising
its audience by its specificity. Of course, I speak about ‘good’ puppet
theatre. Who knows – it might be a traditional or a classic produc-
tion. We live in a time when the live actor wants to show in his work
as much ‘artificiality’ as possible; why then could not the artificial
puppet produce as much life as possible?84
We [the puppeteers] have tried everything and now it seems that
there is nothing left to be analyzed and dissected. What more can we
do? Let us now start to put together again all these parts, like chil-
dren with toys they have taken to pieces. Sometimes, however, it
feels as though we are putting together parts which are not necessar-
ily the right ones.85
Leonora Shpet was not an ideologist of Soviet aesthetics; she was open
to artistic novelties. Her conclusion tells us about her irritation towards
any experiment that was without dramatic meaning: puppeteers should
return to the ‘true and typical means of expression’ if they wish to start
once more to convey important emotions or opinions on the problems
of our time.
Nevertheless, it became gradually noticeable that heterogeneity in
the means of expression served to evoke a metaphorical theatre
language. The visible presence of the puppet manipulator with his
puppet recalled the ancient metaphor about the dependence of a
human being (here the puppet) on supernatural powers (here the
puppet-player). An actor removing a mask during a show may be under-
stood as a metaphorical presentation of the human face in opposition
to the dead mask.
36 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
In 1923, Petr Bogatyrev published his first study devoted to the stylis-
tic value of the folk puppet theatre. However, he only discussed the
rhetorical figures of natural language, such as oxymoron, metaphor,
metathesis and so on.86 He did not foresee that half a century later these
figures would serve as structures for visual metaphor or visual synec-
doche. For many centuries theatre art has exploited metaphorical
images, but only recently have these become a subject of analysis and
comment.
The puppeteers – artists such as Yves Joly, Jan Wilkowski and
Margareta Niculescu – freely used metaphor,87 the importance of which
was pointed out by Niculescu. At the Congress of UNIMA in Warsaw in
June 1962, she delivered a lecture on ‘Metaphor as a Means of
Expression’, presenting several examples of its use in puppet theatre.
Obraztsov also thought that the puppet itself is a metaphor, because it
is not a human being but his image, his presentation. Many puppeteers
and critics followed Obraztsov, believing that any plastic deformation of
the human image through the puppet is worthy of being called a
metaphor. Naturally, they were right, although they did not pay atten-
tion to the fact that the stage puppet is already an exhausted metaphor,
a petrified one. Nobody among its spectators perceives it as something
new; the puppet as metaphor does not reveal anything. For a long time
puppet theatre has been socially obvious.
At the present time, however, due to the new artistic context of the
third genre, the puppet has rediscovered its metaphorical energy. At the
end of the 1960s it became clear that the third genre stands firmly as a
distinct and separate genre of theatre art. I came back to this subject in
a lecture in Bochum in 1971, entitled ‘Co-operation of People, Puppets
and Masks on the Theatrical Stage as a Philosophical Metaphor’. Here,
for the first time, I called the third genre a theatre of mixed media
(Theater der Mischformen, or multimedia theatre). I said this because the
puppet now exists in a completely new situation:
Romanticism discovered in the puppet a material object that has its
own formal value. For example, in Kleist’s theory the puppet is not a
little human, but an object with a centre of gravity and its own
expressive ability. Our times have discovered the puppet as an inter-
esting partner of the actor – in a mask or without one. The puppet is
no longer an homunculus or an isolated object. It has become an
element of theatre art, which cooperates with many other means of
expression, and in this role it has achieved a special importance. This
happened exclusively in the theatre of mixed media.88
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 37
The organizers of the international conference ‘The Puppet in the
Service of Metaphor’, during the festival at Bielsko-Biala in May 1972,
identified the same issue, as indicated by the title of the conference. The
majority of participants talked about double-level metaphor – at the
level of the puppet itself (with which I was arguing earlier) and at the
level of the production, with the possibility of a dynamic metaphor,
originating from the juxtaposition of various elements. Most represen-
tative of this view was the lecture of Hungarian critic Ede Tarbay:
The first and most basic metaphor in puppet theatre appears at the
moment when the player takes the puppet in his hand, and it exists
as long as the player demonstrates it on stage. At such a moment the
animated substance loses its material qualities and transforms into its
own negation.
Another metaphor is connected with an object that is presented
on stage. In this case, it is important whether we are able to convince
a spectator that the given object is alive. It is important whether we
are able to transform the wooden ball into a human figure. In this
case we can speak of a concrete metaphor. The essence of the
metaphorical presentation consists in the spectator’s emotional and
intellectual reaction to the creative impulses of an artist.
That is why I am not able to accept the multimedia theatre, in
which a player is seen next to the puppet, as a metaphorical presen-
tation. In this case, the puppet has lost its metaphorical meaning due
to the alienation effect. Also, the artist ignores the theatrical compe-
tence of the spectator, trying to explain to him the principle of
metaphor.89
strives to conquer its conventionalism – seeing in it its capital sin –
puppet theatre is pushed off to the peripheries of art and aesthetics.
The art of the second half of the twentieth century intends to a
certain degree to develop an awareness of its own specificity. The art
presents … the art itself, striving to get the measure of its own limits.
For that the art of puppetry became situated at the centre of contem-
porary artistic problems. The juxtaposition of magic stories (chil-
dren’s and folk worlds) and the images of automatic, inanimate life
open huge possibilities for expressing the eternally living problems
of contemporary art.90
Deliberation on the means of expression as well as the cultural function
of puppetry was complemented by the psychoanalytic interpretations
of the puppet offered by Annie Gilles, a French psychologist.91 She was
a diligent observer of the festival’s shows in Charleville-Mézières, where
she gathered rich comparative material. Applying structural and
psychological methods, she proposed some general theses, although her
conclusions might come as a surprise to those who have not followed
psychoanalytic methods of explaining the secrets of artistic creativity.
We have to note that psychoanalysis has the merit of many impor-
tant impulses in researching literature and art, but at the same time it
has provoked much resistance due to its one-sidedness. Arnold Hauser
has expressed this reservation well. He wrote in 1958:
Research into the work of art considered as a medium for the trans-
mission of sexual symbolism was from the very beginning a beloved
branch of psychoanalytic inquiry. It was a charming activity, which
might be accomplished more or less mechanically and which allows
one, apparently, to formulate an unlimited number of brave
hypotheses with surprising results.
However, as time passed, the effect of surprise disappeared, dimin-
ished, and at the end everybody was accustomed to (and even bored
by) the statement that each material object might be a symbol for the
genitals, that almost all human relations might be linked with the
Oedipus complex, that art is full of maternal images, and that epic
and tragic heroes have no other fear than that of being castrated.92
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 39
Puppeteers can hardly speak about being bored, because until now
psychoanalytic critics have not dealt with the puppet (except for some
occasional remarks and references). We should be grateful to Gilles for
filling this gap, although her thesis represents a one-sided view of the
world, as already mentioned.
We will not be surprised, then, by her first conclusion, when she
declares that all the puppet shows that she saw and analysed originated
either from the fear of castration, or the Oedipus complex, or some narcis-
sistic deviations. Taking the opinions of Jan Kott and René Sieffert as start-
ing points, she tries to convince us that the two famous plays by the
‘Japanese Shakespeare’, Chikamatsu Monzaemon – The Banished Priest and
The Double Suicide in Sonezaki – express the threat of castration by political
power on the one hand and familial power on the other. The same motif
exists in Marivaux’s play (produced by the Compagnie Dominique
Houdart) in which Harlequin opposes the wooing of an elderly fairy. In
this, he is defending himself from maternal, incestuous, castrating love.
There is no reason to argue with applying such methods of analysis.
However, we must note that all the literary examples given by the
author suggest that the fear of castration is a characteristic of all charac-
ters from the puppet repertory, as well as characters from the majority
of literary works, as was suggested already in the quote from Hauser.
Another of Gilles’s conclusions refers to the relationship between
puppet player and puppet, which very often – according to her view –
has a narcissistic character, or which is the expression of a complex
concerning the ‘father figure’. She found a confirmation of this
approach in the character of Geppetto, the carpenter who carved the
Pinocchio puppet, as well as in many stories that tell about the attach-
ment of puppeteers to the puppets they have made. She ended her
deliberations with a question: Is not a puppet a symbolic son, an object
and mirror of the puppeteer’s libido?
Gilles also spoke about the puppet’s ability to manifest the process of
projection. Although she did not say anything new in this, it was a start-
ing point for discussing the most important question, which I refer to
below.
Unquestionably, the constant – and at the same time unique –
element of puppet playing is the coexistence of the puppet and its
manipulator. This is a situation of necessary duality both in the specu-
lative sense and on the technical level. There is no need to recall that
puppet playing is a distinct form of theatre. However, it is a form in the
state of dissociation, and as such it offers numerous examples of expres-
sive possibilities and variations.93
40 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
In making this remark, Gilles was obliged to confront the puppet
theatre with Brecht’s theory of alienation. So for her, puppet theatre
seemed to be a theatre of paradox, one that proposed the double play of
illusion and reality. She is conscious that the parallel is not absolute, so
she prefers to say that puppet theatre presents an ‘extreme position’.
It is important in the case of child audiences that with the artist’s
guidance they see the ‘objective-ness’ of a puppet. In this situation the
puppet has the function of the ‘transitional object’, so important in
child psychology, aided by the ‘anthropomorphism’ of the classical
puppet. (Gilles does not agree that the modern use of the name ‘puppet’
should include any kind of object.) These deliberations led her to a basic
thesis, which I now quote at length:
If we remember that the puppet is a sign of the manipulator’s power,
that the puppet is an object marked by the libido of the person who
manipulates it and also for the person who sees this manipulation,
that it knows the state of abandonment and the state of no-life,
which is not synonymous with the state of death; that at the end the
puppet is a sort of appendix, separate from the manipulator’s body,
that giving its life reveals the sense of the ‘true image of the ego’, we
would be inclined to think, that the puppet’s latent value is that of a
substitute phallus. If we agree, following Freud and Lacan, that the
phallus is a basic signifier of the unconscious; and if we agree on the
phallic meaning of the puppet, we will understand the universal
importance of the puppet. We will understand its surprising energy
for survival in spite of the competition of cinema, as well as the
passions that it evokes: the fundamental signification of puppet
theatre is phallic. This latent phallic value does not contradict other
values discovered in studying the relations between a child and
puppet. These same people may, unconsciously, be sensitive in their
childhood first to each other and next to the phallic symbolism of
the puppet.94
is a contradiction of the phallus, and seems to be an equivalent of the
feminine sex. Gilles found a solution here in separating the study of
children’s and adults’ reception. For children, the hand puppet remains
a phallic symbol. Only adults, who know the hand puppet’s construc-
tion, understand it in an ambivalent way. Marionettes (string puppets)
express the complex of the father figure or paternal ideal. Their phallic
function is confirmed by their complete dependence on the demiurgic
power of the manipulator.
I doubt whether this kind of interpretation of the puppet’s symbol-
ism is to be fully accepted. There is a large group of puppets that are
operated with penetration – besides hand puppets, the Japanese puppets
ningyo joruri and the Court puppets of Thailand – and we should not
forget the feminine characteristics of puppets. Noting the duality of
these attributes (the coexistence of feminine and masculine elements),
we should consider the possibility of accepting the puppet’s androgyny.
On the other hand, we should analyse the coexistence of phallic
symbolism, belonging to the human unconscious, and the distinct and
consciously marked sexuality of puppets in some ritualistic examples
from ‘primitive’ cultures.
Gilles is immune to such thinking. She thinks that, independently of
puppet technique and puppet morphology, puppet means phallus and
the puppet show is its exhibition. In this perspective, an act of manip-
ulation is a substitute act of masturbation, and when we see a puppet’s
manipulator we have something to do with the masturbation being
exhibited. Our culture rejects public masturbation as something patho-
logical and illegal; however, the scenic play transforms it into its subli-
mated image, so that it becomes acceptable in the case of ludic or
aesthetic presentation. Gilles refers to works of such psychologists as
Melanie Klein and Jos Van Ussel, and states, following their opinions,
that the puppet player excites the spectators less through his stories,
and the indecency of action and language, as through his lack of respect
for authority and, even more, through the latent eroticism of his play-
ing. This is the basis of her definition of the puppet:
The puppet is a ludic object that allows the reconciliation of the
contrary needs of the social and individual orders through liquida-
tion of the feeling of guilt. Again the puppet appears once more as a
transitional, or intermediary, object. If ever such an object existed it
had to be the puppet. The name ‘object’ points to its real nature, but
also to its semiological and psychological values. It is an object,
which exists as a sign in the ideologically determined system of
42 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
images, and which might very easily respond to narcissistic needs in
the counterpoint of a fundamental ‘signifier’ and its latent meaning.
The term ‘intermediary’ points to the objective relation between
puppet player and his audience, but also points to the theatrical terri-
tory where the transformation and all ludic acts take place.95
Scholars as well as artists have applied various methods of thinking and
creation, and their works of art or theory influence their recipients in
different ways. Annie Gilles’s interpretation had a small number of
adherents; furthermore, it did not provoke any important continuation
of her analysis.
The growth of semiology brought with it the temptation to apply semi-
otic methods to define the characteristics of the puppet theatre. The
theory of theatrical signs seemed to be appropriate for the examination
of what has nowadays become a theatre of different means of expres-
sion. In a study of my own, I tried to define the territory of possible
research. For me it was not a question of ‘pure puppet theatre’ but the
puppet theatre as it actually is. We must face the fact that despite all
warnings, contemporary puppet theatre aims to enrich its means of
expression, to the detriment of the puppet as ‘expressive object’.
Significant inspiration came from the work of Polish semiotician
Tadeusz Kowzan, whose observations on puppet theatre confirmed the
earlier theses of Foote and Galewicz. Kowzan wrote:
Watching a puppet show we know immediately the importance of the
skilful ‘source of motor energy’ that is the puppet manipulator. He is not
always the ‘voice giver’: the actor speaking the text as well as the
puppet’s manipulator might be visible or invisible, a matter of great
importance for the content and style of the show.
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 43
As a result of this analysis, I came to the surprising conclusion that
the puppet is not the most characteristic element of today’s perform-
ances. Its characteristic features are the changing relationships between
its iconic signs of character, its driving power and the source of its vocal
expression:
Puppet theatre is a theatre art: the main feature that differentiates it
from live theatre is that the speaking and performing object makes
temporal use of physical sources for its vocal and driving powers
which are present beyond the object. The relationship between the
object (the puppet) and the power sources changes all the time and
these variations are of great semiological and aesthetic significance.97
This definition is, I think, adequate for the present state of puppet
theatre, because regardless of form – be it realistic or highly stylized –
puppet theatre avails itself of the changing relations between the means
of expression and their sources of power. We should remember that this
changeability of the relations between the components of puppet
theatre is realized also when choosing some particular technique –
string puppet or hand puppet, for example.
The constant oscillation of the relationship between the puppet and
the physical sources of its motor and vocal powers has caused a vital
change in the understanding of the puppet. Suddenly, the arrangement
of correlations between puppet and power is more substantial than the
components of this arrangement. The arrangement remains even when
its most distinctive feature – the puppet – may have disappeared, to be
replaced, for example, by a prop or a crude object.
The semiological analysis of a theatre performance is a complicated
task, due to the abundance of signs and their correlations. So what can
be said about the analysis of a puppet production where, from its very
nature, the signs and their connotations are in constant motion, build-
ing every now and again new relations between themselves?
Semiological analysis helps us to prove that the puppet theatre belongs
to those contemporary artistic manifestations that, due to the abun-
dance of their means of expression and their interchangeability, and
due also to their rich and fertilizing traditions, exist as universal
phenomena.
Thus, from our review of views on puppetry through the centuries we
arrive almost at the present. However, this survey is by no means
complete and it is not intended to be an inventory of every theory or
opinion on the subject, interesting as it might be to undertake such a
44 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
task. I have preferred to show only the main aesthetic problems evoked
by puppetry considered both as a popular and a sophisticated art form.
As such, this essay may serve as an invitation to further research.
A special issue of the journal Semiotica in 1983 provided an important
direction for semiotic research in puppet theatre. The 300-page volume
was edited by Frank Proschan of the University of Texas under the title,
‘Puppets, Masks, Performing Objects from a Semiotic Perspective’. Here
I will focus on puppets.
In his introduction, Proschan prepared a historical review of semiotic
studies on puppets up to the present day, rightly giving priority to Zich
and Bogatyrev. He also republished one of Bogatyrev’s last studies about
the links between the similar semiotic systems of puppet and live actor
theatres.98 Then, in a chapter entitled ‘Some General Considerations’,
he inserted three studies that are worth presenting in outline.
The first, a long study by the Czech semiotician Jiří Veltruský (then
living in Paris), is entitled ‘Puppetry and Acting’, and offers detailed
analysis of all aspects of scenic acting from the semiotic perspective. The
work, in large part, consists in applying semiotic terminology to well-
known views and theories about acting, leading to the discovery that
semiotic language allows a more thorough investigation of various
aspects of theatre practice.
Veltruský sees that the puppeteer’s acting differs a great deal from the
actor’s. An actor’s acting engages his or her body and speaking organs.
The puppet player, even when hidden, may enter the realm of acting if
his whole body is engaged in the puppet’s manipulation and if he or she
delivers its words. Veltruský wrote:
The puppeteer’s performance is closely related to, and yet different
from, acting. In some respects the two coincide but in others they have
hardly anything in common. And the area of their overlapping keeps
expanding and shrinking from one form of puppetry to another.
The puppeteer’s speaking belongs to the realm of acting. In vari-
ous forms of puppetry, however, this component is separate from the
manipulation. Its separateness is sometimes enhanced by the inclu-
sion of other elements of acting – facial play, expressive gestures, etc.
– in the performance of the actor who delivers the words. Bunraku is
the most outstanding example, but the same procedure is also impor-
tant in other forms of puppet theater, for instance, in the perform-
ance of French classic plays by the Dominique Houdart Company.
On the other hand, in certain forms of puppetry there are no
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 45
Reading this, it is easy to note that Veltruský was trying to create or at
least to grasp a universal theory of acting with puppets. And if this
conclusion is true, it is astonishing that he was doing so by way of
acting with actors. Puppetry, as much as human theatre, has many vari-
ants. The existence of the puppet ballet or puppet opera is hardly
surprising given the example of human ballet and opera. Veltruský
compared acting with puppets with the different sorts of acting in the
art of human theatre, as he chose this as the theme of his study (quite
different from Bogatyrev’s perspective, for instance).
Striving for universal theories, referring to global artistic phenomena,
is characteristic of the American school of research which focuses on
intercultural links. Certainly, this opens new perspectives, especially in
cultural anthropology, but it also gives rise to a loss of research into
specifics. This is Veltruský’s error, that in comparing actors’ acting with
puppeteers’ acting he takes examples from every continent: from
Bunraku and storytellers (using puppets) to ventriloquists and partici-
pants in African rituals. For this reason, only his most general conclu-
sions can be accepted without reservation, such as his statement about
how the antinomy between acting and performing with puppets varies
with different epochs and cultural forms:
This multifarious nature of acting, and its consequent flexibility, may
help to explain the persistence of the antinomy opposing live actors’
theatre to puppet theatre. The concrete shape of the antinomy
changes from period to period and from culture to culture. The
changes are due to the fact that not only do puppeteers adjust to
different structures of acting, but, equally, the actors respond to
different structures of the puppet show.100
This is absolutely right. Our doubts start while reading about the
Petrushka show in its traditional form as an argument for fixing the
46 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
All the factors on which the sense of the dramatic character depends
in acting also obtain in puppetry. What distinguishes puppetry from
acting in this respect is above all the relative weight of these factors.
Though the question remains largely unexplored, two moments are
likely to be significant. First, the performer’s image may be twofold,
relating to the puppet on the one hand and to the puppeteer on the
other, or even threefold when there is a separate speaker. Second, all
the available evidence suggests that in puppetry there is a definite
tendency to make the directly represented character prevail and,
concomitantly, to fashion all the other images in such a way as to
support it and build it up.101
If earlier we talked about the dangerous aspects of synchronic analysis
(for example, in comparing Bunraku and the Pupi Siciliani without any
reservations), now we have an opportunity to see the danger of apply-
ing uncritically a diachronic analysis. The theatre of popular heroes
(such as Petrushka) already belongs to the past and it is doubtful
whether its structure and style may serve to interpret today’s puppetry.
Veltruský’s study has, all the same, the great value of being the first
semiotic attempt to analyse the different aspects of acting with puppets.
He successfully gathered almost all the uses of puppets in theatrical art
and confronted them with theories of acting. Even if we do not agree
with parts of his thesis, we cannot deny the value of the vast amount of
material that he collected and prepared for further study.
Completing my arguments in relation to Veltruský’s research, I will
now offer my own study: ‘Transcodification of the Sign Systems of
Puppetry’, published in the same issue of Semiotica. My starting point
was the thesis that the mere fact of using puppets cannot be a basis for
defining its semiotic system. This had its source in my observations
about the importance of relations between the puppet, its manipulators
and the voice donor (where one existed). These relations determine the
nature and functioning of the semiotic system and so I claimed that the
puppet belongs to many sign systems. I wrote:
By ‘neighbouring sign systems’ I understood those rituals (including the
use of automata) which involve ‘magic’ puppets, pre-eminently the use
of puppets by storytellers to illustrate their words, always very popular
in both West and East.
Puppeteers who imitated the live actors’ theatre, even in its
deformed, popular version, certainly used sign systems borrowed from
that theatre. As we might remember, the puppet copies of Parisian live
theatre in the nineteenth century were famous throughout France. An
awakening consciousness among some puppeteers of the separateness
of puppet theatre from human theatre formed the basis for the wish to
fix their own system of signs, which meant promoting a separate
language.
In the second half of the twentieth century the structure of puppet
theatre changed due to many innovations. Puppeteers let their specta-
tors see the mechanisms of the puppet stage, revealing the cooperation
between puppet-player, puppets and other animated objects. Thus the
images that the puppet theatre presented disintegrated into smaller
parts, into theatre atoms, as I wrote. So I called this process the ‘atom-
ization of the puppet theatre’. One thing did not change, however, as I
emphasized in the conclusion of my study:
Thomas A. Green and W.J. Pepicello in their turn discussed the
‘Semiotic Interrelations in the Puppet Play’, meaning the semiotic
description and interpretation of the puppet show’s structure. They
were interested in the process of communication between the theatre
and its receiver, and first of all in the way in which the ‘message’ of the
show was composed and which codes were used for its transmission, a
transmission which is through two channels: visual and auditory (in
48 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
theatre art we do not know other channels, although there have been
some attempts to use the gustatory or olfactory channels):
In an attempt to explain the transformation of the message in
puppet theater, we shall focus on a number of codes. In the auditory
channel we shall discuss the voice as a sign; in the visual channel we
shall discuss the kinesics code, the physical appearance of the
puppets in performance, scene, and the semiotic nature of interac-
tions between humans and puppets in performance. Specifically, we
shall investigate how various of these channels serve to create ambi-
guity in the puppet performance, while others serve to resolve ambi-
guity, at the same time intensifying and focusing on selected
elements of the resolution.104
Green and Pepicello also analysed with great accuracy the choice of
codes and the functioning of channels, focusing, however, on the so-
called traditional theatre. They developed interesting deliberations on
the limits of applying voices in the puppet theatre and on redundancy,
which in puppet theatre seems to be inevitable. Redundancy in puppet
shows means numerous repetitions of a text, extravagant costumes and
exaggerated facial features. Naturally, this observation is not confirmed
in contemporary artistic theatre.
The authors deliberated also on the nature of the puppet in its func-
tion as a sign. They were willing to place it in each of the sign groups
identified by Peirce: icons, indexes and symbols (where icons are based
on similarity, indexes are the effects of some cause and symbols are the
result of social agreement). In contrast to Obraztsov, Green and
Pepicello are convincing when they propose that puppet theatre does
not have a metaphorical character but rather a metonymical one, from
which they draw the following conclusion:
Yet if, as we have seen, the puppet figure has strong components of
icon and symbol, as well as index, we might well ponder the role of
the visible puppeteer, and whether the visible puppeteer bears any
relation to the human actors or interlocutor in puppet theater. The
first part of our inquiry may be clarified if we consider the devices by
which puppet theater functions. We have noted that the codes in
puppetry involve distortion and reduction of normal human
communicative modes. This distortion and reduction result in
contradiction and incongruity when viewed from the perspective of
human-oriented drama. While the various reduced systems are in
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 49
Faced with this dictum Bogatyrev would certainly turn in his grave,
because during his life he wanted so much for puppet theatre to be
recognized as a separate sign system, independent of live theatre. I have
less reason to protest. Bearing in mind the exemplary material taken
from the folk and popular theatre of the nineteenth century, Green and
Pepicello could not reach any other conclusion. Their mistake was in
not mentioning that their research into puppet theatre belonged to a
particular period.
Besides the general articles, two detailed studies are included in the
puppet issue of Semiotica that encourage the use of semiotics as a
method of research. The first is an investigation by the Italian researcher
Antonio Pasqualino, ‘Marionettes and Glove Puppets: Two Theatrical
Systems of Southern Italy’.
Pasqualino has undertaken a comparison of Pupi Siciliani (large rod
marionettes) and Neapolitan glove puppets. Although he is conscious of
the fact that both theatres differ immensely, heis attracted by the hope
of finding common elements – which, in the end, he does.
Pasqualino starts his study by presenting a semiotic description of
each of these theatrical genres, looking for its specific elements equally
in details of costume, in voice delivery, in the convention of gestures
within a schematic action and so on. When he analyses the linguistic
code, for example, he is also interested in the voice code, in which he
50 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Figure 1.2 Sicilian Marionette. Photo by Carl Schröder
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 51
distinguishes the voice’s volume, its tone, its timbre, rhythm and vibra-
tion. Also, when he speaks about Pupi Siciliani he makes a typology of
its characters, separately for the Palermo version and for the Catania
one, taking into consideration heraldic emblems, as well as helmets,
cuirasses, shields, skirts and feathers.
He also presents a very interesting thesis on the existence of a
schema of events, responding to the chivalric story presented by the
Pupi Siciliani:
(1) Solemn council; (2) private council; (3) battle; (4) liberation of a
prisoner by force; (5) secret conversation heard by eavesdropper or
soliloquy overheard by hidden person; (6) surprise of a sleeping
personage; (7) receipt of news from an encountered personage; (8)
liberation from a spell; (9) evocation of devils who give news and/or
receive orders; (10) apparition of angels who bring news and/or
orders; (11) glorification and ascent to Heaven of the soul of a dead
hero; (12) damnation and descent to Hell of the soul of a traitor; (13)
arrival of a personage bringing news; (14) departure or dispatch of a
personage to perform a task; (15) dialogue; (16) secret advice; (17)
soliloquy.106
Pasqualino similarly presents the glove puppets called guarattelle in the
south of Italy. The hero of the show is Pulcinella, who fights everybody,
including Death at the end. Here is Pasqualino’s conclusion:
The opera dei pupi and the guarattelle, we have demonstrated in our
analysis, present the following similarities: the frequency and impor-
tance of the physical encounter; the fact that this encounter is repre-
sented in symmetrical dancing movements with resounding,
rhythmic blows; the conclusion of the encounter with the death of
one of the contenders; and the identifiability of the glove puppet
Pulcinella with the masques of the opera dei pupi: Nofriu, Virticchiu,
Peppenninu, and Pulcinella himself.107
theatre in Liège, demonstrating its social context and social functions,
which manifest themselves in the manner of shaping and using the
spoken text. Gross wrote, however, mainly about how the famous
puppet player Defour used his voice in the shows, pointing out the
changes of tempo, rhythm, tone and intensity, timbre and emotional
interpretation. Semiotics in this case appeared to be an exquisite instru-
ment to describe traditional theatre.
In 1984 Beata Pejcz presented a semiotic description of a particular
show, without addressing its specifics.109 Discussing the problems of
describing a puppet show, she presented an analysis of a show within
the illusionist convention, with the actors hidden behind a screen
(Rymcimci, the Bear by Jan Wilkowski), as well as an anti-illusionist show
with the actors visible – puppet players without a screen (Winnie the
Pooh, after A.A. Milne). This attempt confirmed the usefulness of semi-
otic methods of description in both traditional theatre and modern
theatre. It did not aspire, however, to offer a general thesis on the nature
of this theatre.
Other semiotic studies of puppetry have dealt with such different
aspects as the status of the scenic characters110 and the poetic languages
in puppet theatre, discussing its various tropes.111 We can only guess at
how these will be continued.
The first essays discussing the influence of Bertolt Brecht’s theories
on puppet theatre appeared in the 1980s. Nobody had researched this
as a whole, but now and then some aspects were discussed.
Chronologically the first was the Soviet historian Natalia Smirnova’s
statement that the influences of Gordon Craig and Bertolt Brecht were
decisive for transformations in puppet theatre. She wrote:
Puppet theatre has paid close attention to the views of Gordon Craig
and Bertolt Brecht. During our century many new companies found
inspiration in their views. They produced surprising shows due to
their use of new means of expression.112
Some pages later we can read further:
Twentieth century puppet theatre in its most excellent and meaning-
ful achievements represented Gordon Craig’s ideas. Considering the
professional and aesthetic points of view we may say that the best
puppet masters demonstrated the maturity and accuracy of their
political positions. The theatre of the twentieth century took a noble
place in the progressive fight of humanity for justice and ethical
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 53
We can agree neither with Smirnova’s political phraseology nor with
her idea of seeing Craig and Brecht as reformers with a similar artis-
tic programme. The former was interested in the aesthetics of art
theatre, while the latter was interested in its ideology and political
functions. The former researched the very nature of theatre art, the
latter its social reception. Brecht’s concept of epic theatre did not
originate from aesthetic premises but from the political attitude of
the artist.
There is no need to discuss once again the importance of Craig’s ideas
in the renewal of the art of puppetry. From my own feeling and knowl-
edge, the influence of Brecht’s theory was rather limited. The epic
theatre style in its pure form was applied by Jan Wilkowski in 1956, in
his show Guignol in Trouble, at Warsaw’s Lalka theatre. All other applica-
tions, even in productions of Brecht’s own plays, offered rather its trans-
formation.
Brecht’s theatre was popular, but his theory was very little known.
The term ‘alienation effect’ (Verfremdungseffekt) was the cause of many
misunderstandings. Normally, artists connected it with Brecht’s theory,
not knowing that it has a wider meaning and that many writers and
artists before Brecht used it to mean a break with scenic illusion. The
German researcher Joachim Fiebach wrote about it as follows:
Craig, Tairow and Meyerhold also used the ‘alienation effect’ under-
stood in a general way. It consists in the opposition of an actor and
his role, in the use of mask, in the special stress on gestures, in the
use on stage of visual documents, in separating the text from gesture,
in quotations, and in direct address to audiences.114
I agree with Fiebach that we should apply this term in its wider sense as
a break with scenic illusion, since scenic action is no more true than the
fiction presented on stage. Such an understanding of Verfremdung is
different from that of Brecht’s theory and practice. Brechtian
Verfremdung breaks with scenic illusion but does so for social reasons: it
proposes a new way of seeing represented events in accordance with the
ideological attitude of the artist. This is why I use the term ‘alienation
effect’ in connection with Brechtian theory and in all other cases I refer
to a ‘break with illusion’ or a ‘theatricalization of events’.
54 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
To return to ‘Verfremdungseffekt’ in the puppet theatre. It is its
immanent part and, in principle, it is always present. Puppets are
only material. Let us discuss a little Chekhov show [‘The Witch’ at
the Neubrandenburg Puppet Theatre]: the characters are true and
realistic. Thus their movements and words should also be very
‘natural’ in the human sense of the word. But what does this word
‘natural’ mean in relation to the puppets? It means that they are
behaving as inert material; that is, they are completely motionless
or they produce as best they can sweeping movements. However,
the matter of the puppet acted upon externally imitates human
movements and becomes alien to itself. This is exactly the alien-
ation effect. The most naturalistic puppet creates the strongest alien-
ation effect.115
Again, here we have to do with an interpretation of the alienation
effect, seeing its presence in puppet theatre as a paradox. The phenom-
enon disturbed many researchers, especially within German cultural
circles. Konstanza Kavrakova-Lorenz, a Bulgarian scholar living in
Berlin, focused on the specificity of the Verfremdungseffekt in puppet
play. She wrote:
There is the basic difference between ‘Verfremdung’ as a method and
technique in actor’s theatre, and the constant ‘alienation effect’ in
the puppet play. An actor who plays ignoring ‘Verfremdung’ is
acceptable but the puppet show without the presence of
‘Verfremdung’ is unthinkable, because it is part of its essence,
consisting in the tension of its developing duality.116
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 55
Here again, we should have some doubts as to whether the use of the term
Verfremdung is correct in this case: in Brecht’s practice it meant the sharp
opposition between illusion (actors as characters) and reality (actors as
humans). In puppet theatre, the elements of artificiality, counterfeit and
reality are juxtaposed, seldom in sharp opposition. The material puppet
that moves links elements of reality and illusion. In the course of a
performance a slight change in its relations exposes one or the other, real-
ity or illusion. So in puppet theatre we have to do with processes of a
pulsation between values and not with processes of opposition.
Bogatyrev was aware of the existence of relationships between these
opposite notions. That is why he spoke about the need for controlling
aesthetic signs, as those which an artist uses purposely. Considering the
intentional playing between fictive and real elements, I have spoken
about the same phenomenon, calling it ‘opalization’:
When movement fully dominates an object we feel that the charac-
ter is born and present on stage. When it is the nature of the object
that dominates we still see the object. The object is still the object
and the character at the same time. Sometimes however this unity
splits for a short while, to be regenerated after a moment. This is
what I mean by ‘opalization’.117
Further deliberation on this subject led me to the field of puppet theatre
rhetoric, suggesting research on tropes applied in puppetry. Deliberating
on both the metonymical and the metaphorical puppet’s character as a
means of expression, I came to the conclusion that the puppet is a
special form of metaphor – an oxymoron:
Oxymoron is the figure of speech by means of which contradictory
terms are combined so as to form an expressive epithet such as ‘black
sun’, ‘cruel kindness’, and last but not least ‘living object’: The mate-
rial puppet combined with the appearance of life, supplied by move-
ment and vocal delivery, is an oxymoron.118
The young American researcher Steve Tillis presented his own analysis
of this phenomenon, proposing to call it ‘double vision’:
It would be incorrect to say that all puppetry consciously strives
to create double-vision; in fact, such a striving has not been central
to the phenomenon of the puppet. As we have seen in Jurkowski’s
example of the Italian theatre company that alternately performed
live and with puppets, double-vision might well have frequently
been considered an undesirable side effect. Nonetheless, double-
vision is a constant in all puppet performance, whether intentionally
or not, and thus provides the basis for a synchronic explanation of
the puppet’s widespread and enduring appeal, for it creates in every
audience the pleasure of a profound and illuminating paradox
provoked by an ‘object’ with ‘life’.119
I have quoted all these definitions to emphasize that the opposition of
reality and fiction in puppet theatre has many aspects. To see them as a
simple Verfremdungseffekt is a mistaken simplification, which restricts
our knowledge of the puppet and its theatre.
There is no doubt that Kavrakova-Lorenz considered the puppet-player
to be an actor, which corresponds to Polish artistic practice, as proved
by the cycle of Jan Wilkowski’s works published in the 1980s.122
Nevertheless, the process of creation of stage characters consists of
something more than the mechanical transmission of an actor’s feel-
ings. It consists of a cooperation between ‘puppet’ and ‘player’:
Connecting both as one entity, which shows sometimes their differ-
entiated characteristics, is a result of the communication between
internal and external processes. Inwardly this connection is accom-
plished as a contact between subject-puppet player and object-
puppet. It serves the existence of the synergetic phenomenon, whose
elements interact mutually, alienating its basic characteristic – to be
a subject and to be an object – and so they exchange their functions
in the show. Outwardly they are oriented for a receptive process, to
give a basis to this synergy; that is, to create ‘what is essential’ in the
mind of the spectators.123
The term ‘synergy’ was applied in philosophy, and more precisely speak-
ing in theology. Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1530) introduced it to
designate the cooperation of the Holy Spirit and human free will striv-
ing for redemption. It seems that puppet theatre cannot escape religious
metaphor. It is worth noting, however, that Melanchthon’s synergy
dealt with two subjects, while in Kavrakova-Lorenz’s interpretation it is
limited to subject and object. Here we have her explanation of this:
We understand synergy as the dynamic principle for formation and
development of structures, which are achieved in processes of recep-
tion, interaction, and activity. Through synergy we will imagine a
complex of processes which include existing elements, with such
activities as choice, transformation and other changes. These are
processes of cooperation and competition. They give life to syner-
getic images, which means no more than a certain caesura. Inside
this caesura, which is a turning point, some structures come into
being, that help to strengthen the potential of the cooperating
elements. In general, acts of a synergetic character will be experi-
enced (revealed or hidden) and evaluated through the organizing
power of the leading element (or group of elements), which gets
imposed as the constitutive component. The playing of puppets acts
as a synergy of the plastic and representative forms using the tension
between the starting elements and their functions. To solve this
58 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
All these complicated (typically German) deliberations find support in the
classic concept of subject and object, which in this case cooperate closely:
‘The specific approach of subject and object in the performance of a
puppet play shows the true aesthetic content of this form of art and its
means of expression.’125 This conclusion is of course correct, although the
Americans, sensitive to the crisis of ‘the subject’ in their philosophy and
art, might reject this thesis as contradictory to ideas of ‘postmodernism’.126
Americans have also taken a clear position in relation to the paral-
lelism of acting in actors’ and puppet theatre. Roman Paska’s opinion in
this respect is significant:
Puppetry or puppet theatre? lf puppetry can function as a perform-
ing art in various contexts (cinema, drama, cabaret, circus, television,
performance art, avant-garde theatre), what exactly is the meaning of
the expression ‘puppet theatre’?
Puppet theatre in the West has been largely dependent on (and
derivative of) the dramatic actors’ theatre. But apologists and defend-
ers of the art who hope to legitimize puppetry as theatre by citing its
similar nature as a composite theatrical form (using Craig’s variation
on Wagner’s concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk), are only asking to
board a sinking ship.
If puppetry is an art form in its own right (or at all) according to
modernist criteria, it has to manifest qualities that distinguish it from
the theatre in general – qualities both inherent and unique that
define its essential ‘puppetness’. (Even if the puppet itself is only
implied or virtual, as in the hand mime or object theatre.)127
So, after almost an entire century of research into the specificity of
puppets and their performances, it appears that there is always the same
need to define the essential features of puppets and puppetry as an artis-
tic genre. Does this mean that the previous considerations have been
unsatisfactory? I do not think so. However, they belonged to other
times; today we require a new commentary on our art. Moreover, Paska
is trying to suggest a definition that extends the notion of the puppet
into a theatre of objects.
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 59
In sum, this division provides a clear characterization of the opposing
trends in contemporary puppet theatre, but primarily gives a descrip-
tion of the intentions of the ‘primitives’. In another part of his article,
Paska stresses the importance of how the actor (performer, puppeteer)
acts, as this changes the meaning of the term ‘puppet’:
Like a fish out of water, the puppet out of performance is a dead
thing, as potential signifier only. As demonstrated most recently by
the theatre of objects, the signifying properties of the puppet as a
passive formal object or sculpture are ‘ultimately unnecessary to the
object’s kinetic signifying activity as a puppet actor’ in a performance
context. The puppetness of an object is determined by use, not
latency, and is a renewable, not a permanent quality.129
Taking this position, Paska could view the theatre of objects as identical
to puppet theatre: ‘In the theatre of objects, puppetness is only ever a
concept or possibility. (But the object is a virtual puppet before it is
anything else, which is why the theatre of objects is still puppet
theatre.)’130
Here we meet with a fairly widespread view that everything, every
object that serves the artist in making a stage character exist, is a
puppet; that a puppet is a thing in statu nascendi. It becomes a puppet
in the process of animation, as is allegedly confirmed in the theatre of
objects.131 This issue requires detailed examination. Indeed, we are
entering into language that is not only the property of the puppeteers’
milieu, but can serve in communication to groups of many millions of
people.
According to tradition, puppets are divided into various basic types,
such as the hand puppet, marionette, rod puppets, clavier puppet and
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 61
others. At this level there are no difficulties. No one tells the umbrella
that it is a rod puppet or marionette, but there are many who consider
that the umbrella is a kind of doll, because it can function like a
puppet.
The object’s features can offer a starting point for clarifying the
matter. A puppet (stick puppet, marionette, hand puppet) is an object
made for theatrical use. This cannot be said of the umbrella or the
brush, even when it is present as a stage character in the theatre of
objects, because they were made for another purpose: to protect against
rain, or to sweep the floor. Each type of puppet incorporates a
programme of theatrical action (visually expressive, technical and
method of manipulation). Each object contains certain utility proper-
ties, enabling it to perform its functions. The puppet is ready to go
onstage. The object must renounce its utility functions before it takes its
role as a stage character, when it has to assume a new function.
The puppet corresponds iconically to its depicted role; the object
(except in rare moments of impersonation) contrasts with the iconicity
of the role. Puppets can create an illusion of stage character that the
object will never attain; the object will always be recognizable as an
object, which in a certain type of theatre is somehow automatically a
great advantage. That is not to say that the figurative puppet is more
perfect, only that it is different. Of course, you can forget about the
linguistic tradition, you can forget about the functional differences
between puppets and objects, you can focus on the process of creating
an oscillating effect ad hoc, as Roman Paska wanted to do. In this way
we will preserve the ancient notion of ‘puppet’, giving it a very wide
meaning. But is it not more appropriate to call new things by new
names?
To be fair to the puppeteers’ milieu, it must be said that in the last 20
years several attempts to introduce a new terminology have been under-
taken. Thus there is the ‘theatre of animation’, the ‘object theatre’, the
‘other theatre’; but the greatest success, because it is well accepted in
Italy and Germany, has been with the term ‘theatre of figures’ (teatro di
figura, Figurentheater). In 1990, puppeteer and teacher Werner Knoedgen
published the book Das Unmögliche Theater. Zur Phaenomenologie des
Figurentheaters (The Impossible Theatre. Towards a Phenomenology of a
Theatre of Figures132). He attempted to define the place of puppet
theatre among its related genres, and above all to determine the charac-
teristics of modern derivative forms of this theatre as a ‘theatre of
figures’. Here is an example of what is, and what is not, the theatre of
figures:
62 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
‘Theatre of figures’ – what does this term mean? Is it a conceptual re-
evaluation of folk art, thought to refer to a toy? Or is it just a ‘better’
word for ‘playing puppets’, to cover up the old inferiority complex?
Or by means of a ‘theatre of figures’ do we designate a newly created
‘discipline’, of material and object animation, mixing different kinds
of shapes and techniques? Does this mean that one can open forms
of dissemination of play, in which animators are visible alongside the
theatrical figures?
Indeed, some changes have taken place and the new forms of
artistic expression are symptomatic. There is a new awareness that is
expressed in terminology, as the previously dominant term ‘puppet
play’ was replaced by ‘theatre of figures’. In Germany, ‘theatre of
figures’ as a notion has existed for two hundred years but only now
does it begin to be used as the name of a theatrical genre.133
The ‘theatre of figures’ also characterizes the ‘theatre of material’
(Materialstheater), which has different variations. The first of these is a
theatre based on unformed material (receiving its shape during the
show), and this is proper to the ‘theatre of material’. Its second charac-
teristic is a theatre which uses material that is already shaped, to which
belongs the theatre of objects, mask theatre, puppet theatre, mixed
media theatre and theatre using only parts of the human body, such as
a theatre of human hands. The task of the player (that is, the Darsteller)
in the theatre of figures is the creation of a role. Knoedgen consistently
avoids the term ‘stage character’, using instead the formal term ‘role’. In
any case, in the theatre of figures the creation of the role differs from
the tasks of the actor in drama theatre:
Due to the suggestion of life in things devoid of life, due to the pres-
entation of the active by use of the passive, the actor of the figure
theatre differs from the dramatic actor. He transfers his role into the
material object, and thus takes a distance from this role; even if he
could abandon himself, he knows that that object-role cannot replace
him. He is the only present subject: the object-role remains the means
of expression, the ordinary instrument of its production.134
It might be assumed that this analysis is of value for all variants of mate-
rial theatre, were it not that the separation of the object (material) and
subject (the acting actor) is not as simple as Knoedgen presents it. It is
often the case that subject and object are involved in a joint presence
within the role; that is, they cannot be clearly separated (for example,
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 63
The flavour of Knoedgen’s book lies in its details, which there is no
room to discuss here. It is one of those rare books that attempt to
describe in a new way, and with a new language, the state of contempo-
rary theatre, as it emerged from the earlier forms of puppetry.
Knoedgen’s struggle with the wealth of artistic phenomena renders its
descriptions more complicated than these quotations might make them
appear.
Actually, all these reflections on the puppet and its theatre have
resulted from its current state, which is extremely diverse and distin-
guished by the richness of its forms. There is nothing surprising in the
fact that in the twentieth century, especially its second half, a number
of commentaries on puppet theatre were published, even though only
a few of them refer to its theory and aesthetics. In this review, although
I could not cover all the work worthy of interest, I have attempted to
describe the fundamental issues that have moved and provoked reflec-
tion in theoreticians and in the puppeteers themselves.
64 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
First published as Z djiejów pogla˛dów na teatr lalek (Literary views on
puppet theatre), Pamie˛tnik Teatralny (Memories of theatre), Warsaw
1968, 1: 3–52. Translated and edited by Penny Francis and Mischa
Twitchin 2013.
Notes
1 Horace, The Satires Book II, Satire 7.
2 Aslan O., L’Art du Théâtre, Paris 1963, 133.
3 Sokolov V., Gedanken zu meiner Theater musikalischer Dynamik (Thoughts
on the musical dynamics of my theatre): Das Puppentheater vol. 1, Leipzig
1923, 33–8.
4 Lemercier de Neuville L. Nouveau Théâtre de Pupazzi, Paris 1882, vii.
5 Boehm M. von Dolls and Puppets, Boston 1956, 395.
6 Foote S. ‘Piety in pattens’, Biografia Dramatika or Companion to the
Playhouse. III, London 1812, 150.
7 Ibid.
8 Buschmeyer L., Die Kunst des Puppenspiels (The art of puppet play), Erfurt
1931, 2.
9 Goethe J.W., The Sorrows of Young Werther, trans. David Campbell, London
1999.
10 Mickiewicz A., Dziela (Works) vol. V., Warsaw 1948, 26.
⁄
28 Ibid., 9
29 Sand M., Masques et Bouffons, vol. I, Paris 1860, 141.
30 Sand G., Dernières Pages, Paris 1877, 128.
31 Maeterlinck M., ‘Menus propos’, La Jeune Belgique, 9: 1890.
32 Craig E.G., ‘The actor and the über-Marionette’, The Mask vols. I–II,
Florence 1908.
33 Craig E.G., On the Art of the Theatre, London 1911, 81.
34 Ibid., 94.
35 Craig E.G., ‘Puppets and poets’, The Chapbook, February 1921, 20.
36 Ibid., 13.
37 Ibid., 4.
38 Ibid., 18.
39 Zich O., Drobné umeˇni – wytwarne snahy (Small art – great artefacts), Prague
1923.
40 Ibid.
41 Kolar E., ‘Ke korenum Česke loutkarske estetiky’ (The roots of the aesthetic
of Czech puppetry), Divadlo, 1964, 68.
42 Bogatyrev P., Lidové divadlo ceské a slovacké (Czech and Slovak Folk
Theatre), Prague 1940, 124.
43 After Kolar, op. cit., 71.
44 Kilian-Stanisl⁄ awska J., ‘Po pie˛tnastu latach o teatrze lalek’ (Puppet theatre
fifteen years later), Państwowy Teatr Laleka, 1944–55, 13.
45 Buschmeyer L., Die Kunst des Puppenspiels, Erfurt 1931.
46 Ibid. 55.
47 Ibid. 169.
48 Sandig H., Die Ausdruckmöglichkeiten der Marionette und ihre dramaturgischen
Konsequenzen (The expressive potential of the puppet theatre and its
dramaturgical consequences), Munich 1958.
49 Polti G., Les 36 Situations Dramatiques, Paris 1895.
50 Eichler F. Das Wesen des Handpuppen und Marionettenspiels, Emsdetten
1937.
51 Ibid. 22.
52 Ibid. 26.
53 Obraztsov S.V., ‘Znaczenie teatru lalek i jego miejsce ws´ród innych rodza-
jów sztuki teatralnej’ (The importance and place of the puppet theatre
among the other theatre arts), Teatr Lalek, 1958, 6: 12.
54 Ibid.
55 Matuszewski J., ‘Bohaterowie Jasel⁄ek. O stal⁄ych typach teatru ludowego w
Europie’ (Heroes of the puppet stage: on the perennial characters of
European folk theatre), Swoi i obcy, 1903, 362–403.
56 Sztaudynger J., Marionetki, Lvov and Warsaw, 1938.
57 Ibid. 133–4.
58 Ibid.
59 Sztaudynger J., Jurkowski H., Ryl H., Od szopki do teatru lalek (From szopka
to puppet theatre), Lódż, 1961.
66 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
60 Schiller Leon, 1887–1967 (ed. M. Waszkiel), Teatr Lalek, 1987, 1–2: 2.
61 Ibid. 34.
62 Kolar E. ‘26 x loutkovost’ (26 times puppetness), Ceskoslovensky Loutkař,
1964, 8–9: 196.
63 Ibid., 197.
64 Ibid.
65 Blattman E., ‘Märchenspiel mit Handpuppen?’ Puppen- und Figurenspiel.
Arbeitsheft 2. Herausgegeben von der Dektion für Redende und
Musizierende Kunstler/Abtg. Puppenspiel, Goethenaum-Dornach, 1991,
33.
66 Česal M., Z–ivy herec na loutkovym divadle (Live actor in the puppet theatre),
Prague 1983.
67 Purschke H.R., ‘Puppe und Mensch’, Perlicko-Perlacko 1958, 2: 134–5.
68 Dorst T., ‘Das Marionettentheater der Gegenwart’ (The contemporary
puppet theatre), Perlicko-Perlacko 1958, 2: 134–5.
69 Mazur K., ‘Romanse marionety czyli o powia˛zaniach teatru lalek z teatrem
dramatycznym – i nie tylko …’ (Romance of the marionette or the links
between puppet theatre and actor theatre – and more …), Teatr lalek i jego
zwia˛zki z innymi dziedzinami sztuki, Warsaw 1962, 22.
70 Ibid.
71 Ibid. 29.
72 Siegel H., ‘Schauspieler und Puppenspieler’ (Actor and puppet player),
Puppentheater der Welt, Berlin 1965, 24.
73 Makota J., O klasyfikacji sztuk pie˛knych (On the classification of the Arts),
Krakow 1964, 183.
74 Ibid.
75 Galewicz J., Próba określenia widowiska lalkowego jako jednej ze sztuk pieknych
(An attempt to define puppet performance as an art form), Teatr Lalek
1965, 33: 5.
76 Kolar E., ‘Lalkarstwo – sztuka plastyczna czy teatralna?’ (Puppetry – fine art
or theatre), Wspólczesny teatr lalek w slowie i obrazie (Contemporary puppet
⁄ ⁄
theatre in word and image), Warsaw 1963, 31.
77 Bensky R.D., Recherches sur les structures et la symbolique de la marionnette,
Paris 1971, 22.
78 Ibid.
79 Ibid. 23.
80 Ibid. 114.
81 Jurkowski H., ‘De Relatie tussen Mens, Pop en Masker het Toneel ais
menselijke Metafoor’ (Relationships between men, puppets and masks as
a source of metaphor), Instytut voor Kunstanbachten, Mechelen 1973.
82 Jurkowski H., ‘Perspektywy rozwoju teatru lalek’ (Perspectives on the
development of the puppet theatre), Teatr Lalek, 1966, 37–8: 3.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid.
Literary Views on Puppet Theatre 67
Lalek w Bielsku – Bialej, 15–20 May 1972, 54.
⁄
307.
97 Jurkowski, H., Je˛zyk wspólczesnego teatre lalek (The language of the contem-
⁄
porary puppet theatre), Teksty 1978, nr. 6, 61.
98 Bogatyrev P., Semiotyka kultury ludowej (Semiotics of folk culture), Warsaw
1975.
99 Veltrusky´ J., Puppetry and acting, Semiotica, 1983, 14: 73–4.
100 Ibid. 77.
101 Ibid. 105.
102 Jurkowski H., ‘Transcodification of the sign systems of puppetry’,
Semiotica, 1983, 14: 131.
103 Ibid. 144.
104 Green T.A., Pepicello W.J., Semiotic interrelationships in the puppet play,
Semiotica, 1983, 14: 147.
105 Ibid. 158.
106 Pasqualino A., ‘Marionettes and glove puppets in southern Italy’,
Semiotica, 1983, 14: 256.
107 Ibid. 276.
108 Gross J., ‘Creative use of language in a Liège puppet theatre’, Semiotica,
1983, 14: 281.
68 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Theatre is transformation. It is a vision created by an artist, transform-
ing himself or a puppet or even an object into an imagined character.
This is a well-known fact which I recall in order to discuss the situation
of the contemporary puppet theatre and particularly that of the puppet
itself. I need a widely accepted truth as a point of departure for my argu-
ments and conclusions.
While we are involved in theatre activity, we hardly notice the new
impulses as they come and bring their changes. However, when it
occurs to us to look from a distance, we can see all the new tendencies
which have appeared in our own time, giving new colouring to the face
of the art.
Some years ago I presented a sort of judgement on the development
of European puppetry, at a conference in Moscow. Then I stated, giving
as my example the production of the DRAK theatre Final Appearance –
Circus Unikum, that we had just come to the end of a cycle in the history
of puppet theatre. This cycle, started centuries ago by ritual puppetry,
included different periods of theatre development and had now come
full circle in today’s ritual manner of the puppets’ handling. It was
precisely there, in Circus Unikum, that we saw that the play’s most
important character, Nadezhda, had no movement. She was inanimate
– or almost. In spite of that she was ‘alive’ because all the other charac-
ters, played by live actors, treated her as a live person.
This is the ritual way of making a figure live, which can be referred
to as the ‘animization’ of the figure.
During the last year I have had other opportunities to see produc-
tions of this kind, with variations, and for this reason I invite you to
share my thoughts. Let us go back to the beginning, since the contem-
porary situation must derive from the past. Although this is not the
place to recount the whole history of puppet theatre, I would like to
recall the various functions which puppets have had, to give you an
idea of their variety.
69
70 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
In the beginning there was animism. People believed that stones,
trees, clouds, animals were invested with some spiritual force – anima.
In the same way their ceremonial figures, as they became participants in
their rituals, were also believed to be imbued with life. In this way these
figures became idols.
The next stage was the animation (manipulation) of the idols, which
resulted in their transformation into puppets. Then the puppets were
given functions, which fall into two groups:
• Ritual and magic, still fulfilled among many African and indigenous
American tribes (Europeans are rarely accepted at such ceremonies).
• Theatrical functions which have changed from century to century,
depending on cultural and social life, and that of the theatre.
At first the puppet was considered as an object of curiosity, then as
something more spectacular than theatrical. Only by degrees did it
attain its place as a theatre performer.
I will not discuss here the ritual and magic functions. It is undoubt-
edly a fascinating subject, but is far beyond our present concern, which
is about the puppets’ theatrical functions. These may be classified thus:
• The puppet as android. It was seen as an artificial human which
amazed its audiences by its resemblance to the real thing. The appar-
ently lifeless figure becoming filled with life was the first stage of the
theatrical transformation of the puppet.
• The puppet as a substitute for the actor. The puppet came on to the
miniature stage just as an actor did, since when the puppet has
represented its own life as well as the life of the character, claiming
to be a little homunculus. This kind of puppet never admitted that
it was a puppet, striving to prove its equality to the human actor.
This was the second stage of its theatrical transformation.
• The puppet as an artificial actor. Samuel Foote and later the German
Romantics wanted to present the puppet as an artificial performer.
For them it was a puppet and nothing more than a puppet, not to
be considered as a live actor. The confrontation of the dead, wooden
figure with the real live actor became a main principle of the produc-
tions of their time.
• The puppet as a ‘transforming’ figure, especially as seen in the ‘meta-
morphosis’ or ‘trick’ puppets which were well known to British
puppeteers.
• The puppet as a ‘puppet-like’ thing. This tautology means ‘the
Towards a Theatre of Objects 71
this case the actor has replaced the puppet player, quite a new situ-
ation.
• The puppet as a sort of prop or accessory for the actor. Here the func-
tion of the puppet is degenerating. Again, the actor creates the char-
acter, using the puppet as an iconic sign, but paying no attention to
it as a true acting subject.
• The puppet as an idol, like Nadezhda in Cirkus Unikum, already
mentioned.
• The puppet as an object as such, deprived of theatrical life, even of
the attendant belief in it of actors or public. When the actors as well
as the public no longer believe in the life of the puppet, the wonder
of the transformation into a live character does not occur. Though
the puppet is an object manufactured especially for theatrical use, in
this ease it is completely dead. This lack of belief results in the
degeneration of the puppet and onstage it seems to be useless. That
is why the puppet when treated as an object is today often replaced
by actual objects taken from everyday life.
All these examples of the modus vivendi of the puppets are present in
the puppetry of today. Though some originated far back in its long
history, they exist still and give a sense of richness to the art. We still
meet puppets used simply as replacements for actors, though more
often we see them as the actor’s partner. Sometimes the puppet is there
in the function of the ‘idol’. More and more often puppets are being
used as objects per se or replaced by real objects.
The characteristics and qualities of different kinds of puppet
provoke me to think that we are not at present within one cycle of the
puppet’s history but in two. They touch and even penetrate each other.
The first is the cycle which deals with magic, rites, religious and simi-
lar sorts of puppets, all based on animism and the supernatural.
Because of the ritual uses of the figures in some modern productions,
puppetry comes back to its starting point. The second cycle is the one
which deals with profane and secular puppets, wherein all interest lies
in the process of creation. Of course it is the actor who appears onstage
who is the ‘creator’. The puppet is at most a participant of the actor’s
work.
This process of creation on the stage has become more important
than the puppet by itself. That is why there are nowadays so many
strange items in the theatre that are very often dubbed ‘puppets’. Not so
long ago the puppet was a manufactured figure made to be moved and
animated in a theatre context. Now, according to modern practice,
Towards a Theatre of Objects 73
general. It is not new to the puppet, which has been producing the opal-
ization effect since the eighteenth century. The puppet was then consid-
ered a puppet and a live character at the same time; sometimes it was
even conscious of its own puppet-like existence. This happens today too
when we see the opalization of magic and reality. The opalization of the
object, on the contrary, is quite another thing: it is the opalization both
of the effect and of reality.
Opalization is only a possibility for the puppet in performance, while
it is a fixed prerequisite of any play with objects. The puppet exists in
many different ways, as was shown in the first part of this essay.
However, the object has only one way forward and this is through opal-
ization.
The opalization effect of the puppet depends on the story presented
to the audience; when playing with objects the effect seems quite natu-
ral, existing per se, independent of the production. This is attractive and
modern; but those are not the only reasons for which some puppeteers
have abandoned puppets in favour of objects. The reason for that is
more philosophical.
Each puppet embodies a programme of its acting self. It is its plastic
expression, its technique of animation and its tradition of movement
that give the impulse to the puppet-player. If the player wants to realize
this programme, he has to submit to the puppet. And this is the model
of the relationship between the ‘magic’ puppet and its puppeteer. The
puppeteer serves the puppet; that is, he serves its magic.
The object holds no programme of acting: the performer must invent
one from his own imagination. So he does not serve the object; it is the
object which serves the imagination of the performer. That is why some
contemporary puppeteers want to change their puppets into objects,
depriving them of the remains of their ancient magic power and
submitting them to the actor so that he may be the sole creator on the
puppet stage.
The creator and his creation as such thus become much more impor-
tant than the puppet alone, as we have noted already. But it must be
said that this is not an exclusive characteristic of the puppet theatre: the
same situation can be found in the actors’ theatre of the avant-garde.
The most important element is the creative process, dominating all
other elements of theatre.
Edward Gordon Craig many years ago wanted to liberate the theatre
from the domination of literature. He also wanted to liberate it from the
egoism of actors to make possible creation in the theatre. It was Bertolt
Brecht who liberated the theatre from illusionism. He allowed the actor
Towards a Theatre of Objects 75
to stop inhabiting a character in favour of speaking to the audience as
himself. This was the famous alienation or distancing effect. In his turn,
Antonin Artaud wanted to enrich theatrical expressiveness. He imag-
ined a total theatre in which actors would cooperate with masks,
mannekins, moving pictures and props, with the intention of attacking
the spectators’ sensibility in a ‘total’ way.
Craig gave a sceptre to the theatre artist; Artaud transmitted it to the
actor, who was meant to be the theatre’s driving force. The stage became
the space for the actor’s activities. Today, when an actor enters onstage
he first plays the role of an actor who, if needed, is able to create some
stage characters with the use of every possible means of expression.
Contemporary avant-garde theatre closely approaches the experience of
contemporary puppet theatre. They express the same idea: theatre is a
creation, and creation is statu nascendi. This means that the develop-
ment from the first impulse to the final effect is executed by its creator
– the actor or puppet-player.
This is a phenomenon of our time. It seems that we are arriving at
the point of being able to talk about a unity of approach for puppets’
and actors’ theatre. However, does this unity in fact exist? No, it does
not! For some transcendent reason the puppet theatre still has a sepa-
rate existence. Is this because its response to human psychology is
unique, not to be found in any other branch of theatre? To answer the
question it is necessary to observe the puppet theatre over the coming
years. Today there are no answers – there are only questions.
First published in Animations, 1984, 7(3); revised 1988.
3
Between Literature and Plastic Art
Theatre, being a synthetic and diverse art, contains a plastic element, in
which fine art plays its part. The identification of a sub-genre called
‘plastic theatre’ or ‘visual theatre’ testifies to the emancipation of the
plastic element which for many reasons has here become dominant.
The domination of any single dramatic element usually acts to the detri-
ment of the others. Literary, discursive theatre limits stage action; mime
excludes literature. The opera does not eliminate the text but makes it
almost unintelligible, and so on. A theatre in which the visual element
is dominant subordinates both the text and the acting.
It would seem that the matter presents itself quite differently in the
puppet theatre, where the puppet, a stage character, is a work of plastic
creation. Thus one would expect its natural language to be the language
of fine art. However, this is so only in the sphere of theory. In practice,
the issue is and has always been much more complicated.
In the first period of the history of puppets in theatre, they were
received not so much as an object of art as an artificial substitute for a
human being. Because of this puppeteers were often accused of magic-
making, and the creators of mediaeval and Renaissance androids were
persecuted by the Church for violating God’s rights. For a while the
puppet onstage remained mute; then it started to speak, but in a
distorted voice. Its audiences grew, mainly attracted by the semblance
of life that it held.
As late as the eighteenth century the prince Hieronim Radziwill
praised puppets for their ‘lifelike-ness’, not for their beauty. Even in the
nineteenth century the imitation of the human within a variety of
circus performances was the factor which defined the status of the
puppet.
Of course, the puppet has always remained in the sphere of plastic
art, and has been present in all variants of the performing arts includ-
ing actors’ theatre (which during some phases of its development used
man-sized puppets). It was present too at the birth of modern ‘visual
76
Between Literature and Plastic Art 77
theatre’, whose roots lie in many ancient court and church ceremonies
which can be viewed as the foundation of visual theatre. Good exam-
ples are the religious festivals of fifteenth-century Spain, in which
special performances featuring groups of figures – often mobile – were
organized. The same can be said of triumphal entries by monarchs of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the age of the Renaissance and
Baroque, which included caravans of vehicles carrying allegorical
tableaux, a specific propaganda programme. They were not so much
theatrical performances as a free spectacle offered by the ruler to his
subjects, with no immediate contact between artist and public.
Other origins of plastic theatre can be found in performances given
by travelling players, starting in the Middle Ages: minstrels, storytellers,
Moritatensingers, cantatores dei storie, many of whom carried paintings or
boxes containing sets of figures in separate compartments, as in a
portable Gothic altar or retablo. Each set of paintings or figures consti-
tuted a complete story, like the modern strip cartoon but without the
words. Here the words were provided by the storyteller, who drew his
listeners and viewers into the events contained in the pictures. Thus it
was a demonstration of independent plastic art with the storyteller as
commentator. This tradition is still continued in Sicily.
Italian sculptors and architects of the seventeenth century, like
Bernini or Acciaioli, built complete puppet theatres for the home, with
machinery, puppets and décor. Each was an independent work of art
and during a performance each became a synthesis of almost every artis-
tic medium, most often used for the staging of Italian opera.
The first truly visual theatre, as opposed to actors’ theatre, was born
as a result of secession. After an argument with Garrick’s successor,
Drury Lane’s famous designer Philip de Loutherbourg walked out of the
royal theatre and founded another London theatre of his own called the
Eidophusikon. This was indeed a plastic theatre, although in those days
such places were called ‘optical’ theatres. There Loutherbourg gave
demonstrations of pictures of cities, sunrises and sunsets, sea storms and
so on, using spectacular décor, mobile figures and lighting effects. It was
not entirely a new idea, but the execution was of a supreme excellence.
Previously, in Spain, a mechanical puppet theatre had developed called
Mundinuevo; a similar one grew up in Central Europe and was known
as Theatrum Mundi. In Poland this kind of show was popularized by the
painter Antoni Wolski and the Romanian Jordaki Kuparenko. Despite
the carefuIly elaborated show and visual effects, the last mentioned
functioned as a curiosity, like the later fotoplasticon (magic lantern
show), and disappeared almost completely with the development of
78 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
cinema. In some places within Poland, it remained in the form of
crèches or szopkas with moving figures, like the one in Karmelitow
Church in Miodowa Street in Warsaw or at the Jesuit Church in
Wambierzyce.
From the seventeenth century puppeteers made great efforts to simu-
late the actors’ theatre as much as possible, soon achieving their goal in
the performance of dramas, comedies and operas which were its loyal
copy and substitute. In this way a ‘synthetic’ puppet theatre was created,
or in other words a theatre which was a synthesis of the arts, using design,
words, music and characters, just like the actors’ theatre. It is in this direc-
tion that the Polish puppet theatre has been and is developing.
In a puppet theatre which is a synthesis of the arts, the artist creates
an iconic expression of the stage characters – although this does not
change the character of the genre. Behind the puppet stands the puppet
actor, who completes the full picture of the stage character with move-
ment and speech.
Similarly, the live actor also contributes to the iconic expression of
the character, except that he gives it as his natural self. It is thus possi-
ble to say that the actor is a natural stage sign while the puppet is an
artificial one. This fact does not affect the plastic or the non-plastic
character of the performance. If the harmony of all the theatrical
components is preserved, we remain within the sphere of a theatre
which is a synthesis of the arts.
Like the ‘dramatic’ theatre, a synthetic puppet theatre can also fall
victim to an erosion of the genre if one component starts to dominate.
It is for this reason that we sometimes speak of literary, actors’ or ‘plas-
tic’ puppet performance – and this last term is no tautology.
In puppet stage practice, especially in Poland, the multi-component
synthetic theatre is dominant. At the time of writing, it is possible to say
that Polish puppet theatre has abandoned the world of plastic art, so
much its essence in past centuries, and has adopted the means of
expression of the actors’ theatre, often defined by literature. To return
to the lost paradise, it must pass through the door that remains open to
all creators of modern visual theatre in its strictest sense.
To tell the truth, the puppet has participated only theoretically in the
creation of this kind of theatre. The development of the modern theatre
in Poland was initiated on the one hand by Stanisl⁄aw Wyspiań ski and
on the other by the author of the theory of the über-marionette, Edward
Gordon Craig.
Wyspiań ski expounded the concept of theatre as a synthesis of the
arts. He not only demonstrated how diverse elements can cooperate
Between Literature and Plastic Art 79
with each other, but also how they can merge. Wyspiański was able to
inject the element of the plastic into the literary framework of his
dramas, such as Acropolis or Wyzwolenie (Liberation). Productions by
Kantor or the late Jan Dorman originated from Wyspiański’s concep-
tion. Their manner of expression realizes the principle of the inter-pene-
tration of elements, experienced for example in the musical structure of
their work, in the ebb and flow of selected visual motifs, in the total
domination of what is seen over the words. It is difficult to say whether
Wyspiań ski would recognize these two men as his heirs, as in the last
analysis his art was dominated by the word, which determined the
meaning of the performance.
Edward Gordon Craig contributed to the development of plastic
theatre as the author of the super-puppet theory and the creator of the
category of ‘theatre artist’. In the first case he attacked the place of the
actor in the theatre, and in the second, the domination of literature.
Craig was not the first to use the puppet (or über-marionette) to stab
the actor in the back. A century before, Heinrich von Kleist and (even
earlier) Samuel Foote (in his Tragedy a la Mode, 1769) did the same. Third
time lucky, they say, but Craig’s attack on the actor was not successful
either, and he met with strong resistance from supporters of the actors’
theatre. Nevertheless, the über-marionette entered theatre through the
back door.
In attacking the actor in the interests of art, Craig created a new
tyrant – the modern theatre director. He intended to oppose the actor’s
egoism, but only replaced it with another kind. The ‘artist of the
theatre’, at first called the producer, demanded the right of his own
subjective interpretation of dramatic works. Gradually increasing his
demands, he took over even the rights of the author, hoping that grad-
ually his raison d’être might fall into oblivion: literature as the vehicle
for dramatic art was replaced by the producer’s concepts, either through
adaptation or by ‘writing on the stage’, as it is sometimes called today.
This new situation was accompanied by changes in dramatic literature.
A disintegration of dramatic structures occurred: linear stage action was
replaced by sets of scenic images connected by common themes to be
combined into one message.
The artist ‘writing on the stage’ did not have to be a playwright; it
was enough to compose pictures. And from here it takes only one short
step to make the pictures dominate the theatre performance. The ‘super-
puppet’ gave way to Galatea.
Similar processes occurred within the European puppet theatre. The
disintegration of classical dramatic structure accelerated the puppet
80 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
theatre’s withdrawal from the position of substitute for the actors’
theatre and encouraged a return to its natural function as a vehicle of
visual art. This process went hand in hand with an expansion of its
means of expression. Alongside the puppet appeared masked players,
props, artefacts and actors. The cooperation of all these was used for the
communication of visual metaphors. As if from a different starting
Between Literature and Plastic Art 81
point, puppet theatre now became true visual theatre in its strictest
sense – a theatre which, as we already know, is one with a variety of
means of expression.
I have myself raised objections to the term ‘plastic theatre’, but I wish
to preserve it in order to see, within the same phenomenon, trends of
diverse genealogy. The first and best example of the puppet theatre’s
plastic character was a performance by Die Klappe from Göttingen in
the early 1960s. Through the seemingly poor plastic medium of pieces
of rag on string, it was possible to represent the fanaticism of a mob
subjected to political tyranny. Later, the outstanding Swiss puppet-
maker Fred Schneckenburger created surrealist figures and presented
them in absurd sketches. The trend towards a plastic theatre was even
visible in solo and cabaret programmes. Albrecht Roser of Germany
showed each of his marionettes not as a live character, but as a charac-
ter formed by a specific material. He played with materials – thus with
plastic form. Today, new masters of this convention are appearing. Eric
Bass from the United States in his performance Sand plays out a psycho-
logical analysis of his protagonists by means of plastic images, includ-
ing the pouring of real sand. The startling popularity of the shadow
theatre in France and Italy is also a sign of the domination of the visual:
there are some excellent companies, among them Gioco Vita, Jean-
Pierre Lescot and Amoros et Augustin.
And what of the development of ‘object theatre’? Herein lies
another proof of the inclination of Western puppeteers towards plas-
tic art. In Poland there has in fact been no such inclination. During
the 40 years of its postwar existence there have been superb artists and
outstanding performances, but we have not had a true plastic puppet
theatre. Even if Janina Kilian Stanisl⁄awska and, following her, Adam
Kilian stood for the importance of the visual element in puppet
theatre, they did it in the name of increasing participation in puppet
performances, but neither was in revolt against the domination of the
text. Today the Polish puppet theatre, although using a heavily illus-
trative visual style, is increasingly inclined towards literature. It seems
that this is as much the outcome of its passivity as of conscious
choice.
There are some exceptions to this: Jan Dorman, as we said, directed
a theatre of plastic and literary collage; even more emphatically,
Zygmunt Smandzik wrote and directed Ptak (Bird), in which he gave a
picture of man’s existential situation, using simple puppets on sticks.
There is also Grzegorz Kwieciński’s Theatre of Fire and Paper, in which
plastic forms are animated by the power of fire.
82 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
This is not much, but it would be surprising if things were any differ-
ent. The puppet theatre in Poland is formulated as a replica of actors’
theatre and until it liberates itself from this pattern, it will not be liber-
ated from the domination of literature. Of course, I am not an opponent
of literary theatre and I can appreciate its quality if it is well done.
However, I think that the presence of plastic theatre as an alternative is
very desirable, if only for the sake of the puppet theatre’s creativity and
psychological well-being.
83
84 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
gesture and movement of the puppet. However, this exercise will only
serve to enumerate the puppet’s signs and not its mode of existence,
which is more important and which needs to be separately examined.1
The first and – up to now – only semiologist to have taken an inter-
est in the puppet theatre as a system of signs is Petr Bogatyrev. He was
moved to make his first pronouncement on the subject by a study
written by Otakar Zich on the public’s reception of puppet theatre and
Zich’s own conclusions on theatre practice.
Zich noted that puppet theatre contained two ways of involving its
audience. The first is by accentuating the material (crafted) nature of the
puppet, thus compromising its ambition to imitate the human. In this
way the puppet becomes a caricature, a grotesque figure. The second is
by accentuating the life-like properties of the puppet, thus underlining
its magical origins. In this way the puppet evokes wonder and mystery.2
Bogatyrev criticized Zich’s approach, saying that it presupposed the
drama theatre as the point of reference for puppet theatre. He there-
fore proposed that the latter be considered as an entirely separate
genre of art, that is to say one with its own system of signs. In this way
the puppet would become an independent performer, with its own
particular properties. Bogatyrev declared:
If we wish to distinguish military rank, the Captain from the
Lieutenant-Colonel, we need to learn how to distinguish the
badges of rank on military uniforms. The same applies to different
areas of art. To be receptive to the signs of impressionist painting,
we need to learn what those signs are.3
Of course Bogatyrev was right, but the fact remains that many people
do not know how to distinguish military rank and are not in the least
ashamed of it. Worse, many do not understand impressionist painting
and are equally unconcerned. The puppet theatre’s sign system has its
own place in the general system of signs of the theatre arts. Kowzan
ranks puppetry alongside drama, ballet, mime and opera. However, this
is not correct. Puppet theatre is actually in opposition to the theatre of
live performers – actors, singers, dancers and so on. The puppet opposes
the human. But let us for a moment stick to the common view, that
puppet theatre is one of the genres of theatre art. Following this,
another opinion has been generally accepted, that puppetry is the genre
of theatre that most closely resembles the drama theatre. In spite of all
his foregoing arguments, Bogatyrev himself ended with this convic-
tion, writing:
The Language of the Contemporary Puppet Theatre 85
I agree with Kolar when he states that puppet theatre is a theatre art
where the first and basic feature differentiating it from any other
lies in the replacement of the actor by the puppeteer indissolubly
linked to the puppet.4
On this basis, Bogatyrev affirmed that drama theatre and puppet theatre
represented two separate but neighbouring semiotic systems of theatre
art. Puppet theatre and drama theatre are indeed two separate semiotic
systems, but they are no more ‘neighbouring’ than, for example, the
theatre of opera is to the theatre of mime. Using the present state of
puppetry as a starting point, we can demonstrate that the differences
between the sign system of drama and puppet theatre are actually enor-
mous. Above all, we do not know what Bogatyrev meant by ‘puppeteer’.
We may assume that he had in mind a manipulator and speaker of the
text in one person. If so, the puppeteer – in spite of Bogatyrev’s conclu-
sions – is not indissolubly linked to the puppet; quite the contrary.
What has occurred is a complete rupture of these ‘indissoluble links’, if
indeed they ever existed. It would appear that as an entire genre puppet
theatre denies any such natural links – and many hundreds of years of
its history confirm this.
These links, these relationships, are what ought to interest us most
when we study the sign systems of this branch of theatre. Theatrical
signs cooperate to complete, reinforce and define themselves and each
other. Their cooperation or, alternatively, their alienation has certain
semiological consequences. Kowzan said: ‘Here is a typically theatrical
problem, to understand the relationship between the subject speaking
and the physical source of the speech.’ 5In spite of normal theatre prac-
tice, they do not always constitute a unity. What is more, this incom-
pleteness of the character brings with it other semiological
consequences. Kowzan again:
In the puppet theatre the characters are presented to the view,
onstage, while their words issue from the mouths of invisible artists.
The movement of each puppet during the dialogue suggests which
one is speaking, which gives the reply: a sort of bridge is created
between the vocal source and the speaking character. Sometimes
actors have been known to employ this puppet convention; but if
they do, the semiological role of the procedure is entirely different.6
This separation of the speaking subject and the physical source of its
voice is only occasionally used in actors’ theatre; however, in puppet
86 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
theatre it is the distinctive feature, manifested through centuries with
exceptional force. In the most ancient performances of which we have
any knowledge, the puppets were usually dumb. The words were
spoken either as a commentary or as indirect speech. In fact, the
narrator stood in front of the stage and told the story illustrated by the
puppet play.
Next came a period in which the puppeteers attempted to suggest
to their audiences that the puppets – the speaking subjects – were able
to talk by themselves. To this end, the puppeteers used a small instru-
ment (a swazzle) which distorted the voice. This attempt to eliminate
the separation of the puppet from the voice source has definite semi-
ological significance.
These two trends continue, with variations, in today’s puppet
theatre. Even now, the Japanese Bunraku theatre maintains the
distinct separation between the vocal source (the special reader or,
more precisely, the joruri singer) and the puppet (operated by three
visible manipulators). In the Toone theatre of Brussels, a single
performer speaks for all the characters. He is seen through a small
window in the proscenium, while the puppets are worked, in elabo-
rate settings, according to this traditional and popular style. In most
puppet theatres of the Communist-ruled countries, each character has
his own animator, who at the same time provides the voice for the
puppet. In this case the physical source of the words and the speaking
subject (the puppet) constitute a unity, at least territorially.
The same can be said about the separation of the moving subject
(puppet) in relation to its source of movement. In the drama theatre,
in this respect, there is total unity. The actor accomplished all the
demands made on his body through his own power. In the puppet
theatre, the puppet depends on a source of motor energy independent
of itself (usually human but occasionally mechanical). Remember that
the physical source of the words is not necessarily always the same as
that of the gesture and movement. One puppeteer can be the manip-
ulator and another the speaker for the same character.
These relationships between the acting subject and its sources of
energy have serious semiological implications. Put in another way, the
question is whether the performance hides or does not hide the
puppet’s operator, the method of its operation and the person speak-
ing for it.7 For centuries, puppeteers looked for ways in which their
puppets might be taken for human beings with a life of their own,
perhaps even a magic life. So of course they concealed, as the closest
professional secret, the manner of their animation. Nowadays it is
The Language of the Contemporary Puppet Theatre 87
fashionable to display the operators and the speakers. Often you can
see the puppeteer onstage beside his puppet; that is, beside the acting
subject. In this way he demonstrates who is the passive object and
who the principal of the action.
As a consequence, we must return to the notion of the ‘acting
subject’ as two simultaneous signs: the puppet and the animator. This
is particularly necessary when the puppet as much as its operator –
each in its own way – aims to play a single character. Further still, one
could cite various examples of a single operator playing several char-
acters in one performance, but that would require a whole essay of its
own.
The changes in the relationships between the stage subject and the
physical source(s) of its speech and motor power form the one factor
which distinguishes puppet theatre from all other genres. If the drama
theatre calls on similar methods, it does so only very rarely, whereas
these methods are natural to puppetry. They arise out of its own
poetic, with all the attendant semiological implications.
On this basis we can construct a definition of puppet theatre in
keeping with that formulated by Bogatyrev. Puppet theatre is a theatre
art distinguished from the theatre of live performers by its most
fundamental feature, namely that the speaking, acting subject makes
temporal use of vocal and motor sources of power which are outside
it, which are not its own attributes. The relationships between the
subject and its power sources are constantly changing, and this varia-
tion has essential semiological and aesthetic significance.
This definition seems adequate for the present state of puppet
theatre. Whatever form it takes, realistic or highly stylized, puppet
theatre makes use of the variable relationships between its means of
expression and their driving forces. These variations are even demon-
strated in the choice of technique – string or glove, say – meaning
that tradition still underpins the style of contemporary puppet
theatre and that any new relationships between the means of expres-
sion and the power sources arise from the characteristics of the whole
genre.
The relationship between the puppet and its sources of energy has
brought changes in our understanding of the puppet. It has been
stated that the system of dependence existing between puppet and
power source was more concrete than the component parts them-
selves. The system itself did not change, only the components were
variable. However, the principal element, the puppet itself, has also
been undergoing change, and in that lies the proof that the real
88 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
essence of puppet theatre lies in the relationships between its compo-
nent parts.
These changes have at last led to the destruction of the ‘classical’
rules and at the same time have contributed to the diminishing use
of puppets as a substitute for humans. In place of the ‘classical’
puppetry, or rather alongside it, a new theatre rich in sign systems
has grown up. On the stage have appeared masks, many new kinds of
props and appurtenances, and objects. Puppet theatre has become a
heterogeneous art drawing on many different sign systems: the
human with the puppet, the masked human, the object alongside or
in place of the puppet. Sometimes these combinations are an expres-
sion of the truly surrealistic; all are exponents of metaphor. Modern
puppet theatre, or at least some forms of it, has become the art of
juxtaposing different means of expression (or ‘signs’), all able to
evoke metaphor and so to complicate still further the language of this
form of theatre.
Semiological analysis of any theatre performance is a difficult task,
given the multiplicity of signs and their relationships. How, then, can
we analyze a puppet theatre production in which, by its nature, signs
and meanings are in perpetual motion, building new correlations?
The analysis becomes more difficult and more challenging.
These preliminary deliberations serve to demonstrate that puppet
theatre can be counted among those contemporary artistic phenomena
which, because of the abundance of their expressive means and their
potential variations, and because of their rich and fertile traditions,
have a universal function. Contemporary puppet theatre is not only at
the service of children and of the simple-hearted, but is also conquering
and enlarging the frontiers of the artistic avant-garde.
Notes
1 Kowzan T., ‘Znak w teatrze’ (Sign in theatre). In Wprowadzenie do nauki o
teatrze (Introduction to the science of theatre). Selected and compiled by J.
Degler. University of Wrocl⁄ aw 1976, 299–326.
2 Zich O., Psychologie loutkovego divadla (Psychology of puppet theatre).
Prague 1923, I: 8–9.
3 Bogatyrev P., Lidové divadlo ceské a slovenské (Popular Czech and Slovak
puppet theatre), Prague 1940, 130.
4 Bogatyrev P., Semiotyka kultury ludowej (Semiotics of popular culture),
Warsaw 1975, 136.
5 Kowzan, op. cit., 308.
6 Ibid.
The Language of the Contemporary Puppet Theatre 89
7 Cervantes M. de, Przemyślny szlachcic Don Kichot z Manczy (The ingenious
gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha). Trans. A. L. Czerny, I Z. Czerny,
Warsaw 1955, II: 200.
First presented at 1978 UNIMA Conference, Budapest.
5
The Sign Systems of Puppetry
When I addressed the problem of the language of contemporary puppet
theatre a few years ago,1 I mentioned Petr Bogatyrev as the first semioti-
cian to consider the puppet theatre as a system of signs. I presented his
first such pronouncements, remarks provoked by the 1923 article of
Otakar Zich on the audience’s reception of puppet productions.
Bogatyrev criticized Zich’s approach of taking the live theatre as a
point of reference for the puppet theatre. Bogatyrev argued that the
puppet theatre should be looked upon as any other art form; that is, as
a system of signs. Only then could the puppet become an independent
actor and reveal its own unique features.2
I agreed then with Bogatyrev and his declaration in favour of the
puppet theatre as an independent sign system. Today, however, it seems
to me that, intrigued by Bogatyrev’s opinion, I under-estimated the
importance and scientific consequences of Zich’s article, just as
Bogatyrev did. Let us come back to this article. Zich wrote:
In fact, it is an argument about two forms of perception: the puppets
may be perceived either as living people or as lifeless dolls. Since we
can perceive them only one way at a time, we are faced with two
possibilities:
(a) We perceive the puppets as dolls, that is, we stress their inani-
mate character. It is the material they are made of that strikes us as
something that we are really perceiving. In that case, however, we
cannot take seriously their speech or their movements, in short, any
manifestations of their life; hence, we find them comical and
grotesque. The fact that the puppets are small and, at least in part
(especially in face and body), frozen, and their movements conse-
quently awkward and ‘wooden’, helps create a comic effect. The
result is not, of course, crude comedy but subtle humour which these
small figures produce by appearing to act like real people. We
perceive them as figurines, but they demand that we take them as
90
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 91
people; and this invariably amuses us. Everyone knows that puppets
really make such an impression.
(b) But there is another possibility; we may conceive of the
puppets as living beings by emphasizing their lifelike expressions,
their movements and speech, and taking them as real. Our awareness
that the puppets are not alive recedes, and we get the feeling of some-
thing inexplicable, enigmatic and astounding. In this case, the
puppets seem to act mysteriously.3
If we want to distinguish the badges of military uniforms, if we want
to tell a Captain from a Lieutenant-Colonel, we must learn the
insignia of rank. The same applies to art. In order to understand
correctly the signs of Impressionist painting we have to know them.4
Of course he is right. The fact is, however, that many people do not
know the insignia of rank and they are nonetheless untroubled. What
is more, some people do not appreciate impressionist painting and they
92 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
do not worry about that either. Bogatyrev did not pay attention to such
obvious facts, so he did not consider them as arguments. His efforts
were to identify the principal faults of Zich’s discussion. He wrote:
Whenever we perceive artistic signs in comparison with a real thing,
that is, proceeding from a real thing and not from the sign system
that constitutes the work of art, we have the same impression that
Zich describes.5
Today, considering the advances of semiotics, we can easily argue with
Bogatyrev. Bogatyrev contested the perception of artistic signs in
constant comparison with real things. Today our attitude is quite the
opposite: we realize that we do perceive the theatre by comparing it
with reality. Drawing on Peirce’s tripartite typology of signs (icon, index
and symbol), many scholars have applied the notion of icon in their
theatre research. 6 Iconicity becomes the principal characteristic of the
theatre, although the examples of iconic signs given by Peirce himself
do not include theatrical signs.7 As Elam remarks:
The governing principle in iconic signs is similitude; the icon repre-
sents its object mainly by similarity, between the sign vehicle and its
signified. This is, clearly, a very general law, so that virtually any form
of similitude between sign and object suffices, in principle, to estab-
lish an iconic relationship.8
The contemporary meaning of ‘sign’ seems to be quite different from
that applied by Bogatyrev. He undertook to chart the basic principles
of theatrical semiosis and, like almost all of the Prague Circle scholars,
he gave primacy to the representing function of the performance
elements. He classified them as signs of objects and signs of signs.
According to Peirce, the nature of the sign is much more complex, and
today it is much more completely known. The sign fulfils its function
in being represented or interpreted. It replaces something for some-
one. Its structure is based on trichotomy. Its typology depends on
different functions that are subject to variation as related to its
context.9 The puppets, whether producing a comical or a mysterious
impression, continue to be theatre signs no matter which impression
is intended.
Another question has to do with the problem of perception.
Bogatyrev stated that Zich employed the wrong sign system to decode a
puppet presentation. Bogatyrev acted as if he were identifying himself
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 93
with a puppet-player disappointed that his audience misunderstood his
performance because they applied the wrong decoding system. Let us
remember that perception is only a part of the greater process of theatri-
cal communication. The understanding of the message depends not
only on the public and its ability to understand, but on the artist and
his ability to be understood as well.
An artist who wishes to be understood should choose that system of
signs that is the best vehicle for the ideas he wants to communicate to
the audience. This means that he should know the sign systems exist-
ing potentially in the minds of the audience. What is so valuable in
Zich’s article is his view of the puppet theatre as an active communica-
tion; he looked at it through the eyes of putative spectators. In our day
there is no doubt that for successful communication, both partners
(sender and addressee) should do their best to learn the necessary codes;
that is, cultural codes and theatrical and dramatic subcodes.10
Responsibility for possible misunderstanding of the puppet theatre sign
system lies with both partners.
The relationship of live theatre and puppet theatre troubled
Bogatyrev throughout his life. In 1973, 50 years after his first publica-
tion on the puppet theatre, a posthumous article summed up his
thoughts on this subject: ‘The interconnection of two similar semiotic
systems: the puppet theatre and the theatre of living actors’. At the very
beginning he wrote:
The perception of one semiotic system in comparison to another
system is an especially interesting problem. Thus someone familiar
with only one language often regards a related language as a
distorted version of his own native tongue. There are many examples
where a Russian interprets another Slavic language against his own
linguistic background defining, for example, Ukrainian as distorted
or corrupted Russian.11
In spite of his awareness of the similarity of the two systems, he
persisted in criticizing Zich’s article, repeating the arguments with
which we are familiar. However, while forming his definition of puppet
theatre, Bogatyrev took the live theatre as a background for it:
We agree … that puppetry is a theatrical art. The principal character-
istic that differentiates puppet theatre from live theatre is that in
puppetry ‘the actor is replaced by the puppet operator in inseparable
unity with his puppet’.12
94 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
We find a much more complicated situation in Bunraku theatre. On
the stage we have puppets, each puppet manipulated by three men who
are visible to the public. Sitting on a platform to the side are a joruri
chanter and a musician playing the samisen. The puppets do not speak
or chant. It is the joruri chanter who speaks and chants for every char-
acter. Though he remains sitting, he moves while chanting, expressing
all of the feelings and emotions of the characters. His means of expres-
sion include both his chant and his facial mimicry. The three manipu-
lators do not speak. Two of them work with hoods hiding their faces.
The head operator is the only one who ever appears unhooded. His face
frequently expresses the emotions of the character. Though the opera-
tors do not speak, they add to the sound sphere of the performance by
the drumming of their feet, important for the rhythm of the action.
It would be hard to compare the sign systems of Bunraku with any
other system already mentioned here. Even in Japan, experts disagree
on what is the constitutive part of Bunraku theatre. Ando wrote:
‘Actually one should ‘hear’, not ‘see’, Bunraku since the narrator’s chant
called Gidayu-bushi is the most important part of the
performance.13Adachi sees, instead, three balanced components that
together constitute Bunraku:
The definition given by Adachi is closer to my understanding of
Bunraku. The puppets are not simply illustrations to accompany the
storytelling, they are visual components of the characters. As such, they
enter into cooperation with the voice of the joruri chanter, with his
emotional mimicry and with the sound of the drumming of the
puppeteers’ feet. Only in the collaboration of these different elements
are the scenic characters of Bunraku created.
In the storyteller system (like Don Pedro’s puppet theatre) or in the
Petrushka comedy, human beings and puppets are separate units that
cooperate to fulfil their dramatic functions. In Bunraku theatre, these
units (especially the humans), so that they may serve as scenic charac-
ters, are submitted first to the process of atomization, with the atoms
obtained used to construct new units that exist only as theatrical beings.
This system may be compared with the most advanced artistic puppet
theatres of our time in Europe and America. This cross-cultural compar-
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 97
ison may raise the problem of the relationships of the different ‘atoms’
employed to create a scenic character. The historical and cultural back-
grounds of the two systems (Japanese and European) are so differenti-
ated that they need further discussion, especially since the Bunraku
system was born at the end of the seventeenth century, while similar
European trends are two-and-a-half centuries younger.
The Bunraku system has its origin in the rich tradition of Japanese
puppetry. Though the puppets often entertained people of different
social classes, they were used more frequently in ritual. As we are
informed by Ortolani,15 the joruri chanters were monks who, by associ-
ating with puppet players, founded Bunraku theatre. Puppets were often
presented in the shrines or close to them; even today, in the ceremonial
atmosphere of the theatre, the public performance carries the atmos-
phere of ritual. As explained by Ando:
Next the narrator picks up the libretto which is on the ornate read-
ing stand in front of him, lifts it above his head with both hands, and
bows. This bow has three meanings; it expresses respect for the
author of the play, it is a sort of prayer that the narrator ‘s perform-
ance will be worthy of the work, and it expresses gratitude for the
presence of the audience and a request that they listen to him.16
The Bunraku system is closed, as all classical systems are. To cooperate
within this system means to maintain it. If so, one is obliged to accept
it and to subordinate oneself to it, otherwise the system will cease to
exist. The artists of Bunraku seem to be aware of this, seeing themselves
as modest artists in the world. This is the confession of the famous
puppeteer Tamao:
The tayu’s narration is essential, of course, but my movements must
give his words that other dimension that makes them convincing.
The tayu is an artist: he is interpreting, and I can’t tell him how to
express the feelings I too am trying to convey. The samisen is the
third force. Our work is distinct. Usually we complement each other
well, but sometimes … if we’re fortunate, we mesh perfectly.17
The European system, which I once called ‘the third genre’18 between
live theatre and puppet theatre, is obviously an open system. In the
course of the 1950s and 1960s, all the elements of puppet theatre were
atomized. There exists now an unlimited number of ‘atoms’ just wait-
ing to be introduced as components in new theatrical ‘units’.
98 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Let us look at how this system works in the performances of the well-
known Czech director Josef Krofta. In the Poznan Theatre in Poland in
1977), he directed his own script, after Cervantes’ Don Quijote. Onstage
we saw a number of live actors and some puppets. The principal char-
acters (Don Quijote and Sancho Panza) were doubly represented by men
and puppets. At one time we saw the characters represented by men, at
another time by puppets, and sometimes by both. The scene of Don
Quijote’s defeat in the inn was performed using different means of
expression. One actor with a stick in his hand beat the bench where the
Don was supposed to be lying; another actor pretending to be beaten
shrieked like a madman; another was damaging the puppet of Don
Quijote, while the rest of the actors observed the action, adding various
exclamations.
All of this together was to convey Don Quijote’s punishment and
suffering. This particular combination of ‘scenic atoms’ will never be
repeated in Krofta’s work. Looking for originality is the first principle of
European art. That is why in each performance of Krofta we may find a
new combination of the means of expression and so, to some extent, a
new system of signs.
I hope that I have succeeded in proving that the presence of a puppet
is not always and inevitably constitutive of one fixed sign system of
puppet theatre. In the case of Don Pedro’s theatre, the puppetry
belonged to the sign system of storytellers’ performance. The Petrushka
comedy represents, for me, a true system of puppet theatre signs. In
Bunraku theatre we see two possible interpretations, since even the
Bunraku puppeteers admit that their puppets have a secondary role in
the whole performance. For modern European puppetry, I would rather
think of quite a new and special sign system, one based on the personal
and impersonal elements of theatre. And this is perhaps true because
the impersonal elements are introduced so often into the production of
live theatre.
The results of my deliberation encourage me to discuss the puppet’s
long journey through different sign systems, seen in historical perspec-
tive. There is no doubt that the puppet theatre as such was preceded by
the puppet. Without the prior existence of the puppet, the existence of
puppet theatre would be impossible. Thus, the first serious evidence of
European puppet theatre begins in the seventeenth century. Before then
there were many puppet demonstrations, but they were not theatre,
they were Puppenspiel (‘play with puppets’), as they are called quite
correctly by Purschke. 19 Let me explain that for us ‘the theatre’ will
mean actors (human or puppet) who in a special space present imagined
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 99
characters, according to a given or improvised drama, being seen by a
public gathered especially or by chance. Until the seventeenth century,
however, the puppet demonstrations always lacked some elements; they
did not have dramas, or the puppets were not characters.
Though the puppet in Europe seems to be as ancient as the live actor
(maybe even older), it is obvious that the actors’ theatre outstripped the
puppet theatre. The first ‘real’ theatre into which puppets entered was
the theatre of live actors, and for many centuries the puppet remained
the slave of the live theatre’s rules. However, some people tried to
discover that which was characteristic of puppets – to form their unique
style and in consequence, though unconsciously, to form their unique
sign system. They succeeded by developing the artistic puppet theatre
of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which brought new
elements to the genre. At first they were looking solely for the puppet
theatre’s characteristics, which meant that they accepted the puppet-
like (puppenhaft, kukolnoe) elements on stage. Later they started to
analyse the puppet theatre’s means of expression, finishing with an
atomization of the puppet theatre (getting rid of the screen, for exam-
ple) and giving birth to a new form of theatre whose characters are
created of both personal and impersonal elements.
So it seems that the puppet, during its long history in Europe, has
belonged to four different sign systems. Since all four systems still exist,
it means that the puppet still belongs to them at this moment. I will try
to discuss them briefly in four separate sections: (1) the puppet in the
service of neighbouring sign systems; (2) the puppet in the sign system
of the human theatre; (3) the sign system of the puppet theatre; and (4)
the atomization of all elements of the puppet theatre and its semiotic
consequences.
The puppet in the service of neighbouring sign
systems
The evidence left by the writers of antiquity tells us about the existence
of certain kinds of puppets and dolls. However, the information is poor
as concerns their shape, construction and use. The most complete
descriptions relate to automata, which included little mechanical
figures. One of the automata, ‘The Apotheosis of Bacchus’ by Hero of
Alexandria, was a sort of mechanized altar and belonged to sacred art.
It tells us a great deal about the possible origin of puppets as such.
Another automaton, which performed ‘The Tale of Nauplios’, was a
mechanical theatre presenting the story in five scenes with characters
100 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
fact that some of the references give primary attention to the puppets
rather than to the narration. The narration was already known, but the
puppets were the new ingredient that might attract the public.
The majority of the puppets at that time were moving figures
included in the sacred tableaux. For this reason, the sets of puppets used
by storytellers were called in France retable, in Spain retablo,25 in Poland
tabernaculum,26 in England motion27 and in Germany Himmelreich.28
These words derive either from religious implements or from the notion
of movement.
This kind of puppetry developed through the centuries. Some of the
boards or boxes with sets of puppets changed into the mechanical
theatre, others into elaborate theatres with successive scenes to perform
real dramas. However, those changes occurred rather late, at the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century.
Although puppets used by storytellers were those most often
described, they existed among a large variety of other kinds of puppets.
Let us start with those not connected with any specific real or imaginary
subject, but with human beings in general. These puppets did not
pretend to present a definite character: they were just puppets that tried
to be alive like a human. Of course they were not alive, and thus they
seemed to be caricatures. And so the puppet-player associated them
with monkeys because monkeys were also caricatures of man.29
Other puppets claimed to be something more than caricatures. They
pretended to be Kobolds, then a kind of magic being.30 Their operators
endeavoured to hide the system of manipulation in order to convince
the spectators that they were looking at unusual creatures. In both
cases, the puppets were not theatre characters; they attempted to be
something real, and being real they became an object of spectacular and
public interest. They were living artefacts. Their lifelikeness was the goal
of the ‘artistic’ efforts of the puppet players. They were like circus
puppets whose only wish is to imitate human circus performers as
closely as possible.
However, there is some reason to think that in the Middle Ages a
specific puppet stage was already being constructed. Looking at four-
teenth-century miniatures by Jehan de Grise, we see a sort of puppet
booth in the shape of a castle. Perhaps that is why the French booth is
called castelet. In this booth we see puppets ready to fight, some of
whom are knights. These were possibly an advanced form of puppets
designed to illustrate chansons de geste. Besides this evidence, there were
other indicators of the puppets’ disposition to fight. One of them is a
German figure, Meister Hamerlein, 31 which probably represented the
102 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
The puppet in the sign system of the live theatre
In antiquity (the mimes, Potheinos) and in the Middle Ages (liturgical
puppets in Whitney), the later managers of live theatre used puppets in
their productions. Groups of Italian commedia dell’arte players brought
puppets to many countries. References in Poland indicate that Italians in
1666 performed one day as comedians and another day as puppeteers.32
Dutch engravings of the seventeenth century show that they inserted
puppets into their live productions.33The puppets were either the equiv-
alent of an actor or ‘guests’ on the stage of live comedians.
The puppets were also ‘guests’ in the official Italian theatre during
the Renaissance. Sebastian Serlio declared that he wanted flat figures on
the stage as a complement to live actors:
While the stage is empty of characters, then the architect should
have ready some groupings of little figures, as large as space will
allow them to be, and these will be of heavy coloured pasteboard and
cut to shape; they should be on a rule of wood crossing the stage
between some arches, with grooves in the stage into which the
wooden rules will be put, and thus a person behind the arch will
make them pass slowly, sometimes to show musicians with instru-
ments and voice, while behind the stage there will be subdued
music.34
Clement IX who, as Cardinal Giulio Respigliosi, had written the drama
La comica del cielo (The divine comedienne). This play was performed,
with music by Anton Maria Abbatini, in a theatre ‘apparatus’ prepared
by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. It should be noted that the puppet apparatus
was made by the same master who constructed theatres and settings for
live actors. It was a real Baroque theatre in miniature, with a box stage,
curtains, wings, perspective prospect and all the necessary devices.
This kind of theatre was used by famous puppet opera manager La
Grille36 and the English puppet master Martin Powell.37 Differing from
the live theatre, the puppet stage was often furnished with a network of
fine wire stretched across the proscenium opening. Domenico Ottonelli
was the first to mention its existence38; the function of this network was
to hide the wire and strings of the puppets, to further the illusion that
the puppets were miniature live actors.
In announcements of the time, the puppet theatre managers assured
the public that their puppets would act like live actors. Today it is hard
to believe that a puppet could imitate an actor so perfectly that it might
be treated as his miniature. However, it was quite possible in the oper-
atic puppet theatre of the seventeenth century, since the acting of the
human singers and actors at that time was fully schematic. The singers
stood in a row by the proscenium opening and made schematic
gestures. They were obliged to remain in that one place, since the
candles which showed their faces while speaking, singing and express-
ing their feelings were at the front of the stage. To imitate such acting
was easy for the puppet, especially since the light was not bright and the
wire network hid the strings.
In general, the theatre managers trusted puppets and ‘employed’
puppets to perform instead of actors if, for some reason (social, political
and so on), actors were not available.39 Sometimes they used puppets to
compete with the dramatic theatre as in the case of Charlotte Charke,
an actress of the Drury Lane theatre. She left this theatre after a quarrel
with the director, and made puppet shows performing the same reper-
tory as in Drury Lane.40
There was a special situation in Paris because of the monopoly of the
three official theatres (the Opéra, the Comédie Française, the Comédie
Italienne). Other theatre troupes were not permitted to perform in Paris,
with the exception of limited productions at the Saint Germain and
Saint Laurent fairs, and with the exception of puppets. The theatre
managers, then, were forced to perform with puppets. They reacted to
this repression by trying to find some excuse to lead a live actor back on
the stage. The famous theatre manager Bertrand, at the end of the
104 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
in the primitive puppet show, which meant for him actors from antiq-
uity with their masks and padded costumes. However, to have a
complete puppet, Foote contended that it was necessary to sunder the
character by the practice of one actor giving the gesture while another
delivered the words, as introduced to the antique theatre by Livius
Andronicus.44 Leaving aside the historical aspect of Foote’s statement,
we must admit that he pointed at the essential feature of puppet
theatre. He also made clever observations on the problem of the percep-
tion of puppet theatre, stressing the importance of the participation of
the audience. He wrote:
[A young country] girl being brought by her friends for the first time
to a puppet show, she was so struck with the spirit and truth of the
imitation, that it was scarce possible to convince her, but that all the
puppets were players; being carried the succeeding night to one of
the theatres, it became equally difficult to satisfy her, but that all the
players were puppets.
But the infinite difference that will be found between the differ-
ent performances will, I flatter myself, make it impossible for any of
my present hearers to commit that mistake; to which of us the supe-
riority is due, your voices this night will determine.45
The feeling of the opposition of two systems (live theatre and puppets)
led Foote to show a production as (puppet) theatre within the (live)
theatre. Puppets performed The Handsome Housemaid, or Piety in Pattens,
a burlesque of sentimental comedy:
Just at the end of the play a constable (a human actor) entered, and
took the troupe, with Foote as their manager, before a magistrate as
common vagrants. At the trial it was proved that neither whippings
nor a diet of bread and water would have any effect upon puppets,
and as for Foote, he was three-quarters a man but one-quarter (his
wooden leg) a puppet, so it would be impossible for the court to deal
with him unless they could catch the body without the leg, or the leg
without the body.46
This was the first time that the puppet was looked at as an independent
actor with its own characteristics, which accounts for the historical
significance of the performance. Foote’s attitude was the starting point
for the discovery of a separate sign system of the puppet theatre, which
will be the subject of the next section.
106 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Also belonging to the sign system of actors’ theatre were the popular
(or folk) marionette theatres, which were often copies of live theatre. Of
course this kind of theatre is very different from the actors’ theatre, but
this is so more because it is a popular theatre (Volkstümliches Theater)
than because it is a puppet one. I apply here the notion of ‘popular
theatre’ after Hauser, 47 who understands popular art as an artistic or
quasi-artistic production addressed to the uneducated urban public.
Generally, this kind of production is not innovative, but instead repeats
subjects and forms adapted from ‘official’ art. In the case of the popular
puppet theatre, the live theatre model and live theatre repertory were
adapted for two reasons (for the puppets and for their special public)
and in two stages.
The first stage of adaptation covered the Baroque theatre model and
repertory, including bible stories, myths, evangelical parables, hagio-
graphic plays and two famous Renaissance subjects, Don Juan and Doctor
Faust. Adaptation added a sort of folk flavour to the basic models. As a
matter of fact, today we perceive the folk style as limited in theatrical
skill and in the understanding of theatre.
The second stage of adaptation covered the Romantic repertory and
theatre models. Puppet theatre in Germany, France, Belgium and
Bohemia adapted the repertory, settings and costumes of melodrama.
Managers of French puppet theatres stressed that their settings were
taken from the Théâtre Porte Saint Martin in Paris. French puppet
theatre was the most advanced in mimicking the live theatre and devel-
oped an imitative technique to a high level. When this technique
reached its summit, the theatres turned to replacing the puppets with
actors on the stage.48
The popular theatres in other countries were less imitative or, one
could say, more limited in their abilities. They failed to achieve convinc-
ing imitation, instead developing individual folk stylization. There were
big differences, for example, between the Belgian and Bohemian
theatres, between the German and Sicilian ones. Each had its own sign
sub-system. Nevertheless, there were common features: their origins,
the popular resident characters, the common practice of introducing
trick puppets and the efforts to emphasize the words. In almost all
popular puppet theatre, the words were pronounced in a rather artificial
way, as an emotional recitation. There is no doubt that this way of
speaking was inherited from the actors’ theatre. It was the Comédie
Française that popularized chanting recitation in Europe, but when it
was already forgotten in live theatre, the popular puppet theatre was
still using and preserving it.
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 107
The sign system of the puppet theatre
We have already discussed the disposition of the hand puppet to fight
and identified this as a special feature of this puppet. It can grasp and
handle objects, too. Hand puppets are hands dressed in gloves, gloves
that constitute theatre beings. Eichler contended that they are not real
puppets because they prolong the human body.50 They are expressions
of human beings and thus they represent the mime tradition, not
puppetry. He was right concerning the psychology of acting, but wrong
concerning the perception of glove puppets. Since they are hand based,
they are not fully able to imitate human beings. Yet for the public they
are puppets because they are artificial creatures, they behave in their own
typical way, and they are able to present different characters on the stage.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they served as advertise-
ment puppets both for the charlatans and for theatres, although they
also performed short stories. In the nineteenth century they appeared
in street comedies such as Punch and Judy. Though this comedy seems
to be the continuation of commedia, it was not a copy of it. The street
comedy was a new stage in the development of the commedia dell’arte,
performed only by puppets. The same origin is shared by the Guignol
theatre in France, which developed its own means of expression and a
special repertory of great social importance.
And what of the other kinds of puppets and their sign systems? Let
us recall the Romantic writers in Germany, who wanted to describe the
108 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
marionette as the ideal theatre actor: Kleist, Hoffman and Tieck. Ludwig
Tieck’s analysis related to the folk (popular) puppet theatre. He came to
conclusions close to those reached by Zich a century later: puppets want
to be perceived as important characters of Mystery plays and historical
dramas, but they are limited, wooden figures, which is why Tieck found
puppets to be grotesque and ironic creatures. From this starting point,
Tieck suggested that we understand the marionette theatre as follows:
• as grotesque and ironic theatre that confronts the contradiction of
great wishes and modest abilities, of refined and rude characters, of
high social manners and their satirical, folk interpretation;
• as theatre that needs for its full expression the background of the
live theatre – the puppet theatre expresses itself best when it exists
within the frame of live theatre, which approaches theatricality;
• as theatre that is aware of its theatricality, which results in the fact
that the puppet characters are conscious of their artificial and
wooden existence;
• as a theatre of metaphor, based on the preceding three points.51
Some of these principles were applied by Franz Pocci and Josef Schmid
in their activities in Munich. At the same time, French puppeteers
applied a different kind of stylization. Maurice Sand founded a puppet
theatre following the style of commedia dell’arte; Lemercier de Neuville
introduced flat puppets which constituted a sort of graphic art; Henri
Signoret used moveable statues, intended to revive the hieratic style of
expression.
A similar, but somewhat different, tendency was born in Germany in
the artistic theatre of Paul Brann in Munich. Brann, looking for a homo-
geneous theatre, chose puppetry because it appeared to him to be a
material unity, in opposition to live theatre, which contrasts the actor’s
biological body with the material, artificial setting. Brann understood
the puppet as an excellent actor belonging to the theatre, an actor
whose material totality is the result of human creativity. The puppet is
a creature of material, and to preserve its character it is necessary to
develop its material features. That is why some of Brann’s puppets were
made as porcelain figures, and they moved as porcelain figures were
imagined to move.
Almost all of the artistic puppet theatres of that time intended to be
‘puppet-like’, showing the puppet as scenic character and as material
object at the same time. On this principle, the sign system of the puppet
theatre was constituted. In the centre of this system was the puppet,
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 109
which was to be perceived as the puppet, though in different theatrical
functions. The most representative opinions on this subject were
pronounced by Buschmeyer, Eichler and Obraztsov.52
Brann’s homogeneous puppet theatre outlived its apogee in the
1930s. However, some puppeteers a few years earlier had looked for
complements to such an understanding of the puppet theatre. They
returned to the suggestions of Foote and Tieck to confront the puppet
theatre with the actors’ theatre, in order to intensify the puppet
theatre’s characteristics. The puppet seen alongside human beings is
more ‘puppet-like’, and the human being seen alongside puppets seems
more human-like.
So Vittorio Podrecca introduced actors to the stage and let them act
among the puppets. Obraztsov did the same. The Polish director Jan
Wilkowski applied this confrontation of actors and puppets by means of
‘the puppet theatre within the live theatre’. These approaches demon-
strated the basic relationship between two sign systems (live and puppet
theatres) which then still existed as compact, self-contained totalities.
In this development of the puppet theatre sign system, solo puppet
performers introduced to artistic practice two important subjects related
to the problem of the puppets’ existence: the opalescence (or opaliza-
tion) of the puppet and the opposition of puppet versus human.
By ‘opalescence of the puppet’ I mean the double existence of the
puppet, which is perceived (and demonstrated) both as puppet and as
scenic character. Clown Gustav of Albrecht Roser is a clown character,
but when his strings get entangled and he asks for help, he is a puppet;
furthermore, he is a puppet playing on its awareness of being a puppet.
Obraztsov operates quite differently. While singing a Mussorgsky lull-
aby, he stands in front of the public with his hand puppet called Tjapa.
He shows the back of Tjapa’s naked body (which may be recognized as
Obraztsov’s arm). These are typical and generally accepted sorts of
opalescence.
Sometimes the opposition of puppet versus human being is based on
the assumption that the puppet may be aware of its existence. Philippe
Genty, Henk Boerwinkel and artists of the Hungarian State Puppet
Theatre developed this reflectivity. The puppet, aware of the fact that it
is manipulated by somebody, starts to fight that person in order to be
free. In the case of Genty’s Pierrot, conscious of being a marionette, this
fight leads to the tragedy of its own destruction.
We should note that this expresses the opposition of two systems of
signs. It has two functions. First, it serves to stress the artificiality of the
puppet theatre. Second, it is the source of the metaphor of powerlessness
110 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
The atomization of all elements of the puppet theatre
and its semiotic consequences
The puppet theatre is a less compact totality than the human theatre.
As Kowzan observed:
The puppet theatre is a theatre art, the main and basic feature differ-
entiating it from the live theatre being the fact that the speaking and
performing object makes temporal use of the physical sources of the
vocal and motor powers, which are present outside the object. The
relations between the object (the puppet) and the power sources
change all the time and their variations are of great semiological and
aesthetical significance.54
This definition seems to be adequate to the present state of contempo-
rary puppet theatre, because regardless of its form – be it substitution of
live theatre or development of puppet-like features – puppet theatre
avails itself of changing relations between the means of expression and
the motivating powers. This definition also seems to be adequate to the
present state of contemporary puppet theatre regardless of the means of
expression it uses. It should be mentioned here that in the last 30 years,
the puppet theatre has collected on its stage many different means of
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 111
• The booth and the screen were demolished to enable the operators
of puppets and objects to perform in unlimited scenic space.
• The destruction of the booth and screens changed the mode of exis-
tence of the play’s characters. They were no longer visually inte-
grated. The operators became visible, but were not solely the visible
vocal and motor powers. Sometimes they added their own facial
mimicry and gestures to express the feeling of the puppet characters.
The situation was more complicated when the puppet was simulta-
neously operated by two or three puppeteers. In other words, the
puppet was no longer the complete depiction of the character; it was
supported by complementary means. Although in theory this prac-
tice might enrich the theatre character, in reality the development of
the complementary means led to the rising passivity of the puppet.
This passivity in turn became a stimulus to experiment further.
• The first experiments were to introduce different techniques of oper-
ation. The second were to change the puppet’s body as the represen-
tation of the character. Instead of a full puppet, we saw its elements
112 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
as pars pro toto (synecdoche). The same happened to the human
actor on the puppet stage. By means of staging and composition, the
actor’s body was shown in pieces. We saw heads, feet, legs as
symbols of characters, acting among puppets and objects.
This process of analysis fractured the entire puppet theatre, including the
humans. It was Shpet who said in 1967 that puppeteers behaved like little
children who wanted to discover what is inside the toy. Now when the
puppet theatre is divided into fragments, there is no other way to proceed
than by the reconstruction of the toy; that is, the puppet theatre.56
It is this process that I suggest we call the atomization of the puppet
theatre. Fifteen years after Shpet’s pronouncement, the situation was
unchanged. The toy continues to be taken to pieces. Contemporary
puppeteers have at their disposal a number of different pieces that might
be used to reconstruct the puppet theatre, but this happens rather rarely.
As was shown by Krofta’s Don Quijote production that I discussed above,
‘the pieces’ are not used to recreate or refashion the classic puppet theatre.
They are used to create productions with disintegrated characters, in order
to stress their theatrical and metaphorical functions. In each production,
‘the pieces’ enter into new relationships with one another. The puppet
theatre has become a theatre characterized by the constant pulsation of
the means of expression and their relationships.
This last sentence, true of the contemporary puppet theatre, should
be related as well to the history of puppetry as a whole. The puppet
theatre throughout its history has been a theatre of the constant pulsa-
tion of the means of expression and their relationships.
First published in Semiotica 1983, 47.
Notes
1 Jurkowski H., ‘The language of the contemporary puppet theatre’, UNIMA
Informations, Warsaw 1978, 2–10; also as Chapter 4 of this volume.
2 Bogatyrev, P., Lidové divadlo cˇeské a slovenské (Czech and Slovak folk
theatre), Stezky, 1940, 136–7.
3 Zich O., Loutkové divadlo. Drobne umeni – vytvarne snahy (Puppet theatre. Small
art – great endeavours) 1923, 4, 7–9, 56–60, 140–43.
4 Bogatyrev, ‘Lidové divadlo cˇeské a slovenské’ (Czech and Slovak folk theatre),
124.
5 Bogatyrev P., ‘O vzaimosvjazi dvux blizkikh semioticheskikh sistem’ (The
interconnection of two similar semiotic systems), Trudy po znakovym sistemam
(Studies on the system of signs), 1973, 6: 306–29.
The Sign Systems of Puppetry 113
34 Serlio S., Il secondo libro di perspettiva di Sebastian Serlio Bolognese (The second
book of perspectives by S. Serlio of Bologna), Venice 1560, vol. II: 26.
35 Ottonelli D., Della Christiana moderatione del teatro (On the Christian moder-
ation of the theatre), Florence 1652, III: 463.
36 Magnin C., Histoire des marionnettes en Europe depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à. nos
jours (History of puppets in Europe from antiquity to the present), Paris 1852,
144.
37 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 92.
38 Ottonelli, op. cit., III: 463.
39 Creizenach W., Die Schauspiele der Englischen Komödianten (The performance
of the English comedians), Berlin and Stuttgart 1873, XV.
40 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 102–8.
41 Magnin, op. cit., 167.
42 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 95.
43 Martello, P.J., The Sneeze of Hercules, 1723
44 Biografia Dramatika or, a Companion to the Playhouse, containing Historical and
Critical Memoirs, and original Anecdotes, of British and Irish Dramatic Writers …
to the year 1764 by David Ershin Baker, to 1782 by Isaac Reed, to 1811 by
Stephen Jones. London 1812, 150.
45 Ibid.
46 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 113.
47 Hauser A., Philosophie des Kunstgeschichte (Philosophy of art history), Munich
1958, 307.
48 Baty G., Trois petits tours et puis s’en vont … Les théâtres forains de marionnettes
à fils et leur repertoire de 1800–1890 (The fairground theatres of string mari-
onettes and their repertoire), Paris 1942, 20.
49 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 242–60.
50 Eichler F., ‘Das Wesen des Handpuppen- und Marionetten-spiels’, in C.
Niessen (ed.), Emsdetten: Die Schaubühne. Quellen und Forschungen zur
Theatergeschichte (Sources of research in theatre history), 1937, 17: 22.
51 Jurkowski H., Dzieje teatru lalek. Od romantyzmu do wielkiej reformy teatru
(History of puppet theatre. From Romanticism to the great reform of theatre),
Warsaw 1976, 22–30.
52 Buschmeyer L., Die Kunst des Puppenspiels (The art of puppet play), Erfurt
1931; Eichler, op. cit.; Obraztsov S., Akter s kukloj (Actor with puppet),
Moscow 1938.
53 Kowzan T., ‘Znak w teatrze’ (Sign in theatre), in Wprowadzenie do nauki o
teatrze (Introduction to theatre science), selected and compiled by J. Degler,
Wroclaw 1976, 308.
⁄
54 Jurkowski, ‘The language of the contemporary puppet theatre’, 8.
55 Speaight, History of the English Puppet Theatre, 11.
56 Shpet, L., ‘Segodnia i zawtra w teatre kukol’ (Today and tomorrow in the
⁄
puppet theater), in Chto zhe takoe teatr kukol? Sbornik statei (What is the
puppet theater? Collection of articles), Moscow 1980, 31.
6
Puppets and the Power of the State
Puppetry is considered a marginal art form. Apart from some short
specific periods, it was a form of theatre held in low esteem, a theatre
for the folk who crowded around churches or at the fairs, for the idle
passer-by on the street, for people who could not afford to go to the real
theatre and, finally, for children.
Historians of theatre have not paid much attention to puppetry,
since they have always been more interested in the main current of
theatre art. It was only in the nineteenth century that the first history
of puppet theatre in Europe was published, by Magnin in 1852. If it is
true that the ‘marginal’ characteristic of puppetry discourages the inter-
est of theatre researchers, it is also true that it has evoked the interest of
other scientific researchers, for example folklorists. Puppetry is a field
that also holds interest for sociologists, due to the special and diversi-
fied functions of puppets in human history. This is an attempt to show
one perspective of such research, discussing the situation of the puppet
theatre through the centuries vis-à-vis the state and the law.
Popular opinion has it that the puppet theatre is as ancient as the
actors’ theatre, and may perhaps be even older. One thing is sure: it was
not born on the steps of altars like the Greek tragic theatre; it was born
on the altar itself. Ancestors of the puppets were divine sculptures and
figures used in religious ceremonies even as early as ancient Egyptian
times.
Moveable religious figures could be considered as puppets. As images
of divine powers they were not subject to the control or censorship of
the civic powers. However, as soon as the puppet became a theatre
performer the situation changed: it had to respond to the legal regula-
tions of the land.
In the period of antiquity those regulations were commonly applied
to the normal theatre – tragic or comic. We can guess that the famous
puppeteer Potheinos, presenting his performances in the theatre where
Euripides’ tragedies were given, performed under the protection of the
115
116 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
archon (chief magistrate). We may suppose that the group of mimes
playing at the Kallias home in Athens was accepted as legally permitted
entertainers, even if their show was based on the erotic legends of
Dionysus.
The decline of antique culture and the victory of Christianity
brought about the destruction of the Roman theatre, except for the
presentations of the mimes. They would have played with puppets as
one of their multi-form means of expression. It is worth noting that the
mime theatre was tolerated in Byzantium but was very much contested
in the western Empire, where the Church Fathers, and especially
Augustine, condemned the mime theatre as the remains of pagan
culture.
Fortunately, the wandering comedians still found their protectors
among kings, princes and feudal lords who needed them as entertainers
at their courts and castles. These wandering entertainers were people of
different skills and therefore of differing social positions. It was the
Castilian King Alfonso who issued a special bill listing the istriones (stage
players), ioculatores (jugglers), acrobats, jongleurs and troubadours
according to their social status. The lowest class among them were train-
ers of monkeys and dogs – and puppet players (cazurros).
Some puppet players were protected by Church and cloister provided
that they presented stories of the saints or of Christian chivalry, as
evidenced in Germany. In Slavonic countries there were also groups of
wandering players. They were musicians, dancers and puppeteers, but in
time, as their profession grew increasingly hard to carry out, they
became robbers and were called skomorocky, from the Greek scomarcha.
In Bulgaria they were appreciated as much as the mimes were in old
Byzantium; in Russia they served princes or were persecuted by the
Church and civic authorities; in Poland they were the loyal subjects of
kings and paid regular taxes.
In the late Middle Ages when the practice of liturgical drama and the
Mystery Plays was established, the puppeteers followed the trend and
tried to present these holy subjects with puppets. First they gave their
shows in churchyards and later in the streets of the towns and even in
theatres. They were still the wandering players, bringing their puppets
in a box on their back, the box being the puppet stage. Their puppets
were operated with the help of mechanical devices, and the puppeteer
stood in front of the cabinet or booth to tell the story illustrated by the
puppets. Very soon the civic authorities even managed to gain control
over these performers, and puppeteers were obliged to apply for permis-
sion from the town hall to present their shows. Permission was
Puppets and the Power of the State 117
frequently accompanied by many limitations and the enumeration of
special conditions: the show could not be given on a Sunday during
church service; the show could not be given after the setting of the sun;
the show could not provoke noise or tumult. If the terms were not
observed, permission was withdrawn and never given again.
In Spain, additional control of puppet productions was effected by
the Inquisition, which was very sensitive to all disturbance to religious
life caused by different kinds of performers.
However, the urban and church authorities were helpless in the
face of permission or a permanent ‘licence’ granted by officials of the
king (in England the Master of the Revels). They could hardly send a
petition to Court to complain about the nuisance caused by these
‘theatricals’. In seventeenth-century Norwich, however, some manu-
facturing employers did just that, complaining to the king that their
workers, attracted by a puppet performance, were abandoning their
work.
There was one place where actors and puppeteers could perform
without special permission, and that was in the fairgrounds. From the
sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries fairs were privileged in being
allowed to use different means of theatre to advertise different kinds of
merchandise and services. Puppets appeared to be most useful for this
purpose. They served to advertise pullers of teeth, the selling of optic
instruments, drugs and other items. Very often the demonstration by
the puppets was more profitable than the tooth pulling, thus many
charlatans changed their profession and became puppeteers. It is
worthy of note that the most famous puppeteers of Europe from the
seventeenth to the beginning of the nineteenth century practised tooth
pulling as their main profession. Such was the professional background
of Jean Brioché, who brought to France the figure of Polichinelle; such
it was of Johann Anton Stranitzky, the Austrian who popularized the
German Hanswurst; and also of Laurent Mourguet, who created the
famous figure of Guignol.
Privileges of the fairgrounds were an important help for all those
theatre managers unable to perform in the town, due to the monopoly
created by established theatres in many countries. In France this
monopoly of the Paris Opera and the Comédie Française in the second
half of the eighteenth century provoked the development of fairground
theatre companies where puppet shows were involved. The monopo-
lists, however, were very vigilant and selfishly did not even permit the
puppet to speak with a clear voice, obliging the puppeteers to use an
instrument called a swazzle which distorted their speech.
118 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
The theatre monopoly in England and especially the Licensing Act of
1737 caused much annoyance for all theatre managers. Nevertheless,
the puppeteers tried to find an escape from its regulations, as when
Madame de la Nash opened her ‘Breakfast Room’, pretending that the
puppet show therein was only an accompaniment to the tea and
refreshments.
At that time – the mid-eighteenth century – there were more and
more efforts to found permanent theatres, and to win the coveted
licence. The only way to obtain one was to seek the protection of a
member of the upper classes who could exert his influence on the
Master of the Revels. In Italy it was enough to win the protection of a
cardinal or a prince, who could automatically bestow the right to
perform. In Spain the common practice was to cooperate with a theatre
monopoly association, such as the Cofradia de Novena, which extended
permission to perform on condition that part of the income came back
to its own coffers.
As we have already mentioned, puppeteers had easy access to royalty
in their palaces and castles over the centuries. Foreign puppeteers
always tried to present their show at Court to ensure a good reception
throughout the rest of that country. If successful at Court, they were
sure to find acclaim in countries such as England, France, Poland and
Austria. From the seventeenth century there also existed a tradition of
permanent Court puppet theatres, although it is true that these were
not for kings so much as for princes. Among many, two were famous in
the eighteenth century: the puppet theatre of the Esterházy family in
Eisenstadt and that of Prince Radziwill in Biala in Poland. Both engaged
true masters of their craft, invited from Italy, France and Austria.
The majority of puppeteers, however, were travellers, strongly resist-
ant to control by police or any other authority. They did not care about
licences. They travelled with their booths on their shoulders, giving
short shows, collecting money from passers-by and using every means
to avoid contact with the police. In Poland in 1793, the puppeteer occa-
sionally known as ‘Sheepskin’ performed in front of the palace belong-
ing to the head of the Russian army of occupation. The action included
figures of collaborators with the Russians, traitors to Poland, being
beheaded on the guillotine. Not surprisingly, the puppeteer was imme-
diately arrested. In Italy at the beginning of the nineteenth century
many wandering puppeteers – like the famous Ghetanaccio – mocked in
their shows the Austrian invaders and the authority of the Pope.
Arrested and then released from prison, they still continued their auda-
cious protests.
Puppets and the Power of the State 119
This was one of the reasons for the low opinion of puppeteers held
by the authorities. Another was their anarchic lifestyle, their ‘immoral-
ity’. For instance, pairs of young puppeteers would live together with-
out legal marriage, and their children escaped from school, preferring to
go travelling with the company rather than attend classes.
The first state powers that tried to limit the activities of these
puppeteers were those of Austria and Bavaria at the end of the eigh-
teenth century. Their licences were withdrawn and their shows prohib-
ited. This decision resulted in much poverty and distress for a large
number of puppeteers and their families. The puppeteers were not able
to do any other work, their families were starving, and so they looked
for help to the local county authorities, appealing to them to free them
from their new and heavy burden and to abolish the new laws.
In Bohemia the number of puppeteers increased after the Napoleonic
Wars. The Austrian authorities wished to stop this rise, but were finally
obliged to surrender. Some of the new players were former soldiers from
the Austrian army, among them some who had been invalided out,
some who had no profession, but for all of them it was very difficult to
obtain a licence. Any widow of a puppeteer who had inherited her
husband’s licence found herself in a privileged position. Whatever her
age, she found many men ready to propose to her, though to tell the
truth they were really proposing to her licence!
Behind the social and economic problems of Bohemia there was an
important political background. The Bohemian puppeteers performed
only in Czech, in support of the renaissance of Czech nationalism. To
fight against the puppeteers meant that the Austrian occupiers also
found themselves fighting against the new national movement.
Fortunately for the Czechs, they were not successful in their efforts.
In the eighteenth century the theatre licence was always granted to
the theatre manager, in any country. However, he was obliged to state
his repertory, and sometimes to give a short synopsis of each play. After
he had been granted a licence he could perform without trouble,
although there were a few cases when the state authorities intervened,
as on the occasion when they stopped Titus Maas from presenting a
show about the Russian Prince Menshikoff because it had ‘a comical
hunting scene in Siberia’. The German authorities were afraid of the
intervention of the Russian ambassador.
The situation changed significantly at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century. It started in Prussia, where the Prussian king issued an
edict of censorship that obliged puppeteers to present the script of their
play to the police before its presentation in the theatre. This was a real
120 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Figure 6.1 19th Century Punch figure, from the collection of John M. Blundall
Puppets and the Power of the State 121
shock for the puppeteers, most of whom were illiterate, performing
their shows from memory. However, they had to obey the new law,
otherwise they could not continue to perform.
The same happened in France after the coup d’état of Napoleon III.
Censorship was imposed, and all puppeteers were obliged to stop
improvising their shows and to present scripts to be censored, and later
to play them without changing a word. It was hard for the puppet play-
ers, but paradoxically it is to these severe regulations that we owe the
existence today of the scripts used by the wandering showmen of those
times.
In spite of the regulations, there were always companies beyond the
reach of the censors, especially where shows were not presented to a
large audience. The most famous puppeteer of the Second Empire was
Lemercier de Neuville, who was a ‘parlour performer’. Though he
presented political shows, he was never censored nor persecuted. Giving
invited performances for small numbers, he was not considered a
danger to the régime. In Poland, however, the szopka theatre that
presented the patriotic Nativity play, though it was a family theatre, was
not left undisturbed by the occupying powers. A similar patriotic play
performed in one of the permanent theatres of Warsaw in 1912
provoked the intervention of the Russian censor and the theatre lost its
licence.
The authorities were no more tolerant, even when the puppeteers
wanted to establish a special permanent theatre for children. It is true
that in the nineteenth century this was still something quite new, and
when J.L. Schmid sent a petition to the Munich municipality, permis-
sion was refused. Fortunately, he found a patron and protector in the
person of Count Franz Pocci who was close to the Bavarian Court, and
the Schmid theatre for children opened in 1858.
Interest in the educational use of puppet theatre brought in a new
partnership with the educationists. Now the puppet theatre could be
developed under the patronage of educational associations, which
increased greatly in number at the beginning of the twentieth century.
At first the movement was an amateur one, but step by step it changed
into a dynamic professional activity.
At the same time many other associations became interested in
puppetry. The Bohemian Sokol promoted the art as an important factor
in social life. In Poland the Association of Folk Theatre did the same. In
Western Europe the first puppeteers’ organizations were founded, some
with their own performing companies. In such circumstances wide-
spread social patronage was extended, much influencing the social posi-
122 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
tion of the puppet theatre and helping in its relationship with state
authorities.
In some cases the idea of raising puppetry to the level of a national
organization was misused, as in the Fascist state of the Third Reich. It is
worth noting that other totalitarian states like Spain and Italy paid little
attention to puppets, though Mussolini’s propaganda boasted in its own
way of the successes of the Teatro dei Piccoli of Rome.
In Germany the situation under Hitler was different: a special organ-
ization was founded, Kraft durch Freude, which took control of the
German puppet theatre. Kraft durch Freude (Strength through joy)
monopolized the administration of puppet shows and no company
could present a performance unless it consented to cooperate with the
organization. Of course it was a Fascist organization; nevertheless, many
puppeteers managed to keep faith with their own concept of the puppet
art, and did not serve the propaganda machine. More engaged with the
Fascists was the amateur puppet movement and the Puppetry Institute
founded in Berlin.
In Russia the postrevolutionary establishment formed a new kind of
puppet theatre patronage – that of the Communist state. According to
the Leninist concept, puppetry should be ‘an art of the Party’ to serve
the revolution. Puppet theatre, due to its folk origins, was considered a
very appropriate instrument of propaganda. During and after the revo-
lution itinerant puppet groups still existed – with the help of state and
social bodies – working to compromise the enemies of the revolution
and to propagate its ideas. This kind of theatre was very active, but only
for a short time. The complete Soviet patronage of the art was accom-
plished much later. The programme of the Soviet state was to make all
theatre state theatre: that meant founding a ‘universal’ system that
would realize the policies of the government. This system was intended
to include the puppet theatre, but the first attempts to take it over were
not satisfactory.
Those theatres first supported by the state, in Moscow and
Leningrad, were not considered revolutionary enough. So at the begin-
ning of the 1930s, the famous Central State Puppet Theatre, headed by
Sergei Obraztsov, was founded in Moscow. It brought together the most
experienced artists with the task of elaborating the new (revolutionary)
repertory through modern means of expression, which they were to
share with all other state puppet theatres. Obraztsov’s theatre soon
became the model for the others, with many of them repeating his
experiments and his repertory. However, in the 1960s, due to increasing
contacts with world puppetry, the Soviet puppet theatre began to find
Puppets and the Power of the State 123
national or local traditions, as in Belgium and Sicily. Support is some-
times obtained from educational institutions on condition that the
performance accords fully with the national programme of education.
In some countries the state delivers money to some social bodies serv-
ing the development of the puppet theatre, such as the Centre National
de la Marionnette in Paris or the Puppet Centre Trust in London.
Most puppeteers feel that this patronage is not yet enough.
Nevertheless, it is possible to consider that the puppet theatre today has
gained a higher social position than it had at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century and is now acknowledged as a part of theatre art. The
current system of state and social patronage provides the proof.
First published in Animations 1984, 10(1).
7
Eroticism and Puppetry
125
126 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
In front of their bodies the dancers hold large phalluses made of bast
[bark] and testicles made of the red cones of a certain tree. First they
dance in a line, one behind the other, in quick time, their bodies
bent forward, stamping their right feet on the ground and singing …
suddenly they spring forward with vigorous coital movements and
loud groans, and finally halt in an irregular group. They stroke the
phalluses gently with their right hands, tap them with their fingers,
making loud clicking sounds, and blow upon them, making wafting
movements with their hands as scattering something in the air. They
carry the spurting semen everywhere, to every corner of the house,
to the edge of the forest and to the adjoining cultivated area, and
leap in among the women and girls, who scatter, screaming and
laughing … Nevertheless this is a serious, and, as it represents a natu-
ral process, a perfectly decent dance in the eyes of people in a state
of nature.3
Sometimes the eroticism of primitive peoples exploded into orgy, which
had little to do with the cult of fertility. Orgies were an attempt at the
Eroticism and Puppetry 127
Erotic ritual is commonly presented as fertility rites, but this cliché of
19th-century anthropology should not obscure for us the signifi-
cance of erotic excitement as a value in itself.4
This would explain why this ritual was enacted so frequently. Orgies in
primitive societies excluded puppets for obvious reasons. They were real
and no replacement was needed.
Returning to the cult of fecundity, we should mention different kinds
of figures (some of them animated) spread throughout Asia, Europe and
Africa. In Japan, statues in the form of a phallus were very popular, as
were female Dogu figures with enlarged sexual organs. It is certain that
these had sacred functions. They were not animated, but this says only
that they represented the earliest stage in the development of erotic
puppets. European antiquity has left much evidence of the use of
human or divine figures with the mobile phallus. These figures were
often carried on a large platform in ritual processions, and the custom
has been preserved up to our own time. In Spain and Portugal it can still
be regularly seen. In Mohacs, Hungary, at the folk festival known as
Buscho, women carried the puppet of Jancsi in procession only 30 years
ago. Jancsi was a male figure whose penis was moved by the pulling of
a string.
In Africa, especially Zaire, this kind of erotic puppet was even more
developed. Here one could witness the sexual junction of a puppet man
and woman. The manipulator, seated on the ground, used for this
purpose the technique known as marionnette á la planchette; that is,
puppets hung on the string stretched between the feet of the puppeteer.
The movement of his toes on a small plank sets the puppets in motion,
and they approach each other until, having large sexual organs, they are
able to join up as though copulating. No doubt they belonged to some
ritual of procreation. Today there are places where these puppets can be
bought and are given as toys to children. When performed by children
their actions provoke much laughter, from adults as much as children.
This is a good example of the change in the function of the puppets.
Dispossessed of their sacred function, the puppets become comic toys,
even while imitating the sexual act.
128 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Figure 7.1 Killekyatha, comic figure in Karnataka, courtesy of Mel Helstien
Sex and coition had yet another function in the religions of the Far
East, as in Hinduism and Shinto. It resulted from the conviction that sex
helps communication with supernatural forces. The desire to join with
deity or demon was often accomplished in the tempIes with the help of
priest-prostitutes. Traces of such beliefs are still to be met in Europe in
the rites of the ‘witches’ sabbath’, so much deplored by Christianity. We
possess some evidence of the use of such puppets in eleventh-century
Japan, in the performance of kugutsu mawashi. As reported by Donald
Keene, a show like this took place in a Shinto temple. An old man had
a voluptuous dialogue with a young girl before copulating with her.
However, sex was apparently an intimate affair even then, because the
‘spectators tried to separate the puppets, slapping their faces, although
they also liked such games’.5
Sexual themes fulfilled strange magic functions in the Indian puppet
Eroticism and Puppetry 129
Bruce Tapper tells us that one of the most important functions [the
South Indian] jesters reserve for the shadow players is the deflection
of the evil eye … they [the shadow figures] not infrequently [have]
exaggerated genitals. This enhances [their] ability to attract attention
and thereby to lure away injurious glances from elsewhere …
Bangarakka [the female comic] serves to protect the shadow players
by absorbing the injurious glances of the audience … and thus harm-
lessly fulfilling the misfortune caused by the evil eye.6
Proceeding from magic to rational thought, we have to refer once again
to European antiquity. It is widely known that the Greek comedy actors
carried on their abdomen an artificial phallus, a visible symbol of the
phallic cult which in turn emphasized the links with the mythological
Satyr figures. Aristophanes, in his Lysistrata, used the visual motif of
the phallus in a state of erection; this arose from the story and in prin-
ciple did not offer any erotic provocation. On the contrary, it mocked
sexuality.
A different approach to eroticism was to be found in the perform-
ances of mime groups where erotic scenes were often presented in a
naturalistic way. Xenophon mentioned it in his ‘Symposium’, at the
Feast of Kalias to be precise, describing the event as follows:
So all watched with solemn emotion, observing that Dionis was truly
beautiful and Ariadne charming in her youthfulness, and that their
kissing was no joke, but in truth lips fastened on lips … It did not
appear that anyone had taught them their roles but as if they had at
last been permitted to do what they had been wanting to do for a
long time. Finally the banqueters saw them withdraw to bed entan-
gled in embraces. Then did the bachelors promise to marry, and the
already-married mounted on horseback to return to their wives as
soon as possible.7
This group of mimes also possessed puppets. Socrates, who was also
present, asked the manager of the troupe whom he most appreciated
130 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
among his company. The manager stated, ‘My puppets, which help to
earn my living.’ He said nothing about the puppets’ repertory, but we
may reasonably guess that they too appeared in erotic scenes,
although it is hard to tell whether the puppet shows were serious or
parodies.
The first complete ‘eroticization’ of theatre was accomplished in the
period of the Roman Empire. It took place on two levels: the subjects of
the performances were as lewd as the behaviour of the actresses, who
were frequently treated as prostitutes. All this followed changes in
Roman social customs, when the public of every social class demanded
more and more erotic scenes in theatre performances:
Naked naiads swam in the artificial lakes of pantomime perform-
ances, unclothed nymphs bustled about in the forests, and during
the farces the garments of actresses were left in the brute clutches of
some clumsy man. In the guise of mythological events scenes of
copulation and seduction were presented. They were as piquant as
the pantomime farces were vulgar. The theatre knew no other
subject, and its actors were able to give their audiences the pleasure
of sensual delight through refined depravity or heavy sensuality.8
strengthened the friendship of Damon and Pythias by making them buy
favours from the same whore, Hero. However she betrays them both in
favour of her new lover, Leander:
This while young Leander with fair Hero is drinking
And Hero grown drunk to any man’s thinking
Yet was it not three pints of sherry could flaw her,
Till Cupid, distinguished like Jonas the drawer,
From under his apron, where his lechery lurks,
Put love in her sack. Now mark how it works.10
These are the words of the puppeteer Lanthorne Leatherhead, so it can
be assumed that the onstage action was to be played realistically.
Some years later, the parody and burlesque of the puppet stage
became popular in the theatre of actors, when eroticism became an
entertainment, the entertainment consisting of the provocation of
sexual excitement. This is easily discerned in England and France at the
end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries.
In England it was a period of triumph in the restoration of the monar-
chy. Theatre was the main source of court entertainment but was
deprived of any superior aims: enjoyment and sensual pleasure were its
chief purposes. Historian Leo Schridowitz wrote:
To what extent it was deprived of moral restraint and to what extent
it allowed itself to become a theatre of debauchery in the King’s circle
is proved by a quotation from Prosper Marchand’s ‘Dictionnaire
Historique’ namely that Lord Rochester’s ‘Sodome’, a work that has a
special position in pornographic-erotic literature, was produced
before the Royal court and before an audience among which ladies
were present. This performance was, strictly speaking, an orgy, staged
by the highest command, in the frame of dramatic action. It would
not be so remarkable were it not for the fact that it was an example
of the offerings of many private theatres of the time to their sponsors
and guests, that is, a luxurious brothel. The whole of the theatre of
this epoch only differed from this performance by nuances. And if
there was no display of actual physical coition, the theatre action was
so full of allusion that even the decent scenes provoked genuine
carnal delight, accomplished with the participation of the actresses.
In ‘Sodome’, however, after the introductory scene in which
Bolloxymion, the king of Sodom, proclaims the complete abolition
of any restriction in sexual relations, the ensuing four acts served to
Eroticism and Puppetry 133
The situation of the French theatre at the Regency period was no differ-
ent. Acts of love-making were presented onstage and the actresses had
to satisfy the caprices of the aristocratic libertines after the performance.
Pierre Boudin mentioned two plays as examples of licentiousness:
In ‘Juno and Ganymede’ the unprecedented scene was presented in
which the cup-bearer of the gods, after a passionate kiss, divests Juno
of her tunic, covers her body with ardent kisses and in the throes of
ecstasy removes the last veils. Later Juno, successfully liberated from
emotion, notices that she is stark naked; she rises and escapes to her
boudoir, not however forgetting to leave the door open.
‘Heloise and Abelard’ opens with the scene in which the Master
undertakes a surprising study of the breasts of his female student and
after places blazing kisses on those corporal hemispheres. All finishes
with the Master’s desire to experience flagellant pleasure on his own
hemispheres.12
It is necessary to state that puppet theatre, performing as it did for
another kind of public (the poorer and the middle classes), avoided
similar dissoluteness. It did not stay away from erotic subject matter,
but treated it in another way. The licentious scenes presented in the inn
in the puppet version of the Prodigal Son were hardly an exposé, and the
whorehouse scenes in Fielding’s The Covent Garden Tragedy, although
piquant, refrained – in the writing and the playing – from presenting a
picture of carnal relations or even of nudity. Fielding even inserted a
moral in which he preceded the French by about 100 years in defend-
ing the dignity of a prostitute. He compared her situation with that of
a marriageable young lady:
Kissinda: To be mistress kept, the Strumpet strives
And all the modest Virgins to be Wives.
For Prudes may cant of Virtues and Vices
But faith! we differ only in our Prices.13
Less moral and rather more in the spirit of the court entertainments was
the comedy La Cendre Chaude (The hot cinder) by Carolet, produced in
134 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Paris in 1718 and including the wild fantasies of the protagonist
brought back from the dead.
In the same category belongs the production of the Temptation of St.
Anthony produced in Warsaw in the second half of the eighteenth
century, probably by a painter, Alexander Orlowski. The show was
visited by the Polish king Stanislaw Poniatowski:
The King heard by chance that a young man from the school of
Norblin had made an optical theatre at his home in which small
people presented the temptation of St. Anthony in the desert. The
show was reported to be well executed in the storyline, the colour
and the movement of the little people in this licentious subject,
imitating the ‘Metamorphosis’ of Ovid. The King wished to see it and
so at night in order not to be recognised he walked with some
courtiers to this house in the Market of the old town, some distance
from the castle, and there climbed to the second floor to satisfy his
curiosity. 14
More evidence of this kind exists. As a rule, puppet theatre as folk art
was a moral art. The sultry and over-refined emotions of the court circle
were absolutely alien to it. If an erotic subject was produced for the
commoners, it was treated in the most natural way or the public openly
derided it.
In the nineteenth century there were erotic themes in many folk
performances, especially in the plays featuring Petrushka and Karagöz.
Petrushka is one of the rare examples of a perennial character of the
puppet stage who is unmarried, unlike Guignol who has his ‘Madeleine,
Punch who has Judy or Kasperle who has Greta. Petrushka is a bachelor,
although he dearly wants to marry his Verushka. First he examines her
body like a mare before buying. He counts her teeth and feels her all
over – it could be regarded as one way of wooing – and finally he decides
he will marry her. Playing before a suitable audience, for example the
soldiery, Petrushka would ‘consummate’ his passion without concealing
any detail of the action.
In contrast to this comic naturalism of Petrushka was the grotesque
eroticism of Karagöz, the principal character of the Turkish shadow
theatre. In some productions he came equipped with a mobile protrud-
ing phallus, which was to be the symbol of his virility but often the
source of all his troubles and sometimes the central subject of the play.
Gerald de Nerval inserted in his book Journey to the East the descrip-
tion of a Karagöz show in which Karagöz falls victim to both his shyness
Eroticism and Puppetry 135
and his phallus.15 His Neighbour asks him to take care of his wife,
because he has to set out on a journey. Karagöz is in trouble: on the one
hand he cannot reject the request of his friend; on the other hand he is
convinced of his own obvious and virile charms. He is afraid that the
Neighbour’s wife will fall in love with him. So he decides to attend on
her from a distance, and the first thing is to hide his protuberance. He
pretends that he is a bridge, bending forwards to make an arch of his
back. People, dogs, even a patrol of soldiers pass over him without trou-
ble, but he collapses when a cart – arba – appears, especially as it is heav-
ily loaded. In another scene he lies on his back, pretending that his
phallus is a big post. Passers-by are surprised and wonder where the post
has come from. Women make use of it for fastening their clotheslines,
riders to tie up their horses. A sudden nervousness among the horses
forces Karagöz to uncover his disguise, and he escapes, shouting for
help.
Entertaining play on the subject of the phallus was characteristic for
folk puppetry in many countries. It is still to be found in the Brazilian
Mamulengo theatre, in which the main character regards his phallus as
a club, sometimes even throwing it at the audience for everyone’s
enjoyment.
The function of erotic puppets differed in the hands of French artists.
It would seem that they were first used for the amusement of a smart
and exclusive group of people; in reality, however, their purpose was to
express opposition to the hypocrisy of middle-class morality. The
Erotikon Teatron was founded in Paris in 1862 through the initiative of
young artists – writers, poets, designers, caricaturists – who were friends
of the writer Amédée Rolland. Rolland allowed his lodgings to be used
for the construction of a small stage on his large verandah, with the
spectators seated in the adjacent living room. The audiences were excel-
lently amused by the artists, who used texts written either by them-
selves or other poets. The enterprise lasted a year, until Rolland moved
to another apartment.
Five erotic plays survive from the repertory of Erotikon.16 Their
action mainly takes place in whorehouses, a realistic introduction to the
‘brothel sub-culture’. The revelations of this shameful area of life were
certainly directed against bourgeois hypocrisy, although of course much
pleasure was extracted from the shows’ producers, authors and audi-
ences. It was an amusement for an artistic Bohemia, where no taboos
existed.
The opening performance was Signe d’Argent (Sign of money) by Jean
du Boys. It was about the problems of a Marquis in his attempts to
136 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
perpetuate the family line. Finally it was the butler, Germain, who
provided the offspring for the Marquis and his lady, demonstrating –
onstage – that the Marquise liked ‘it’ in the butler’s special way.
Louis Lemercier de Neuville, journalist and puppeteer, wrote two
plays: Les Jeux de l’Amour et du Bazar (Games of love and the market-
place) and Un Caprice (A caprice). The first presented the adventure of
Sylvia, procuress and proprietor of a brothel, who decides to try out her
own seductive charms. On the street she meets Durant and takes him to
her brothel to fulfil his every wish. However, she is not paid: Durant
turns out to be a procurer himself and discovers that they are both of
the same profession. In future they decide to work together.
Caprice was a play with a moral for errant husbands. Before leaving
home to visit his mistress, Urinette, Florestan makes love to his wife, a
deed to which he confesses on arrival at Urinette’s. The remainder of the
action consists of the efforts to revive Florestan’s virility – in vain.
Therein lies the moral of the play.
Scapin Maquereau (Scapin the procurer) by Albert Glatigny discusses
the problems of hygiene. A young and slovenly girl from a middle-class
family learns about hygienic customs within a brothel and, more impor-
tantly, manages not to lose her virginity there. This is an obvious satire
on bourgeois habits.
The play La Grisette et l’Etudiant (The shopgirl and the student) by
Henri Monnier was about eroticism of a non-brothel provenance. The
famous character Monsieur Prudhomme takes part in the action,
although he is not involved in the love affair. In fact the lovers – and
the audience – only hear his voice, which provides a sort of alienation
effect, also heightening the drama and the comedy. The grisette visits
the student and immediately arouses him, but when he is ready to take
the initiative she refuses to cooperate, lengthening the game of love and
dictating her conditions for surrender. Eventually they get to bed and
she dominates the rhythm of the action. When she finally, in a moment
of ecstasy, shouts to the student ‘Ah yes! … kill me! … ah! kill me! … ah!
kill me!’ the voice of M. Prudhomme sounds from above: ‘No assassina-
tions in this house if you please! … You … over there!, have you now
finished your acts of moral depravity?’ It appears that it is Prudhomme
who is actually in charge of the situation. When the student chooses a
form of caress that the girl dislikes and protests against, Prudhomme
switches on once more, saying: ‘Hippolyte, take your hand off it!’
Further on, the action develops according to a typical scenario: the
student, having satisfied his desires, tries to get rid of the girl, even
offering her money. This causes the girl to protest and to weep, thus
Eroticism and Puppetry 137
‘Les Grisettes’ is the title of a series of lithographs produced by
Monnier in the period 1827–1829, and in the first edition of ‘Scènes
Populaires’ of 1830 there is a short dialogue between the artist
Charles and his mistress, the shop girl Fanny, which tells exactly the
same story as ‘The Grisette and the Student’ even to the inclusion of
many of the same lines, but without the sexual episodes or the inter-
ruptions of M. Prudhomme. Freed from all constraints of propriety
and censorship, Monnier was able for the first time to develop with
total honesty a sketch which he had begun some 30 years earlier,
now showing it as it actually would have occurred and in the
language the characters would really have used.17
At the beginning of the twentieth century nakedness onstage was
frequent and popular, although the nudity was limited to dance, cabaret
and revue. In the later part of the century nudity entered into other
forms of the performing arts, for example Paradise Now in the live
theatre. It was firmly planted in the commercial theatre (Oh Calcutta)
and it served a new metaphorical function in modern poetic drama
(Operette by W. Gombrowicz).
Puppet theatre also presented erotic subjects, no longer as an amuse-
ment for a small group of artists but as a regular performance for a wide
public. The world of sexual chimera was a frequent subject for the play-
writing of the German modernists. It drew protests and demands for
censorship, as well as the exasperation of the bourgeois critics. The most
extreme dramas of Schnitzler and Wedekind were little performed and
often withdrawn after the first performance. Some artists thought to
produce them with puppets, since the materiality of the puppet dimin-
ished the violence of the portrayal, lending it distance and transform-
ing the realism into something comic. The puppet was both the poet
and the caricature of eroticism.
Ivo Puhonny, founder of the Artistic Marionette Theatre in Baden-
Baden, was conscious of this aspect of the puppet’s expression, and
138 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
of middle-class morality. The piece was of a poetic eroticism spiced with
satire but without vulgarity.
The scene from the La Claca show bordered on the vulgar in a some-
what perverse fashion. At first the staging seemed to represent a colour-
ful abstract composition, which some minutes later turned out to be the
entrance to a grotto protected by a curtain. During the development of
the action which concerns the destruction of the curtain, it became
clear that the grotto represented a vagina and the action its deflowering.
The artistic idea behind this demonstration was not clear. It was
understandable only as a confrontation, an attempt to shock a middle-
class and clerical public. The political and social situation in Spain at
the time contributed some explanation: the programme was mounted
after the dissolution of the Franco republic, when Spain had just
returned to a democratic government, and the artists were manifesting
their opposition to any continuing social censorship.
In the most recent period the erotic current in puppet theatre
remains rather weak, especially in that puppetry is now mainly a chil-
dren’s form of theatre. It seems too that the sources of inspiration have
dried up.
Folk parodies by artists displaying their alternative attitudes to sex
cannot often attract the public, for the good reason that the majority of
sexual taboos have been liquidated. There remain opportunities for the
grotesque or poetic portrayals of sex, but few have availed themselves of
these. The Wroclaw Puppet Theatre tried both styles. In Celestina a long
phallus served as a wrap for the main character, but due to its lack of
any other function this became monotonous; it was merely a pictorial
sign. However, in Kafka’s The Trial the company discovered a poetic
equivalent of the coition scene, which consisted in the vertical opening
of the whole female figure to meet her partner.
During this same period there has come into being the surprising
phenomenon of the drawing of cartoons with erotic puppet themes,
which has spread all over Europe, to the extent that some puppeteers
have recently organized special exhibitions on the subject in the
Netherlands and Italy.
I hope that this review demonstrates convincingly the rich and
differentiated functions of erotic puppetry. First, the puppets appeared
as ritual figures linked with the cult of fecundity and similar rituals.
Later on they gave erotic theatre an alternative aspect with naturalistic
presentations (the mimes), grotesque parody (folk art), social protest
(artists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) and, finally, poetic
signs of desire and fulfilment in a modern, artistic theatre.
140 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
It is not important that erotic puppets are not in frequent use. It is
enough that they have proved applicable to erotic subjects, bringing
with them a special social and aesthetic value. For this is only one more
aspect which confirms the puppet as the universal actor.
First published as ‘Erotyka i teatr lalek’ (Erotica in the puppet theatre),
Teatr Lalek, 1988, 1–2: 2–9.
Notes
1 Kirby E.T., ‘Ritual sex: Anarchies and absolute’, The Drama Review 1981,
25(1): 3 et seq.
2 Darkowska-Nidzgorski O., ‘Théâtre populaire de marionnettes en Afrique
Noire’, Paris 1976 (typescript).
3 Kirby, op. cit., 5.
4 Ibid., 6.
5 Keene D., Bunraku. The Art of the Japanese Puppet Theatre, Tokyo 1968, 27.
6 Helstien M., ‘Killekyatha and Bangarakka, Mischievous Imp and Golden
Sister, two comic figures in Karnataka, India leather shadow play’, USA 1988
(typescript).
7 Xenophon, Sympozjum oraz wybór z pism (The Symposium and selected
works), Krakow 1929, 27, 29.
8 Schidrowitz L., Sittengeschichte des Theaters (History of customs of the
theatre), Vienna and Leipzig n.d., 48.
9 Olearius A., Podrobnoje opisanije putieszestwija Golsztinskogo posolstwa
(Detailed description of the journey of the Holstein envoys), St Petersburg
1906, 189.
10 Jonson B., Bartholomew Fair, London 1614.
11 Schidrowitz, op. cit., 138.
12 Ibid., 181.
13 Fielding, H., The Covent Garden Tragedy, London 1732, 19.
14 Magier A., Estetyka miasta stolecznego Warzawy (Aesthetic of the capital city,
Warsaw), Wroclaw 1963, 100.
⁄
15 Chesnais, J., Histoire générale des marionnettes, Paris 1947, 64.
16 Brisacier, J., Le Théâtre Erotique de la Rue de la Santé, Paris 1866.
17 Gerould, D., ‘Henri Monnier and the Erotikon Teatron: The pornography of
realism’, The Drama Review, 1981, 25(1): 19.
18 Critic from Frankfurter Zeitung in Der Puppenspieler, Bochum 1949, 12: 185.
8
The Human among Things and
Objects
Imagine the first moment when man became aware of the existence of
the world. He looked around and saw other people, animals, trees, sky,
sun and so on. This was the world. In fact what he was seeing were –
things. Things, objects, are in opposition to subjects, to myself, to
ourselves. Thus early man saw things. His first problem was to use
things for his advantage, to exploit them, to make them a help not an
obstacle. The first human invention was the transformation of things
into objects and thus into tools, into instruments which might serve
him to achieve his objectives. (I am saying ‘thing’ as opposed to ‘object’
with some backing in current philosophical terminology. In fact I
needed a more popular notion for the word ‘matter’.)
Certain experiments were made some time ago with monkeys. A
caged monkey was offered a banana, but out of its normal reach. Being
humanitarian, the human put down a stick next to the monkey, a test-
ing stick. The question was, would the monkey use the stick or not? It
did. It took the stick in its hands and used it successfully to reach the
banana. This was a typical example of making a tool from a thing.
Unfortunately for the monkey, it was not able to go beyond using the
stick to help itself to reach the banana. Man, as we know, went further.
The stick which served to reach a piece of fruit or the stick which served
to defend the tribe or the stone which served as a primitive weapon to kill
an animal – these were the first tools which started the development of
human civilization. There is no need to make a list of tools which came
later, from the first knife to the first cutting machine or the first hammer
to the first mechanical forge. We know about the different stages of their
development and we are deeply conscious that we live in the midst of
objects, and that some of them serve for our comfort. The number of
objects that came into existence became so great that the question of their
consumption became the centre of our present preoccupations.
141
142 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
However, human instinct also led Christianity into producing icons
which represented Christ and his Saints, a practice which ended in the
famous war between the iconophiles (lovers of icons) and iconoclasts
(enemies of icons) in the eighth century. Fortunately the iconophiles
won, and Christian authorities allowed mediaeval artists to present
their icons and figurative sculptures, even accepting them as church
decorations, enabling the future development of the liturgical theatre.
This was transformed later into the Mystery plays, which maintained
the theatrical tradition in Europe. It is true that the art of the Middle
Ages dealt mainly with religious subjects, and that the coming centuries
turned to ancient and secular themes, escaping from Church control,
but I believe that the victory of the iconophiles of the eighth century
was essential for the development of European art, including puppetry,
in its secular form.
I have been trying to identify some factors influencing artistic activ-
ities in order to emphasize that the puppet theatre is not somehow an
invented genre of theatre, but the result of a long historical process
embracing the general development of art and theatre. While speaking
about puppetry, we have to take into consideration many other circum-
stances and especially the psychic imperative discussed by Freud and
Kerényi which, according to their ideas, impels humans to imitate the
act of creation, and especially the creation of artificial human beings.
In the course of history puppetry, like the other arts, tried to present
a picture of the world. Puppets changed their expression according to
the artistic fashions dominating sculpture, painting and live theatre,
and puppets followed their manner of the imitation of life. In the nine-
teenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, when the wave of
naturalism was at its peak, puppets were three-dimensional representa-
tions of various beings including gods, humans, animals, fairies and
other fantastic figures. The principal group was always human and that
is the reason to consider the puppet as a human simulacrum. This
concept has led us into a rich world of human representation.
A human simulacrum is specifically a three-dimensional icon or
representation. In the course of history it fulfilled different functions,
among which we may consider their practical use, their ritualistic
employment, their mythological participation, their appearance in liter-
ary fiction and also their theatrical presence. Of course some of these
functions overlap, which tells us that each classification has some weak
points.
Any use of human simulacra is marked by a practical purpose, but
some are used more pragmatically than others. Take for example fashion
144 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
dolls, all kinds of shop window mannequins, tin soldiers and children’s
dolls. Their use is simply practical. Only children’s dolls provoke some
difficulties in their classification because the child’s fantasy gives them
special psychological functions, thus placing them on the ritualistic and
especially animistic level. Children use dolls in their play, which
consists in giving them life or, if you prefer, in giving them roles, which
recalls the theatrical employment of puppets. This form of playing, like
all the games of children, serves also as an exercise before children
undertake social, adult roles in real life. This procedure, the child’s
endowment of life to a dead thing, one day became an inspiration for
the theatre and especially for puppet players.
The ritualistic employment of human simulacra is spread all over the
world. We can recall Roman funeral puppets, and funeral figures such as
the recently discovered clay army of the Chinese Emperor buried with
their lord. Puppets also participated in various rituals from which the
most theatrical seems to be the Niombo, which consists in using a huge
puppet which serves at the same time as a coffin. The puppet carried on
the platform performs the last spectacle of the recently deceased chief
of the tribe. We wonder whether the Egyptian mummies also had this
privilege.
There are occasions when the corpse has served as a sort of puppet
in an endeavour to placate the dead person immediately after death.
We know about the replacement of the corpse by a wax copy, identical
to the original, and the famous museums of wax figures founded by
Madame Tussaud, which probably owed their origins to the existence
of a large number of wax funeral figures. These were used in the seven-
teenth century in the ceremony of displaying the coffin of the deceased
person in church to avoid any possible profanity. When the body was
buried the wax figures were no longer necessary and remained in store.
One such figure was in a story, The Kidnapp’d Earl (as told by James
Boswell, June–July 1763) by Lillian de la Torre, who presented Dr.
Samuel Johnson in the role of predecessor to the famous Sherlock
Holmes. To prove the identity of James Aslay, the ‘kidnapped Earl’ of
the title, Dr. Johnson brought to court a wax funeral figure, the only
existing portrait of the second Duke of Bredingham. When the barris-
ter announced the arrival of the dead Duke as a witness, Dr. Johnson
took the matter into his own hands, demonstrating a fine sense of
theatricality:
Instantly pandemonium burst forth, everyone shouting at once. In
the din Dr. Sam Johnson came marching up the aisle and the wax-
The Human among Things and Objects 145
work Duke seemed to march with him, supported on one side by Dr.
Johnson and on the other by Frank Barber, who rolled his dark eyes
in terror, yet strode manfully forward.
In the terms of our enquiry, I feel that each idol as well as each simu-
lacrum may be, and often is, animated by means of suggestion. Dr.
Johnson behaved as if the wax figure of the Duke were alive and this
suggestion had theatrical value – it served to produce the illusion that
the wax figure was able to participate in the unfolding action, which it
finally did. We will find a similar procedure in using suggestion for the
purpose of puppet animation in the modern puppet theatre.
Animation and especially the animation of human simulacra is a
mental process, with regard to the manipulator who intends to bring
life to his simulacra and with regard to the spectator who comes to the
theatre in the expectation of a fictional experience. Before we can see
the scenic fact of animation, we have to pass through the preparatory
psychic process of allowing our imagination to work.
It is worth noting that some people were indifferent to the material
(in our case theatrical) accomplishment of the life of the simulacra.
They were happy simply to imagine that the simulacra were alive, and
they limited themselves to fixing their imagined world as a story
belonging to the oral tradition, as all myths are, or as a literary fiction,
which is an extension of our mythical thinking.
It would be possible to collect enough mythological stories which
include puppet themes to make a whole book. Some of these stories tell
of puppet demonstrations which appear to be a model of human
dependence on destiny or on the gods. Other stories emphasize the
possibility of the transformation of an artificial being, such as a sculp-
ture, into a living person. The first group of stories refers to the puppet
theatre as a source of metaphor. The second one touches the very
important problem of the human instinct to re-create life, beyond the
limits of the order established by God or by nature. In other words, it
touches the problem of the creation of an artificial life.
Two of these stories are worth discussing: the story of Pygmalion and
Galatea and the story of the Golem. Each of them approaches the prob-
lem from a different point of view. Pygmalion created Galatea, the most
beautiful woman he could conceive, in the imagined image of the
goddess Aphrodite. In love with his sculpture, he urgently asked the
Goddess to bring her to life. Aphrodite granted his wish, gave life to the
statue, and Pygmalion and Galatea lived happily ever after – as any fairy
tale should end. The story presented and confirmed the traditional role
146 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
of humans in relationship to gods. Humans are limited in their creative
acts: they cannot go beyond fictional artistic expression. On the other
hand, gods have unlimited power and can create living beings. The
transformation of Galatea into a living person, later the mother of
Paphos, was a divine affair. Pygmalion was made happy because he
accepted his modest existence and addressed his humble requests to the
proper divine authority. The story is full of light, beauty and optimism.
It is quite different in the case of the Golem, a story of darkness, sin
and imperfection, because man dared to oppose his creator. A rabbi, in
imitation of God, made a being of clay and tried to bring it to life, using
a magic Cabbalistic formula. He was almost successful – the clay was
fashioned into a moving being, the Golem, but it was without the
power of speech. Its end was tragic because all its magic powers were
helpless in the face of human faith and human rationalism. However,
the Golem provokes our special interest because it makes a new
comment on the muteness of puppets.
Gradually the power of gods and the power of magic were replaced
by the power of human fantasy. We know well that human fantasy takes
impulses from real life and that without the engineers who create the
mechanical beings known as automata or androids, the writer’s fantasy
could not cross into the regions of mythology. We needed the mecha-
nistic genius of Philo from Byzantium, Torriani, Kempelen and Droz in
order to have Jean Paul, E.T.A. Hoffmann and Villiers de l’Isle-Adam.
These engineers took their work seriously, trying to combine the beauty
of sculpture with mechanical perfection. Especially in the century of the
Enlightenment, their belief in the unlimited possibility of human tech-
nical skill led them to surprising results, their works enchanting both
Court and popular audiences, even if each was obliged to pay the
entrance fee proper to its respective social standing. There is a strong
analogy between automata and puppet shows if we consider them as
market activities appealing to the same human instinct; that is, the
human fascination for the creation of artificial life.
Passing through different periods in human history, especially in
Europe, we note that both forms of show – puppets and automata –
existed in parallel, although their social functions were different.
Androids were made for cardinals to satisfy their pride, mechanical
figures were produced for princesses and kings to ennoble the
entrances to their lands or towns and demanded a large financial
investment, unattainable by wandering puppet-players who had very
limited resources. On the other hand, the automata presented first to
the French courtiers were later offered to all kinds of audiences
The Human among Things and Objects 147
Of course the puppet was the main representative of human simu-
lacra in the art of spectacle. Puppets fulfilled numerous functions, start-
ing from the rituals which always had a spectacular value. The
mediaeval fairgrounds knew puppets as an advertising medium and
vagrant storytellers took puppets all over the world as an illustration of
the narratives they presented. In present times we see storytelling
coming back into practice under the banner of so-called epic theatre,
but in fact I doubt if these two notions mean the same thing.
It is curious that even if we in Europe have seen puppetry go from
storytelling through a period of practising ‘real theatre’ and then return-
ing to the same storytelling formula, in the Asian theatre the practice of
storytelling has hardly changed in centuries. All types of wayang as well
as ningyo joruri have remained on the same level: stories illustrated by
puppets.
The storytelling formula has given an important privilege to the
performer: he or she is the central point, speaking directly to the audi-
ence, in effect a visible creator, a sort of demiurge of the show. On the
other hand the puppet theatre, according to its classical concept which
obtained from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, demanded
some sacrifice from the player, who was obliged to hide himself in the
booth, giving all the glory to the puppet. For this reason this kind of
theatre could not be called other than ‘puppet theatre’. Puppets were
given the function of characters and as such the function of the scenic
subjects (of course apparent subjects, but in fact in the theatre every-
thing is apparent).
Modernism and the avant-garde attacked this ‘classical’ model of
theatre: they accepted only one subject in art, that is the creative
human being. Thus they emphasized the artificial nature of art, and
artificial creations of art are equal to artefacts. Again humans
confronted different things and objects (and also living beings), aiming
to use them as materials of their own creation. In treating things,
objects and living beings as elements of a possible composition, it was
decided to mix them up. Different means of expression were combined,
including masks, puppets, objects, acrobats, clowns and actors. The way
was opened to heterogeneity.
Under the pressure of these ideas, the puppet-player was able to
abandon the booth to become the visible demiurge of his show. He (or
she) could face the audience, talking directly to the spectators without
the intermediary of the puppet. Many things changed and the puppets
received new functions, including that of an object involved in the
process of creation.
2791 ,sooK navI yb dengiseD ,itegiL ygroyG yb serutnevA fo noitcudorp ertaehT teppuP etatS nairagnuH eht morF 1.8 erugiF
149
150 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
It is interesting that in previous centuries puppeteers never spoke of
puppets as objects. The popular player in particular believed that his
puppets inherited a part of his own life, often asserting ‘my puppets are
alive’. In such words we sense the remote belief in the puppets’ magic
life. Contemporary puppet actors seem to forget about the puppet’s
magic life when they say: ‘I am the player, the puppet is only my instru-
ment’. Perhaps that is right: it seems that few yearn for the lost illusion
of the living puppet. For this there are many reasons, the first being that
the ‘theatre of illusion’ still exists and it is strong enough to give new
impulses to contemporary artists endowed with some curiosity as to the
expressive potential of puppets. Second, the new situation of puppetry
has some advantages: the consideration of the puppet as an object has
given puppetry a closer connection with fine art.
It is a fact that some time ago Andersen in his search for enchant-
ment showed much sympathy for common objects, giving them
personalities and the gift of speech. He pretended to accept the old
animistic proceedings, which unfortunately in his time belonged only
to a child’s world. Perhaps that is why he is chiefly recognized as a
writer of children’s stories. He also used objects as allegories, a continu-
ation of an old tradition from antiquity, the Middle Ages and the
Baroque period.
However, surrealist painters and sculptors penetrating new fields of
life discovered the attractions of objects and found that they not only
have their functions and their biography, but also that they generate
some special meanings, especially in the context of other objects. This
discovery has given birth to the fashion for various kinds of collages,
which helped the attainment of new poetic expression in the field of
fine art and theatre, above all puppet theatre.
Waste materials were in themselves another source of inspiration.
The enormous accumulation of junk produced by our present civiliza-
tion has obliged people to think of ways for its re-use. In art, junk is
considered cheap and inspirational. On the other hand, its use in some
works may be understood as a manifestation of sympathy for matter in
general, in opposition to its senseless and exaggerated consumption,
especially the elimination of worn-out objects. Artists are convinced
that nothing is so used that it has completely lost its value. It is not
difficult to discover in this attitude the remote reflection of animism
bowing respectfully before even the smallest piece of material.
The interest in objects is balanced by a high level of subjectivity in
contemporary art. The modern player trusts completely the force of the
imagination and believes that he can project all his feeling and intention
7891 ,vonihzeV levaP yb yoB ekaL ehT fo noitcudorp ertaehT teppuP hzenoroV eht morF 2 . 8 erugiF
151
152 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
by using any means of expression. The modern puppet-player believes
that the actor’s presence is essential for the transformation of any mate-
rial vehicle used as a character. Sometimes figurative puppets are still
employed, but they are very often replaced by simple common objects.
Is this curiosity for a new means of expression or a more serious
phenomenon emerging from general trends in the art of the present?
One answer may be found on the level of theatrical language. By
‘theatrical language’ I understand all means of expression in the process
of their use. It means that I am interested both in their characteristics
and their function. According to my analysis the use of puppets
demands less linguistic operation than the use of objects. The puppet is
a more or less simple three-dimensional icon manufactured to be
manipulated on stage. It is the icon of a potential character which
becomes real if the puppet brought on stage is endowed with movement
and perhaps a voice. Distinct from puppets, common objects are manu-
factured for some practical use. Naturally, each has its own iconicity,
which allows people to recognize it. If a performer produces an object
in order to turn it into a stage character, the task is more complex than
that of presenting a puppet character. By means of acting and manipu-
lation he has to transform the object (for example an umbrella) into a
character (for example a woman), first by contradicting the iconic and
practical value of the object and next by endowing it with new func-
tions and a new appearance to make it recognizable as the intended
character.
Objects as characters circulate in a world of hints, allusions, sugges-
tion and metaphor. Objects are not able to give a full and complete
iconic equivalent of a character in the manner of the classical puppet,
bringing information about the visual qualities of a character which can
be exhaustive. The opposition between common objects and puppets as
characters may be translated into the opposition between the sugges-
tion of an image and its realization.
Should we accept that the process of communication in art has
changed so much that we have now entered into a world of hints and
allusions? Should we think that in this context the puppet has become
a medium that generates too much information? Should we think that
this is one of the reasons for the intense interest in the theatrical use of
ordinary objects? It is possible. However, I believe that the abundance
or paucity of theatrical information does not depend on the shape and
assignment of icons, but on the style of their expression.
Think about figurative painting: after a period of crisis it is coming
back into fashion, even if changed and bringing new values. The same
The Human among Things and Objects 153
October 1994. Presented at Brighton University and published in book-
let form by the British Centre of UNIMA.
9
Craig and Puppets
We normally associate Edward Gordon Craig’s notion of the Über-mari-
onette with the theatrical puppet, an association that is both right and
wrong. It is right because both have the same origins; but it is wrong
because, over the course of time, the puppet has moved a long away
from its sacred origins. Craig himself was quite aware of this when he
wrote: ‘He [the marionette] is a descendant of the stone images of the
old temples – he is today a rather degenerate form of a god.’1
This explains why Craig did not at first appreciate the puppets of his
own time. Indeed, his judgement was quite severe:
The marionette appears to me to be the last echo of some noble and
beautiful art of a past civilization. But as with all art which has passed
into fat or vulgar hands, the puppet has become a reproach. All
puppets are now but low comedians. They imitate the comedians of
the larger and fuller-blooded stage. They enter only to fall on their
back. They drink only to reel, and make love only to raise a laugh.
They have forgotten the counsel of their mother the Sphinx.2
Nevertheless, Craig’s dreams of a new kind of actor made him think
about the marionette as a descendant of ‘the stone images of the old
temples’. At first he wanted to hold to the original presentation of gods:
154
Craig and Puppets 155
must study to remake these images – no longer content with a
puppet, we must create an über-marionette.3
This was not a new idea. Maeterlinck too had dreamt about a new actor
in the shape of sculptures and statues. Craig, however, was consistent in
his demands over many years. His essay ‘The Actor and the Über-
Marionette’ (published in 1908 in an issue of The Mask, and later in a
collection of articles published as a book, On the Art of the Theatre, in
1911) provoked a long-lasting discussion, dividing theatre practitioners
into partisans for and against. Today, it seems that most contemporary
researchers do not believe in Craig’s famous proposition about replacing
the actor by the über-marionette, or ‘super-puppet’, which they say was
only vaguely defined and really no more than a metaphor. They
consider it to be a mere provocation to the actor, intended simply to
persuade actors to change their egocentric attitudes for the better real-
ization of an authorial vision in theatre.
Although Craig’s writings after 1924 give some grounds for this
belief, it is not really the case. Craig had clear and concrete ideas about
the über-marionette and its use, but he did not at that time envisage a
complete ban on the actor. In 1905, Craig was in Berlin where it seems
that Count Harry Kessler promised him financial support to allow the
foundation of Craig’s own theatre in Dresden. It is probable that all the
ideas he entertained at that time about puppetry were related to this
project.
In 1992, the French researcher Didier Plassard, investigating Craig’s
theories on the über-marionette, was the first to quote from three of
Craig’s daybooks dated 1905–06, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in
Paris. He discovered that Craig in fact entertained doubts as to whether
the puppet could ever be accepted as an actor for the whole duration of
a play. On June 15, 1905, Craig listed the ‘participants’ of his produc-
tions in which he proposed mixing the über-marionette with other
performers:
Craig also projected a repertory for this new theatre, which would
include plays he had already staged, such as Dido and Aeneas, while
156 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
An experimental marionette, eight feet high, was made by the
carvers, and attempts were made to manipulate it. Typically for
Italian craftsmen, on the day it was finished they hurriedly rigged it,
suspending it from a platform twenty feet up and, as Craig arrived,
the giant figure bowed, and with slow gestures, addressed him in
Italian, wishing him good luck in all his enterprises.6
The Arena Goldoni school, founded in 1913, was closed the following
year, when it was requisitioned for military use at the outbreak of the
First World War. Craig’s disappointment did not put a stop to his reflec-
tions on puppetry; on the contrary, he began to make a more intimate
study of it. In fact Craig was under the spell of his puppets and he
enthused about their expressiveness:
Indeed, Craig still dreamt of puppets as performers and began to write
short plays for them: his Drama for Fools, under the pseudonym of Tom
Fool. He also referred to them as ‘motions’ and the first of these was
published in his magazine The Marionnette in 1918. This was an oppor-
tunity for Craig to demonstrate his belief in the importance of the
puppets’ role in theatre:
Future – Today – these words defining time are clumsy and do not
fulfil their task. Because you could judge that, speaking of the
Future, I think of five or ten years … while all the time I mean what
will come after the victory of the puppets. You may consider, that
when I say Today I am thinking – this year, but this is not true. I
mean the time of the victory of the puppets. The Über-marionette
comes later.8
Here the puppet becomes a precursor of the über-marionette. It was
supposed to influence actors in theatre, as Craig considered the puppet
to be a model for actors, claiming:
The puppet is the ABC of the actor. The Puppet is the Actor’s Primer.
Architects have Vitruvius, Palladio and a dozen others: musicians
have Rameau and a dozen others: painters have Leonardo, Cennini
and a dozen others: writers have the Dictionary, and actors have the
Puppet.9
According to Craig, only the puppet can realize the ideal of human
movement, which is why he wanted actors to consider the puppet as
their tutor. Craig advised the actor:
The purpose of this advice seems clear. Craig demanded from an actor a
stylized, ‘artificial’ gesture and he hoped that this would be obtained by
the example or intermediary of the puppet:
158 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
But once you have made a Puppet and taught yourself to allow it to
move (and it’s that and nothing else; I mean you don’t move it; you
let it move itself; that’s the art) … once you have done these two
things I promise you, if you are a born artist, the world is in for a very
great treat. The Idea of man in motion, in perfect motion, will be
seen for the first time in a generation.11
The Über-marionette is the actor plus fire minus egoism; the fire of
the gods and demons without the smoke and steam of mortality. The
literal ones took me to mean pieces of wood one foot in height; that
infuriated them; they talked of it for ten years as a mad, a wrong, an
insulting idea. The point was gained by them, and I think I owe them
here a word of thanks.13
We should not think, however, that Craig was interested in puppets
simply in terms of his über-marionette theory. It seems that, especially
during the period of his life in Florence, he was indeed under the spell
of puppets: he admired the richness of the puppet’s forms of expression;
he bought for the Arena Goldoni a collection of Asian puppets from
Burma and Java; he was in contact with the English puppeteer Walter
Wilkinson; he saw productions of the famous Italian puppeteers, such
as the Colla and Lupi families, as well as Vittorio Podrecca’s company.
That nearly all of these Italian companies’ directors employed
members of their own family might be the origin of Craig’s idea for
founding a ‘family theatre’. Craig’s son, Edward, tells us that his father
Craig and Puppets 159
The first three scenes within the Sketch Plan take place in Hell at the
beginning of the world. Blind Boy meets the Parrot, a crafty and rich
parrot, who brings in his bag a huge egg as a gift for Pluto. From this
egg Cockatrice will be born. Pluto, being aware of this, sentences
Parrot to death. Parrot however plays a trick. As his last request before
160 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
execution he asks for his bag, opens it and breaks the egg. Cockatrice
is born while the bells of Bow toll – the old tale says that anyone born
in Cheapside in earshot of the church in Bow is an authentic cockney.
Cockatrice’s gaze terrorizes the hellish court and Blind Boy and Parrot
escape in the general confusion. From this episode onwards Craig
introduces motifs of travel and searching – travel along unknown
roads and searches for hidden treasures – according to the archetype so
dear to mythology and popular tales. Blind Boy, bored by his hellish
adventures, wishes to see the wonders of the world and suggests to
Cockatrice that they set off. Parrot joins them.
Gradually Cockatrice demonstrates his vulgar nature provoking
man to commit sin. This is the beginning of a succession of scenes
following Genesis: episodes such as the Flood and comic discussions
inside and outside Noah’s Ark remind us of the York Mystery cycles.
Some scenes refer to oriental motifs such as ‘Divano’, which proba-
bly refers to Hafiz’ magic carpet. The birth of Jupiter in the thirtieth
scene starts another group of ‘motions’ inspired by mythology and
illustrated with charming drawings. In one scene, Jupiter tries to
avoid a meeting with the Blind Woman, transformed into the
Sphinx. He boards a ship but because it is wrecked he visits an island
inhabited by wild people …14
Craig opened the way to a new, ironic interpretation of the history of
humanity in the puppet style. With the 50th scene, the cycle of plays
which includes Looney, the Magic Idiot, begins. Craig gives him many
themes to play, from the Pentamerone and from Grimms’ Tales. Scenes
101–118 present the history of Rome, showing the influence of Pliny,
Apuleius and others. In some of the plays the Magic Ass appears, its
origins drawn from mythological and Fool traditions (for example the
mediaeval Processio Asinorum).
The plays published during 1918–21 are given a ‘preface’ by Craig:
‘The Marionnette Drama. Some Notes for an Introduction to ‘The
Drama for Fools’ by Tom Fool’, published in The Marionnette (1918).
This introduction is a eulogy of the puppet at the expense of the live
actor. Craig wrote:
A marionette walks, sleeps, prays, visits, eats, drinks, seems to do
all these things exactly as men do, and what makes him so fresh, so
free from something detestable, something which haunts us when
we see real men, is that this awful thing Egoism is not with him.
He seems to think and feel, to see and to hear without egoism …
and without that pose of altruism … egoism’s top-notch.
All this makes the marionettes so refreshing, and gives us a sense
of surprise and gaiety when they appear. Who could quarrel with one
of them? Why, they are even unaware that we see them.15
And what is the puppet drama? It is quite different from the ‘proper
drama’. In Craig’s comparison:
Perhaps one of the chief distinctions between a Drama for Marionnettes
and a Proper Drama is this … that whereas a Proper Drama has to be
vague and roundabout in its movements, a Marionnette Drama had
always better be direct and rapid and even obvious.
With the Proper Drama so much can be helped along by the actor;
for example, if its author wishes to draw a subtle character like Iago
he can do so, making him seem to be quite a pleasant personage; for
the actor who completes the work will explain, by additional exercise
of subtlety, that he is not as pleasant a personage as the audience
might suppose.
Now a Marionnette cannot do that. A Marionnette is not at all
clever, not subtle. He must fit the character like a hand fits a glove,
or all is undone. Therefore, when we make a character in one of our
Dramas we make the Marionnette to fit it. And so it comes about that
a Marionnette does not play a number of parts, he plays only one …
that is himself. This is different from the actor who plays many parts
and must therefore pretend. The Marionnette never pretends …
therefore the Marionnette can save the Theatre.
Neither in character nor in appearance must the Marionnette be
‘subtle’. There must be no shilly-shallying about either his looks or
his actions. He is or he is not ‘Hamlet’ … whereas in the Proper
Drama, ‘Hamlet’ is sometimes one thing, sometimes another, and
seldom is he ‘Hamlet’.
Thus the cunning of the playwright, of the actor and of the audi-
ence is properly exercised, while this directness of the Marionnette
Theatre curbs our fancy; and though, when writing, we must deny
ourselves very many excursions, still, we may range pretty freely so
long as we keep on the high road.
162 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
For example, we may if we wish give life and movement and even
a voice to inanimate objects. A clock of course already has its life, so
that we should not be doing well to give it any additional powers. We
would not cause it to talk other than it does in ticks, and in striking
the hours, and in its cuckoo notes. But to a cushion we can give life.16
The contemporary reader may be a little confused by all this exhorta-
tion. On the one hand, we see here the traditional (albeit artistic) view
of the puppet and its drama, a view held by such artists and puppet
players as Meyerhold, Tairov, Brann and Obraztsov: that the live actor
may deal with psychology, while the puppet must present schematic
characters; that puppets demand clear, direct images and situations;
that they cannot enter into any exercise of subtlety. And on the other
hand, we read about the use of inanimate objects, which was a novelty
in the world of puppet theatre at this time. As we discover from his
Drama for Fools, however, Craig did not make use of this novelty
himself. Although he developed the idea of puppet theatre in a
prophetic way, in practice he remained bound by its traditional forms.
To make this clear, we should remember that at the beginning of the
twentieth century the puppet theatre which Craig knew was the ‘true’
puppet theatre, using figures that imitated live beings. Sometimes their
expression was stylized according to new tendencies in the fine arts,
such as could be seen in the productions of Brann, Podrecca, Teschner
and the Swiss artists. But in general the world the puppet theatre repre-
sented was ruled by the same conventions wherever it was played.
Craig’s innovations consist in the fact that he proposed, in some of
his ‘motions’, a new approach to puppets. First, he suggested the use of
a dynamic visual metaphor as the vehicle for a message. For example, at
the beginning of his Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is a complete figure while
Juliet is only a bust. In the course of the action Romeo loses his limbs,
while Juliet receives new ones. By the end of the play, Juliet is a
complete woman while Romeo is a broken invalid. It is up to the audi-
ence (or the reader) to discern the signification of this transformation of
the figures.
Secondly, Craig suggested connecting the presentation of the story to
a revelation of the mechanisms of puppet theatre. He proposed show-
ing the presence of the manipulators, as well as the theatrical god – the
director of the show. In the final scene of Mr. Fish and Mrs. Bones, for
example, Mrs. Bones (the puppet) is banished from the theatre, but
finds support in the arms of her faithful manipulator (a human actor),
‘Miss Nellie Smith’.
Craig and Puppets 163
Notes
1 Craig E.G. On the Art of the Theatre, London 1911, 82.
2 Ibid., 82–3.
3 Ibid., 84.
4 Craig E.G., Über-Marions, cahier A, p.13a. Coll. E.G.Craig, nr. 272,
Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds Arts du Spectacle. Quoted by Didier Plassard,
L’acteur en effigie, ’Lausanne 1992, 50. Also see Plassard, D. et al. (eds.) The
Drama for Fools/Le Théâtre des Fous (in English and French), Montpellier
2012.
5 Ibid., 51.
6 Craig E., Gordon Craig: The Story of his Life, London 1968, 292.
7 Craig E.G., ‘Puppets and poets’, The Chapbook 1921, Feb.: 18.
8 Craig E.G., ‘The marionnette drama: Some notes for an introduction to The
Drama for Fools by Tom Fool,’ The Marionnette, Florence 1918, 1. (Tom Fool
was one of many pseudonyms of Gordon Craig, used in The Mask and in
The Marionnette.)
9 Craig, Puppets and Poets, op. cit. 13.
10 Ibid., 14.
11 Ibid., 18.
12 Craig, On the Art of the Theatre, vii.
13 Ibid.
14 Siniscalchi M.M., ‘E.G.Craig: Il dramma per marionette’ (The drama for
marionettes), English Miscellany, Theatre Research International, 5, 2. 1980
122–37.
15 Craig, ‘The Marionnette Drama’.
16 Craig E.G., The Marionnette, 1918, 2: 38.
17 Since this essay was written, the American collection of the ‘motions’ has
been acquired by the Institut International de la Marionnette in
Charleville-Mézières, France, which has published it (see note 4).
10
Among Deities, Priests and
Shamans
In this essay, I will focus on the first stage of the ritualistic use of
puppets and on their presence in proto-theatre. Although I may look
back to some ancient periods of the past, my intention is to write about
contemporary puppetry, or at least puppetry from the recent past. I will
also avoid any geographical ordering, assuming that humanity is a
single whole. The history of puppetry’s cultural transformation will be
reflected within the ‘world of puppets’ and its changing functions. This
will be a reflection on their specificity, which has become a subject of
my interest.
Puppets belong to both ritual and theatre. We can guess that they
were born as a visible representation of deities within ritual. Thanks to
the work of Charles Magnin1 we have learnt about rituals from Egypt,
Greece and Rome, in which large moveable sculptures (puppets of great
size), and later smaller puppets, participated. These were idols – inani-
mate figurative sculptures – representing a divinity or deified ancestors
or their acolytes (for example spirits of the hearth), some fixed on a
plinth or other manufactured base (such as we know from Christian
churches, providing a stand for altar figures). Probably at some point in
their development the necessity arose (perhaps dictated by magic) to
make the idols’ limbs moveable. African figures offer us proof of this,
where some of them, though fixed on their base, have mobile heads and
hands.
Egyptian, Greek or Roman puppets were huge statues, like the one of
Jupiter-Ammon fixed in a golden gondola, and carried in procession by
24 priests. The head moved to point the route that the procession
should follow, until the priests arrived at the place where the deity indi-
cated it would deliver its prophecies. In Christian churches too, sacred,
sometimes mobile figures were included in the religious service. The
fifteenth-century mitouries in Dieppe, for example, became very famous.
165
166 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
These were in fact a mechanical representation of the Virgin Mary’s
Assumption by human-like figures.
Though ritualistic religious puppets in Europe have been well cata-
logued by researchers, they almost do not exist in contemporary life,
with the exception of the mechanical Nativity, shown at Christmas in
many churches. There are more which remain in African and Asian ritu-
als, where they too have their histories.
It is widely assumed that puppets with moveable limbs originated
directly from cult figures, such as fetishes, talismans and idols. In the
complicated relations between divinities and humans it became neces-
sary, perhaps dictated by sympathetic magic, to make idols’ limbs move-
able. This looks like a transitional stage from statues to mobile puppets.
But in many cultures even unfixed moveable puppets were considered
gods, as we can surmise from the evidence of the Spanish monk
Sahagún, from the time of the conquest of Mexico:
then (the conjurer) stood up, moved his sack, shook it and
summoned those in the sack … Immediately figures as small as chil-
dren started to come out. Some of them were disguised as women –
it was a very good disguise: as women they wore a skirt and blouse;
they were as well disguised as the men; they wore a band, a pelerine
and a necklace of precious stones. They danced, sang, and expressed
that which is the essence of the heart. When they had accomplished
all this, he again shook the sack and they hid and found places inside
it. ‘The one who makes this happen, that gods appear, move and act’
should get his reward.2
One might question this description and especially whether the designa-
tion of ‘gods’ corresponded to the indigenous belief in the divinity of
puppets as such, or whether it was meant only as a metaphor, which
pointed to the divine functions of the puppets. Claude Levi-Strauss has
shown that early man understood the symbolic functions of art. He shows
that art’s early creators and recipients were conscious of the difference
between someone ‘presenting’ and someone ‘presented’, as proved by the
temporary incorporation, in successive rituals, of either ancestors or gods.3
The privilege of manufacturing puppets, given equally to men and
women in Africa, seems to be from a period when competition between
the sexes in some tribes had diminished. It was different at Blazing
Island, where Mircea Eliade tells us that the ritual of initiation into
maturity among Selknams was an exclusively masculine secret cere-
mony, for which there were special reasons:
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 167
The burial procession of important persons is accompanied by deco-
rated wagons on which musicians play, and by straw dummies wear-
ing masks, which symbolize the keepers of the tomb. Toward the end
of the Tchou Dynasty (770–256 B.C.), these dummies were replaced
by articulated wooden puppets. The masks worn by the dummies
were burned or buried, according to the customs of various regions,
whereas the puppets were returned to the people who made them.
168 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Specialized craftsmen made these puppets, to be rented especially
for funeral ceremonies, and they also managed their manipulation
and musical accompaniment. These rich burial processions became
true spectacles. Such funerary ceremonies may be considered the
origin of the Chinese puppet show, and of the masked dances
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 169
performed by actors. These manifestations gradually departed from
their ritual character to become pagan entertainments.6
Jacques Pimpaneau came to the same conclusion in offering several
examples of the use of puppets in funeral rituals.7 It is worth noting that
in Africa too the cult of ancestors was considered as giving the first
impulse for the creation of a manipulated puppet. We can suppose that
among the images of divinities (whether totemic animals or fantastic
allegories of forces of nature), the first humanoid model was given by
puppets representing dead ancestors. These were recognized as taking
care of a tribe, as its ‘guardian angels’, and as such they might be a stim-
ulus for using human forms in sculpted representations of gods.
Akpan Etuk Vyo discovered puppets in the land of the dead, giving
rise to the later use of puppets by the Akpans and other humans, and
holding a symbolic meaning as the repetition of sacred acts. Puppets
were therefore suitable instruments for worshipping dead ancestors.
The Fangs from Cameroon and Gabon employ puppets in an initia-
tion ritual called melane, which symbolizes the first contact of the initi-
ated with the dead ancestors. The climax of the ritual is carefully
prepared: the young boys, subjects of the initiation, must stay for some
time in seclusion while they meditate, receive instruction, and eat
special food. After taking drugs they are taken by night to another hut,
where they see a demonstration of rod puppets, which they are
supposed to identify as their ancestors. In Gabon the same Fang associ-
ation used a kind of bust on a rod, with moveable arms, which appeared
over a primitive screen made of kerchiefs, for the same purpose. The
village dignitaries manipulated them and the ritual helped to contact
the dead ancestors, while also fulfilling a purifying function. These
‘puppets’ are considered as sacred objects; they are placed on cylindri-
cal bark boxes with skulls inside.
On the Ivory Coast, in initiation rituals the young initiates carry
déblé figures on plinths about 95 cm high. (The déblé may probably be
identified with the image of death.) They hold the déblé and hit the
ground with its base. Déblé and déguélé (similar to déblé, but can only be
touched by the initiated) are used in funeral processions, accompanied
by drums, wooden rattles, trumpets and songs. This ceremony is meant
to help a dead person take leave of the living community. Many other
tribes and associations use puppets for the same purpose. For example,
within the Ibibo tribe of Nigeria, there is a spectacular ritual called Akan,
which is performed over several nights after the end of a war, to worship
their dead.
170 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
It is worth noting that similar customs were the basis of more devel-
oped rituals (considering their theatrical aspects), as, for example, in
Iran, which might be a surprise given the Islamic interdiction on figural
presentations of God and persons. However, the acceptance of some
elements from pre-Islamic culture, even if dealing with the faith of the
Prophet, is a typical exception. Here I have in mind the Tazîe mystery
procession that commemorates the death of Hussein, the grandson of
Muhammad.
In the course of a fight for power in the state (caliphate) left by
Muhammad, the Shi’ite insurrection, led by his grandson Hussein, was
defeated and the leaders killed in battle by the army of the usurper
Yazid. The most brave and dramatic figure was Abbas who fought
fiercely, defending his brother Hussein. When his enemies cut off his
right hand, he took his sword in his left hand; when they did the same
to the left one, he took his sword in his mouth, fighting until the
moment of being killed.
When Islam conquered Iran in the sixteenth century, the mourning
over Hussein’s death became one of the most popular religious customs.
After the story’s recitation by a dervish, the procession of mourners
began to include some theatrical elements with puppets. As the mystery
was not allowed to be observed by non-believers, the first descriptions
originate only from the nineteenth century. According to the theatre
historian Medzhid Rezvani:
On the tenth day of the month of Mokharrem people carried the
martyrs of Kerbela (the site of the battle) on handbarrows. These are
manikins made of straw, covered with red stains and riddled with
kindzhals (daggers) … On the big barrows or mobile platforms …
they perform entire scenes …10
This description brings to mind parallels with other ancient mysteries
such as the Passion of Dionysus or the Christian Mystery Plays from the
Middle Ages. In some cases manikins were replaced by puppets, as has
been proved by D.I. Longo, a Russian travelling circus artist, who
secretly bought three puppets after having seen them in a Mystery Play
at the beginning of the twentieth century. They can now be seen, albeit
without legs and arms, in the Puppet Museum of the Central Puppet
Theatre in Moscow.11
Information from Africa, from Dahomey and Nigeria, offers new
aspects of the cult of the dead. In its funeral ceremonies the Gelede asso-
ciation in the Yoruba tribe uses puppets on bases, with limbs manipu-
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 173
lated by strings. Puppet-players hold the base with one hand and
manipulate the puppets with the other, performing an erotic dance,
which ends with the display of the puppets’ sexual organs, after which
they have ‘intercourse’.
Another example is the Nevimbur initiation ritual from the New
Hebrides, observed at the beginning of the twentieth century, which was
fully dramatized. It took place in the square in front of the house reserved
for men, which was surrounded by a palisade, allowing women and chil-
dren to see only the part that happened in front of the palisade. Nevimbur
was divided into two parts performed within a few weeks of each other.
The main figures (Mansip, his wives and his enemies) were lifesize
manikins surrounded by more or less elaborated puppets (made of
bamboo, leaves and cloth). In the first part, four puppets were destroyed
by an elder, to allow the birth of the new spirits. In the second part, the
Mansip figure was destroyed and all the other manikins burnt. Scholars
explain the meaning of Nevimbur by referring to the myth of Ambat
(Butwanabaghap or Kabat), the ancestor and creator-god of the tribe.12
This mixture of funeral ceremony with the sexual act resulted natu-
rally from beliefs in the union of death and life. In many countries the
initiation of youth into adult life (and thus sexual life also) includes an
experience of initiation through symbolic death. One must die to be re-
born.13 Very often the state of being dead is expressed by the ‘puppe-
tized’ movements of initiates:
In the initiation ritual, young people often take on a mortal appear-
ance or more exactly an appearance of those who have been brought
back to life. After staying in some secret place, where they were
considered dead, they are reborn. This birth finds its essential mean-
ing in the final ceremonial acts, when the initiates are brought to life
and allowed to rejoin the living. Initiates from the Kissi tribe in the
Guinea forests, as well as in other African societies, have whitened
bodies like phantoms and they move as automata or puppets. Their
steps, their smallest gestures are mechanised and completely submit-
ted to the rhythm of a drum, beaten by the master of ceremonies. In
spite of the importance of the ceremony, there is also a place for
satire and buffoonery, and even a sudden display of hostility: the
‘puppets’ abandon their environment and make threatening
approaches to the spectators, who step back …14
We can suppose that this twofold rite of passage, linking death with
birth, gradually split into two separate rituals. If the rite of passage had,
174 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
principally, a symbolic character, fertility rites were aimed at real effects,
vital for assuring the whole tribe of its future existence. Probably for this
reason we see in these rites elements of sympathetic (analogic) magic,
through which human beings propitiated nature and supernatural
powers, to grant the richest harvests possible. By its very nature, the
ritual of fertility lets its participants see two aspects of the sexual act –
the sacred and the instrumental:
Often, especially in Africa and Oceania, the young initiates after
circumcision enjoy great sexual license. However, we should not see
this as debauchery, because the situation has nothing in common
with sexual freedom in its contemporary, desacralised meaning. As
with all the other biological functions, so sexuality in early societies
is marked by sanctity. It is a means of participation in the fundamen-
tal mystery of life and of fecundity.15
One of the most important functions served by the south Indian
guards for the shadow players is the deflection of the evil eye. They
not infrequently have exaggerated genitals. This enhances their abil-
ity to attract attention and thereby lure away harmful glances from
elsewhere. Bangarakka the female comic also serves to protect the
shadow players, by absorbing the harmful glances of the audience
and thus harmlessly deflecting the misfortune caused by the evil
eye.17
(also on rods), surrounded him and danced with him. This ritual is
almost forgotten, although some traces may be found in the popular
puppet dance kyebe-kyebe.
Serpents represent the energy of nature and life among the Hopi
American Indians of Arizona, in a ritual called Palölöqangw, which is
performed in the presence of kachina dancers. From a big screen (a kind
of booth) in the centre of the ritual space emerge the heads of serpents,
which receive offerings from the worshippers:
puppets help a medicine man to claim that his diagnosis has magic
origins, saying that it is the puppet which sees, diagnoses, and
prescribes the medicine: ‘Bwiti points at … so I see … Bitwie says … so
I know …’
In Africa there are relatively large numbers of divining puppets; that
is, puppets which predict the future or ones which solve the topical
problems of individuals. In the Pende tribe, in Zaire, the divining
puppet – galukoshi – which is placed by the knees of the secret-teller,
gives signs with its head when the name of a guilty person, a thief or
other criminal, is mentioned. On the Ivory Coast, members of the femi-
nine soothsaying association Sandogo carry their puppets on their
heads. When necessary they lay them on the ground, dance around
them and pronounce their verdict. In the Upper Volta another associa-
tion used the kafiguélédio puppets. They have no face and their entire
body is covered with traces of sacred blood. They were probably used to
cast spells.
Soothsayers from the Upper Volta present their divination sessions as
an unusual show. Using hematite or caolit, a square is demarcated,
which is divided into four sections, and then a circle is drawn, linked to
the square by the sinusoid lines. In the centre of this design, the sooth-
sayer places a bottle made of bull hide, containing kauri shells, and an
iron bell. Having done this, the ‘teller of the hidden facts and things’
ties a string to his big toes, from which are suspended two wooden
figures on wheels, eight centimetres high. These figures are placed near
the intersecting lines in the middle of the square. Once the stage is
prepared and the first customer appears, the operator (the ‘teller’) rings
the bell summoning one after another all the tellers of hidden truth,
both living and dead, as well as his own ancestors – including the
Python, Hyena, Earth, Sky God, Owl, Caiman, Hippopotamus, River,
the fish Tetrodon, the sacred hill Koumbou, the hills Nawo and Sangoe,
the hill Tiolo, the sacred pool and sacred tree from Oussourou.
Next he turns to the two wooden figures, representing the man Sié
and the woman Yeli, and exhorts and admonishes them to be obedient,
to avoid laughing and to perform their task. Then he throws two shells
on the ground, summoning his father and requesting protection against
the possible bad influence of the divination session to be undertaken.
At this point the shells should lie in the appropriate position. If this
does not happen the soothsayer starts his summoning once again. Next
he turns to the puppets, asking them about the nature of an issue.
Normally the customer does not ask questions and does not reveal the
aim of his visit. This purpose should be discovered by the soothsayer
178 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
with the aid of the wooden puppets. It is generally assumed that, under
the influence of gods and other protectors summoned at the beginning
of the session, the puppets move on the string, greet each other, bow to
each other and fall on the ground. It is believed that there is a special
god who allows for the interpretation of their movements. The sooth-
sayer watches the whole show. Now and then he throws shells on the
ground, which is his way of controlling the puppets’ response. When
the session ends, the customer appears satisfied and pays the agreed fee
as if he has understood the puppets’ response.20
Where these Africans believe in the magic power of their puppets,
they do not think of it as a negative force in the way that the ancient
Chinese did. The Chinese believed that puppets with open eyes are
vulnerable to the evil influence of demons, which might even enter into
and inhabit them. Numerous stories told of the independent life of
possessed puppets, especially during the night. For this reason a puppet
player should protect his puppets, keeping them in a special box,
protected by charms, and should also cover the puppets’ eyes by a cloth
with magic incantations written on it. The Tao priests were experts in
the composition of such charms and the puppet players cooperated
with them. As they dealt with magic objects and puppets, puppeteers
were considered dangerous, making the ancient Chinese suspicious of
them. On the other hand, people needed their help in situations involv-
ing the evil influence of malicious demons, especially if installed in
their houses. So they invited and engaged puppeteers, because they
were thought capable of dealing with this kind of situation.21
In spite of the continued presence of ritual puppets and their use in
magical activities in Africa, the process of transition from the primary,
sacred puppets to theatrical puppets, intended to entertain participants
in village festivities, has been long underway. These ‘entertaining’
productions do not necessarily have a unified, fictional dramatic struc-
ture. They are compositions of many episodes, presenting topical
scenes, animals and also such mythical figures as Une Meven with a
caiman head, the water god Fanro, or a divinity like Yankadi with its
double face and four breasts. Despite the presence of these mythical
characters, such shows seem to be exclusively for entertainment. We
may surmise that this is an example of the transition stage from ritual
to theatrical puppets, with their cognitive and amusement functions.
This process has been accelerated due to the numerous contacts of
African puppeteers with the European theatre. In many cases Africans
puppeteers themselves classify ritual puppets as belonging to folk
culture and endeavour to make their puppets comparable to interna-
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 179
Figure 10.2 The sculptor Victor Bazibadi sculpting an ancestor figure, Lilieville,
1977. Photograph by Denis Nidzgorski
180 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Figure 10.3 Folk group with Musicians and Hand Puppets from Uzbeckistan,
1928
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 181
tional models. Rightly or wrongly, they are cutting themselves off from
their roots and the chance to create their own theatre, based on an
enduring culture of magic.
In general, Asian puppet shows present well-developed stories. It
seems that they broke their links with ritual structures many centuries
ago, creating such performing genres as the Indian shadow theatre,
Indonesian and Malay wayang theatre, Japanese ningyo joruri, sometimes
called bunraku, and the puppet opera in China. However, when we
analyse the functions of most of these theatres we see that they remain
in the arena of the sacrum. A typical feature of most of these theatres is
its narrative character, which is distinct from the Aristotelian dramatic
structure. In many of these theatres there are visible narrators, such as
the tayu in Bunraku, the pulavar in the Kerala shadow theatre, the dalang
in wayang purwa, wayang kulit or golek. Among these theatres only
Bunraku distinguishes itself by the profane subjects of its repertory,
although the preparation of the performances includes many ritualistic
elements. The other theatres mentioned here not only continue with
sacred themes in their shows, but they also fulfil sacred functions in
society. Many of them remain within the domain of Hindu culture,
presenting on a stage or a screen subjects drawn from the two famous
Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
How, then, to distinguish ritual from theatre? In other words, is it
correct even to call these Asian theatres (especially the shadow theatres)
‘theatre’? Richard Schechner proposed the following differentiation of
ritual and theatrical elements (Table 10.1), according to his idea of
opposing efficacy [usefulness] to entertainment.22
Table 10.1 Differentiation of ritual and theatrical elements.
Efficacy Entertainment
(the ritual) (the drama)
results fun
link to the absent Other only for those present
abolishes time, symbolic time emphasizes ‘now’
brings Other here audience is the Other
performer possessed, in trance performer knows what he’s doing
audience participates audience watches
audience believes audience appreciates
criticism is forbidden criticism is encouraged
collective creativity individual creativity
182 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
The application of this model to Asian performances may help to
clarify many of our doubts. However, we must remember that
between pure ritual and pure theatrical phenomena there also exist
hybrids, which are difficult to classify but are much more common in
real life.
Many shadow performances in India are shown on the occasion of a
festival held to worship a particular divinity (in Indonesia similar
customs concern the rice deity, Sri Devi), or are used for more pragmatic
reasons such as provoking rain, staving off an epidemic and so on. In
Indonesia, the wayang performances accompany human beings in all
important moments of their lives, starting at the seventh month of
pregnancy, continuing at the birth of a child and the severing of the
umbilical cord, on occasions when important social and official recog-
nitions are received (where, similarly, in China a short play called
Reconciliation is performed) and at marriages and funerals. Some
performances also help to exorcise evil spirits or to avert a dangerous
disease. There are some national differences between Indonesian and
Chinese practices in their dealings with demons. Indonesians use
wayang to exorcise a man possessed by an evil spirit, while the Chinese
use puppet theatre to purify buildings (private houses, offices, cinemas).
Certainly, Chinese demons need some material basis (such as a house)
in order to torment people, whereas Indonesian demons can attack
people directly within the psychic realm.
The Indonesian tradition gives priority to themes from the
Mahabharata and Ramayana, where the show is meant to assure some
benefit to individuals or families. There is a general conviction that at
the seventh month of pregnancy it is good to perform the birth of
Arjuna, and that on the occasion of a marriage it is positive to show the
wedding of a rajah. In other situations, especially in cases of exorcism
or avoidance of dangerous diseases, different special subjects would be
chosen for performance.
Closest to ritual are performances shown in India during the temple
festivities in honour of the goddess Bhagavati, where non-transparent
shadow puppets are used, with a restricted repertoire of movement.
Normally these are presented near the temple in a dedicated space
called Kuttu Madam (unless ordered by a private sponsor). The show is
run by a pulavar, who is an expert in old scriptures and poems (vedas,
puranas) and who has his own short version of the Ramayana, which is
known as Kamba-Ramayana. The pulavar is a kind of priest, delivering
prophecies. His assistants say prayers to the goddess before the show
and convey her blessings upon it.
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 183
tree of the world. The dalang is the guarantor of the religious character
of the whole show and his priestly functions cover not only those
offered to the rice goddess but all of his performances.
The show with the greatest religious power and, as some would say,
with the strongest magic energy is wayang ruwatan. This is performed to
avert the bad effects of such negative events as overturning the rice
kettle on the fire, or overturning the dalang’s screen. It also helps a
family disappointed at having only a small number of children, or
when a man possessed by a spirit becomes a taboo and needs spiritual
help. European and American researchers have given a great deal of
attention to the exorcist functions of ruwatan. Generally, for this occa-
sion, the dalang performs the play called Murwakala (The Birth of Kala):
The ruwatan performances normally take place during the day, starting
at 10 a.m. and ending at 4 p.m. The audience generally sits to either side
of the dalang, thus watching the puppets and not their shadows. The
performance gathers such magic force that only the experienced dalang
(whose father is already dead) may sustain it. The show is understand-
able only to the initiated because gods appear onstage in the guise of
traditional heroes and elements drawn from life are woven into it. In
fact, a ‘theatre within the theatre’ is created which develops on many
levels:
It is when the gods descend to the earth to take part in the wayang
performance in the Murwakala play that the ruwatan becomes textu-
rally rich and dense. The gods must disguise themselves and take on
the forms of other characters, malihan in Javanese. Visnu, a high god,
becomes the puppeteer but takes on the form of Arjuna, the noble
warrior; Brama, another god, becomes the gender player and takes
the form of Arjuna’s wife Sumbadra; and Narada, a funny misshapen
god, takes the form of Semar, clown servant to the hero Arjuna and
older brother of the high god Siwa, and becomes the pendendang, or
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 185
drummer. In this way, two wayang performances intersect – the one
that is being held and the play within the performance.
Because the performance I am describing was an offering to the
ancestors as well as an attempt to address the problems of the family
holding the ritual, the ancestors appeared in the story.
Coincidentally, this particular family happened to be a family of
puppeteers and musicians. After the ancestors had been on the
screen for a while, fiercely pursued by Kala, the present living family
members, who were holding the performances, appeared as puppets
on the screen.25
line. In front of the performance area there are paper altars consecrated
to the family gods or ancestors; in the same place the actual family is
seated in the role of participants and spectators. On their right is a
bamboo pole struck horizontally through the top rung of the ladder. On
the pole the puppeteer hangs his puppets in a particular order. The
central place is given to the puppet Chief Marshall Tiandu.
As is often stressed by the puppeteers, there is a significant similarity
between Marshall Tiandu and another figure known as Zhong Kui. The
latter was famous for his performances in funeral and exorcism rituals,
thought much more dangerous than the marital ritual. Marshall Tiandu
became a crucial figure in this more peaceful wedding ritual due to his
capacity to communicate with the Jade Emperor, one of the important
gods. Legend explains his capacities as follows:
Tiandu came into contact with the Tang court because the empress
was ill and he was said to be able to cure her. In one case, he cured
her with his medical skills, and in another case the empress was so
amused by his comic performance that she was cured after bursting
out laughing … This version would explain the good relationship
between the Jade Emperor and Tiandu Yuanshuai.27
Tiandu belongs to the category of the chou, the characters who play the
clowns in Chinese opera. As a small boy Tiandu was always joking and
dancing; what is more he was very ugly, even as an adult, and was thus
included in this category. This is not a surprise: clowns or comical char-
acters were believed to be effective intermediaries between people and
gods, as is well known in the Southeast Asian region.
Returning to the wedding ritual and the participation of puppets, it
is reported that at a sign given by the Taoist priest the puppeteer starts
to manipulate the puppet of Tiandu, which, in kneeling and prostrating
itself, emphasizes the importance of prayer. Next the puppeteer
performs a short part of the story of Xue Rengui, a loyal general of the
Tang dynasty. A conversation between Xue and emperor Li Shimin is
accompanied by arias, and at the end of the scene Xue prostrates
himself before the emperor. The next scene is called ‘Reunion’ and illus-
trates marital happiness. Then Marshall Tiandu re-appears and the
puppeteer whispers prayers to the Lord of the Three Realms and the
Lord of the Dippers asking for their blessing on the family. This is where
the brief participation of the puppeteers ends, although they could be
engaged for further purely ritualistic acts, without puppets, up to the
end of the ceremony.
188 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
All the performances included here took place on sacred territory:
they served to contact divinities and were intended to obtain a definite
result. Considering the differentiation between ritual and theatre
mentioned above, it is difficult to classify these performances either as
entertainment or as theatre. In addition, we cannot prove that the play-
ers were possessed, or in some kind of trance or ecstasy, or that these
performances were produced as a collective work: we are witnessing a
phenomenon in its transitory stage – between ritual and theatre. Ritual
serves to recall the story and deeds of the gods. In some cases the func-
tion of worship is completed or replaced by the supplicatory function,
such as requests to avert a danger menacing the whole society, or a
request for help to one of its members (diseased or possessed by evil
spirits). The presence of these supplicatory functions suggests the influ-
ence of another ancient tradition and religious practice, namely
shamanism. It is tempting to examine this possibility if we bear in mind
the fact that in most Asian performances, as in shamanist sessions, we
have only one coryphaeus, one sage, who decides on the impressions of
the show’s participants. The matter is complicated, as observed by Levi-
Strauss:
The essence of the shamanist operations consists of the following
stages:
• The summons of a shaman in a situation of collective or individual
misfortune.
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 189
• The summons by the approaching shaman of the helping spirits –
setting off on the journey to meet these deities, who support the
fight against the antagonists of the victim and who allow the
primary negative state to be averted.
• The shaman’s return from the journey, the transmission of the spir-
itual values and prophecies he has collected and the liberation of the
helping spirits.
In terms of theatrical categories we are dealing with a solo theatre
performer, who often includes narration as well as dance and states of
ecstasy.
Herein lies the essential difference between the ritual and the
shamanist session. The first (ritual) gradually retires from the function
of coryphaeus and replaces it with seemingly autonomous scenic char-
acters; the second (shamanist) preserves the function of the coryphaeus
and entrusts to him the new function of the solo actor and narrator.
From this we can easily recognize the ancient shaman in the new narra-
tors of the Asian theatres, such as the dalang and the pulavar. They are
intermediaries between audience and deity. They undertake actions
intended to help people coming to them with their life and spiritual
problems. They are possessed by the text of the sacred scripts and they
act within a tradition which should be respected and followed. The
structural and functional differences between the ritual and the
shamanist session may be seen easily if we use the diagram of A.J.
Greimas, normally applied to the analysis of various stories. Let us first
recall our starting point (Figure 10.4).29
Sender Recipient
\ /
Subject
Object
/ \
Helper Adversary
Figure 10.4 Diagram by A. J. Greimas
An appropriate interpretation of the ritual and the shamanist session
might be presented as in Figure 10.5.
190 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
Ritual Shamanist session
recreation of deeds of god aversion of misfortune or disease
/ \ / \
society 0 helping spirits evil spirits
Figure 10.5 Comparative diagram of the ritual and shamanistic session
The structural differences, which had some importance in the devel-
opment of theatre (either from ritual or from shamanism), are quite
clear and convincing. The ritual structure responds to the religious
beliefs of each human society and for this reason it will change accord-
ing to changes in the religious faith. The shaman session’s structure
resulted from the relations within human society. The shaman is soci-
ety’s representative in relation to the gods. Here lies the importance of
the shaman and the solidity of his position. The participants of ritual
have been transformed into theatre actors, the servants of various char-
acters and various stories. The shaman, even while changing his func-
tion (priest-medicine man, actor, reciter, psychoanalyst), has preserved
his complete independence from a story, which only serves him for his
narration. He uses it as his own weapon in order to achieve his religious
(magic) and profane aims.
Due to this structural difference ritual gave birth to the dramatic
spectacle in the Aristotelian form, while the shamanist session gave the
impulse for shows directed by the narrator. Naturally, this conclusion
proposes only a certain orientation in theatre research, which needs to
be confirmed by further studies.
In spite of the specific structure and character of theatre forms, their
characteristic features depend on the rich context of many different
cultural impulses. Many of these are intertwined, especially nowadays
as we observe the linking of dramatic and narrative elements in a new
unity, against which nobody protests, at least for the insignificant
reason of a defence of ‘generic purity’. For this reason wayang, in spite
of its ritualistic or shamanist essence, retains for many the status of
‘theatre’.
Among Deities, Priests and Shamans 191
The presence of dramatic and epic elements in contemporary puppet
theatre means that the dynamic character and the mutual relationship
between drama and narrative structures change constantly. We see it
distinctly in countries whose tradition is strongly rooted in sacred
culture and where new puppet players are promoting the development
of a modern and profane puppet theatre. On the other hand, in coun-
tries rich in modern puppetry there are artists trying to re-discover
ritual, to find within it some new inspiration for their art. This is,
however, a separate subject. Let us end by saying that the history of
ritual seems to be similar to the history of myth. Human society has
preserved the energy to create new, contemporary myths, and we can
say the same of rituals. Ritual as a method to evoke and to realize myth
has been renewing itself constantly, adopting new forms according to
new conditions of life.
First published in ‘Konteksty’, 1998, no ", 35–45. Edited by Penny Francis
and Mischa Twitchin 2013.
Notes
1 Magnin Charles, Histoire de Marionnettes en Europe depuis l’Antiquité jusqu’à
nos jours (History of puppets in Europe from the time of Antiquity to our
days), Paris 1852.
2 Sten Maria, Teatr – którego nie bylo (The theatre, which did not exist),
⁄
Kraków 1982, 22.
3 Lévi-Strauss Claude, Anthropologie structurale (Structural anthology), Paris
1958.
4 Eliade Mircea, Inicjacja. Obrze˛dy. Stowarzyszenia tajemne. Narodziny mistyczne
(Initiation. Rituals. Secret associations. Mystic birth), Kraków 1997, 50.
5 Rassers W.H., Pandji, the Cultural Hero, The Hague 1959.
6 Tang Rinnie, ‘From the funeral mask to the painted face of the Chinese
theatre’, The Drama Review, 1982, T96: 59–60.
7 Pimpaneau Jacques, Des Poupées à l’Ombre: Le théâtre d’ombres et de poupées
en Chine (From dolls to shadows: The shadow theatre and dolls in China),
Paris 1977, 9.
8 Darkowska-Nidzgorski Olenka, ‘Le chant de l’oiseau: Théâtre de marion-
nettes racines africaines’ (Birdsong: Puppet theatre with African roots), Paris
1997 (typescript).
9 Badiou Maryse, L’ombra i la marioneta o les figures dels deus (Shadows and
puppet or figures of the gods), Barcelona 1988, 21.
10 Resvani Medzhid, Le Théâtre et la Danse en Iran, Paris 1962, 92.
11 Solomonik Inna, Traditsionniy Teatr Kukol Vostoka (Traditional puppet
theatre of the east), Moscow 1992, 223.
192 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
12 Girard Françoise, ‘Un théâtre de marionnettes aux Nouvelles-Hébrides: Son
importance religieuse’ (Journal of ethnology and its neighbouring science),
Zeitschrift für Ethnologie und ihre Nachbarwissenschaften, Stuttgart 1957, 11.
13 Eliade, op. cit., 30, 52, 78.
14 Schaeffner André, ‘Rituel et préthéâtre’, in Histoires des spectacles, Paris 1966,
51–2.
15 Eliade, op. cit., 45.
16 Kirby E.T., ‘Ritual sex: Anarchic and absolute’, The Drama Review, 1981, T89:
4.
17 Helstien Mel, ‘Killekyatha i Bangarakka’, Teatr Lalek, 1988, 10: 21–2, after
B.E. Tapper, ‘Andra shadow play jesters: Meaning, iconography and
history’, Conference on Asian Puppet Theatre, London 1979, 26–8.
18 Geertz Armin W. and Lomatuway’ma Michael, Children of Cottonwood: Piety
and Ceremonialism in Hopi Indian Puppetry, Lincoln, NE, 1987, 218.
19 McPharlin Paul, The Puppet Theatre in America. A History: 1524 to 1948.
Boston 1969, 9.
20 Darkowska-Nidzgorski, Olenka, Théatre populaire de marionnettes en Afrique
noire (Popular puppet theatre in black Africa), Paris 1976, 40–41.
21 Pimpaneau, op. cit., 19.
22 Ashley Wayne and Holloman Regina, ‘From ritual to theatre in Kerala’, The
Drama Review, 1982, T94: 68.
23 Seltmann Friedrich, Schattenspiel in Kerala: Sakrales Theater in Süd-Indien
(Shadowplay in Kerala: sacred theatre in south India), Stuttgart 1986,
87–90.
24 Sears Laurie Lobell, ‘Aesthetic displacement in Javanese shadow theatre:
Three contemporary performance styles’, The Drama Review, 1989, T123:
125.
25 Ibid., 126.
26 Pimpaneau, op. cit., 21.
27 Ruizendaal Robin, ‘Performance as ritual: The performance practice of the
marionette theatre of Southern Taiwan’, in Aijmer G. and Boholm A. (eds.)
Images and Enactments, Göteborg 1994.
28 Levi-Strauss, op. cit., 197.
29 I have taken this diagram from a study by Elena S.Novik, Obriad i folklor w
sibirskom szamanizmie (Customs and folklore in Siberian shamanism),
Moscow 1984.
11
The Acting Puppet as a Figure of
Speech
As long as theatre has existed, spectators have been aware of the
metaphorical meaning of scenic materials, images, or even of perform-
ances taken as a whole. The use of such terms as metonymy, metaphor
or synecdoche has been widely accepted in theatre, although they
derive from literary criticism.
Recent semiotic studies have justified even more the application of
these terms to theatre studies on the basis of a generally accepted prin-
ciple that theatrical performance itself may be treated as a text; that is,
as a distinct whole, independent of the sign system in which it is
perceptibly manifested. To quote Grzegorz Sinko, ‘The distinctive char-
acteristic of theatrical performance treated as a text is its high degree of
semiotic polyphony.’1
This theoretical approach opens the way to research into theatrical
figures of speech. To quote Sinko again:
It is clear that the model of visual metaphor in theatre is taken from the
structure of linguistic tropes in natural language. Furthermore, the tech-
nique of their generation is similar, if not the same, and consists in the
influence of the paradigmatic (substitutive) axis on the syntagmatic
(combinatorial) axis of the ensemble of signs, following the linguistic
theory of Ferdinand de Saussure. We also find important directions for
research in the views of Charles S. Peirce, especially in his concept of
signs, according to which a sign does not exist separately but in a chain
193
194 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
of other signs, each one generated by its antecedent and producing its
consequent.
The generation of new figurative meanings depends on the context
and relationships of some particular sign. Thus a single sign by itself,
extracted and separated, is not able to produce a new semantic effect
until it is associated with other signifiers. Naturally, the engagement in
a simple syntagmatic order does not change the semantic content of the
sign. To achieve this change we need to refer to the paradigmatic
(substitutive) order and combine it in a linear juxtaposition of specifi-
cally selected signs likely to produce new meanings owing to their
mutual interaction at the semantic level.
If we keep this perspective in mind, the question then arises: is the
puppet a single separated sign, or the effect of interaction between
metaphor-generating elements? An answer cannot be given immedi-
ately. To begin to clarify the question, we must think, for instance, of the
distinction between a ‘resting puppet’ and an ‘acting puppet’, between
the puppet as a possible signifier and as an actual scenic sign. It does not
require lengthy analysis to see that these are not equivalent. The ‘resting
puppet’ is an object made for theatrical use; it is meant to represent a
stage character but is not able to fulfill this task by itself. As a sign, the
‘resting puppet’ is the passive icon of a stage character, with a latent
capacity for movement. To represent the value of a complete stage char-
acter, the ‘resting puppet’ needs the help of a manipulator as its motor
power and generator of gestures, and also to give it a speaking voice. It is
only when these helpers (sometimes one and the same person) come
into action that the ‘resting puppet’ starts to be the ‘acting puppet’ and
at the same time the signifier of a stage character. Thus the acting puppet
is not a single separated sign but an effect of cooperation between three
elements: iconic value, movement and gesture, and verbal action.
This image of the puppet accords with the ‘classic’ understanding of
puppet theatre. However, the modern idea of the puppet goes far
beyond this concept and identifies the puppet with an object, consid-
ered in its broadest meaning. In 1953, Gerard Marinier proposed the
most classical definition of the puppet:
In fact the puppet is the reproduction of a living being, more or less
truthful, more or less interpreted, varying in proportion and more or
less capable of determined movements, which can generate all sorts
of feelings, states of soul and attitudes, in short, which have dramatic
capacities and which are animated either visibly or invisibly by any
means invented by its ‘manipulator’.3
The Acting Puppet as a Figure of Speech 195
The ambiguity of Marinier’s utterance does not obscure the clear idea of
a puppet as a figural representation of a living being and its involve-
ment in dramatic action. These two notions of ‘figural representation’
and ‘involvement in dramatic action’ are essential for any ‘phenomeno-
logical’ definition of the puppet, which assumes the harmonious coex-
istence of these components, and where any infraction of their balance
changes the virtual function of the puppet.
In the past some artists over-estimated the figural function of the
puppet, which led to the concept of ‘living sculpture’ by Jefimova, for
example. In our time greater emphasis is put on ‘involvement in
dramatic action’. The puppet master Alain Recoing gave us this defini-
tion in 1963:
The puppet is a movable object of dramatic interpretation in opposi-
tion to the automaton, and different also from the doll, and moved
intentionally by the manipulator. In opposition to the automaton,
and different also from the doll, the puppet is a movable object of
dramatic interpretation moved intentionally by the manipulator.
The dramatic involvement of the puppet here is pre-eminent; its prop-
erties as an object are defined only negatively and its iconic value is not
even mentioned. The pre-eminence of ‘acting’ in puppetry has received
an extreme formulation in some recently published papers. In 1990
Roman Paska wrote:
Like a fish out of water, the puppet out of the performance is a dead
thing, a potential signifier only. As demonstrated most recently by
the theatre of objects, the signifying properties of the puppet as a
passive formal object or sculpture are ultimately unnecessary to the
object’s kinetic signifying activity as a puppet actor in a performance
context. The puppetness of an object is determined by use, not
latency, and is a renewable, not a permanent quality.4
certainly reduces the number of sign systems employed. However, the
principle of interaction between signs remains the same. Even a single
artist as the source of all theatrical signs cannot neglect the manipula-
tion of his or her puppets. It is this juxtaposition of the puppet icon
with the movement and the voice given to it by the player that is of
interest to us.
The iconic value of the puppet is usually manifested on two levels.
The first includes all the iconic signs (material, hair, facial expression or
the lack thereof, costume and so on). The second has a virtual charac-
ter, which is the capacity for movement, defined by the puppet’s mate-
rial and construction, as it is to be exploited by the manipulator.
We could call this its theatrical predestination, which is the distinc-
tive nature of the puppet in opposition to the simple object, often used
nowadays for the representation of a stage character. The simple object
was made for non-theatrical use, which is why its iconic quality refers
to the class of objects, while the iconicity of the puppet refers to the
definite, unique representation of its stage role.
I doubt if we can or would even wish to neglect the fact of the
puppet’s pre-existence and its iconic value. Normally these have been
carefully projected as an essential element of the artist’s vision.
Bunraku, wayang and other kinds of puppet may serve as convincing
examples. On the other hand, it is really the manipulator and the voice
donor who supply the puppet with its apparent life. The iconic value of
the puppet as a representation of a live being is enriched by a new set
of signs, particularly important because of their dynamic qualities. The
puppet becomes more than a three-dimensional passive icon. It
becomes an icon in motion and even something more: a speaking icon
in motion. Due to this dynamic complement, the puppet becomes more
credible and recognizable as the substitute of a living being.
As a substitution the puppet belongs to the paradigmatic axis of the
ensemble of signs. The puppet producing movement and gesture enters
into a syntagmatic relationship with other signs. In this case, however,
this relationship seems to be unusual, as it juxtaposes contradictory
notions: the puppet as a dead thing and as a thing of dynamic motion.
It thus gave birth to a new figurative meaning – as the image of a
dynamic human being.
According to Obraztsov, the puppet is a metaphor of the human
because it is not itself a human being. And this accords with the substi-
tutional principle of metaphor already formulated by Aristotle. If
anyone is surprised by this conclusion, I would suggest treating the
acting puppet as a petrified metaphor. We are so familiar with the acting
The Acting Puppet as a Figure of Speech 197
puppet that we hardly perceive it as a metaphor. Nevertheless, from the
historical point of view the acting puppet is a metaphor, especially if we
consider it as a special kind of metaphor; that is, as an oxymoron.
Oxymoron is the figure of speech by means of which contradictory
terms are combined so as to form an expressive epithet such as ‘black
sun’, ‘cruel kindness’ and, last but not least, ‘living object’. When
combined with the appearance of life, supplied by movement and
voice, the material puppet is an oxymoron.
Beginning in the seventeenth century, artists and particularly play-
wrights were extremely sensitive to the oxymoronic character of the
puppet. Ben Jonson, Lesage, Foote and Tieck were all fully conscious of
the double, self-contradictory nature of the puppet and they exploited
it in various ways. In most cases they emphasized the artificiality of the
puppet in order to entertain the public through the interaction of real-
ity and illusion. Some of them appreciated its lifelessness and material-
ity as a basis for mechanical performance, which they claimed to be the
highest form of theatrical art.
It is not my aim to present a review of various approaches to the
oxymoronic quality of the puppet. However, it is worth noting that the
oxymoron was the starting point for Otakar Zich in his study in 1923 of
the psychology of the puppet theater.5 His basic observation was that
puppets are usually perceived from two opposing points of view: as a
live figure or as a lifeless doll. In the first case puppets seem to the public
to be magical creatures, while in the second, comic and grotesque,
because of their uncanny imitation of human movement.
The perception of the puppet as ‘magic’ obviously suppresses the
oxymoronic effect. It is preserved, however, in the ‘grotesque and
comic’ model of reception. The grotesque, oxymoronic understanding
of the puppet fascinated German writers and researchers. The first was
Ludwig Tieck, who demonstrated the grotesqueness of the puppet
resulting from the contradiction between the puppet’s ambition to
perform important roles and its limited capacity to fulfill its aspirations.
Another German, Paul Brann, was a puppet theatre artist opposed to
this theory as he exploited the materiality (texture) of puppets in his
musical productions at the beginning of the last century. He proved that
playing with the oxymoronic effect might generate other aesthetic
effects of high value, different from those of the grotesque and the
comic.
In spite of Brann, two German researchers continued with Tieck’s
concept of the grotesque puppet. First, Lothar Buschmeyer in 1931
decided that puppets are dead things pretending to be living beings, and
198 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
since they are not successful in their endeavours they become comic.6
He came to the conclusion that the comic nature of the puppet lies in
the contrast of its mechanism with its pretended vitality: puppets are
comical due to their schematism and primitivism. That is their natural
style and so they continue to be comical unless the efforts of the
puppeteer can create some special expression or style. With this idea he
predicted a new era of puppet theatre.
Fritz Eichler in 1937 did not go so far.7 Speaking about string
puppets, he stated that they are passive as stage characters; their
performance is indirect and objectified, as a result of their particular
mechanical life: the string puppet becomes comic while imitating an
active character and is thus capable, at most, of being a grotesque and
eccentric performer. There is little to be gained in elaborating the
studies of Buschmeyer and Eichler, but in their time these were seri-
ous and complete. Their deliberations on the potential of the puppet
were based on philosophical criteria; they looked for the characteris-
tic features of the puppet and they believed that they had found
them in the puppet form as it then existed. They limited their eidetic
research to the expressive power of the puppet as such, without
giving credit to the creative ability of the puppet artist. That is why
they interpreted the oxymoronic value of the puppet rather mechan-
ically. Kleist’s concept of the puppet as an unconscious mechanism,
and thus an excellent performer, still prevailed in European puppet
theatre.
In the 1950s and 1960s a new approach to the acting puppet was the
result of experiments which increased the puppet’s means of expression,
tested the tradition of the puppet and put an emphasis on the perform-
ing subject as manipulator, puppeteer, actor (or whatever he or she
might be called). From that time on the performer has appeared on
stage as a visible operator of the puppet, and in some cases as the actual
creator of the production presented onstage. As a result, the puppet has
entered into a new relationship with its manipulator. This relationship
has been known since the beginnings of puppetry, but for many
centuries it was latent. Now it has become part of the modern under-
standing of the art form.
The manipulator as subject and motor power is nowadays the visible
cause of the puppet’s presence and of its acting. Between the manipula-
tor and the puppet, the cause-and-effect relationship has been estab-
lished and displayed to the public. The puppet has become an indexical
sort of sign. As such, the puppet has changed into metonymy, which
accords with Keir Elam’s observation:
The Acting Puppet as a Figure of Speech 199
It is clear that if metaphoric substitution is allied to the iconic sign-
function (both are based on the principle of supposed similarity),
then metonymic substitution is closely related to the index (each
being founded on physical contiguity).8
The metonymical character of the puppet is confirmed by the frequent
presence of synecdoche (pars pro toto) in its performances. The most
obvious synecdoche is the hand or glove puppet, which in fact is a
disguised part of the human body. The Polish romantic writer Juliusz
Sl⁄owacki humorously observed that some puppets were the two dressed
hands of a street puppet player who was sitting within the booth, giving
rise to the thought: ‘I guess that none of these heroes will hit the other
very hard.’9 In the twentieth century, hand puppets were undressed and
the public often saw the bare hands, as in the productions of Sergei
Obraztsov or Yves Joly. Synecdoche bloomed, encouraging a broader use
of figurative language.
The transfer of the puppet’s application from metaphor to
metonymy has greatly changed the style of puppet theatre. According
to Roman Jakobson: ‘Realism … is largely metonymic in mode while
symbolism is primarily metaphoric.’10This seems to be quite true in
puppet theatre.
The puppet, understood as an autonomous stage character, was a
symbolic substitute for an actor or human being, and opened to the
public a mysterious world of fiction, strong enough to absorb such
disturbances of illusion as the play within a play, paradox or oxymoron.
The puppet as metonymy is a real thing. It does not deceive the
public by means of a pretended life, because all the power of deception
is given to the performer. The performer is also a real presence, showing
the construction (sometimes) and the operation (always) of the puppet.
This serves to create a ‘second-level’ world – this time a world of fiction,
which is also a world of reality as the product of a performer’s actions.
This ‘second-level’ world of fiction may be very ‘poetic’ and metaphor-
ical, but its metonymical character is not thereby disturbed.
The passage from the metaphorical to the metonymical system of the
concept of puppet theatre has been a revolution in many respects. The
emphasis on the pretended autonomous acting of the puppet became
anachronistic in a theatre that is meant to depend totally on the
performer’s talent and capacity. The puppet’s properties in this theatre
are not considered as given a priori, they do not exist as eidetic values
to be discovered. On the contrary, they depend completely on the imag-
ination of the designer and the invention of the performer. It is not
6991 ,orazeL siocnarF yb detcerid ,sdroW daeD fo noitcudorp ertaehT akulainaB eht morF 1.11 erugiF
200
The Acting Puppet as a Figure of Speech 201
surprising, then, that in such a theatre the puppet has been subjected to
various experiments and is now often substituted by a simple object, a
development that has enormously enriched the figurative potential of
its theatrical language.
After many centuries of existence the puppet, endowed with the
appearances of life or presented as an effect of a manipulator’s action, is
no longer perceived as a metaphor or as metonymy. Its borrowed life or
its given form has become an obvious fact and hardly anybody treats it
as a poetic trope. The use of a simple object as a stage character, mean-
while, has changed public perception, because it seems to be something
out of the ordinary. A simple object, such as an umbrella, pillow, flask
and so on, manufactured for everyday use, brings to the stage its own
iconic value, representing a certain class of objects. The movement that
is ‘added to the object’ may confirm its iconicity or oppose it. In the first
case, we deal with the personification of the object, and the motion
expresses a sort of possible, virtual movement of such an object. Thus
we enter into the world of fiction and fantasy.
In the second case, that of opposition, we may decide on anthropo-
morphism. The object serves as a symbolic substitute of the human or
other living being. Anthropomorphism demands from the performer
the endowment of the object with properties that can be recognized as
signs of a human being. The object’s iconicity here cannot be of much
help. In fact the performer has to work against it in order to make the
public agree that the object does not represent itself but an imagined
stage character. This work is done by the expedient application of
motional and gestural signs. Naturally, the object is never completely
forgotten. Its deceptive iconicity is a very important part of the play. It
helps us to enter again into the kingdom of oxymoron. This time,
however, its paradoxical structure appeals to the public with a new
metaphor.
The aim of my study here was to discuss the basic functions of the
components of the acting puppet. I have tried to present different
aspects of the relationship between the puppet and its manipulator. We
have seen that this relationship is dynamic and as such seems to be a
generative force, supplying puppetry with its basic figures of speech.
This essential relationship may be reproduced in any theatrical action
and developed in different variations. The most popular of these
concerns the relationship between the manipulator and the string
puppet, and is interpreted as a model of a world in which the human
being is dominated by some superior power. But there are, of course,
many other such models.
202 Aspects of Puppet Theatre
This opens the door to the enormous fascination of poetic language
within puppetry, based on the richness of its means of expression. The
modern puppet theatre combines string, glove and other puppets,
masks and people, movies and transparencies, props and simple objects,
all of which create a fertile field for promoting poetic expression. Their
mutual cooperation should be the next stage in our research into the
metaphorical language of puppetry.
Notes
1 Sinko G., Opis przedstawienia teatralnego. Problem semiotyczny (Description of
the theatre performance. Semantic question), Wroclaw 1982, 183.
⁄
2 Ibid., 187.
3 Bensky R.-D., Recherches sur les structures et la symbolique de la marionnette,
Paris 1971, 18.
4 Paska R., ‘Notes on puppet primitives’, in The Language of the Puppet,
Vancouver, WA 1990, 39.
5 Zich O., ‘Drobne umeni – vytvarne snahy’ (Small art – great endeavours),
Loutkove divadlo, Praha 1923, 4.
6 Buschmeyer L., Die Kunst des Puppenspiels (The art of puppet play), Erfurt
1931.
7 Eichler F., Das Wesen des Handpuppen- und Marionettenspiels (The essence of
hand puppet and marionette performance), Emsdetten 1937.
8 Elam K., The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, London and New York 1980,
28.
9 Sl⁄owacki J., Dziela I, Works Wroclaw 1949, 12.
⁄ ⁄
10 Elam, op. cit., 28.
Index
Abbas grandson of Muhammad, 172 Brann Paul, 71, 109, 110, 163, 197
Abbatini Anton Maria, 104 Brecht Bertolt, 22, 44, 56, 57, 59, 60, 77, 74
Acciaioli Filippo, 2, 77 Brentano Clemens, 142
Adachi Barbara, 97, 116 Brigaldi manager, 108
Aijmer Goran, 193 Brioché Jean, 117
Alfonso, Castilian King, 116 Brisacier, J, 140
Amoros Luc, 81 Brook Peter, 16
Andersen Hans Christian, 147, 151 Bullock W. J. manager, 108
Ando Tsuruo, 97, 98, 116 Buschmeyer Lothar, 6, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
Andronicus Livius, 6 25, 29, 69, 71, 110, 118, 197, 199, 202
Apuleius, 11, 161 Byron George Gordon, 12
Aretino Pietro, 131
Aristophanes, 129 Česal Miroslav, 732, 3
Aristotle, 11, 196 Campbell David, 69
Artaud Antonin, 75 Campbell Joseph, 126
Aslan Odette, 69 Carolet, writer, 133
Athenaeus, 101, 116 Cennini Cennino, 158
Auguste Villiers de l’Isle-Adam de, 146, 147 Cervantes Miguel de, 11, 90, 96, 99
Augustin Michèle, 81 Charke Charlotte, 104
Augustine, church father, 116 Chekhov Anton, 59
Chesnais Jacques, 140
Badiou Maryse, 191 Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 43
Baker David Ershin, 118 Cieszkowski August, 69
Bandello Cardinal, 138 Clavel Gilbert, 49
Baran Bogdan, 77 Clement IX, 104
Barber Frank, 145 Colla Carlo, 159
Bass Eric, 81 Confucius, 185
Baty Gaston, 16, 29, 118 Craig Edward, 157, 159
Bazibadi Victor, 179 Craig Edward Gordon, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16,
Bense Max, 116 24, 27, 28, 33, 56, 57, 63, 70, 71, 77,
Bensky Roger-Daniel, 36, 37, 73, 202 74, 75, 78, 79, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159,
Bernini Gian Lorenzo, 2, 77, 104 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165
Bertrand, manager, 104 Creizenach Wilhelm, 118
Bienfait, manager, 105 Czerny Anna, 90
Birri poet, 2 Czerny Zygmunt, 90
Blattmann Elke, 30, 31, 73
Blundall John M., 120 da Vinci Leonardo, 158
Boccaccio Giovanni, 125, 138 Darkowska Nidzgorski Oleńka, 140, 191,
Boehn Max von, 69, 116 193
Boerwinkel Henk, 71, 110 de la Torre Lillian, 144
Bogatyrev Petr, 18, 30, 40, 48, 49, 53, 60, Degler Janusz, 75, 89, 119
71, 74, 75, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92–5, 112, Depero Fortunato, 49
114, 116 Dorman Jan, 79, 81
Boholm Asa, 193 Dorst Tankred, 29, 32, 33, 73
Bolloxymion, king of Sodom, 132 Droz Jaquet, 146
Boswell James, 144 du Boys Jean, 135
Boudin Pierre, 133 Duse Eleonora, 4, 157
203
204 Index
Eichler Fritz, 19, 23–25, 29, 71, 108, 110, Horace, 2, 11, 69
118, 199, 202 Houdart Dominique, 43, 48
Elam Keir, 53, 93, 116, 199, 202 Hussein, grandson of Muhammad, 172
Eliade Mircea, 127, 166, 191–3
Esterházy family, 118 Ingarden Roman, 34
Etuk Vyo, 169
Jakobson Roman, 200
Fiebach Joachim, 57, 77 Jarry Alfred, 16
Fielding Henry, 11, 133, 140 Jasienski Bruno, 147
Flaubert Gustave, 157 Jefimova Nina, 195
Fo Dario, 16 Jehan de Grise, 102
Foote Samuel, 2, 5, 6, 46, 69, 70, 79, 105, Johnson Samuel, 144, 145
106, 110, 197 Joly Yves, 40, 71, 138, 200
Francis Penny, 3, 4, 11, 78, 165, 193 Jones Stephen, 118
Fraser James George, 126 Jonson Ben, 11, 131, 140, 197
Freud Sigmund, 44, 143 Jurkowski Henryk, 3, 4, 10, 61, 69, 71, 73,
Fuselier Louis, 2 75, 76–78, 114, 116, 118, 119
Galen, 11 Kafka Franz, 139
Galewicz Janusz, 34, 35, 36, 46, 73 Kalias, 116, 129
García Lorca Federico, 2 Kantor Tadeusz, 79
Garrick David, 77 Kavrakova-Lorenz Konstanza, 59, 61, 62, 77
Geertz Armin, 193 Keene Donald, 128, 140
Genty Philippe, 71, 110 Kempelen Wolfgang von, 146
Gerould Daniel, 137, 140 Kerényi Károly, 143
Gervais André-Charles, 29 Kerner Justinius, 9
Ghelderode Michel de, 2 Kessler Harry, 156
Ghetanaccio, puppetplayer, 118 Kilian Adam, 81
Gilles Annie, 42–46, 75 Kilian Stanisl⁄awska Janina, 19, 71, 81
Girard Françoise, 191 Kindermann Hainz, 116
Glatigny Albert, 136 Kipling Rudyard, 32
Goethe Johann Wolfgang, 6, 7, 11, 69 Kirby E.T., 140, 193
Gogol Nikolai, 25 Klee Paul, 19
Goldman Irving, 127 Klein Melanie, 45
Goldoni Carlo, 157, 159 Kleist Heinrich von, 9–11, 15, 16, 24, 27,
Gombrowicz Witold, 137 40, 69, 79, 109, 147, 199
Gottsched Johann Christoph, 7 Knoedgen Werner, 66–68, 77
Gozzi Carlo, 23 Kolar Erich, 18, 29, 30, 35, 36, 71–73, 86,
Grau Jacinto, 147 116
Green Thomas A., 51–53, 75 Kominz Laurence, 76
Greimas Algirdas Julien, 189 Koos Ivan, 80, 150
Grimm brothers, 161 Kotarbinski Tadeusz, 142
Gross Joan, 55, 56, 75 Kott Jan, 43, 115
Kowzan Tadeusz, 46, 75, 83, 84, 86, 89,
Hamilton Charles, 11 112, 119
Hardwick, Charles, 116 Krasiński Zygmunt, 7, 69
Hauser Arnold, 42, 43, 75, 107, 118 Krofta Josef, 99, 114
Helstien Mel, 128, 129, 140, 193 Kuparenko Jordaki, 77
Hero of Alexandria, 100 Kwieciński Grzegorz, 81
Herrade of Landsberg, 101, 116
Hitler Adolf, 122 La Grille, puppeteer, 104
Hoffmann E.T.A., 109, 146, 147 Lacan Jacques, 44
Holloman Regina, 193 Lazaro François, 201
Homer, 25 Léger Fernand, 19
Index 205
Leibrecht Philipp, 11, 69, 117 Niculescu Margareta, 40, 74, 116
Lemercier de Neuville Louis, 4, 69, 109, Nidzgorski Denis, 168, 179
121, 136 Niessen Carl, 118
Lesage Alain-René, 2, 197 Novik Elena S., 193
Lescot Jean-Pierre, 81
Levenson Mark, 76 Obraztsov Sergei, 25, 27, 30, 40, 52, 71,
Lévi-Strauss Claude, 166, 188, 191, 193 110, 118, 122, 123, 163, 196, 200
Ligeti Gyorgy, 150 Olearius Adam, 130, 140
Livius Andronicus, 106 Orlowski Aleksander, 134
Livy historian, 6 Ortolani Benito, 98, 116
Longo D. I. circus artist, 172 Ottonelli Domenico, 103, 104, 118
Lotman Jurij, 41, 75 Ovid, 134
Loutherbourg Philip, de, 77
Palladio Andrea, 158
Maas Titus, 119 Paska Roman, 63, 64, 65, 66, 77, 195, 202
Machiavelli Niccolo, 131 Pasqualino Antonio, 53, 55, 75
Madame de la Nash, 118 Paul Jean, 8,71, 109, 146, 147, 193, 197
Madame Tussaud, 144 Pawiński Adolf, 117
Maeterlinck Maurice, 2, 14, 16, 70, 156, Peirce Charles Sanders, 52, 93, 116, 193
157 Pejcz Beata, 56, 75
Magier Antoni, 140 Pelc Jerzy, 116
Magnin Charles, 11–13, 25, 70, 118, 115, Pepicello W. J., 51–53, 75
165, 191 Petronius, 11
Mahlmann August, 8 Philo of Byzantium, 146
Makota Janina, 34, 73 Picasso Pablo, 19
Marchand Prosper, 132 Pimpaneau Jacques, 169, 191, 193
Marcus Aurelius, 11 Piscator Erwin, 16
Marinier Gerard, 194, 195 Plassard Didier, 156, 165
Marivaux Pierre de, 43 Plato, 11, 101, 116
Marlowe Christopher, 2 Pliny, 161
Marquis de Sade, 125 Pocci Franz, 109, 121
Martello Jacopo, 2, 105, 118 Podrecca Vittorio, 4, 110, 159, 163
Matuszewski Ignacy, 25 Polti George, 22, 71
Matuszewski Ryszard, 71 Pope Alexander, 11
Mazur Krystyna, 33, 34, 73 Potheinos, 101, 103, 115
McPharlin Paul, 11, 69 Powell Martin, 104
Melanchthon Philipp, 62 Proschan Frank, 48
Menshikoff, prince, 119 Puhonny Ivo, 71, 137
Metastasio Pietro, 2 Purschke Hans Richard, 32, 73, 99, 116,
Meyerhold Vsevolod, 57, 163 117
Mickiewicz Adam, 7, 69
Milne Alan Alexander, 56 Quintus Curtius Rufus, 131
Miró Joan, 19
Molière, 11 Rabelais François, 25
Monnier Henri, 136, 137, 140 Radziwill Hieronim, 76, 118
Mourguet Laurent, 117 Rameau Jean-Philippe, 158
Muhammad, 172 Rapp Eleonora, 8, 69
Murner Thomas, 131 Rassers Willem Hubert, 167, 191
Mussolini Benito, 122 Recoing Alain, 195
Mussorgsky Modest, 110 Reed Isaac, 118
Rengui Xue, 187
Napoleon III, 121 Rospigliosi Giulio, 104
Nerval Gerald de, 134 Rezvani Medzhid, 172, 191
Nicoll Josephine, 116 Rochester, Lord, 132
206 Index
Rojas Zorrilla Francisco, 131 Speaight George, 11, 69, 113, 117–119
Rolland Amédée, 135 Stanislaw Poniatowski, Polish king, 134
Roser Albrecht, 81, 110 Steiner Rudolf, 30
Ruizendaal Robin, 193 Sten Maria, 191
Ryl Henryk, 72 Stranitzky Johan Anton, 117
Swift Jonathan, 11, 25
Saint Anthony, 134 Sztaudynger Jan, 26, 27, 71
Saint Germain, 104
Saint Laurent, 104 Tahon André, 44
Saint Martin, 107 Tairov Alexandr, 57, 163
Sajkowski Alojzy, 117 Tamao, puppetplayer, 98
Sand George, 11, 13, 14, 28, 70 Tang Rinnie, 167, 191
Sand Maurice, 11, 13, 70, 109 Tapper Bruce, 129, 175, 193
Sandig Holger, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 71 Tarbay Ede, 41
Saussure Ferdinand, de, 83, 193 Tertulian, 11
Scarlatti Domenico, 2 Teschner Richard, 163
Schaeffner André, 193 Tieck Ludwig, 8, 109, 110, 197
Schasler Max, 19 Tillis Steve, 60, 77
Schechner Richard, 181 Toller Ernst, 138
Schidrowitz Leo, 140 Tom Fool, 158, 161, 165
Schiller Friedrich, 7 Torriani Janello, 146
Schiller Leon, 27, 28, 33, 72 Twitchin Mischa, 10, 78, 164, 165, 193,
Schmid Josef, 109, 121 202
Schmidt Charles, 116
Schneckenburger Fred, 81 Ubersfeld Annie, 116
Schnitzler Arthur, 2, 137
Schridowitz Leo, 132 Van Itallie Jean-Claude, 80
Schröder Carl, 54 Van Ussel Jos, 45
Schumacher Ernst, 61 Varey John, 11, 70, 116, 117
Schumann Peter, 147 Veltruský Jiri, 48–50, 75
Sears Laurie Lobell, 193 Vezhinov Pavel, 152
Seltmann Friedrich,, 193 Victoria Lady Welby, 116
Serlio Sebastian, 103, 118 Virgin Mary, 166
Shakespeare William, 2, 43 Vitruvius, 158
Sheepskin, puppetplayer, 118 Voltaire, 11
Sheridan Richard, 2
Shpet Lenora, 39, 74, 114, 119 Wagner Richard, 63
Sieffert René, 43 Waschinsky Peter, 59, 77
Siegel Harro, 34, 73 Wayne Ashley, 193
Sigismund the Old, Polish king, 117 Wedekind Frank, 137, 138
Signoret Henri, 109 Wilkinson Walter, 159
Siniscalchi Marina, 160, 164, 165 Wilkowski Jan, 40, 56, 57, 62, 71, 77, 110
Sinko Grzegorz, 193, 202 Wolski Antoni, 77
Sl⁄owacki Juliusz, 7, 200, 202 Wyspiań ski Stanisl⁄aw, 78, 79
Smandzik Zygmund, 81
Smirnova Natalia, 56, 57, 77 Xenophon, 101, 116, 129, 140
Socrates, 129
Sokolov Vladimir, 4, 69 Zich Otakar, 16, 18, 19, 30, 48, 71, 84, 89,
Solomonik Inna, 191 90–5, 109, 114, 197, 202