a)Canal Irrigation

• Canal irrigation is one of the most important sources of

irrigation.
• It accounts for about 24% of the total irrigation in the nation.
• It is an effective source of irrigation in low-level relief, deep
fertile soil and perennial river areasTherefore the
main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern
plains.
• Total areas under the canal irrigation in India is around 16.5
million hectares
• 60% of Canal irrigation is found in the northern plains such as
UP, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar and Rajasthan.

b) Well Irrigation
• About 63% of the net irrigated area in India is irrigated by
Wells.
• Well, irrigation is cheap and dependable.
• Well, irrigation is popular in areas where tank and canal
irrigation is not available.
• A well is hole dug in the ground to obtain subsoil water.
• An ordinary well is about 3 to 5 meters deep but deeper
wells are about 15 meters deep.
• Several methods like Persian wheel, Reht, Charas or mot,
dhingly are used to lift groundwater from wells.
• Geographical distribution.
◦ Well irrigation accounts for about 63% of the net irrigated
area in the country.
◦ Popular areas with suf cient sweet groundwater are:
▪ Northern Plains
▪ Deltaic plains of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,
Cauvery,
▪ Parts of Narmada and Tapi Valleys.
▪ Weathered areas of Deccan trap
▪ Crystalline and sedimentary zone of peninsular
India.
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 c)Tube Wells
• A tube well is a deeper well (>15 meters) from which water is
lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric
motor or diesel engine.
• Geographical conditions favourable for tube well installation is
as follows:
◦ Suf cient quantity of groundwater
◦ Suf ciently high groundwater table so that pumping is
economical
◦ Regular supply of cheap electricity and diesel so that
water can be taken out when needed.
◦ Soil in the immediate neighborhood of tube well should
be fertile so that the construction and operational cost of
tube well is recovered by increased farm production.
• Wells proliferated after Green Revolution in Punjab, Haryana
and Western Uttar Pradesh.
• Water application ef ciency is 60% in well and tube well
irrigation.
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d) Tank Irrigation
• Tanks are both natural and man-made.
 • A hollow is built on the surface by constructing bund across the
stream, canals.A tank consists of water storage which has
been developed by constructing small bund of earth or
stones built across the stream.
• These are mostly of small size and are built by individual
farmers and group of farmers.
• Tank Irrigation is an old system of irrigation in India.
• The Tanks used to collect water during rainy season and store
for irrigation and other purposes.
• It includes Ponds and Lakes.
• Tank irrigation is popular in peninsular India.
It is popular in peninsular India due to following
reasons:
• Hard to dig canals and wells in undulating relief and hard
rocks.
• Natural tank formations due to natural depression in the
surfaces.
• Perennial river absence in Peninsular regions.
• No percolation in Impermeable rock structure.
 Surface irrigation,
Surface irrigation, also known as gravity irrigation, is
the oldest form of irrigation and has been in use for
thousands of years. In surface (furrow,  ood, or level
basin) irrigation systems, water moves across the
surface of agricultural lands, in order to wet it and
in ltrate into the soil.
Water moves by following gravity or the slope of the
land. Surface irrigation can be subdivided
into furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is often
called  ood irrigation when the irrigation results in
ooding or near ooding of the cultivated land.
Historically, surface irrigation has been the most
common method of irrigating agricultural land and is still
used in most parts of the world. Where water levels from
the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by
dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in
terraced rice elds (rice paddies), where the method is
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 used to ood or control the level of water in each distinct
eld. The water application ef ciency of surface
irrigation is typically lower than other forms of irrigation.

 
Micro-irrigation
Micro-irrigation, sometimes called localized
irrigation, low volume irrigation, or trickle
irrigation is a system where water is distributed under
low pressure through a piped network, in a
predetermined pattern, and applied as a small discharge
to each plant or adjacent to it. Traditional drip irrigation
uses individual emitters, subsurface drip irrigation (SDI),
micro-spray or micro-sprinklers, and mini-bubbler
irrigation all belong to this category of irrigation methods.
Drip irrigation
Drip (or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation,
functions as its name suggests. In this system water
falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is
delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by
drop. This method can be the most water-ef cient
method of irrigation, if managed properly, evaporation
and runoff are minimized.
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 The eld water ef ciency of drip irrigation is typically in
the range of 80 to 90 percent when managed
correctly. PER DROP MORE CROP(Improving water
use ef ciency) – Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (PMKSY). Micro Irrigation scheme sponsored by
Government of India to promote drip and sprinkler
irrigation to save water.
Bene ts of drip Irrigation
• Increase in yield up to 230 %.
• Saves water up to 70% compare to ood irrigation. More land
can be irrigated with the water thus saved.
• Crop grows consistently, healthier and matures fast.
• Early maturity results in higher and faster returns on
investment.
• Fertilizer use ef ciency increases by 30%.
• Cost of fertilizers, inter-culturing and labour use gets reduced.
• Fertilizer and Chemical Treatment can be given through Micro
Irrigation System itself.
• Undulating terrains, Saline, Water logged, Sandy & Hilly lands
can also be brought under productive cultivation.
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Sprinkler irrigation
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one
or more central locations within the eld and distributed
by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns.
A system using sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted
overhead on permanently installed risers is often
referred to as a solid-set irrigation system.
Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are
called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or
impact mechanism.
Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle.
Advantages
• Eliminates water conveyance channels, thereby reducing
conveyance loss.
• Suitable in all types of soil except heavy clay.
• Water saving up to 30% – 50 %.
• Suitable for irrigation where the plant population per unit area
is very high.
• Helps to increase yield.
• Reduces soil compaction.
• Mobility of system helps system operation easy.
• Suitable for undulating land.
• Saves land as no bunds required.
• Soluble fertilizers and chemicals use are possible.
• Provides frost protection & helps in alteration of micro climate.
• Reduces labour cost.
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Different types of
irrigation and
irrigation systems
LAST UPDATED ON JULY 2, 2022 BY CLEARIAS TEAM

Irrigation systems are an integral part of agriculture.

There are numerous types of irrigation systems aiding
the growth of agriculture. Read here to know more.

Agriculture is the key to the development of human

civilization and the nerve of the economic well-being of any
country. Irrigation systems are a major process aiding
agriculture for centuries.
Ancient civilizations in many parts of the world practiced
irrigation. Civilization would probably not be possible without
some form of irrigation.

The earliest form of irrigation probably involved people

carrying buckets of water from wells or rivers to pour on
their crops. As better techniques developed, societies in
Egypt and China built irrigation canals, dams, dikes, and
water storage facilities.

Ancient Rome built structures called aqueducts to carry

water from snowmelt in the Alps to cities and towns in the
valleys below. This water was used for drinking, washing,
and irrigation.
Table of Contents

• Irrigation system
• Types:
• Surface irrigation
• Basin Irrigation:
• Furrow irrigation:
• Border irrigation
• Uncontrolled ooding
• Sprinkler Irrigation
• Well and tube
• Canal irrigation
• Tank
• Drip irrigation
• Surge irrigation
• Ditch irrigation
• Sub-irrigation
• Challenges faced by agriculture
• Government initiatives for irrigation system
• Way forward

Irrigation system
Irrigation is the arti cial application of water to the soil or
agricultural eld. It is like supplementing rainwater with
another source of water. It is mostly used in dry areas and
during periods of insuf cient rainfall.

Be a Topper. Score high.

No matter how dif cult UPSC sets the question paper!
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 The main idea behind these systems is to assist in the
growth of crops and plants by maintaining the minimum
amount of water required, suppressing weed growth in
elds, and preventing soil consolidation.

It is considered a basic infrastructure and vital input required

for agricultural production. The major aim is to maintain the
agricultural output with a minimum amount of water,
maintenance of landscapes, and re-vegetation of disturbed
soils.

These systems are also used for dust repression, removal

of sewage, and mining. Irrigation is often studied together
with drainage, which is the natural or arti cial removal of
surface and sub-surface water from a given region.

It also has effects on crop production, which include:

1. Protecting plants against frost

2. Suppressing weed growth in a grain eld
3. Preventing soil consolidation.
4. for dust suppression,
5. Disposal of sewage, and mining.

Types:
The three basic and broad classi cations of irrigation
methods are:

1. Surface
2. Sprinkler
3. Sub-surface
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 Surface irrigation
In this technique, water ows and spreads over the surface
of the land. Varied quantities of water are allowed on the
elds at different times.

Surface irrigation technique is broadly classi ed as basin

irrigation; border irrigation; furrow irrigation and uncontrolled
ooding.

BASIN IRRIGATION:
• The Basin system is suitable for many eld crops.
Paddy rice grows best when its roots are submerged in
water, so basin irrigation is the best method for this
crop.
• It is generally not suited to crops that cannot stand in
wet or waterlogged conditions for periods longer than
24 hours.
• These are usually root and tuber crops such as
potatoes, cassava, beet, and carrots which require
loose, well-drained soils.
FURROW IRRIGATION:
• In the furrow technique, trenches or “furrows” are dug
between crop rows in a eld.
• Farmers ow water down the furrows (often using only
gravity) and it seeps vertically and horizontally to re ll
the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is individually
controlled.
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 • The Furrow technique is suitable for row crops, and tree
crops, and because water does not directly contact the
plants, crops that would be damaged by direct
inundation by water such as tomatoes, vegetables,
potatoes, and beans.
• It is one of the oldest systems of irrigation.
BORDER IRRIGATION
• Border irrigation is a type of surface irrigation where the
eld is divided into strips separated by border ridges
running down the gradient of the eld.
• The area between the ridges is ooded during irrigation.
• It can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to
include long rectangular or contoured eld shapes.
UNCONTROLLED FLOODING
• In uncontrolled ooding, the water is spread or ooded
into the eld without control of water and preparation of
land.
• It is also called wild ooding.
• The ef ciency of this method depends upon the depth
of ooding, the size of the stream, the rate of intake of
water into the soil, and the topography of the eld.
• This method is suitable for inundation irrigation
systems, pastures & forage crops and is inexpensive.
Sprinkler Irrigation
• In this method, water is sprayed into the air and allowed
to fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling
rainfall.
• The ow of water develops the spray under pressure
through small ori ces or nozzles.
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 • The sprinkler irrigation system is a very suitable method
for irrigation on uneven lands and shallow soils.
• Nearly all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation
systems except crops like paddy, jute, etc. The dry
crops, vegetables, owering crops, orchards, and
plantation crops like tea, and coffee are all suitable and
can be irrigated through sprinklers.
Well and tube
• Well, and Tube Well irrigation is the most popular
irrigation system in India.
• The rst tube well was dug in 1930 in Uttar Pradesh.
Today more than 50 lakh tube wells are operating in
different parts of India.
• It has contributed substantially to the success of the
Green Revolution in India. Uttar Pradesh has the
largest area under good irrigation.
• It is followed by Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Bihar.
• There are various types of wells – shallow wells, deep
wells, tube wells, artesian wells, etc. From the shallow
wells water is not always available as the level of water
goes down during the dry months.
• Deep wells are more suitable for irrigation as water
from them is available throughout the year.
Canal irrigation
• Canal irrigation is one of the most important sources of
irrigation. It accounts for about 24% of the total
irrigation in the nation.
• It is an effective source of irrigation in low-level relief,
deep fertile soil, and perennial river areas which are
mostly found in the northern plains.
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• There are two types of canal systems: Inundation and
Perennial canals.
• Inundation canals are taken out from the rivers without
any regulating system and provide irrigation mainly in
the rainy season when the river is in ood and there is
excess water.
• Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from
perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the
river. Most of the canals in India are perennial.
• Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and
supply water as and when required. This saves the
crops from drought conditions and helps in increasing
farm production.
Tank
• A tank acts as an irrigation storage system which is
developed by constructing a small bund of earth or
stones built across a stream.
• The rainwater can also be collected in these tank
reservoirs for irrigation usage.
• It is an important source of irrigation in Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Kerala, the
Bundelkhand area, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
Drip irrigation
• It is a type of micro-irrigation system or localized
irrigation system which is the most ef cient water and
nutrient delivery system for growing crops.
• It delivers water and nutrients directly to the plant’s
roots zone, in the right amounts, at the right time, so
each plant gets exactly what it needs, when it needs it,
to grow optimally.
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• Water is applied near the plant root through emitters or
drippers, on or below the soil surface, at a low rate
varying from 2-20 liters per hour.
• This irrigation system lessens soil erosion and weed
growth while increasing water application ef ciency.
• The initial cost and maintenance are high for this
system.
Surge irrigation
• Surge Irrigation is an alternative to furrow irrigation
where the water supply is pulsed on and off in planned
periods.
• The wetting and drying cycles reduce in ltration rates
resulting in faster advance rates and higher uniformities
than constant ow.
Ditch irrigation
• Ditch Irrigation is a type of traditional method, where
ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted in rows.
• The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows
in between the rows of plants.
• Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main
ditch to the canals.
Sub-irrigation
• Also known as seepage irrigation is a system where
water is allowed to the plant root zone from below the
soil surface and absorbed upwards. The excess may be
collected for reuse.
• Sub-irrigation is used in growing eld crops such as
tomatoes, peppers, and sugar cane in areas with high
water tables.
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 • The major bene ts of this system are water and nutrient
conservation, and labor-saving.
• The out tting cost is comparatively high and the main
problems include the possibility of the increased
presence of disease-causing organisms in recycled
water.

Challenges faced by
agriculture
Agriculture is subject to variations in monsoon in the
country. As per World Bank, only 35% of India’s agricultural
land is irrigated. The remaining 65% of farming is rain-
dependent, most of which takes place over just a few
summer months.

The problem of land degradation in rain-fed or dry-land

areas is expected to increase in the coming years.

The arable or cultivable land is being converted for non-

agricultural purposes adding to the food crisis while the
population keeps increasing.

Another major issue is the overexploitation of groundwater,

which is a major concern in the states of Haryana, Delhi,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, etc. Alarmingly, the
groundwater level has been going down in almost all parts
of the country.

The increasing deserti cation of India’s soil is a threat to

every agricultural development in the country.
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Government initiatives for
irrigation system
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana:

• Launched in 2015 with the motto of “Har Khet Ko

Paani”, the scheme aims to provide end-to-end
solutions in the irrigation supply chain (water sources,
distribution network, and, farm-level applications).
• The scheme focuses on creating sources for assured
irrigation and protective irrigation by harnessing
rainwater at the micro-level through ‘Jal Sanchay’ and
‘Jal Sinchan’.
• One of the most crucial components of the initiative is
“Per Drop More Crop”. It focuses on micro-irrigation
systems (sprinkler, drip, pivots, rain guns, etc.) to
promote precision farming by making water available in
a targeted manner to the root zone of crops.
Micro Irrigation Fund:

• The Government has created a dedicated Micro

Irrigation Fund with NABARD.
• This fund aims to facilitate the States to mobilize the
resources for expanding coverage of Micro Irrigation in
the country.
Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP):
 • Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP) is an
initiative that aims to increase the agricultural
productivity of rain-fed areas sustainably by adopting
appropriate farming system-based approaches.

Way forward
The lack of irrigated land for agriculture is a major issue that
needs to be addressed more aggressively. The farmers
should be made aware of the numerous options available to
them when it comes to irrigation and be educated about it.

Various alternative methods of irrigation and farming

like vertical farming, zero budget natural farming, urban
agriculture, agroforestry, etc, should be encouraged.

Modern India Can

Learn a Lot from These
20 Traditional Water
Conservation Systems
By Sanchari Pal
July 15, 2016
Combining these ecologically safe traditional systems with
modern rainwater-saving techniques could be the answer to
India's perennial water woes.

We all know water is essential, but too many of us think

it’s unlimited. In reality, fresh water is a nite resource that is
rapidly becoming scarce. In India, a warming climate is
drying up lakes and rivers, while rapid urbanisation and
water pollution are putting enormous pressure on the
quantity and quality of surface and ground water. The
country’s fragile agricultural system still depends primarily
on rainfall and a bad monsoon season can wreck havoc on
the national economy.
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Photo Source
Water conservation is a key element of any strategy that
aims to alleviate the water scarcity crisis in India. With
rainfall patterns changing almost every year, the Indian
government has started looking at means to revive the
traditional systems of water harvesting in the country. Given
that these methods are simple and eco-friendly for the most
part, they are not just highly effective for the people who rely
on them but they are also good for the environment.
Photo Source
History tells us that both oods and droughts were regular
occurrence in ancient India. Perhaps this is why every
region in the country has its own traditional water harvesting
techniques that re ect the geographical peculiarities and
cultural uniqueness of the regions. The basic concept
underlying all these techniques is that rain should be
harvested whenever and wherever it falls.

Archaeological evidence shows that the practice of water

conservation is deep rooted in the science of ancient India.
Excavations show that the cities of the Indus Valley
Civilisation had excellent systems of water harvesting and
drainage. The settlement of Dholavira, laid out on a slope
between two storm water channels, is a great example of
water engineering. Chanakya’s Arthashashtra mentions
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 irrigation using water harvesting systems. Sringaverapura,
near Allahabad, had a sophisticated water harvesting
system that used the natural slope of the land to store the
oodwaters of the river Ganga. Chola King Karikala built the
Grand Anicut or Kallanai across the river Cauvery to divert
water for irrigation (it is still functional) while King Bhoja of
Bhopal built the largest arti cial lake in India.

Drawing upon centuries of experience, Indians continued to

build structures to catch, hold and store monsoon rainwater
for the dry seasons to come. These traditional techniques,
though less popular today, are still in use and ef cient. Here
is a brief account of the unique water conservation systems
prevalent in India and the communities who have practised
them for decades before the debate on climate change even
existed.

1. Jhalara
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Photo Source
Jhalaras are typically rectangular-shaped stepwells that
have tiered steps on three or four sides. These
stepwells collect the subterranean seepage of an upstream
reservoir or a lake. Jhalaras were built to ensure easy and
regular supply of water for religious rites, royal ceremonies
and community use. The city of Jodhpur has eight
jhalaras, the oldest being the Mahamandir Jhalara that
dates back to 1660 AD.

2. Talab /Bandhi
Talabs are reservoirs that store water for household
consumption and drinking purposes. They may be natural,
such as the pokhariyan ponds at Tikamgarh in the
Bundelkhand region or man made, such as the lakes of
 Udaipur. A reservoir with an area less than ve bighas is
called a talai, a medium sized lake is called a bandhi  and
bigger lakes are called sagar or samand.

3. Bawari
Bawaris are unique stepwells that were once a part of the
ancient networks of water storage in the cities of Rajasthan.
The little rain that the region received would be diverted to
man-made tanks through canals built on the hilly outskirts of
cities. The water would then percolate into the ground,
raising the water table and recharging a deep and  intricate
network of aquifers. To minimise water loss through
evaporation, a series of layered steps were built around the
reservoirs to narrow and deepen the wells.

4. Taanka

Photo Source
Taanka is a traditional rainwater harvesting technique
indigenous to the Thar desert region of Rajasthan. A Taanka
is a cylindrical paved underground pit into which rainwater
from rooftops, courtyards or arti cially prepared catchments
ows. Once completely lled, the water stored in a
taanka can last throughout the dry season and is suf cient
for a family of 5-6 members. An important element of water
security in these arid regions, taankas can save families
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from the everyday drudgery of fetching water from distant
sources.

5. Ahar Pynes

Photo Source
Ahar Pynes are traditional oodwater harvesting systems
indigenous to South Bihar. Ahars are reservoirs with
embankments on three sides that are built at the end of
diversion channels like pynes. Pynes are arti cial rivulets
led off from rivers to collect water in the ahars for irrigation in
the dry months.  Paddy cultivation in this relatively low
rainfall area depends mostly on ahar pynes.

6. Johads

Photo Source
Johads, one of the oldest systems used to conserve and
recharge ground water, are small earthen check dams that
capture and store rainwater. Constructed in an area with
naturally high elevation on three sides, a storage pit is made
by excavating the area, and excavated soil is used to create
a wall on the fourth side. Sometimes, several johads are
interconnected through deep channels, with a single outlet
opening into a river or stream nearby. This prevents
structural damage to the water pits that are also called
madakas in Karnataka and pemghara in Odisha.
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7. Panam Keni

Photo Source
The Kuruma tribe (a native tribe of Wayanad) uses a special
type of well, called the panam keni, to store water. Wooden
cylinders are made by soaking the stems of toddy palms in
water for a long time so that the core rots away until only the
hard outer layer remains. These cylinders, four feet in
diameter as well as depth, are then immersed in
groundwater springs located in elds and forests. This is the
secret behind how these wells have abundant water even in
the hottest summer months.

8. Khadin

Photo Source
Khadins are ingenious constructions designed to harvest
surface runoff water for agriculture. The main feature of a
khadin, also called dhora, is a long earthen embankment
that is built across the hill slopes of gravelly uplands. Sluices
and spillways allow the excess water to drain off and
the water-saturated land is then used for crop
production. First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of
Jaisalmer in the 15th century, this system is very similar to
the irrigation methods of the people of ancient Ur (present
Iraq).
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 9. Kund

Photo Source
A kund is a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slope
towards the central circular underground well. Its main
purpose is to harvest rainwater for drinking. Kunds dot the
sandier tracts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Traditionally, these well-pits were covered in disinfectant
lime and ash, though many modern kunds have been
constructed simply with cement. Raja Sur Singh is said to
have built the earliest known kunds in the village of Vadi Ka
Melan in the year 1607 AD.

10. Baoli

Photo Source
Built by the nobility for civic, strategic or philanthropic
reasons, baolis were secular structures from which
everyone could draw water. These beautiful stepwells
typically have beautiful arches, carved motifs and
sometimes, rooms on their sides. The locations of baolis
often suggest the way in which they were used. Baolis
within villages were mainly used for utilitarian purposes and
social gatherings. Baolis on trade routes were often
frequented as resting places. Stepwells used exclusively for
agriculture had  drainage systems that channelled water into
the elds.
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 11. Nadi

Photo Source
Found near Jodhpur in Rajasthan, nadis are village ponds
that store rainwater collected from adjoining natural
catchment areas. The location of a nadi has a strong
bearing on its storage capacity and hence the site of a nadi
is chosen after careful deliberation of its catchment and
runoff characteristics. Since nadis received their water
supply from erratic, torrential rainfall, large amounts of
sandy sediments were regularly deposited in them, resulting
in quick siltation. A local voluntary organisation, the Mewar
Krishak Vikas Samiti (MKVS) has been adding systems like
spillways and silt traps to old nadis and promoting
afforestation of their drainage basin to prevent siltation.

12. Bhandara Phad

Photo Source
Phad, a community-managed irrigation system, probably
came into existence a few centuries ago. The system starts
with a bhandhara (check dam) built across a river, from
which kalvas (canals) branch out to carry water into the
elds in the phad (agricultural block). Sandams (escapes
outlets) ensure that the excess water is removed from the
canals by charis (distributaries) and sarangs ( eld
channels). The Phad system is operated on three rivers in
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 the Tapi basin – Panjhra, Mosam and Aram – in the Dhule
and Nasik districts of Maharashtra.

13. Zing

Photo Source
Zings, found in Ladakh, are small tanks that collect melting
glacier water. A network of guiding channels brings water
from the glacier to the tank. A trickle in the morning, the
melting waters of the glacier turn into a owing stream by
the afternoon. The water, collected by evening, is used in
the elds on the following day. A water of cial called
a Chirpun is responsible for the equitable distribution of
water in this dry region that relies on melting glacial water to
meet its farming needs.

14. Kuhls

Photo Source
Kuhls are surface water channels found in the mountainous
regions of Himachal Pradesh. The channels carry glacial
waters from rivers and streams into the elds. The Kangra
Valley system has an estimated 715 major kuhls and 2,500
minor kuhls that irrigate more than 30,000 hectares in the
valley. An important cultural tradition, the kuhls were built
either through public donations or by royal rulers. A kohli
would be designated as the master of the kuhl and he would
be responsible for the maintenance of the kuhl.
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 You May Also Like: India’s Water Warrior Has a Solution
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15. Zabo

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The Zabo (meaning ‘impounding run-off’) system combines
water conservation with forestry, agriculture and animal
care. Practised in Nagaland, Zabo is also known as the
Ruza system. Rainwater that falls on forested hilltops is
collected by channels that deposit the run-off water in pond-
like structures created on the terraced hillsides. The
channels also pass through cattle yards, collecting the dung
and urine of animals, before ultimately meandering into
paddy elds at the foot of the hill. Ponds created in the
paddy eld are then used to rear sh and foster the growth
of medicinal plants.

16. Bamboo Drip Irrigation

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Bamboo Drip irrigation System is an ingenious system of
ef cient water management that has been practised for over
two centuries in northeast India. The tribal farmers of the
region have developed a system for irrigation in which water
from perennial springs is diverted to the terrace elds using
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varying sizes and shapes of bamboo pipes. Best suited for
crops requiring less water, the system ensures that small
drops of water are delivered directly to the roots of the
plants. This ancient system is used by the farmers of Khasi
and Jaintia hills to drip-irrigate their black pepper cultivation.

17. Jackwells

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The Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands lives in a
region of rugged topography that they make full use of to
harvest water. In this system, the low-lying region of the
island is covered with jackwells (pits encircled by bunds
made from logs of hard wood). A full-length bamboo is cut
longitudinally and placed on a gentle slope with the lower
end leading the water into the jackwell. Often, these split
bamboos are placed under trees to collect the runoff water
from leaves. Big jackwells are interconnected with more
bamboos so that the over ow from one jackwell leads to the
other, ultimately leading to the biggest jackwell.

18. Ramtek Model

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The Ramtek model has been named after the water
harvesting structures in the town of Ramtek in Maharashtra.
An intricate network of groundwater and surface water
bodies, this system was constructed and maintained mostly
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 by the malguzars (landowners) of the region. In this system,
tanks connected by underground and surface canals form a
chain that extends from the foothills to the plains. Once
tanks located in the hills are lled to capacity, the water
ows down to ll successive tanks, generally ending in a
small waterhole. This system conserves about 60 to 70 % of
the total runoff in the region!

19. Pat System

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The Pat system, in which the peculiarities of the terrain are
used to divert water from hill streams into irrigation
channels, was developed in the Bhitada village in Jhabua
district of Madhya Pradesh. Diversion bunds are made
across a stream near the village by piling up stones and
then lining them with teak leaves and mud to make them
leak-proof. The Pat channel then passes through deep
ditches and stone aqueducts that are skilfully cut info stone
cliffs to create an irrigation system that the villagers use in
turn.

20. Eri

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The Eri (tank) system of Tamil Nadu is one of the oldest
water management systems in India. Still widely used in the
state, eris act as ood-control systems, prevent soil erosion
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and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy rainfall, and
also recharge the groundwater. Eris can either be a system
eri, which is fed by channels that divert river water, or a non-
system eri, that is fed solely by rain. The tanks are
interconnected in order to enable access to the farthest
village and to balance the water level in case of excess
supply. The eri system enables the complete use of  river
water for irrigation and without them, paddy cultivation
would have been impossible in Tamil Nadu.

There are several other hyperlocal versions of the traditional

method of tank irrigation in India. From keres in Central
Karnataka and cheruvus in Andhra Pradesh to dongs in
Assam, tanks are among the most common traditional
irrigation systems in our country.

These ecologically safe traditional systems are viable and

cost-effective alternatives to rejuvenate India’s depleted
water resources. Productively combining these structures
with modern rainwater-saving techniques, such as
percolation tanks, injection wells and subsurface barriers,
could be the answer to India’s perennial water woes.