CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter provides definitions of words connected to the research as well as the essential

theories, literature, and studies. The factors that affect the two variables and the topic itself the

relationship between nutrition and cognitive development are highlighted by the variables that are

given.

Related Theories

Toward a Neuroscience of Adult Cognitive Developmental Theory by Girgis, Lee &

Ditterich (2018). Cognition has the potential to evolve over the course of adult life. As more

complex ideas arise and varied perceptions come to light, newly discovered concepts present novel

ways of approaching conflict and making meaning of everyday interactions. This is possible by

bringing awareness to mental constructs that were previously in the subconscious, or making

Object that which was previously Subject.

It has also been found that early pre-school enrolment will have a good impact on a child's

cognitive development from an age of 6 to late adolescence, aged 18. A child's lifetime growth

will be influenced by the level of development that is available to them in their first three years of

life. However, at this point, parents find it difficult to balance work and childcare; if they had more

free time, they might be able to provide their children with better parenting. Nevertheless, a child's

motor development up to the age of 4 will benefit their cognitive abilities in terms of working
memory and problem-solving skills from the age of 6 to the age of 11. But the facilitation of the

development of the motor skills of very young children will also facilitate the lifelong development

of cognitive ability. As a result, it's possible that cognitive development happens in a series of

phases from infancy to adulthood and beyond.

Trends in the Number of Behavioural Theory-Based Healthy Eating Interventions

Inclusive of Dietitians/Nutritionists in 2000-2020 by Luo & Farinelli (2021). The number of

theory-based interventions increased over the two decades. The number of studies conducted by

dietitians/nutritionists increased, but since 2012, increases have been driven by other researchers.

Social cognitive theory was the most used behaviour theory. Dietitians/nutritionists contributed to

growth in publication of theory-based healthy eating interventions, but the proportion of

researchers from other professions engaged in this field increased markedly. The reasons for this

growth in publications from other professions is unknown but conjectured to result from greater

prominence of dietary behaviours within the context of an obesity epidemic.

“Theory of Food” as a Neurocognitive Adaptation by Bio (2012). Humans evolved to be

actively engaged with their food environments. Interactions with and within these food

environments can be extraordinarily complex, in that they are mediated not only by ecological

factors, but also by the technological, socio-cultural, and ultimately, cognitive contexts in which

food is thought, acquired, processed, distributed, and eaten. The hypothesized theory of food is a

cognitive model of how the brain organizes this complex environment. Human adult cognition is

an extraordinary biological phenomenon. It emerges fully over the course of the development via

the interaction of multiple discrete, but necessarily overlapping, critical neurocognitive networks.

These networks evolved in response to various selection pressures, many of which were modified

or intensified by the intellectual, technological, and socio-cultural environments that arose in

clearly play an important role in adult cognition. Given the critical importance of food to both

basic survival and cultural interaction, theory of food may also represent another complex network

essential for normal cognition.

Related Literature

According to Otsuka (2022). Proper nutrition is a key factor that can help in the

prevention of these age‐related impairments. This narrative review of longitudinal studies in Japan

outlines the relationship between nutrition and the brain and focuses on Japanese nutritional

epidemiologic studies. The results of Japanese cohort studies suggest that rather than a single food

or nutrient, a nutritionally balanced diet that integrates a variety of foods and nutrients can

contribute to the maintenance of brain function and be effective in preventing dementia. In

addition, this review considers a nutritional approach to reducing the severity of cognitive decline

in individuals with mild cognitive impairment and dementia, and suggests lifelong strategies for

the prevention of cognitive decline.

According to Ronnie Arnold (2021). The purpose of the qualitative content analysis (QCA)

study was to analyze peer-reviewed medical journals to reveal the influence food has on a student’s

cognitive ability to learn. The significance of the study was to combat the effects of food on

learning by incorporating knowledge into teaching and societal practices. Understanding potential

thematic relationships can add overall knowledge to the connection between nutrition and

academic performance and close the gap in knowledge via concise coding of peer-reviewed

medical journals. The link between nutrition and cognitive skills has a lot of room to be explored
in the United States. Previously, research that had been done had involved third world countries

where malnutrition is more common. For example, a study was done in Ghana wherein it was

established that socio-economic factors greatly influenced students’ success due partially to the

fact that higher socio-economic status meant better nutrition, which parlayed into more refined

cognitive skills and higher academic success.

According to Frewer (2015). The review has shown that the potential of cognitive

dissonance to influence attitudes and behaviours in food and nutrition has yet to be fully explored

and exploited. It is thus in the interest of food science and nutrition scholars to become more

engaged in cognitive dissonance research applied in the area of food choice and dietary practice,

with the ultimate goal of optimizing the utility of cognitive dissonance in the design of effective

policies and promotional strategies in public health.

According to Ruth Morley and Alan Lucas (1997). There has been a long-standing interest

in whether undernutrition, at a sensitive or critical period of brain growth or maturation could have

a long lasting or permanent 'programming' influence on later cognitive performance. One

noteworthy example of a nutritional influence on cognitive function is maternal iodine deficiency,

which may result in frank cretinism or reduced cognitive function and school performance in the

offspring2. These nutritional effects, mediated here by an endocrine mechanism, are irreversible.

A key question is whether other general or specific nutritional insufficiencies can likewise

influence or 'programme' cognitive function. Given the extent and range of nutritional deficiencies

worldwide, this question is of great significance for mankind. Animal studies have demonstrated

that nutritional deprivation affects measures of performance3, but it is difficult to extrapolate from

such measures in animals (largely rodents) to human cognition, though they are of importance in

establishing both the principle and mechanism of any associations.

According to Sehrish Naveed &Timo Lakka & Eero A. Haapala (2020). Unhealthy diet

has been associated with overweight, obesity, increased cardiometabolic risk, and recently, to

impaired cognition and academic performance. The aim of this review is to provide an overview

of the associations between health behaviors and cognition and academic achievement in children

and adolescents under 18 years of age with a special reference to diet quality. Dietary patterns with

a low consumption of fish, fruits, and vegetables, and high in fast food, sausages, and soft drinks

have been linked to poor cognition and academic achievement. The studies on the associations

between the high intake of saturated fat and red meat and low intake of fiber and high-fiber grain

products with cognition are limited. The available evidence and physiological mechanisms suggest

that diet may have direct, indirect, and synergistic effects on brain and cognition with physical

activity, sedentary behaviors, cardiometabolic health, and sleep, but the associations have been

modest. Therefore, integrating a healthy diet, physically active lifestyle, and adequate sleep may

provide optimal circumstances for brain development and learning. We conclude that most of the

existing literature is contained in cross-sectional studies, which therefore highlights the need for

longitudinal and intervention studies on the effects of diet, physical activity, sedentary behavior,

and sleep on cognition and academic performance.

According to Ann M. DiGirolamo & Laura Ochaeta & Rosa Mery Mejía Flores (2020).

Overall, results suggest strong relationships between indicators of a child’s early nutritional status

and motor and cognitive development in infancy and through the preschool years, continuing into

adolescence/young adulthood, particularly for males. Nutritional supplementation during gestation

through 2 years of age was associated with improvements in motor development and small, but
consistent improvements in cognitive development during infancy and preschool years, with

similar results of greater magnitude found with cognitive functioning in adolescence and young

adulthood. Findings remain strong after controlling for various sociocultural factors (eg,

socioeconomic status [SES]) and schooling. Among adolescents, significant interactions were

found with SES and years of school attained; differences in performance favored A tole over

Fresco children, with greatest differences for participants of l ow SES and those with higher levels

of schooling.

According to H E Freeman & R E Klein & Lechtig (2011). Women and children from four

Guatemalan villages participated in a voluntary food supplementation program for seven years. In

two of the villages, they received a vitamin and mineral fortified, high-protein calorie supplement.

In the other two villages, the vitamin-mineral fortified supplement contained no protein and a

relatively small number of calories. Cognitive tests were administered regularly to children ages

three to seven, and anthropometric measures obtained. In addition, measures of families' social

milieu were collected at several points in time. Using multiple regression analysis, we find that

both nutritional and social environmental measures are related to various dimensions of cognitive

competence.