Bioremediation

Bioremediation broadly refers to any

process wherein a biological system
(typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi, and
plants), living or dead, is employed for
removing environmental pollutants from
air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial
effluents etc., in natural or artificial
settings.[1] The natural ability of organisms
to adsorb, accumulate, and degrade
common and emerging pollutants has
attracted the use of biological resources in
treatment of contaminated environment.[1]
In comparison to conventional
physicochemical treatment methods
bioremediation may offer considerable
advantages as it aims to be sustainable,
eco-friendly, cheap, and scalable.[1] Most
bioremediation is inadvertent, involving
native organisms. Research on
bioremediation is heavily focused on
stimulating the process by inoculation of a
polluted site with organisms or supplying
nutrients to promote the growth. In
principle, bioremediation could be used to
reduce the impact of byproducts created
from anthropogenic activities, such as
industrialization and agricultural
processes.[2][3] Bioremediation could prove
less expensive and more sustainable than
other remediation alternatives.[4]

UNICEF, power producers, bulk water

suppliers and local governments are early
adopters of low cost bioremediation, such
as aerobic bacteria tablets which are
simply dropped into water.[5]

Organic pollutants are generally more

susceptible to biodegradation than heavy
metals. Typical bioremediations involves
oxidations. Oxidations enhance the water-
solubility of organic compounds and their
susceptibility to further degradation by
further oxidation and hydrolysis. Ultimately
biodegradation converts hydrocarbons to
carbon dioxide and water.[6] For heavy
metals, bioremediation offers few
solutions. Metal-containing pollutant can
be removed or reduced with varying
bioremediation techniques.[7] The main
challenge to bioremediations is rate: the
processes are slow.[8]

Bioremediation techniques can be

classified as (i) in situ techniques, which
treats polluted sites directly, vs (ii) ex situ
techniques which are applied to excavated
materials.[9] In both these approaches,
additional nutrients, vitamins, minerals,
and pH buffers are added to enhance the
growth and metabolism of the
microorganisms. In some cases,
specialized microbial cultures are added
(biostimulation). Some examples of
bioremediation related technologies are
phytoremediation, bioventing,
bioattenuation, biosparging, composting
(biopiles and windrows), and landfarming.
Other remediation techniques include
thermal desorption, vitrification, air
stripping, bioleaching, rhizofiltration, and
soil washing. Biological treatment,
bioremediation, is a similar approach used
to treat wastes including wastewater,
industrial waste and solid waste. The end
goal of bioremediation is to remove or
reduce harmful compounds to improve
soil and water quality.[10]

In situ techniques

Visual representation showing in-situ bioremediation. This process involves the addition of oxygen, nutrients, or microbes
into contaminated soil to remove toxic pollutants.[10] Contamination includes buried waste and underground pipe leakage
that infiltrate ground water systems.[11] The addition of oxygen removes the pollutants by producing carbon dioxide and
water.[7]
Bioventing

Bioventing is a process that increases the

oxygen or air flow into the unsaturated
zone of the soil, this in turn increases the
rate of natural in situ degradation of the
targeted hydrocarbon contaminant.[12]
Bioventing, an aerobic bioremediation, is
the most common form of oxidative
bioremediation process where oxygen is
provided as the electron acceptor for
oxidation of petroleum, polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, and other
reduced pollutants. Oxygen is generally the
preferred electron acceptor because of the
higher energy yield and because oxygen is
required for some enzyme systems to
initiate the degradation process.[8]
Microorganisms can degrade a wide
variety of hydrocarbons, including
components of gasoline, kerosene, diesel,
and jet fuel. Under ideal aerobic
conditions, the biodegradation rates of the
low- to moderate-weight aliphatic, alicyclic,
and aromatic compounds can be very
high. As molecular weight of the
compound increases, the resistance to
biodegradation increases
simultaneously.[8] This results in higher
contaminated volatile compounds due to
their high molecular weight and an
increased difficulty to remove from the
environment.

Most bioremediation processes involve

oxidation-reduction reactions where either
an electron acceptor (commonly oxygen)
is added to stimulate oxidation of a
reduced pollutant (e.g. hydrocarbons) or
an electron donor (commonly an organic
substrate) is added to reduce oxidized
pollutants (nitrate, perchlorate, oxidized
metals, chlorinated solvents, explosives
and propellants).[6] In both these
approaches, additional nutrients, vitamins,
minerals, and pH buffers may be added to
optimize conditions for the
microorganisms. In some cases,
specialized microbial cultures are added
(bioaugmentation) to further enhance
biodegradation.

Approaches for oxygen addition below the

water table include recirculating aerated
water through the treatment zone, addition
of pure oxygen or peroxides, and air
sparging.[13] Recirculation systems
typically consist of a combination of
injection wells or galleries and one or more
recovery wells where the extracted
groundwater is treated, oxygenated,
amended with nutrients and re-injected.[14]
However, the amount of oxygen that can
be provided by this method is limited by
the low solubility of oxygen in water (8 to
10 mg/L for water in equilibrium with air at
typical temperatures). Greater amounts of
oxygen can be provided by contacting the
water with pure oxygen or addition of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to the water. In
some cases, slurries of solid calcium or
magnesium peroxide are injected under
pressure through soil borings. These solid
peroxides react with water releasing H2O2
which then decomposes releasing oxygen.
Air sparging involves the injection of air
under pressure below the water table. The
air injection pressure must be great
enough to overcome the hydrostatic
pressure of the water and resistance to air
flow through the soil.[13][14]

Biostimulation

An example of biostimulation at the Snake River Plain Aquifer in Idaho. This process involves the addition of whey powder
to promote the utilization of naturally present bacteria. Whey powder acts as a substrate to aid in the growth of
bacteria.[15] At this site, microorganisms break down the carcinogenic compound trichloroethylene (TCE), which is a
process seen in previous studies.[15]

Bioremediation can be carried out by

bacteria that are naturally present. In
biostimulation, the population of these
helpful bacteria can be increased by
adding nutrients.[7][16]
Bacteria can in principle be used to
degrade hydrocarbons.[17][18] Specific to
marine oil spills, nitrogen and phosphorus
have been key nutrients in
biodegradation.[19] The bioremediation of
hydrocarbons suffers from low rates.

Bioremediation can involve the action of

microbial consortium. Within the
consortium, the product of one species
could be the substrate for another
species.[20]

Anaerobic bioremediation can in principle

be employed to treat a range of oxidized
contaminants including chlorinated
ethylenes (PCE, TCE, DCE, VC), chlorinated
ethanes (TCA, DCA), chloromethanes (CT,
CF), chlorinated cyclic hydrocarbons,
various energetics (e.g., perchlorate,[21]
RDX, TNT), and nitrate.[7] This process
involves the addition of an electron donor
to: 1) deplete background electron
acceptors including oxygen, nitrate,
oxidized iron and manganese and sulfate;
and 2) stimulate the biological and/or
chemical reduction of the oxidized
pollutants. Hexavalent chromium (Cr[VI])
and uranium (U[VI]) can be reduced to less
mobile and/or less toxic forms (e.g., Cr[III],
U[IV]). Similarly, reduction of sulfate to
sulfide (sulfidogenesis) can be used to
precipitate certain metals (e.g., zinc,
cadmium). The choice of substrate and
the method of injection depend on the
contaminant type and distribution in the
aquifer, hydrogeology, and remediation
objectives. Substrate can be added using
conventional well installations, by direct-
push technology, or by excavation and
backfill such as permeable reactive
barriers (PRB) or biowalls.[22] Slow-release
products composed of edible oils or solid
substrates tend to stay in place for an
extended treatment period. Soluble
substrates or soluble fermentation
products of slow-release substrates can
potentially migrate via advection and
diffusion, providing broader but shorter-
lived treatment zones. The added organic
substrates are first fermented to hydrogen
(H2) and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). The
VFAs, including acetate, lactate,
propionate and butyrate, provide carbon
and energy for bacterial metabolism.[7][6]

Bioattenuation

During bioattenuation, biodegradation

occurs naturally with the addition of
nutrients or bacteria. The indigenous
microbes present will determine the
metabolic activity and act as a natural
attenuation.[23] While there is no
anthropogenic involvement in
bioattenuation, the contaminated site
must still be monitored.[23]

Biosparging

Biosparging is the process of groundwater

remediation as oxygen, and possible
nutrients, is injected. When oxygen is
injected, indigenous bacteria are
stimulated to increase rate of
degradation.[24] However, biosparging
focuses on saturated contaminated zones,
specifically related to ground water
remediation.[25]
Ex situ techniques

Biopiles

Biopiles, similar to bioventing, are used to

reduce petroleum pollutants by
introducing aerobic hydrocarbons to
contaminated soils. However, the soil is
excavated and piled with an aeration
system. This aeration system enhances
microbial activity by introducing oxygen
under positive pressure or removes
oxygen under negative pressure.[26]
Windrows

The former Shell Haven Refinery in Standford-le-Hope which underwent bioremediation to reduce the oil contaminated
site. Bioremediation techniques, such as windrows, were used to promote oxygen transfer.[27] The refinery has excavated
approximately 115,000 m3 of contaminated soil.[27]

Windrow systems are similar to compost

techniques where soil is periodically
turned in order to enhance aeration.[28]
This periodic turning also allows
contaminants present in the soil to be
uniformly distributed which accelerates
the process of bioremediation.[29]
Landfarming

Landfarming, or land treatment, is a

method commonly used for sludge spills.
This method disperses contaminated soil
and aerates the soil by cyclically
rotating.[30] This process is an above land
application and contaminated soils are
required to be shallow in order for
microbial activity to be stimulated.
However, if the contamination is deeper
than 5 feet, then the soil is required to be
excavated to above ground.[14]
Heavy metals
Heavy metals become present in the
environment due to anthropogenic
activities or natural factors.[7]
Anthropogenic activities include industrial
emissions, electronic waste, and ore
mining. Natural factors include mineral
weathering, soil erosion, and forest fires.[7]
Heavy metals including cadmium,
chromium, lead and uranium are unlike
organic compounds and cannot be
biodegraded. However, bioremediation
processes can potentially be used to
reduce the mobility of these material in the
subsurface, reducing the potential for
human and environmental exposure.[31]
Heavy metals from these factors are
predominantly present in water sources
due to runoff where it is uptake by marine
fauna and flora.[7]

The mobility of certain metals including

chromium (Cr) and uranium (U) varies
depending on the oxidation state of the
material.[32] Microorganisms can be used
to reduce the toxicity and mobility of
chromium by reducing hexavalent
chromium, Cr(VI) to trivalent Cr (III).[33]
Uranium can be reduced from the more
mobile U(VI) oxidation state to the less
mobile U(IV) oxidation state.[34][35]
Microorganisms are used in this process
because the reduction rate of these metals
is often slow unless catalyzed by microbial
interactions[36] Research is also underway
to develop methods to remove metals
from water by enhancing the sorption of
the metal to cell walls.[36] This approach
has been evaluated for treatment of
cadmium,[37] chromium,[38] and lead.[39]
Genetically modified bacteria has also
been explored for use in sequestration of
Arsenic.[40] Phytoextraction processes
concentrate contaminants in the biomass
for subsequent removal.
Pesticides
For various herbicides and other
pesticides both aerobic- and anaerobic-
heterotrophs have been investigated.

Limitations of
bioremediation
Bioremediation can be used to completely
mineralize organic pollutants, to partially
transform the pollutants, or alter their
mobility. Heavy metals and radionuclides
are elements that cannot be biodegraded,
but can be bio-transformed to less mobile
forms.[41][42][43] In some cases, microbes
do not fully mineralize the pollutant,
potentially producing a more toxic
compound.[43] For example, under
anaerobic conditions, the reductive
dehalogenation of TCE may produce
dichloroethylene (DCE) and vinyl chloride
(VC), which are suspected or known
carcinogens.[41] However, the
microorganism Dehalococcoides can
further reduce DCE and VC to the non-toxic
product ethene.[44] The molecular
pathways for bioremediation are of
considerable interest.[41] In addition,
knowing these pathways will help develop
new technologies that can deal with sites
that have uneven distributions of a mixture
of contaminants.[24]

Biodegradation requires microbial

population with the metabolic capacity to
degrade the pollutant.[24][42] The biological
processes used by these microbes are
highly specific, therefore, many
environmental factors must be taken into
account and regulated as well.[24][41] It can
be difficult to extrapolate the results from
the small-scale test studies into big field
operations.[24] In many cases,
bioremediation takes more time than other
alternatives such as land filling and
incineration.[24][41] Another example is
bioventing, which is inexpensive to
bioremediate contaminated sites, however,
this process is extensive and can take a
few years to decontaminate a site.[45]>

In agricultural industries, the use of

pesticides is a top factor in direct soil
contamination and runoff water
contamination. The limitation or
remediation of pesticides is the low
bioavailability.[46] Altering the pH and
temperature of the contaminated soil is a
resolution to increase bioavailability which,
in turn, increased degradation of harmful
compounds.[46]
The compound acrylonitrile is commonly
produced in industrial setting but
adversely contaminates soils.
Microorganisms containing nitrile
hydratases (NHase) degraded harmful
acrylonitrile compounds into non-polluting
substances.[47]

Since the experience with harmful

contaminants are limited, laboratory
practices are required to evaluate
effectiveness, treatment designs, and
estimate treatment times.[45]
Bioremediation processes may take
several months to several years depending
on the size of the contaminated area.[48]
Genetic engineering
The use of genetic engineering to create
organisms specifically designed for
bioremediation is under preliminary
research.[49] Two category of genes can be
inserted in the organism: degradative
genes, which encode proteins required for
the degradation of pollutants, and reporter
genes, which encode proteins able to
monitor pollution levels.[50] Numerous
members of Pseudomonas have been
modified with the lux gene for the
detection of the polyaromatic hydrocarbon
naphthalene. A field test for the release of
the modified organism has been
successful on a moderately large scale.[51]

There are concerns surrounding release

and containment of genetically modified
organisms into the environment due to the
potential of horizontal gene transfer.[52]
Genetically modified organisms are
classified and controlled under the Toxic
Substances Control Act of 1976 under
United States Environmental Protection
Agency.[53] Measures have been created to
address these concerns. Organisms can
be modified such that they can only
survive and grow under specific sets of
environmental conditions.[52] In addition,
the tracking of modified organisms can be
made easier with the insertion of
bioluminescence genes for visual
identification.[54]

Genetically modified organisms have been

created to treat oil spills and break down
certain plastics (PET).[55]

See also
Biology
portal
Technology
portal
Fungi
portal

Bioremediation of radioactive waste

Biosurfactant
Chelation
Dutch pollutant standards
Folkewall
In situ chemical oxidation
In situ chemical reduction
List of environment topics
Mega Borg Oil Spill
Microbial biodegradation
Mycoremediation
Mycorrhizal bioremediation
Phytoremediation
Pseudomonas putida (used for
degrading oil)
 Restoration ecology
Xenocatabolism

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External links
Phytoremediation, hosted by the
Missouri Botanical Garden (https://web.
archive.org/web/20100914030753/htt
p://www.mobot.org/jwcross/phytoreme
diation/)
To remediate or to not remediate? (http
s://atlasofscience.org/to-remediate-or-t
o-not-remediate/#more-17692)
Anaerobic Bioremediation (http://enviro.
wiki/index.php?title=Bioremediation_-_A
 naerobic)

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