Inglês – aula 5

Phrasal verbs – are used in conversation (informal)

The separation of the verb and the particle or not

Ex: Turn out the lights => Turn the lights out – separation, optional (direct object is
not a pronoun)
Turn them out – separation necessary (direct object is a pronoun)

Someone can know the meaning of the verb and the meaning of the particle
(preposition/adverb), but when they put together a unique meaning is made/understood
Ex:
She walked up the street to buy some food to eat
I live up in Springfield Road (informal)
When are you going to clean up your room?
I am sorry that I messed up the project – the meaning has changed here

Most common phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs
1 – Literal
2 – Aspect
3 – Idiomatic

Literal phrase verbs – a directional preposition – the particle retains its prepositional
meaning
Stand up
Sit down
Hand out
Fall down
Take down
Carry out
Throw away
Climb up
Pass through

Aspectual, phrasal verbs – this category consists of verbs which certain particles
contribute consistent aspectual meaning – this category can be subdivided into a
number of semantic classes, depending on the semantic contribution of the particle
1 – Inceptive – relating to or making the beginning of something; initial
2 – Continue active – to show that the action continues
3 – Iterative – use of over when activity verbs to show repetition – ‘again’
4 – Completive – show that the action is complete

Obs
Pick up – (pode ser pegar o lixo; aprendi enquanto você trabalha)
Give up – entregar-se; desistir

Inceptive – relating to or making the beginning of something; initial

John set out to conquer Mount Everest = John started his journey to conquer Mount
Everest
…but John took off before I could say goodbye

Continue active – use of on and along with activity verbs – to show that the action
continues
Ex: His speech went on and on. Hurry along now
(others: carry on, keep on, hang on, come along, play along)

Use of away with activity verbs with the nuance that the activity is heedless (did not
care)
She danced the night away
(others: work away, slip away [desaparecer], fritter away [to spend money without
thinking])

Use of around with activity verbs to express absence of purpose

They goofed around all afternoon instead of working
(others: messed around; play around; travel around)
Use of through with activity verbs to mean from beginning to end
He went through her lines in the play for the audition
(other: think through; skim through [reading quickly]; sing through)

Iterative – use of over when activity verbs to show repetition – ‘again’

He did it over and over again

(others: write over; think over; type over)

Completive – uses participle up, out, off, and down to show that the action is
complete – turn an activity verb into an accomplishment

He drank the milk up

(others: burn down; mix up; wear out; turn off; blow out)

Reinforces the sense of goal orientation in an accomplished verb

He closed the suitcase up
(others: wind up; fade out; cut off; clean up)

IN – ON – AT

IN (GENERAL)

Time
=> In the 1800s (centuries); In the 1890s (decades); In 1970 (years); In July
(months); In 2 weeks (weeks)

Location
=> In England (Country); In London (City); In Chinatown (Neighborhood)

ON (MORE SPECIFIC)
Time
=> On May 7th, 1964 (days); On my birthday; On Friday; On the Weekend

Location
=> On Oxford Street (streets); On the corner (avenues)

AT (VERY SPECIFIC; SMALLEST)

Time
=> At 7 am; At 12 o’clock; At 5 pm

Location
=> At 734 Oxford Street (Address; Specific location); At the Store

Future Tenses
There are no future tense endings for English verbs as there are in other languages, but
English has several widely used ways of referring to future time

Be going to and the present progressive

“Be going to” format – be going to + infinitive

“Be going to” and the Present Progressive are commonly used for referring to future
plans, decisions and arrangements
“Be going to” is more frequent in spoken and informal contexts

Main differences

- “Be going to” usually indicates that a decision has been made and that the event will
take place soon, but that all the necessary plans have not yet been made => “Be going
to” stresses the subjective view of the speaker
We are going to buy a new TV when we get some extra cash
I am going to ask her to marry me

Obs: Since “be going to” stresses a subjective view of the speaker, it is not usually not
accompanied by Adjuncts

- The present progressive usually indicates that a decision has been made and that the
arrangements are probably in place or have been made

I am starting a new job next week

He is travelling to Rio de Janeiro on Friday

Obs: Notice all the adjuncts indicating arrangements have been made => Adjuncts and
context are very important

Attention! The present progressive is not used when a prediction is made based on
present evidence

The clouds are heavy. It is going to rain any minute

You’re going to lose that money if you don’t put it in your pocket

Obs: “will” may be used in such cases

Be going to and will

“Will” format: will + infinitive

Obs: “will” is a modal verb

“Be going to” and “will” can both be used to make predictions based on present
evidence or the present situation
Hurry up or we’re going to be late! OR Hurry up or we will be late!

Generally, “will” is more formal than “be going to”

[TV weather forecast]

Temperatures will be below freezing during the night

[To a friend]
It is going to be very cold tonight

Main differences between “be going to” and “will”

- Normally, “be going to” is used when there is some outside evidence for what is said
or when the statement can be clearly interpreted

Carol is going to have a new baby

(Outside evidence)

He is going to burn the toast

(It can be seen)

- “Will” is preferred when evidence is not so obvious or is less immediately relevant

and when judgements or opinions have to be relied on

The baby will have black hair

(Statement based on the speaker’s judgment/knowledge)

Don’t let him cook. He’ll burn the meat

(Evidence is less obvious, but the speaker knows that the person mentioned cannot
cook)

I’m sure that we will have a good discussion

(Base on the speaker’s judgement)

- “Will” is often used to talk about absolute certainties

My birthday will fall on a Tuesday in 2010

Obs: the “going to” part of “be going to” can be shortened to “gonna” in informal
contexts

- What are you up to tonight?

- We’re gonna go to a bar

Classification of Sentences & Clauses

=> Classification
* Regular sentences – Napoleon enjoyed taking hour-long baths
* Irregular sentences – (fragmentary sentences) – Readers confused about Trump’s
warning
* Non-sentences – Yes, right!

A sentence-like construction contained within a sentence is a clause.

When Napoleon invaded Portugal (C1), the Royal Family had already left to Brazil (C2)
Trump issued a new statement (C1), and I read it the moment it was published (C2)

=> Types of sentences

* Declaratives – Used to convey information. The only kind used in CACD
compositions.
* Interrogatives – Used to request information or as a rhetorical device.
* Imperatives – Used to request action.
* Exclamatives – Used to express strong feeling.
Sentence structure
President Joe Biden has imposed new sanctions on Iran.
President Joe Biden – subject
Has imposed – verb
New sanctions – direct object
On Iran – indirect object

A) Joe Biden has imposed new sanctions on Iran.

Has Joe Biden imposed new sanctions on Iran?

B) Joe Biden has imposed new sanctions on Iran.

Joe Biden has not imposed new sanctions on Iran. (‘Not’ comes after the operator)

C) Joe Biden HAS imposed new sanctions on Iran. (Here, it used to emphasize his
action)

The verbs do, be and have may be used as dummy operators when the sentence has no
auxiliary verb.

Subjects
The subject of a sentence is a person, place, thing or idea. The subject is the one doing
something in the sentence.

A simple subject does not contain modifiers.

The sun is shining today.

A complete subject contains modifiers.

The young and smart actress won an Oscar.

Here are some rules regarding the subject.

1 – The subject normally comes before the verb in declarative sentences.
Prince Harry left the Royal Family. – Most verbs in present will have a form ending in -
S to indicate that the subject is singular.
2 – Some pronouns have a different form when they act as subjects of clause or
sentences.
Biden called Putin his foe.
3 – The subject determines the form of reflexive pronouns appearing in the same
clause.
The President said it himself.
4 – We change subjects to turn from active to passive sentence (or vice-versa).
Kissinger warned the press VS The press was warned by Kissinger.

Predicate
Predicates always contain a verb and usually contain other elements, too – direct
objects, clauses, phrases.
The predicate is everything that is not a subject.

President Macron is smiling today.

The young and smart politician won a prize.

Verbs
Verbs are the main aspect of sentences. All parts of speech rely on verbs to some extent
to gain meaning.

A transitive verb is one that requires a direct object to have full meaning.
Joe Biden signed the deal.

SVO – Subject + Verb + Object

A intransitive verb does not require an object to have full meaning.

Confusion ensued.

Linking verbs are also intransitive verbs. They do not require objects, but have subject
complements (adjectives, nouns, pronouns, possessive pronouns, adverbs of time or
place).
The PM looks fine.
Wuhan was just nearby.
CACD is a tough challenge for many.

SVC – Subject + (linking) Verb + (subject) Complement

SV – Subject + (intransitive) Verb

Sometimes transitive verbs require an indirect object. It is not always the case that
indirect objects will be preceded by a preposition (thus forming a prepositional phrase)
The journalist handed me her note.
The journalist handed her not to me.

Verbs can be intransitive or transitive depending on the context.

He talks a lot vs He talks the talk

But what about:

He entered the room?

Objects
Objects are non-essential parts of sentences. They help provide further information on
something.

Biden talked the talk.

Biden called Macron to express his condolences.

Objects of prepositions
Prepositions take objects, too. They connect back to another element of the sentence to
add more information on its meaning. Together, a preposition and the object form a
prepositional phrase

He won an award for saving trees.

 Object complements
Object complements are words or group of words that describe, rename, or complete
the meaning of a direct object. They can be nouns, adjectives, relative clauses,
infinitive, gerund, or phrases.

For instance, nouns can be ‘re-named’ or ‘re-identify’ the objects of verbs (these verbs
are known as ‘factitive verbs’)

Brazilians elect Bolsonaro president.

Obs: factitive verbs are verbs that indicate the resulting condition of a
person/place/thing caused by the action of the verb [elect, choose, assign, select,
designate]

Adjectives in this function can describe or modify the direct object, as long as they
follow the direct object being described [When this does not happen, the adjective is
attributive, and thus not mandatory to complete the meaning of the sentence]

All he tried was to make his audience happy.

Relative clauses also describe the object they follow.

He is the writer that I mentioned last week.

Infinitives and infinitive phrases described the intended or desired action of the direct
object.

He pressed his staff to finish the report by noon.

Participles and participle phrases describe what the direct object of a ‘factitive verb’
is or was doing. [in the previous example, infinitives describe sth that was not yet done]
I saw his staff finishing the report.

Some rules apply to the direct object.

1 – The direct object normally comes after the verb
2 – Some pronouns have a different form when they act as direct objects
3 – If the subject and the direct pronoun refer to the same thing/person, the
pronoun is reflexive
4 – The direct object becomes the subject of a passive sentence

Some rules apply to the indirect object.

1 – The indirect object normally comes after the verb (and before the direct object)
2 – Some pronouns have a different form when they act as direct objects
3 – If the subject and the indirect pronoun refer to the same thing/person, the
pronoun is reflexive
4 – The indirect object may become the subject of a passive sentence – or the direct
object does (and the IO is represented by a phrase introduced by ‘to’ or ‘for) – A Nobel
Prize was granted to the young activist

Adverbials/Adjuncts
Three basic sentences structures can be refined through the addition of optional
elements.

Let’s look at adverbials/adjuncts, structures that provide extra information on the

action or situation present in the basic structure.

Adverbials vs adverbs
The president replied angrily to the reporters outside the Alvorada.
Unfortunately, this is not possible.
Xi Jinping did not trust Donald Trump. However, he accepted the truce in the trade war.
Coffee was abundant in Brazil.

Complements – Adverbial complements

Unlike adverbials, adverbial complements are obligatory, for without them the
sentence does not have full meaning. Adverbial complements often refer to space,
location and direction, but they may also express other ideas (duration; company;
recipient). The verb ‘be’ usually requires said complements.
Coffee was abundant in Brazil in the 19th century.
Sugar was once Brazil’s main export product.

SVA = Subject + verb + adverbial (complement)

Direct objects and object complements

This direct object may be followed by an object complement.

His opinion made her upset.

He declared her tweet outrageous.

The object complement is very similar to the complement of a linking verb, but here
what is having the meaning ‘complemented’ is the object.

The direct object may also be followed by an adverbial complement.

You should leave your book on the shelf.

His tweet reached crowds in Iran.

The object complement is very similar to the complement of a linking verb, but here
what is having the meaning ‘complemented’ is the object

A subject complement adds information after a linking verb to describe, identify or

rename the subject of the clause. It can be a predicate noun, a predicate pronoun, or a
predicate adjective.

Power is a curse.
It has he who decided it.
He is very talented.
[The security guard is across the road]

Meanings
Subject
1 – Agentive role – the person performing the role – in sentences with transitive or
intransitive verbs

Jon Favreau wrote the speech.

2 – Identified role – in structures with a linking verb

Jon Favreau was Obama’s speechwriter.

3 – Characterized role – in structures with a linking verb

Jon Favreau is a great speechwriter.

4 – Affected role – with intransitive verbs – the person or thing affected by the action

My skin is burning.

5 – “It” – when there is no participant, ‘it’ is used to fill the place of the subject

It is raining men.

Direct object
1 – Affected role

She ate the cake.

2 – Resultant role – referring to something that comes into existence as a result

She baked a cake to thank him.

3 – Eventive role – contains a noun that derives from a verb.

I have made my decision.

Indirect object
1 – Recipient or beneficiary role – the person receives or benefits in some way

She called me yesterday.

Predicatives
1 – Characterizer – they characterize the subject or object

I find it incredible.
He was unlucky.

2 – Identifier – they identify the subject or object

He was the first senator from his state elected president.

3 – Locatives

He was born in America.

There are five types of phrases

1 – Noun phrases – wonderful news
2 – Verb phrases – must be
3 – Adjective phrases – very nice
4 – Adverb phrases – very subtly
5 – Prepositional phrases – in the woods
Word formation – there are four main processes of word formation
1 – Prefixation – adding a prefix to a base or stem
Mono; multi; bene; inter
2 – Suffixation – adding a suffix to a base or stem
3 – Conversion – changing a word from one word class to another
4 – Compounding – linking together two or more bases to create a new word
Suffixation – adding a suffix to a base or stem – semantic role + class-changing role

- ism – ageism; modernism; populism

-hood – childhood; statehood
-ify – identify; clarify
-ly – rapidly; slowly
Conversion – changing a word from one word class to another but without adding an
affix

She is an ‘it’ girl [from pronoun to adjective]

What is your advice on the matter? [from verb to noun]
Her perspective was broader [from verb to adjective]
This is only her work [from verb to noun]

Compounding – linking together two or more bases to create a new word

World-known
Longstanding
Postcard
Lifeline

Hyphenation
- Particular prefixes – ex-president; post-war; self-interested; quasi-new
- Compounds ‘premodifying’ a noun head – the hyphen indicates the compound
words – well-known teacher; tenth-century castle
- Pre-head items with a single capital letter – X-ray
- To disambiguate different words – re-form vs reform
- Numerically modified adjectives – the hyphen is used in all modifying elements – a
twenty-four-hour ride