GENERAL SCIENCE

IN SCHOOL

CODE No: 8638 UNITS: 1–9

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD

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 (All rights Reserved with the Publisher)

First Printing ............................. 2017

Quantity ....................................
Price ..........................................
Printing Coordinator ................. Printing Press Operations Committee
Printer........................................ Allama Iqbal Open University
Publisher ................................... Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad

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 COURSE TEAM
Dean:
Prof. Dr. Nasir Mehmood
Incharge:
Dr. Iqbal Shah

Head of Department:
Dr. Iqbal Shah
Programme Coordinator:
Dr. Fazal Ur Rehman
Course Development Coordinator:
Arshad Mehmood Qamar
Writers: 1. Dr. Iqbal Shah
2. Dr. Muhammad Safdar
3. Mr. Arshad Mehmood Qamar
4. Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

Reviewers: 1. Dr. Iqbal Shah

2. Mr. Arshad Mehmood Qamar
3. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

Composers: 1. Ms. Humaira Fayyaz

2. Afshan Mukhtar

Editor: Ms. Humaira Ijaz

Layout Design: Asrar ul Haque Malik

Proof Reading: Abdul Majeed/Azhar Abbas

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 CONTENTS

Unit 1: Nature of Science ...................................................................... 1

Unit 2: Science Education at Elementary Level ................................... 39

Unit 3: The Science Teacher ................................................................. 67

Unit 4: Learning Science ....................................................................... 87

Unit 5: Strategies and Methods for Teaching Science .......................... 117

Unit 6: Use of Instructional Aids .......................................................... 173

Unit 7: Assessment of Students’ Learning in Science Teaching .......... 203

Unit 8: Planning for Science Teaching ................................................. 223

Unit 9: Teaching of Science Concepts .................................................. 241

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 FOREWORD
The Teacher Education Programs have great significance in the society. The
mission of these programs is preparing qualified potential teachers by equipping
them up to date knowledge, and skills to teach effectively. Faculty of Education is
preparing qualified and competent teachers nation-wide. The faculty and
administrators are engaged in the continuous support and strengthening of the
mission of Allama Iqbal Open University. The development, improvement, and
successful implementation of the Teacher Education programs are also focus of
the attention for the Faculty of Education.

Teacher plays a pivotal role in teaching learning process. A teacher must

complete some kind of teacher education before becoming a full-time teacher.
The quality of student’s success is directly linked with the quality of teaching.
Teachers are responsible for developing suitable instructional strategies to
facilitate students in order to achieve the curriculum expectations. Teachers also
use suitable methods for the assessment and evaluation of students learning.
Teachers motivate students and apply variety of teaching and assessment
approaches in the classroom, dealing with individual students needs and ensuring
sound learning opportunities for every student.

With the explosion of knowledge in all fields of study, there is also an increase in
knowledge regarding teaching strategies, pedagogy and assessment techniques.
The world is becoming a globalized village. This globalization process and the
social changes linked with it demand the introduction of permanent changes and
reforms in the educational systems. The teacher’s new role is very crucial. In their
new role, teachers should support both the students, parents and society. Teachers
should act as guides for their students and facilitate them in their individual
progress, taking into consideration the challenges of the globalization process.
Science and technology can be helpful in shaping students views about life and
learning. Now a days science and technology exist in a broader social and
economic context and in turn have a significant impact on society and the
environment. Teachers must provide opportunities for students to develop interest
for science and technology. They must also ensure that students acquire the
knowledge and skills need for safe participation in significant and technological
activities. For this, there is need that teachers should be equipped with latest
knowledge and skills regarding teaching and learning techniques so that they can
cope up successfully with the challenges of latest school programs as well as the
challenges from the society.

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Keeping in view the latest trends in education, Allama Iqbal Open University has
started B.Ed (1.5 years) program. The new approaches of teaching science have
been included in this course. This course also provides several hands-on
opportunities for prospective teachers to develop and refine their inquiry skills,
critical skills, problem-solving skills, communication skills and creative thinking
skills while studying fundamental concepts.

I congratulate Dr. Iqbal Shah, HoD, Department of Science Education, the Course
Development Coordinator Mr. Arshad Mehmood Qamar, writers and reviewers of
the course who worked hard in the development of this course. All of them
worked dedicatedly like a team and completed this task in a highly professional
way. I am thankful to Dr. Fazal Ur Rehman Programme Coordinator (B.Ed 1.5
Years) for his dedicated efforts. My special thanks to Prof. Dr. Nasir Mehmood
Dean Faculty of Education.

We will welcome comments and suggestions from the teachers and the public for
the improvement of this course.

Prof. Dr. Shahid Siddiqui

Vice Chancellor

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 INTRODUCTION
The recent era is the era of explosion of knowledge and globalization. The
expanding Information communication Technologies have provided new
opportunities as well as challenges for teaching and learning of science.

Traditionally, the basic role of school education was to provide basic know how
of science and to prepare the pupils for further studies in the field of science. In
the present era, science and technology have left the four walls of the laboratory
and entered all spheres of life. The concept of science education for specialization
has been extended to the new concept of science for all. Scientific literacy is one
of the major goals of school science in the contemporary world.

With the new developments in cognitive psychology there is a paradigm shift

from teaching to learning. The science teacher needs to acquire such knowledge
and skills as will help her/him to meet the challenges of the 21st century.

This course has been organized to provide knowledge of new methods of

planning, teaching, assessment and evaluation. The focus of the course is
preparation of competent science teachers to teach science at elementary level.
Therefore “General Science in Schools” is intended to help teachers to teach
science. All relevant areas of teaching and learning science have been included in
this course.

In the first unit, students will learn about the nature of science. All important
concepts about this theme have been elaborated in it in detail. Furthermore the
Implications of nature of science for teaching and learning science are also
discussed there. In the second unit the overview of science education at
elementary level is discussed. The need for teaching science at elementary level is
also highlighted in this unit.

In the third unit, the role of science teacher has been described. With the
advancements of technology and changing world, the role of teacher is also
changing. Therefore the characteristics of teacher are also discussed in it. In the
fourth unit science learning is focused. The types of different learning are also
discussed in this unit. Moreover the misconceptions in science are also addressed
and how to remove these misconceptions are described there.

The fifth unit consists of the strategies and techniques for teaching science. Once
the students will understand the nature of science, need to teach science at
elementary level, role of science teacher, the understanding of strategies and
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techniques will become easy. Being a science teacher, the prospective teachers
must have a thorough knowledge of these strategies and techniques. Therefore a
detailed discussion about the strategies and techniques is described in the unit.

In the teaching and learning process the use of instructional Aids is very
important. Learning can be improved and enhanced with the help of instructional
Aids. Keeping in view the importance of instructional Aids, Unit Six contains a
full discussion on it. Here not only conventional aids of teaching have been
described but also the latest instructional Aides have also been described such as
use of ICT, internet and computers etc.

Assessment is the important element to measure the learning outcome. Unit seven
describes the different modes of assessment. It also guide the teachers how to
develop and score the tests. The qualities of a good test are also described in this
unit.

For everything we do, we need proper planning. Teaching can be made successful
and impressive if there is also proper planning for it. Unit Eight describes the
importance of planning along with unit planning and lesson planning. The
structure of lesson is also very important. There is an exclusive section on it in
this unit. In the teaching and learning science process, the laboratories play a vital
role. Therefore this unit also has a section on managing science laboratory.

The last unit of this course consists of teaching of science concepts. In this unit,
different lesson plans have been given based upon different techniques. This unit
will be very helpful for the prospective teacher and give them an outlook and
information for the lesson plans in various disciplines of science such as teaching
of biology, chemistry, and physics.

This course is quite comprehensive and because of its scope it can be useful
resource not only for prospective and beginning teachers but also for experienced
teachers, science coordinators and science educators as well.

Dr. Iqbal Shah

Head of Department
Department of Science Education

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 Unit–1

NATURE OF SCIENCE

Written by: Arshad Mehmood Qamar

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

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 CONTENTS

Introduction ......................................................................................................... 3
Objectives............................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Science ................................................................................................... 4
1.2 The Scientific World View .................................................................... 7
1.2.1 Science as Knowledge ............................................................ 7
1.2.2 Science as Product .................................................................. 8
1.2.3 Science as Process................................................................. 12
1.2.4 Scientific Attitudes................................................................ 21
1.3 Scientific Inquiry ................................................................................. 27
1.3.1 Types of Inquiry.................................................................... 27
1.3.2 Characteristics of Inquiry...................................................... 28
1.4 Implications of Nature of Science for Teaching and Learning Science ... 30
1.4.1 Teaching of Nature of Science .............................................. 30
1.5 Science and Technology ...................................................................... 34

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Introduction
If you can’t explain it simply, you don’t understand it well enough.
(Albert Einstein)

This is the first unit of Course “General Science in Schools”. This Course aims at
equipping the trainee science teachers with the knowledge, skills and dispositions
required for teaching Science effectively. Unit on Nature of Science (NOS) is very
valuable as it fulfills the main standard of science education. Apart from it there are a
number of justifications for teaching the nature of Science (NOS).

Some people argue that teaching about nature of Science is important to help the teachers
understand the difference between science and non science. Students gain an
understanding of the nature of science, so that they can see how science is connected to
the real world. Science education research over recent decades has also shown that
teaching about the nature of science enhances students’ understanding of science content,
increases students’ interest and helps show the human side of science.

Researches show that science education is helpful to develop scientific attitudes. In this
era of science and technology, technology is the application of scientific principles.
Technology has become the part and parcel of our lives.

In this unit you will learn about the nature of science, what scientists say science is?
You will also gain understanding about scientific inquiry. In the final section of the unit,
you will read the difference between Science and technology.

Objectives
After completing this unit you should be able to:
1. Tell what is Science
2. Describe the three components of Science i.e. scientific knowledge, science
processes and scientific attitudes.
3. Enumerate science process skills and describe their nature.
4. Analyze the nature of Science and describe its implications for teaching and
learning science.
5. Describe the difference between science and technology and also explain their
relationship.

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1.1 Science
Can you tell “what is science?” explain your view point of science based on what you
have already learnt about science? Start thinking about it and develop your understanding
by reading the following.

Ontological meaning of science is “knowledge”. The word science has been derived from
the Latin word “scientia”, meaning knowledge. So we can say that science is the
knowledge about nature and natural phenomena.

Science can be defined under two approaches that are science is both body of knowledge
(product) and process. The body of knowledge includes knowledge of facts, theories and
laws. Whereas process includes how knowledge, theories and principles are formulated
or developed.

According to Cambridge English Dictionary Science can be defined as “ Science is a

knowledge got from the careful study of the structure and behavior of the physical world,
especially by watching, measuring, and doing experiments, and the development of
theories to describe the results of these activities.

There are other definitions which reflect nature of science. These are as follow.
1. The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover
facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. The
organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and that can
be verified or tested by further investigation in any specific branch of this general
body of knowledge, such as biology, geology or astronomy. (Source: Academic
Press Dictionary of Science and Technology).
2. Science involves more than the gaining of knowledge. It is the systematic and
organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. Science is about
gaining a deeper and often useful understanding of the world. (From the
Multicultural History of Science page at Vanderbilt University)
(Source: http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/1122sciencecedefns.html)
3. Science is an intellectual activity carried on by humans that is designed to discover
information about the natural world in which humans live and to discover the ways
in which this information can be organized into meaningful patterns. A primary
aim of science is to collect facts (data). An ultimate purpose of science is to discern
the order that exists between and amongst the various facts.

Dr. Sheldon Gottlieb in a lecture series at the University of South Alabama

In our everyday activities we are doing science, we can observe science in natural
phenomenon, ranging from burning of fire to rain, from plants growth to food formation
in the leaves. These entire phenomenon obey some natural and scientific principle.

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Science is finding facts of things, processes, and phenomenon. These facts lead to
develop theories, principles and laws which lead to further researches.

Science is a human activity through which problems are identified and questions are
defined, and solutions proposed and tested. In this process data is collected and analyzed,
and available knowledge is applied to explain the results. Through this activity,
investigators add to the body of knowledge, thereby helping people better understand
their surroundings. Applications of this knowledge also may bring about changes in
society and the cultural order and may have a direct bearing on the quality of life.
(Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986).

Activity 1.1
Critically read above definitions and write down your comments whether science is
only a collection of facts or is a way of acquiring knowledge.

According to Singh and Nayak (1997), the true test of a theory in science is threefold:
i. Its ability to explain what has been observed
ii. Its ability to predict what has not been observed: and
iii. Its ability to be tested by further experimentation and to be modified as required by
the acquisition of new data.

In the light of above discussions science works through three major steps to test theory
which are; observation, predictions based upon observations and experimentation. It is
common consensus of science educationists that science has three major elements
process, product and attitude. The method or process used by scientist in the search or
exploration of truth has authenticity and is unique, valid, reliable, impartial and objective.
Through this process theories can be tested in a well organized manner by controlling
extraneous variables. According to Kumar (1995), there are two approaches of scientific
study; first approach includes laws, principles and theories, which consider science as a
product. Second approach includes scientific attitude and scientific method, which lay
emphasis on science as process. The both approaches are equally useful and can be used
in their way for achievement of objectives of science.

Every student must learn how scientific ideas are formulated, tested, and revised. He
must also learn why scientists engage in this activity.

It is common practice that we focus on product aspect of science i.e. knowledge of facts,
theories and laws and ignore the process aspect of science i.e. how knowledge about
facts, theories and laws is generated or constructed. Science educationists are of the
opinion that process approach is more important than product approach because it enables
the students to have better understanding regarding everyday problems of scientific
nature like global warming, pollution and their aftereffects. Process approach has ability
to help students in doing and learning science. It is like, when a person wants to become a
mechanic, that person would need to know what a mechanic does, and what type of skills
and knowledge is required for mechanical work etc. Researches show that if students are

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given instructions about the purpose of experimentation they design better experiments. It
is therefore equally important for both the teacher and taught to understand what science
is and how a scientist acquires knowledge.

Attitude is a settled way of thinking or feeling about something. Attitude is helpful for
quality work. Positive attitude leads towards professionalism. For example, if you want to
develop good quality teaching skills you must be open minded to listen critics of others
and should be ready to change your way of teaching if it needs improvement. Doing
science also requires certain attitude and a specific way of thinking. Scientific attitude
includes: critical thinking, creativity, open-mindedness, and ability to revise initial
conclusions when new evidence reveal them wrong etc.

We can conclude that science has three components/ aspects: product, process and
scientific attitudes.

Key Points
 The word science is derived from the Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge.
 Science is a systematic way of acquiring knowledge.
 Scientific attitude includes critical thinking, creativity, open mindedness, ability to
revise initial conclusion when new evidence reveal them as wrong.
 Science as product is : knowledge about facts, theories and principles/ laws
 Science as process includes observation, experimentation, and collection of data
and drawing of facts.
 As a teacher you should have a scientific attitude.

Self Assessment Exercise 1.1

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. Define science in your own words.
ii. How science is interesting?
iii. Why scientific attitude is necessary for a science teacher.

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1.2 The Scientific World View
Scientists have their own views about the nature. They also share certain basic beliefs and
attitudes what they do and how they view their work. The way how scientists think
greatly depends upon their views about the nature and natural phenomena.

1.2.1 Science as Knowledge

Read the text below, you will be able to understand Science as Knowledge.

a) The World is Understandable

It is a fact that this universe is well organized. Science also presumes that things and
events in this universe follow a set pattern. These things, events and changes brought by
these events are understandable. Scientists believe that the world and its complexity can
be explored by using scientific method. All the phenomena in this universe follow some
basic rules/principles. If conditions remain same the same happening may occur in other
part of the universe. So knowledge gained from studying one part of the universe is
applicable to other parts. For example, the different heavenly bodies follow same laws of
motions.

b) Scientific Knowledge Can Change

Theories are formulated on the basis of careful observations. New observations may
change/challenge the prevailing theories. Addition or deletions of some part are
inevitable. Therefore scientific knowledge is subject to change if new observations and
evidence suggest that the new theory explains the phenomena better, or fits a wider range
of observations. In science, the testing and improving and occasional discarding of
theories, whether new or old, go on all time.

c) Scientific Knowledge is Durable

Although scientists reject the notion of attaining absolute truth and accept some
uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge is durable. Scientific theories are
more often modified and expanded rather than their outright rejection. With the
emergence of technology and advancement of science the scientists are able to make
accurate predictions about natural phenomena. Continuity and stability are as
characteristic of science as change is, and confidence is as prevalent as tentativeness.

d) Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions

There is a general misconception that science has answer of every question and solution
of every problem; which is not true. There are many matters that cannot usefully be
examined in a scientific way. There are, for instance, beliefs that—by their very nature—
cannot be proved or disproved (such as the existence of supernatural powers and beings,
or the true purposes of life). Science is unable to prove non materialistic/ abstract
phenomenon. For example honesty, evil and goodness etc have no rigid structure.
Reference: http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm

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1.2.2 Science as Product
In previous classes you must have read many concepts, hypotheses, theories, principles or
laws of science. All these are different forms of science product/knowledge. Let us study
these forms of knowledge in detail.

a) Scientific Facts
A fact is an observation that has been repeatedly observed and is accepted as practically
functional and “correct.”While facts can be scientifically refuted or may not be consistent
across time and place, they are considered true until they have been proven wrong.

Have you ever considered nature of facts? What is a fact?

1. Plants grow towards light.
2. The sun sets in the west.
3. When common salt is dissolved in water, it disappears but its taste can be felt.
4. Earth attracts every object towards its centre.

All of the above statements show that they are common observations. These are facts.
They can be observed anywhere any time. According to Collette &Chiapetta (1989) “A
fact is a truth, a reality, and actuality, and the state of things as they are.” Facts can be
identified on the basis of two criteria:
i. They are directly observable.
ii. They are demonstrable at any time.

Facts are known due to some underlying reasons. Light travel in straight line is a fact,
which is experimentally proved. Some facts lead to exceptional events like earthquake,
unusual behavior of an organism.

Sometimes statements which are not based on direct observation are also considered as
facts. For example, the statement that sun contains Helium is not a fact but a conclusion
based on fact/s that sun has lines which are similar to the spectrum of Helium.

Activity 1.2: Make a list of facts which can be directly observed.

b) Scientific Concepts
A scientific Concept is an idea/model explaining some natural phenomenon. When we
observe things, objects events, or some phenomena, we collect a number of facts about
them. As the facts accumulate, they begin to show certain relationships and patterns. For
example, we observe that most of the animals which have hair on their body, give birth to
young ones, and feed their babies are given the name of 'mammals’. Names of mammals
are concepts which are formed on the basis of some facts.

An abstract description of a group or class of events, objects or phenomena having

common attributes is called concept.

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Concepts represent a collection of large number of facts or data into a manageable form
e.g. animal, plant, atom, mammal, earth quake, force, acid, and many other similar
concepts are included in science.

Concepts are means of describing relationship between different facts in a brief manner
and they help us in understanding nature in a better way.

Activity 1

Discuss the list of statements of facts that you have made with your friends. Ask them
what they think about the statement? Are these facts? Why they think these are not facts?

c) Hypothesis
A tentative statement about any concept, event or phenomenon is called hypothesis. In
our daily life we often make guess about different things which are happening around us.
If we see a person suffering from chill and nausia, we may guess that person is suffering
from malaria. Hypothesis may be correct or incorrect. Now read and thinks about the
following statements. Can we call them hypothesis?
 The color of the light may affect plant growth.
 Temperature may affect bacterial growth.
 Exposure to the Ultra violet light may be a cause of skin cancer.
 High temperature may cause change of leaves color.

If all of the above statements are testable then they will be called hypotheses. If
statements are formulated after verification and careful observation, then they are likely
to be rectifiable. A good hypothesis should state clear relationship between two variables.
“If, then” hypothesis is able to be tested for cause and effect. Hypotheses re tested
through experimentation.

Read the following statement:

1. If skin cancer is caused by ultraviolet light, then people who are frequently
exposed to ultra violet light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer.
2. If the color change in leaves is related to low temperature, then exposing plants to
low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.

Activity 2

Formulate five hypotheses using “if” and “then” relationship. Also identify the dependent
variable and the independent variable.

d) Laws
Laws are another form of scientific knowledge. You may remember some of the
scientific laws that you studied at school level e.g. Newton’s law of gravitation, Law of

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conservation of energy, Boyle’s law, and law of Conversation of mass etc. How they are
different from concepts or facts?

Let us take the example of Newton’s first law of motion. In his observations at different
times on different objects and under the same conditions, Newton observed that objects
do not change their state of motion or rest if no force is acting on them. For example, if a
stone is lying on the floor it will remain like that if no force is acting on it or if an object
is moving it will keep moving if no force is acting on it to change its state of motion. On
the basis of his observations Newton made this generalization which we know as
Newton’s law of motion.

Now if you read the statement of this law you would realize that it explains what happens
when no force is acting on the objects. It does not explain its cause as to why object will
keep its state of rest or motion in the absence of any force acting on it. Laws are the
statements about certain phenomena or events which will always occur if certain
conditions are present. So we can say that,

A law is a generalization based on repeated observations made at different times under

if similar conditions.

Law is often described in mathematical relationship. For example, the law of gravitation
describes the force between objects having different masses at various distances.

According to a definition by Krimsley (1995) “Law is a set of observed regularities

expressed in a concise verbal or mathematical statement”.

For example, Newton’s law of gravity could be used to predict the behavior of dropped
object, but it does not explain why it happened.

e) Theory
In your school you have read about many scientific theories For example, you may have
read or heard about the theory of evolution, Dalton’s atomic theory, or molecular theory
of matter. Let us briefly review the molecular theory of matter to see what is a theory and
how is it different from a law.

The molecular theory of atom states that:

Matter is formed of small particles which are called molecules. Molecules of a pure
substance are similar, whereas molecules of different substances are of different type.
There is a force of attraction between the molecules which decreases as the distance
between molecules increases. Molecules are constantly moving. In solid state, of matter
the molecules are very near to each other hence there is more attraction between the
molecules therefore their movement is limited only to vibration. In liquid state the
distance between the molecules is greater than the solid state hence the force of attraction
is less than in the solids. The molecules move in all directions but do not leave the
surface of the liquid. Hence the liquids have a definite volume but no shape; they take the

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shape of the container. In gas from the molecules are at more distance hence the force of
attraction between the molecules is very small and molecules freely move in all
directions. Gases have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape.

Now if you carefully read this theory, you will realize that it describes the structure of
matter and explains the structure as well as reasons of different forms of matter.

As you may have noticed, this theory increases our understanding of different forms of
matter.

Theory explains a set of related observations or events on the basis of proven hypotheses
and verified multiple times. Scientists formulate theories to explain a large number of
facts and observations about the natural world. A theory has the following characteristics:
 It is internally consistent and compatible with the evidence
 Firmly based upon evidence
 Tested and retested against a number of different phenomena
 Can be shown as effective for problem-solving

In our everyday discussions we use the term theory in the sense of speculation, but
scientists do not call a theory until it has been tested through many experiments. Theories
are more certain than hypotheses, but less certain than laws. A law describes what nature
does under conditions, and will predict what will happen as long as those conditions are
met. A theory explains how nature works.

Scientific theories are integrated hypotheses which explain observations and

which are supported evidence.

Scientists accept both a scientific theory and a scientific law to be true. Some laws, For
example, the law of gravity, are also taken as theories. The Newton’s law of gravitation is
expressed in mathematical form (F=Gm1m2/d2) and it is a universal law. The theory of
gravity has been derived from the law. The theory of gravity describes how gravity
works, what causes it, and how it behaves. Similarly another theory has also been derived
from the law of gravitation. The basic law remains unchanged.

Theories can be modified or disproved when new data or evidence is available. For
example, theory of spontaneous generation was disproved. According to this theory
living organisms could be made from non-living matter. In an experiment, Louis Pasteur,
a French scientist, boiled meat broth into an S shape flask. The shape was changed so that
air could enter the S shaped flask, but small microorganisms could not. He left that flask
for many days, as expected by Pasteur, no organism grew in the both. In another regular
shaped flask in which both air and microorganisms can enter, he put the broth and left it
for the same period. After several days he again observed the flasks and found out that
only in the open flask microorganisms grew. From these results he concluded that living
things can only be produced from living things and not from non living matter. This also
shows that scientific knowledge is not final and fixed it may change when new

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information becomes available. If the new evidence suggests the existing knowledge is
revised or changed.

A theory and law are alike but also different in many respects. For example, a theory is
more complex and dynamic than a law. A law is a principle that forms the foundation of
the scientific method; whereas a theory is the end result of scientific process.

Scientific theories are well documented and proved beyond reasonable doubt. Yet
scientists continue to improve to make them more elegant and concise, or to make them
more all-encompassing.

1.2.3 Science as Process

As we have already stated that science is not a mere collection of facts, principles or laws
it has two other dimensions which are equally important. These include: (i) processes of
doing science and (ii) scientific attitudes.

The process skills are actually the skills that a scientist uses to solve problems and find
answers.

These are actually the same skills that we all use in our daily lives to solve problems.

Through the application of science process skills scientists conduct scientific inquiry and
solve problems. Science process skills are integral part of science. What we teach in our
schools reflects only the content of science i.e. facts, theories and principles.

“Learning about the content of science without learning the process of science is like
trying to learn a language by memorizing vocabulary words from a dictionary without
understanding the nature and structure of the language”. Suppose someone memorizes a
large number of vocabulary words of a foreign language, do you think he/she would be
able to read an article written in that language? Learning word vocabulary may help
someone to roughly communicate some simple thing but will never be able to have a
proper conversation with the natives of that country. To be proficient user of a language
one needs to understand its structure. Similarly, in science, you may learn all of the facts
but you will not understand why scientists change or reject certain theories. We often
hear people commenting that “these scientists, one day they claim that tea, For example,
is bad for health then suddenly they change their views and say it is good for health”, or
comments like, “oh these scientists the keep on changing their statement”. This is
because we as lay person do not realize that scientific knowledge is not final and may
change as new research suggests something different from previous knowledge. Due to
lack of awareness and understanding of how scientists gather and analyze their data, how
they make hypotheses, it becomes difficult, if not impossible for the students to fully
appreciate how scientific knowledge is generated. Science helps us to know about the
natural world. Understanding science is more than memorizing science content. Study of
science should enable the learners to understand science related socio-political issues. It
should also enable the students to make sense of new information. For example, if they

12
read or learn something new about diet, exercise or disease they should be able to apply
the information on their lives. Understanding the process of science and scientific
problem solving can also help us in making more informed decisions in our daily life.
Study of science should also help our students to make such decisions as whether to buy
natural or synthetic products.

In 1838, two biologists Theodor Schwann and Mathias Schleiden were working on
animal and plant cells. The two scientists shared their observations and found that there
were many similarities between the two types of the cells. On the basis of their
observations they formulated a theory of cell. According to this theory:
1) The cell is the unit of structure and functions in living things.
2) Cells exist as distinct entity and as that they perform all the functions which a
living organism performs. They are also building blocks of an organism

Have you noticed that in this process the two biologists used a number of skills of
Science? For example, they made observations, draw conclusions, and communicate their
observations. All these skills are essential skills to solve problems and to acquire
knowledge. When we limit science teaching and learning to merely science content, we
not only deprive our learners from the knowledge of how scientific knowledge is
generated but also from learning science skills.

“Teaching the process of science means going beyond the content to help students
understand how we know what we know and giving them the tools they need to think
scientifically. Most importantly, it involves making explicit references to the process of
science.” (Lederman, 2007)

When scientists conduct scientific inquiry he/she makes observations, hypotheses,

predictions, interpretations, and communicates the knowledge resulting from
investigation to others. These are often called the “process skills” of science.

Process skills are defined as a set of broadly transferable abilities, appropriate to

many science disciplines and reflective of the behavior of scientists.

Source: http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/whatisscience_01

Initially American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) developed a list of

thirteen science process skills. Later a number of skills were added to this list. AAAS
developed a curriculum project, Science- A Process Approach (SAPA) for elementary
schools.

SAPA grouped process skills into two types: basic and integrated process skills. The
student should develop proficiency in basic science skills before using the integrated
process skills.

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1.2.3.1 Basic Process Skills
Basic science process skills are as follows:
 Observation
 Communication
 Classification
 Measurement
 Inference
 Prediction

i. Observation
Observation is the basic science process skill. In Observation a learner see objects and
events with the help of five senses. Observational skill provide basis for other science
process skills. The observations can be in qualitative and quantitative terms depending
upon the purpose of observations. For example, the observations that the tree is very tall
or dwarf is a qualitative observation, whereas 10 meter tall and 2 meter dwarf are
quantitative observation.

ii. Measuring
Measuring the values of different observable things and events is an important skill, as it
is necessary to describe dimensions of an object or event. Each dimension has certain
units .e.g length of any object is measured in meters, volume is measured in liters, mass is
measured in Kilograms, heat is measured in Calories; temperature is measured in Kelvin
etc. some reliable tools or instruments are required to measure certain dimension, e.g.
length is measured with foot, meter rod or inch tape, volume is measured with graduated
cylinder, beaker pipette, or flasks etc, mass is measured with electrical balance, physical
balance, or spring balance etc, heat and temperatures are measured with calorimeter and
thermometers,

To describe the dimensions of an object or event we use standard and non standard
measures and estimates. Some examples of standard measures include using a foot ruler
or measuring tape to measure length, measuring volumes of liquids with graduated
devices object or event, measuring temperature with thermometer, measuring mass of
liquids, Solids or gases etc.

iii. Classifying
Things and events are classified on the basis of same characteristics for easy and
systematic study. This skill is abruptly used in science. You might have learnt about
classification from class-IV to upper classes. Matter has been classified into four groups:
Solids, liquids, gases and Plasma. In the same way biologists have classified living things
into animals and plants.

iv. Inferring
Inference is explanation of what we observe. Making an inference means, drawing a
conclusion about a specific event on the basis of our observations and the facts or data
that we collect. Statement of an observation may include cause and effect relationships.

14
For example, we observe rat’s droppings in the room and infer that the lion is somewhere
near that place, or if we observe that leaves of plants are eaten we infer that insects might
have eaten them. In science inferences guide the investigator in his/her investigation.

v. Communicating
Communication is sharing information or knowledge, results of an experiment, findings,
ideas or opinion with others in verbal, written or graphic form. For example, we may
describe the change in the height of a plant over a specified time in writing or through a
graph. Writing the report of an experiment in words, presenting the result of an
experiment in table, graph or chart from and verbally describing something are few
examples of communication. Communication is an important skill both in daily life as
well as in science.

In daily life we communicate verbally, in writing and also through pictures or as such
communication is often termed, in pictographs or pictograms. Egyptians used pictographs
as means of communication as we infer from the pictographs found in pyramids of
ancient Egypt.

The following tables are one way of communicating data.

Light Intensity Plant growth rate in centimeters

250 2
800 5
1000 9
1200 11
1800 12
2000 15
2400 10
2800 5

vi. Predicting
Every day on radio and television the newscaster gives us information about the next
day’s weather forecast, which is based on data such as amount of moisture in the
atmosphere, air pressure etc. This is prediction. Prediction means “stating the outcomes
of a future event based on a pattern of evidence”. For example, in an experiment the
researcher observed the growth of a plant over a period of two weeks and makes a graph
of it. Based on a graph of its growth during the previous two weeks, he predicts about its
growth during the next weeks.

The six basic skills can be put in a logical order of increasing difficulty.
These basic skills are used in an integrated manner when scientists design and carry out
experiments. For example, observations about the size can be made through measuring
the objects, similarly to infer we need to first observe.

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The science process skills form the foundation for scientific methods. These are
important individually as well as when they are integrated together.

Identify the different basic process skills required to perform the following activities.

NOTE: In any one activity more than one process skills may be required.
1. A teacher asks his/her students to note the shape, margins and pattern of veins on
the leaves in the given diagram.
2. The students were also required to identify the leaves.
3. In the end the students were asked to describe the various types of leaves shown in
the figure.
4. The last activity was grouping the leaves according to their shapes.

Activity 3

Think and plan some science activities in which one or more science skills are required.

1.2.3.2 The Integrated Process Skills

The term integrated means having more than one components or parts which are
interrelated in some way. The integrated skills are the skills which require application of
basic science skills. It is therefore important that the learners develop proficiency in the
use of basic science skills prior to use integrated process skills. The integrated process
skills include the following skills:
1. Formulating Hypotheses.
2. Identifying variables.
3. Defining Variables Operationally.
4. Describing Relationships between Variables.
5. Designing investigations.
6. Experimenting
7. Acquiring Data.
8. Organization of data in Tables and Graphs
9. Organizing investigation and their data
10. Understanding Cause and effect relationship
11. Formulating Models

1. Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes

for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable.
2. Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an
experiment. It is important to change only the variable being tested and keep the
rest constant. The one being manipulated is the independent variable; the one being
measured to determine its response is the dependent variable; and all variables that
do not change and may be potential independent variables are constants.
3. Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an
experiment.

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4. Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between
variables in an experiment such as between the independent and dependant
variables plus the standard of comparison.
5. Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and
describing appropriate steps in a procedure to test a hypothesis.
6. Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions of
the procedure so the results can be verified by repeating the procedure several
times.
7. Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations and
measurements.
8. Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for data
collected.
9. Analyzing Investigations and Their Data - interpreting data statistically,
identifying human mistakes and experimental errors, evaluating the hypothesis,
formulating conclusions, and recommending further testing where necessary.
10. Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to happen
and why.
11. Formulating Models - recognizing patterns in data and making comparisons to
familiar objects or ideas.

Science Process Skills and Integrated Skills an Overview.

Process of Science Competency Indicators
Observing  Observe objects or events in a variety of ways using one or more of the senses.
 Identify properties of an object, i.e. shape, color, size and texture.
 Use indirect methods, i.e. hand lenses, microscopes, thermometers, to observe
objects and events.
 Observe objects or events by counting, comparing, estimating and measuring.
Classifying  Identify properties useful for classifying objects.
 Group objects by their properties or similarities and differences.
 Construct and use classification systems.
Inferring  Suggest explanations for events based on observation.
 Distinguish between an observation and an inference.
Predicting  Forecast a future event based on prior experience, i.e. observation, inference or
experiments.
Measuring  Compare and order objects by length area, weight, volume etc,
 Measure properties of objects or events by using standardized units of measure.
 Measure volume, mass, weight, temperature, area, length, and time using appropriate
units and appropriate measuring instruments.
Communicating  Construct and use written reports, drawings, diagrams, graphs, or charts to transmit
information learned from science experiments.
 Verbally ask questions about, discuss, explain or report observations.
 After an investigation, report the question tested, the experimental design used,
results, and conclusions drawn, using tables and graphs where appropriate.
Using Space/Time  Describe an object’s position, i.e. above, below, beside, etc in relation to other objects.
Relations  Describe the motion, direction, spatial arrangement, symmetry, and shape of an object
compared to another object.
Defining  State definitions of objects or events in terms of what the object is doing or what are
Operationally occurring in the event.

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  State definitions of objects or events based on observable characteristics.
Formulating  Identify questions or statement which can and cannot be tested.
Hypotheses  Design statements, i.e. questions inference, predictions, which can be tested by an
experiment.
Experimenting  Design an investigation to test a hypothesis
 Conduct simple experiments
 Recognize limitations of methods and tools used in experiments, i.e. experimental
error
 Utilize safe procedures while conducting investigations.
Recognizing  Identify the manipulated (independent) variable, responding (dependent) variable, and
Variables variables-held-constant in an experiment.
 Control the variables in an investigation.
Interpreting Data  Organize and state in his/her own words information derived from a science
investigation.
 Revise interpretation of data based on new information or revised data.
Formulating Models  Create a mental, physical, or mental verbal representation of an idea, object or event.
 Use models to describe and explain interpretations of ideas, objects, or events.

Table 1: Indicators of student’s Competency in Different Science Skills

1. Why Should We Teach Science Process Skills?

In the present day world, science and technology have left the confines of laboratory and
entered our daily life. Look at the things around you. How many things in your kitchen,
bathroom, and workplace are the products of science and technology? Just take the
variety of kitchen were that we use; the various types of fertilizers which are being
advertized in media; internet; cell phones and many other electronic means of gathering
and disseminating information etc. An efficient and safe use of all these facilities requires
basic knowledge as well as some skills also. All this requires that even those who do not
intend to pursue career in science or technology need to have basic knowledge and skills
in science.

Understanding of science content and the process through which scientific knowledge is
generated, and development of science, involves developing an understanding of four
major ideas, the nature of scientific knowledge and understanding of impact of science on
society are considered essential for this era of science and technology. A term “scientific
literacy” is used to depict this knowledge and understanding of science and scientific
enterprise. The person who has this knowledge is called scientifically literate.

A frequently given rationale for developing scientifically literacy is that citizens who are
scientifically literate will be careful consumers of any new product. To explain this I shall
narrate an example of use of DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) a chemical that is
extensively used as a pesticide. It is often used by mothers to kill head lice. Until few
years back people use to apply oil and DDT mix to kill head lice. No doubt it is effective
for getting rid of the past but this practice is extremely dangerous for health since DDT is
a poisonous chemical. Scientific studies have related exposure to DDT products to
increased risk of breast cancer, diabetes, and many other health problems. DDT use today
has implications for generations to come, since once it enters human body it not only

18
stays there but could be transferred to next generations to come, since once it enters
human body it not only stays there but could be transferred to next generation’s e.g.
through mother’s milk. It also persists in environment. For example, soil and water for
years. There are many other products that we use without any awareness of their effects
chemical fertilizers, many food activities, insecticides and pesticides which we use in our
homes and fields are few to mention. In this world of science and technology even those
who are not scientists or researchers need to make decision in their daily life which
require know how of science and technology. If a person is scientifically literate he/she
will have some knowledge and will always make more informed decisions about what to
use and what not to use.

It is also claimed that scientific literate citizens would also be able to understand socio-
scientific issues such as global warming, energy problems, pollution and many other
science and technology based issues which require knowledge of science to make any
decision regarding these issues.

Science process skills are skills which are applied in solving problems and in acquiring
information and knowledge. The proponents of teaching science skills believe that
development of proficiency in these skills will help the learners to become lifelong
learners.

Another commonly cited justification for teaching about nature of science and science
skills is that understanding the structure and nature of science makes one better at doing
and learning science. Research studies conducted on science students have revealed that
fifth grade students designed better experiments after instructions about the purpose of
experimentation.

1. Teaching Science Process Skills

There are different approaches to teaching of science. Some of the major approaches
include: factual approach, conceptual approach, modular approach and process approach.

(a) Factual Approach

This approach is focused on transfer of factual knowledge of science to the students. It
encourages rote learning. In this approach the students are generally passive receivers
of knowledge. Little emphasis is given to teaching and learning of concepts, science
process skills or nature of science. The most commonly used methods of teaching
include: lecture method, recitation method. This approach has been criticized for
conveying the distorted image of science as a mere collection of facts.
(b) Conceptual Approach
As the name indicates, this approach emphasizes learning of concepts. Under this
approach different methods are used for teaching science concepts For example,
using concept maps as instructional tools is one way of teaching concepts. You
may read about this method in detail in some other unit.

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(c) Modular Approach
This approach lay emphasis to teach individual students at their pace that is both
the slow and gifted children can use it. For this purpose self learning modules are
developed. “A learning module is a self-learning package dealing with one specific
subject matter unit” For example, a unit on “atomic structure”, or “cell structure”.
Module is structured in such a way that learner can choose the objectives that
he/she wants to achieve, then select the relevant material. In a module a number of
a variety of methods of learning are given the learner chooses the method he/she
feels is best. In the module provision is made for the students to assess his or her
achievement find out gaps in learning. In this approach teacher is a facilitator. This
approach focuses on content, processes or both.
(d) Process Approach
This approach has science processes as the main objective of teaching. This
approach is advocated due to its effectiveness for giving an understanding of nature
of science and how scientific knowledge is developed through investigation and
inquiry. It also provides the learner an opportunity to use and practice science
process skills. Science process skills are said to have a wider application in many
subjects not only in science and also in our daily life.

Activity based method, inquiry method and project methods are examples of methods
which can be used to teach science process skills. One of the common misconceptions
about process approach is that the teacher will focus on teaching science processes when
he/she will teach science content.

The pupils can learn content through application of science process skills. This will
enable children to learn both science processes and content at the same time. For
example, when a teacher gives an activity in which children are given a variety of flowers
and are asked to study their characteristics like color, size, shape number of petals and
also compare different flowers to study how they are similar and different. This activity
will help them to develop- skill of observation and communicating the observation. It will
also help them gain concentrate knowledge about variety in structure of flowers and parts
of flowers. Or they may be asked to observe the growth of a plant and communicate the
observations developing a chart, graph or in table form. Or they may measure
temperature of water contained in the bottles of different colors to find out which color
absorbs more heat from sunlight. The skill of inferring can also be practiced by giving the
students a box containing an unknown object. The students are asked to find out what is
in the box without opening it. They may listen to sound, feel the weight, and smell the
box to find out what is in the box. Then, based upon their observations, they explain
about the object inside the box. Their explanations are inferences based on their
observation. As you may have noticed that the skill of inference depends upon efficiency
in making observations. At elementary level the teacher can also help and guide the
students to perform simple experiments like finding the factors affecting the flight
distances of paper airplanes, or investigate the quality of different brands of tissue papers
by checking which one is more absorbent.

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In 1960s American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) started a program
of science for elementary level by the name of “science a process approach”. This
program was focused on teaching science process skills. AAAS chalked out the
competency indicators for each of the thirteen science process skills. These are given
below.

The competency indicators can guide the teacher about what children should be able to
do to achieve mastery of processes. Read these indicators carefully and think of some
simple science activities in which these skills could be used. Use the indicators to design
the activities.

1.2.4 Scientific Attitudes

A third and equally important aspect of science is “scientific attitudes”. Attitude is a
person’s inner thought, feelings and reactions towards, people; object or we can say the
life and world in general. How a person acts and reacts greatly depends upon her/his
attitude. For example, the way a student does his assignments depends on his attitude
towards studies. If he takes studies seriously and something which is beneficial or
interesting he/she will do it with great care and diligence. Similarly, if a person is
superstitious he/she will believe things without really trying to find out the basis of an
idea or opinion.

Scientific attitude is reacting and acting in certain ways to solve a problem. Literature has
cited numerous attitudes which are conducive to that is which help to conduct a scientific
inquiry. These include accuracy, intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, suspended
judgment, criticalness, and a habit of looking for true cause and effect relationships.
Scientific attitudes depict the mental processes of scientists, hence are also referred to as
habit of mind. These habits are imporant5 not only of the scientist, but for everyone. If
you consider Islamic teachings, you will realize that these habits of mind are stressed and
emphasized in the Quran and Ahadith.

The table given below describes some of the scientific attitudes cited in the literature.

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE DESCRIPTION

 Empiricism  Practically studying or observing objects and phenomena using sense. It is based
on the belief that nature and natural phenomena fellow constant rules and the world
operates according to certain patterns that we can probe to understand nature and
how it works.
 Parsimony  It means that the simple explanation is preferred to the complex explanations. For
example, there were two explanations of planetary system the complex earth
centered system with epicycles and the simple Copernican sun-centered system the
simpler explanation has been chosen.
 Skepticism  Questioning attitude towards knowledge, facts, or opinions/beliefs stated as facts or
doubt regarding claims that are taken for granted elsewhere.
 Precision  To be exact not accepting vague answers, explanations etc.
 Respect for  A paradigm is our overall commonly accepted understanding about how the world
paradigms works. If a concept does not fit with commonly held understanding of the world, the
scientist goes to work to find out if the new concept is incorrect or if the paradigm

21
 needs to be changed. A change in paradigm is called paradigm shift.
 Willingness to  When the new evidence suggests that the previously held concept or theory is
change opinion wrong, the scientist would change his previous concept.
 Suspended judgment  Scientists do not give final conclusions or opinions unless there is adequate
evidence to suggest it.
 Aversion to  A scientist rejects superstition and act on only those ideas which have some sound
superstition basis.
 A thirst for knowledge  It is the constant quest to understand nature and natural phenomena which keeps
the scientists going on.

Table: Scientific Attitudes. SOURCE: http://www.ksu.edu/biology/pob/modem_attitudes.html

Key Points
1. The process of doing science is the science process skills that scientists use in the
process of doing science.
2. American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) developed a list of
thirteen science process skills.
3. Process skills have been classified into two groups; basic and integrated process
skills. The basic (simpler) process skills provide a foundation for learning the
integrated (more complex) skills.
4. There are six basic science skills: Observation, Communication, Classification,
Measurement, Inference, and Prediction.
5. The integrated process skills include the following skills; Using Space/Time
relations, Defining Operationally, recognizing variables, Formulating Hypothesis,
controlling variables, experimenting, interpreting data, and formulating models.
6. Science and technology are a part of our culture.
7. Knowledge of nature of science and ability to use science process skills is essential
for common people to fully benefit from progress in science and technology and
also to make safe use of products of science and technology.
8. Teaching of nature of science and science process skills will help the students to
have better understanding of science content.
9. Science process skills are applicable to problem solving in real life also hence a
proficiency in these skills is also useful for those who do not wish to continue
higher studies in science or who do not wish to go into professions related to
science.
10. Scientific attitudes are the third and equally important dimension of science.
11. Scientific attitude is reacting and acting in certain ways to solve a problem.
12. Scientific attitudes are normally associated with the mental processes of scientists,
hence are also referred to as habits of mind.
13. Experts have enlisted a number of attitudes which are required or are conducive to
scientific inquiry.
14. Willingness to change opinion, Skepticism, Precision, Suspended judgment and a
thirst for knowledge are few of the examples of scientific attitudes.

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Self Assessment Exercise 1.2
Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. Make a list of concepts from any chapter or section of the General Science
textbook of 8th grade. Compare the facts that you enlisted with the concepts
you have listed. What is the difference?
ii. Identify concepts in the following statements:
a) This reptile has a tail.
b) All living things are made of cells
c) Things fall due to gravity.
d) Mass of the ball is 2Kg.
iii. Can we categorize the following as concepts? If yes Why?
Table, Cutlery, Ball, Bread, Fruits.
iv. Explain in your own words what you understand by “Science as product and
science as process”.
v. Give three reasons for which teaching science contents as well as processes
is important?
vi. What is the difference between hypothesis and concept?
vii. What is a theory? Give some examples of scientific theory.
viii. What is the difference between a fact and concept?
ix. Keeping in view the processes involved in experimenting explain why
experimenting has been categorized as an integrated science process skill?
x. “Shamsa wishes to sow tomato seedlings. She has soil from three different
areas and she wants to know which soil will be best for growing tomato
plants. To find an answer to her question she potted tomato seedlings in three
pots of the same size but having different type of the soil. Then she poured
exactly equal amount of water in each pot and placed the three pots on a
window sill next to each other facing sun”.
Can you name the variables in this experiment? Which of these are independent
variables which are independent variables?

Q.2 Select the best answer:

i. Which science process skill involves using your five senses to describe what
is seen, heard, felt, smelt, and tasted?
A. Inferring
B. Predicting
C. Measuring
D. Observing
ii. Which science process skill is an explanation of observations?
A. Inferring
B. Predicting
C. Measuring
D. Classification

23
iii. Which science process skill is used mostly in experiments and is in the form
of an If___ then statement? It is a statement that can be proven as true or
false.
A. Inferring
B. Observing
C. Hypothesizing
D. Communicating
iv. Which science process skill uses numbers to describe an object?
A. Inferring
B. Predicting
C. Experimenting
D. Measuring

v. Which science process skill involves making up categories or grouping

things together?
A. Experimenting
B. Measuring
C. Classifying
D. Analyzing Data
vi. Which science process skill uses a test under controlled conditions?
A. Measuring
B. Experimenting
C. Collecting Information
D. Inferring
vii. Which science process skill involves sharing ideas through talking and
listening, drawing and labeling pictures, graphs, etc?
A. Predicting
B. Experimenting
C. Measuring
D. Communicating
viii. Which science process skill involves guessing what might happen in the
future?
A. Inferring
B. Experimenting
C. Predicting
D. Communicating
ix. “The leaves turned yellow in December”. This is an example of:
A. Inference
B. Observation
C. Prediction
D. Hypothesis
x. “Leaves turn yellow because there is less sunlight in December”. This is an
example of:
A. Observation
B. Inference

24
 C. Prediction
D. Hypothesis
xi. “If there will be more sunlight the plants will be green again”. This is an an
example of a (n):
A. Observation
B. Inference
C. Prediction
D. Hypothesis
xii. “The level of moisture in the air has increased I think it is going to rain in a
day or two”. This is an example of:
A. Observation
B. Inference
C. Prediction
D. Hypothesis
xiii. A science teacher wants to demonstrate the lifting ability of different
magnets to her students.

She uses a variety of magnets and iron filings for the demonstration. She
weighed different amounts of iron filings and picked them with different
magnets. You have read about operational definition in the next. Which of
the following definition of picking ability of magnet has been used by the
teacher? The lifting ability of the magnet is…..
A) The weight of iron filings picked up by the magnet.
B) The weight of the magnet used to lift the iron filings.
C) The shape of the magnet used to lift the iron filings
D) The size of the magnet used in the demonstration.

xiv. A biology teacher wants to show her students the relationship between
intensity of light and rate of plant growth. She performed an experiment
collected the data. She tabulated the data in the following table.

 Light Intensity  Plant growth rate in

 (Candula) (Centimeters)
 250  2
 500  5
 700  9
 900  11
 1100  12
 1300  15
 1500  10
 1700  5

Which of the following interpretation of the data given in the table is correct?
a) Plant growth rate increases with the increase in the light intensity

25
b) Increase in plant growth rate is directly proportionate to the increase in
light intensity.
c) As the light intensity increases plant growth first increases then after
certain level it decreases.
d) Plant growth is not effected by increase in the light intensity.

26
1.3 Scientific Inquiry
To “inquire” is to ask about something; to search into it, especially by asking questions,
and to investigate something.

The term “inquiry” as we use it in our everyday life, refers to a process of finding
information or knowledge which was not known before. The term inquiry is used for a
serious search for information and to propose explanations or solutions of problems. So it
is referred to a more rigorous approach to collect information. When used with reference
to science it means what scientists do to find out about natural world and to propose
explanations of natural phenomena based on evidence. You have read that science is both
a way of knowing and a body of knowledge. What underlies scientific way of knowing
constitutes scientific inquiry. How scientific inquiry is conducted, what are the rules
regarding what should be accepted as evidence? How the conclusions should be drawn?
What methods or techniques should be used to collect information? All these rules and
methods are developed by practicing scientists and described by philosophers of science.
The branch of philosophy which deals with nature of knowledge and how knowledge is
generated is called “epistemology”

A definition of scientific inquiry given by National Research Council of America,

describes scientific inquiry as follows:

“Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world
and propose explanations based on evidence from their work”. (NRC, 1996, p. 23)

The following important points to note in this definition:

 Scientists use many methods for scientific investigation; hence there is not a single
method with fixed steps which can be labeled as “the scientific method”.
 Scientists propose explanations of natural phenomena and draw conclusions on the
basis of evidence which they collect through investigation.
 Scientists apply science process skills to conduct inquiry.

1.3.1 Types of Inquiry

There are four types of inquiry: Open, Guided, Coupled & Structured.

a) Open Inquiry
 Build upon prior experiences and inquire about the overarching concepts
 Display the tools, materials • Begin with the student’s question
 Continue with student(s) designing and conducting the investigation or
experiment
 Complete the learning cycle by communicating the results

The students have a prior experience with a set variety of tools and materials. The teacher
then displays these tools and materials and asks the students what questions they could

27
devise using the materials provided. Students formulate testable questions, devise a plan
using the materials, carry out their investigation and record and analyze their data.
Students use the data to make a generalization or conclusion or further question and share
the process and outcomes with peers.

b) Guided Inquiry
 Teacher selects the over arching question
 Whole Class or groups of students work to assist in developing the laboratory
procedure and learn specific skills needed for future open-inquiries.
 Using the data gathered or provided, students generate explanations
 Findings and claims are communicated

When the more complex concepts cannot be investigated directly in the classroom,
teachers can provide applicable scientific data from a variety of sources to use in the
guided inquiry.

c) Coupled Inquiry
 Teacher chooses the first question to investigate—specifically targeting a
standard or set of benchmarks
 After the guided inquiry, students engage in an open or full inquiry

d) Structured Inquiry
 Students follow teacher directions to come up with a specific end point or
product
 The teacher asks the class to discuss the results when the inquiry is complete

1.3.2 Characteristics of Inquiry

Scientific inquiry differs greatly from general inquiry that we sometimes conduct to find
information. It differs with respect to the phenomena scientists investigate and also the
method they use to collect the required information and how they draw conclusions, the
logical and critical approach they use. There is a common understanding among the
scientists about what constitutes an investigation that is scientifically valid.

We often read about steps of scientific inquiry or scientific method however, there is no
fixed set of steps of conducting scientific investigation. There are, however, certain
characteristics of scientific investigation that make it a distinctive mode of inquiry. It is
important to note that although scientific inquiry is a special form of investigation yet it
can be applied in many matters in our everyday life.

Wayne Welch, a science educator at the University of Minnesota, USA, has identified
five characteristics of the inquiry process as follows:

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i. Observation
Observation is the starting place for inquiry. However, to make relevant, complete
and accurate observations it is essential to ask the right type of questions. What?
Why? And how are the questions that guide the observer in the process of
observation.
ii. Measurement
Precision and accuracy is the hallmark of all scientific investigations. Measurement
is a process skill which helps to describe the objects and phenomena in quantitative
terms with precision and accuracy. Hence it is a basic and an essential process of
science.
iii. Experimentation
Laboratory and experiments are considered characteristic features of scientific
activity. Scientists conduct experiments to collect data and to test the hypothesis.
Experiments involve a number of science process skills, for example, observation,
measurement, classification, inference, controlling variables, manipulating science
equipment. We can classify it as an integrated skill since it involves many skills.
iv. Communication
It is essential that the scientists communicate the results of his/her inquiry to the
scientific community and also the public hence it is an essential part of the inquiry
process. The importance of honest and truthful reporting of the results of
observation and measurements are essential in all scientific investigations.
v. Mental Process
Performing experiments and collecting data is one component of scientific inquiry.
Critically analyzing and evaluating data, finding patterns in data, proposing
explanations on the basis of data, and formulating theories are essential mental
processes without which scientists can not generate new knowledge. Experts have
described several thinking processes that are integral part of any scientific inquiry.
Some of these include inductive reasoning (i.e. A general conclusion is arrived at
by specific examples), deductive reasoning (that a specific conclusion is arrived at
from a general principle). An example of deductive reasoning is as follows:

“Gravity makes things fall. The apple that hit my head was due to gravity”.

In this example the conclusion about a specific instance has been derived from the law of
gravity. Deduction is used by scientists who take a general scientific law and apply it to a
certain case, as they assume that the law is true.

Deductive reasoning begins from a general hypothesis or known fact and creates a
specific conclusion from that generalization whereas, inductive reasoning,
involves creating broad generalization from specific observations.

The Scientists also use imagination and intuition in formulating scientific knowledge. In
descriptions of scientific method the same steps, may be in a different sequence and
including many other steps, are given as are included in scientific inquiry. Hence we can
conclude that in scientific inquiry scientific method of research is used.

29
Key Points
1. Scientific inquiry starts with observation.
2. Measurement is carried out in order to bring precision and accuracy in describing
object and phenomena.
3. Experimentation is an integrated skill because it involves many skills.
4. The communication of results of some scientific experiment is very important
because it provide information and awareness.
5. Inductive and deductive reasoning are very important mental processes in scientific
inquiry.

Self Assessment Exercise 1.3

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. Define scientific inquiry. Also describe its characteristic features.
ii. Which of the following process skill is needed to fulfill the requirement of
precision and accuracy in scientific inquiry?
a) Observation
b) Inference
c) Measurement
d) Classification
iii. Describe inductive and deductive reasoning. Which of the following is an
example of inductive reasoning?
a) All the birds observed by scientists lay eggs. Hence all birds lay eggs.
b) Noble gases are stable. Neon is a noble gas. Therefore, neon is stable.
c) Monocot flower parts are in multiple of three. Apple flowers have five
petals. Therefore, apple trees are not monocots.
d) An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion
with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. Therefore if we throw a ball, it will keep moving
until some other force or object stops it from moving.

1.4 Implications of Nature of Science for Teaching and Learning

Science
There is a need to expand science teaching beyond knowledge of science. Understanding
nature of science and inquiry are the core of science education. Science teaching must have
reflections of that science is an important way to understand and explain what we experience
in the natural world. All teachers of science must have a strong, broad base of scientific
knowledge extensive enough for them to understand the nature of scientific inquiry, its central
role in science, and how to use the skills and processes of scientific inquiry.

1.4.1 Teaching of Nature of Science

Most of the teachers need to know what nature of science is? Teaching of Nature of
Science refers to:

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i. Teaching of scientific inquiry
Teaching of “NOS” refers to the teaching of scientific inquiry, values and underlying
assumptions that are characteristics of scientific endeavor. “Scientific inquiry” refers to
characteristics of the scientific enterprise and processes through which scientific
knowledge is acquired. Scientific inquiry, traditional science subject matter, along with
an understanding of the utility of that knowledge to the individual and society, represents
the conceptual basis for teaching NOS.

The National Science Education Standards of USA state “student should develop an
understanding of what science is, what science is not, what science can and cannot do,
and how science contributes to culture” (NRC, 1996, p.21). Without understanding the
values and assumptions underlying scientific knowledge and the processes by which the
knowledge is acquired, the learner cannot construct an image of science which is true to
nature of science. His/her knowledge of science will consist of isolated “facts” without
any context. Hence the students will not be able to see the relevance of science to real life
nor would they be able to apply this knowledge in real life.

There are three instructional approaches that have been used to help teach NOS. These
approaches are: the historical approach, implicit approach and the explicit-reflective-
embedded approach.

ii. Historical Approach

Including episodes of history of scientific discoveries in the curriculum enables the
students to understand how science works. Through a critical study of how science works
they could develop the critical thinking skills. This approach can also help students to
distinguish between concepts, hypotheses and observations. It is also very important that
they become aware of how science functions will help them to correct their
misconceptions of how science works.

If we wish to use the history of science to create students understanding of nature of

science, we must use the history of scientific discoveries in a way which illuminate
particular characteristics in science. A teacher should also be able to challenge student’s
views of scientific laws by demonstrating through giving the examples of scientific laws
have changed over time. In the historical approach, instruction is intentionally geared
towards highlighting important aspects of the nature of science. For this purpose
examples from the history and philosophy of science are used. Classroom discussions can
be very conducive for developing students critical, analytical and communication skills
besides fostering knowledge about nature of science.

iii. Implicit Approach

In this approach it is assumed that the methods such as inquiry, discovery or project
method will enable students to get a grasp of nature of science and how it works.
However the research has revealed that such methods has no or little effect on students
understanding of nature of science.

31
iv. Explicit Reflective Approach
The explicit reflective embedded teaching requires deliberate planning and designing of
instruction an assessment for teaching NOS.

This approach is based on the philosophy that to achieve any specific goal or objective
the instruction should be focused on achievement of that goal. So if teaching of NOS is
the objective then materials, instruction and assessment all should be designed and
developed accordingly.

Explicit instruction of NOS requires that the teacher guides the students to think about
specific aspects of the nature of science. It should be noted that the same instructional
activities may be used in implicit and explicit approaches.

Discussions of historical episodes of scientific discoveries, inquiry and project methods

of teaching science could be used to teach about nature of science. However, it is
essential that the teacher should deliberately highlights particular aspects of the nature of
science within the context of inquiry activities, exploration of socio-scientific issues, and
discussions of key episodes in science history.

Science teacher should help students develop meaningful understanding about the basic
concepts that contribute the nature of science. Research indicates that instruction
specifically focused on teaching of NOS, giving the opportunity to students to learn about
the nature of science in a meaningful context, and suing the process approach for
instruction, can achieve the objectives of teaching of NOS effectively.

Nature of science instruction has also implications for science teacher education and
training. Professional development programs should also includes NOS as a major
objective. Teacher should be taught NOS and also should be trained in teaching NOS.

Research has revealed that simply engaging students in science activities does not lead
them to appropriate understandings of the nature of science and the scientific knowledge.
Students learn more about the nature of science when they are given opportunity to
discuss and reflect about the characteristic of scientific knowledge and the scientific
enterprise. To teach about nature of science effectively students should be engaged in
science activities as well as in purposeful discussion on nature of science. In this
approach, students learn about the nature of science and scientific enterprise as they
develop the skills necessary to do science. The teacher explicitly links nature of science
concepts to activity-based lessons incorporating science process skills, such as observing,
inferring, predicting, measuring, and classifying.

32
Key Points
1. Scientific inquiry means a method of collecting information for solving problems
or for understanding natural phenomena which well organized and planned to
collect facts and to propose explanations or solutions which are based on evidence.
Scientists use both the inductive and deductive approach in scientific inquiry.
2. Scientists apply science process skills to conduct scientific inquiry.
3. There is not a single fixed set of steps for conducting scientific inquiry. Scientists
use diverse methods for conducting scientific investigation.
4. Scientific knowledge is both reliable and tentative.
5. Scientists use many methods to develop scientific knowledge.
6. Scientific knowledge is the product of creative thinking.
7. Scientific activity can be subjective.
8. Teaching of science should reflect characteristic features of science.
9. There are three instructional approaches that have been used to help teach NOS:
historical approach, implicit approach, and explicit reflective approach.

Self Assessment Exercise 1.4

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. Explain the following statements about the nature of science in your own
words.
a) Scientific knowledge is stable but yet subject to change or revision.
b) Scientific activity is not completely free of subjectivity.
c) Doing science is a creative activity.

ii. Suggest changes in the current methods of teaching science so that the
learners could understand nature of science.
iii. Why explicit reflective approach is considered more effective for teaching
nature of science?
iv. Do you think that science teaching methods used in our schools reflect true
nature of science? The image of science you had in mind before reading this
unit does it reflects three components of science?

33
1.5 Science and Technology
We frequently refer to technology in our conversation. Comments such as following are
heard at all levels: “travelling and communicating has become so easy in this era of
technology” or “technology has made our life much easier, now we can do things with
less effort and more efficiently” etc. But have you ever thought what this thing called
‘technology’ is? If you have not thought about it before, spend few minutes to think of
some description of technology and then read on.

Technology has been defined in the literature as “body of the knowledge used to create
tools, develop and enhance skills, and extract or collect materials. It is also the
application of science. It combines the scientific method and material to meet an
objective or solve a problem”.

It is also defined as “the branch of knowledge that deals with the development and use of
technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment.
Technology draws upon subjects such as industrial arts, engineering, applied science and
pure science”.

The dictionary definition of technology, according to the American Heritage

Science Dictionary, is “the use of scientific knowledge to solve practical problems,
especially in the industry and commerce”.

Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_does_technology_mean#ixzz11NKFhZWW

We can say that technology enables us to change the world; to cut, shape, or put together
materials as per our needs; to transport things from one place to another in less time with
less physical effort; it helps to extend our senses. We use technology to change the
environment to our needs. For example, technology has helped us to produce more and
better food; it has provided us with all the comforts that we enjoy at our homes and
workplace. It has extended our access to knowledge. Above all technology has overcome
the limitations in communication imposed by geographical distances. Today we can
communicate with people across the world in a matter of seconds. But all the results of
developments in technology are not always beneficial to mankind. Changes that man has
made in his environment are often complicated and unpredictable. For example,
substances or processes used in the factories may harm the workers or other people.
Similarly computer is a wonderful invention of 20th century and has been widely used by
people in all walks of life. But its constant use is also not free of dangers. When we work
on computer for a long time it may strain our eyes. Another important drawback of
computer is that people spend hours on computer which leads to isolation from other.
Increasing use of computers at workplace has made it necessary that workers should be
able to use computer effectively to perform their tasks. It means that there is less chance
for a person having no or little proficiency in computer to find a job.

34
We often use the term science and technology in a manner which reflects as if they are
same. In fact they are two different fields of knowledge and are not only closely related
but are also interdependent. We can explain it with simple example. The understanding
that, steam is a form of water power which can be used. For example, to move objects
such as a vehicle, is science. When a technologist used this knowledge and after
experimentation develops a model of steam engine in his laboratory it is an example of
technology.

Scientists conduct a research to study living things, matter and the universe. Science has
different branches For example, biology, which is a study of living things and their
environment, chemistry is the study of composition of matter, and similarly physics is a
field of science which deals with matter and energy and their relationship. Scientific
activity results in development of knowledge developed through observations and
experiments. Scientific investigations are focused on finding solutions of problems,
understanding phenomena.

Development in technology dates back to the cave age when man started to hunt using
hand made weapons made of bone or wood. Historically technology developed as a result
of man’s experience in use of different things or objects. During this experience man
discovered their properties and how he could manipulate the objects to fulfill his
requirements. In ancient times all knowledge was transferred from more experienced to
novice, from one generation to the next. Today knowledge and skills are acquired
through not only experts but also from a variety of other sources. For example, books,
internet etc. Technology and science are interdependent. Technologists use scientific
knowledge to invent and develop new technologies, whereas scientist uses technology in
his or her research. For example, computer has led to the progress in the study of matter,
energy and living things. With the help of technology scientists are able to set research
sites on the surface of moon, in the ocean floors. Technology is also a source of
motivation and direction for scientific research. For example, to solve the technological
problem of increasing the efficiency of commercial steam engine the theory of the
conversation of energy was developed. Similarly the technology of genetic engineering
motivated the scientists to map the locations of the entire set of genes in human DNA. As
technologies become more sophisticated, their link to science becomes stronger. There
are several other examples which explain how progress in science and technology is
related.

35
Key Points
1. Technology is a body of the knowledge used to create tools, develop and enhance
skills, and extract or collect materials. It is also the application of science. It
combines the scientific method and material to meet an objective or solve a
problem.
2. Technology enables us to change the world: to cut, shape, or put together materials
as per our needs; to transport things from one place to another in less time with less
physical effort; it helps to extend our senses.
3. Technology has brought a revolution in the world by making every aspect of life
easy.
4. Technology has benefits as well as some draw backs.
5. Science and technology are closely related.
6. Technology Draws on Science and Contributes on it.
7. Technology is also a source of motivation and direction for theory and further
research in science.

Self Assessment Exercise 1.5

Q.1 Answer the following questions:

i. What is the difference between science and technology?
ii. What is the relationship between science and technology?

36
Answers to self Assessment Exercises
Self Assessment Exercises 1.1
For the answers, read section 1.1
Self Assessment Exercises 1.2
Q.1
i. For question 1 read the relevant section of the unit then choose from the next of
General Science and select the concepts.
ii. Reptile, living things, cells, gravity, mass are science concepts.
iii. Construct the answer by thinking.
iv. Read the relevant section and construct the answer in your words
v. It is important because:

a) You will know that science is not merely a collection of facts.

b) You need to learn the science process skills to be able to solve problems and
acquire knowledge.
c) It creates interest and motivation for learning science.

Read the relevant section of the unit to answer questions Vi- viii.
ix. Because in an experiment we use many process skills for example, observation,
measurement, classification, inference etc.
x. Independent variables = Sunlight, soil, water, pot size. Dependent variables = Plant
growth

Q.2
i.D ii. A iii.C iv.D v.C Vi. B vii.D Viii.C ix.B x.B
xi.D xii.C xiii.A Xiv.C

Self Assessment Exercise 1.3

Q.1
1. Read the relevant section of the unit.
2. C
3. For the first part read the unit. A

Self Assessment Exercise 1.4

Q.1
1. Read the unit.
2. Some hints for answer: Less emphasis should be given to rote learning and more to
understanding concepts. The teacher should know some history of scientific
discoveries and highlights that scientific knowledge is based on evidence when
new evidence suggest that the previous history need to be revised or changed in the
light of new evidence scientists may change or revise the existing theories. Science
is a human activity and like all human activities it can be subject to researcher’s
biases however scientists try to remove the subjectivity using objective methods.

37
3. Read the relevant section of the unit.
4. Think about your own concepts of science then compare it with what is given about
nature of science in this unit and write the answer.

Self Assessment Exercise 1.5

For answers to question i-ii, read the relevant section of the unit.

Bibliography
 Collette, T. Alfred, and Eugene, L. Chiapptta (1989). Science instruction in the
middle and secondary schools. USA: Merrill Publishing Company.

 Esler, K. Wolliam & Esler, K. Mary (1985). Teaching elementary science, USA:
words worth. Inc

 What is the difference between science technology and engineering, (nd.).

Retrieved from:
http://wiki.answers.com/Q?What_is_the_difference_between_science_and_technol
ogy_and_engineering#ixzz11VZ4HNj6

 http://www.blurtit.com/q325668.html

38
Unit–2
Unit–2

SCIENCE EDUCATION
AT ELEMENTARY LEVEL

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Arshad Mehmood Qamar

39
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................... 41
Objectives........................................................................................................... 41
2.1 Science in the School Curriculum........................................................ 42
2.1.1 Need of Science in Elementary School Curriculum ............. 42
2.1.2 Need of Science at Secondary School Curriculum ............... 42
2.1.3 Importance of Science in School Curriculum ....................... 44
2.2 Aims, Goals and Objectives of Science Education .............................. 46
2.2.1 What is Aim? ........................................................................ 46
2.2.2 What is Goal? ........................................................................ 46
2.2.3 What is an Objective? ........................................................... 47
2.3 Levels of Objectives ............................................................................ 50
2.3.1 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ................................... 50
2.3.2 Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) ........ 52
2.4 The Science Curriculum ...................................................................... 55
2.4.1 Structure of the Science Curriculum .................................. 55
2.5 Elementary Science Curriculum .......................................................... 59

40
Introduction
Education is the process through which societies plan their socio-economic development.
It is the most cogent instrument in the progress of any nation; hence the quality of
education has to be improved for faster, wholesome development of the learners. It is
universally acknowledged that any attempt at the improvement in the quality of education
ultimately depends on the quality of teaching and learning in the classrooms and
laboratories.

“Curriculum is a plan for learning”, as Taba (1962) says. Like every curriculum, science
curriculum has its own objectives which should be fulfilled when the learner passed
through the learning experiences. In Pakistan, at elementary level, integrated science
curriculum is developed consisting of physics, chemistry, biology and astronomy. The
courses in integrated science are being developed (curriculum 2006) in such a way so as
to integrate science with the learner’s environment.

Every curriculum has at least four elements; objectives, content, methodology and
evaluation. The major purpose of science at elementary level is to enable students to
grasp the basic knowledge of science needed for the further study of modern science and
to understand its applications.

Objectives
After studying this unit the students will be able to:
 Explain the need and importance of school science curriculum;
 Differentiate between goals, aims and objectives of science education;
 Define curriculum;
 Apply and use the levels of objectives of curriculum;
 Make learners interested in science.

41
2.1 Science in the School Curriculum (Need and Importance)
Science education is the field concerned with sharing science content and process with
individuals not traditionally considered part of the scientific community. The learners
may be children, college students, or adults within the general public; the field of science
education includes work in science content, science process. The standards for science
education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students
through the entire science curriculum. The traditional subjects included in the standards
are physical sciences.

Science education is core area of our education system and science is an essential and
fundamental subject in our curriculum. Science education provides us an opportunity to
think critically, and unify the concepts of man’s natural environment and apply these
concepts to the control of the environment for man’s benefit. Furthermore, it is a human
enterprise, which requires man’s best efforts to sustain it at an optimum level of
productivity.

2.1.1 Need of Science in Elementary School Curriculum

Science in the school curriculum has been the subject of much attention in the 20 th
century around the modern world and now it is an emerging trend in the developing
countries like ours. In most of the developing countries like Pakistan we have witnessed a
steady increase in the number of science graduates and researches dealing with the
learning and teaching of science.

At secondary level, science education provides the students with opportunities to think
critically, practice different teaching methods and develop scientific concepts, which
facilitate the understanding of the physical environment. Science also develops attitude,
which is useful in a sense that it gives people a simplified and practical guide for
appropriate behaviour. Positive attitude towards learning, subject area, and teaching
method are all-important because they affect student’s motivation to learn, and
continuing motivation not only to apply and utilize what has been learnt, but also to seek
out further related opportunities.

2.1.2 Need of Science in Secondary School Curriculum

The main purpose of teaching science in secondary schools is to enable students to grasp
systematically the basic knowledge of physical sciences needed for further study of
modern science and technology and to understand its applications. It should help them to
acquire experimental skills, develop the ability to think and to use mathematics/statistics
to solve the physical problems. In teaching and learning science at school level, the
students face many problems in understanding scientific concepts, theories, and laws in
the science classroom and laboratory. In the opinion of Wood (1991), science education
should be more about the learning of scientific processes than the learning of scientific
facts.

42
Present age is known as the age of science and so science is considered an important
subject in the school curriculum. Science Education enables the students to identify and
solve scientific problems and to do research in new areas of knowledge. In this era of
science, large numbers of people are being employed in scientific pursuits and for this
they need knowledge of science. The dawn of space age and explosion in knowledge,
have also necessitated the teaching of science to every student.

Science is essential for understanding the world through knowledge of the laws of nature.
It also provides man with a tool for organizing his thinking and for classifying his
experience. Science and technology education can make a decisive contribution to
improving our standard of living and to impart the basic scientific and technological
knowledge necessary for the younger generation to carry out an increasing number of
occupations, especially in productive sector. The teaching of science and technology
education is also a powerful means of stimulating creativity among young people.

In the view of Safdar (2010), “The most significant aspect of modern science is the
impact it has had in solving a variety of problems of practical and technological
importance as well as those related to the pressing problems of mankind. A large number
of these problems require a proper understanding and application of scientific principles
and processes”. Mentioning the importance of science education to meet the needs of
food, power, transportation, communication etc. the continuous scientific research is
needed to explore and discover new sources of power, food, communication and
transportation.

However, history shows that no one will benefit if the structures of society (and the
politicians and decision takers control this) do not make it possible. Science advance is
helpless to achieve that. Look at solar (photovoltaic) energy. This may offer some answer
to the long term energy needs of mankind. However, the decision about research to find
answers is taken by the governments and leaders, not scientists of any sort. And this is the
dilemma in our country (Pakistan). Where the scientists are ready to explore the new
resources but the decisions are taken by the Government.

The main objective of school science education is to develop young people’s science
capabilities. It is imperative that Australia’s future citizens have scientific knowledge and
understanding that enable them to make personal and societal decisions on the basis of
evidence and reason. For example, people who are scientifically capable can make
informed decisions about the products they buy, the food they eat, and the environment in
which they live or the lifestyle they adopt.

By the end of the compulsory years of school science it is intended that students should
be able to demonstrate:
 An interest in and understanding of the natural world
 The ability to engage in communication of and about science
 skepticism and questioning of the claims made by others identification and
investigation of questions and drawing together evidence-based conclusions

43
 The ability to make informed decisions about the environment, and their own
health and wellbeing.

2.1.3 Importance of Science in School Curriculum

In Pakistan, science as a separate subject, included in the curriculum from grade 4
(curriculum 2006) and is core subject at elementary level. Science has a large number of
applications in our daily life. For proper utility of such applications some knowledge of
science is necessary. We cannot deny from the importance of science in the school
curriculum due to the following reasons:
i. Intellectual value (Sharpen intellect and promote intellectual honesty)
ii. Vocational Value (essential for much vocational knowledge)
iii. Aesthetic value (scientists seek for truth and truth is beauty)
iv. Practical value (applications of scientific laws and principles)
v. Moral value (truthfulness)
vi. Psychological value (learning by doing)
vii. Cultural value (study about the past scientists and their discoveries)
viii. Adjustment in modern life (Scientific outlook, scientific attitude)

It is essential that all school learners have some understanding of the sciences in that they
will all be members of society, perhaps voters some as leaders. Society as a whole needs
to see how the sciences can make a contribution for the benefit of all.

Do you know?
Why do we do sciences at school level?
(i) Piaget (1962) showed that learners are seeking to make sense of the world
around; physical and biological. The sciences are consistent with that.
(ii) The sciences are part of culture. They involve human endeavor. Young people
need to know something of this simply to become a full member of their own culture
and the wider culture of the world.
(iii) If the sciences are taught in the right way they can introduce the learners to one
powerful way of knowing: the contribution of science education is to enable young
learners to see that experimental evidence is one powerful tool in making sense of the
world around.

Key Points
 Science is knowledge and a way of knowing.
 Curriculum is a plan for learning.
 Generally curriculum has four elements; aims, content, methodology, and
evaluation.
 Science is the systematic body of knowledge gain through observations and
experimentations.

44
 At Elementary level, science education provides the students with opportunities to
think critically and develop scientific concepts, which facilitate the understanding
of the physical environment.
 The main purpose of teaching science at secondary level is to enable students to
grasp systematically the basic knowledge of physical sciences needed for further
study of modern science and its applications.
 The importance of science in the school curriculum is due to its intellectual,
aesthetic, practical, moral, psychological, and societal values.

Activity 2.1

Look into the National Curriculum for General science 2006 (IV-VIII). Does it fulfill
the needs of the individual and our society?

SAQ-2.1

A. Choose the best.

1. The word ‘scientia’ means;

(a) To know (b) to understand (c) to apply (d) to evaluate
2. Science is;
(a) a process (b) a product (c) an attitude (d) all a, b, c
3. importance of science in school curriculum is due to;
(a) intellectual value (b) moral value (c) learning by doing (d) all a, b, c
4. To attain the aims of science education in secondary school, the emphasis is
on
(a) practice (b) process (c) attitude (d) product
5. Science in school curriculum provide an opportunity to;
(a) think critically (b)application of knowledge for man’s benefit (c) develop
scientific outlook (d) all a, b, c

B. What is the importance of science in elementary school curriculum?

C. Do you think that there is a need of science curriculum at elementary level in

Pakistan?

45
2.2 Aims, Goals, and Objectives of Science Education
Goals, Aims, and objectives help to make dream come true, although these terms are
interrelated but there are distinctions between them. Aims and objectives are often used
in an educational context for curriculum, lesson and activity planning. Writing out aims,
goals and objectives helps you make clear the educational intent of a lesson, course or
activity. Aims, goals and objectives are often used in business for similar reasons and
now an enterprise of educational set up. Aims relate to the end results but goals and
objectives help to achieve these aims. Goals are abstract/intangible while the objectives
are tangible/ concrete. Aims are basically the vision statements while the goals are the
mission statements and the objectives are the desired out comes.

2.2.1 What is Aim?

To “aim” is to direct, as in a missile, blow word or act. In education, aims are the broad
general statements reflecting the ultimate ends towards which the whole educational
system is moving.

Aims tend to be more general than goals and objectives, because the latter terms relate to
more specific tasks, while aims refer to the end results. A history teacher, for example,
might aim to give his students a comprehensive overview of Pakistani history, while an
immediate goal might be to educate them about events leading up to the Pakistan
independent war. Aims aren't necessarily accompanied by goals and objectives,
particularly if someone stating an aim doesn't follow through with it. Someone might
state that she aims to be a successful teacher, for example, without setting the goals and
objectives that would enable her to achieve this.

The educational aims must be relevant to the times – both the present and the future, and
furnish direction that is good for society, and not for one particular group.

Aims are:
 General statements -- provide shape & direction to the more specific actions
designed to achieve some product or behavior.
 Starting points that suggest some ideal or inspirational vision for the good.
 Reflect value judgments and statements.
 Provide guides for the educational or training process.

Writing aims: (examples)

1. Self-realization - To understand individual development so that they may make
choices that lead to a productive life.
2. Parenting - To become effective parents.

2.2.2 What is Goal?

Goals are clear statements of intent and are more specific than aims. Aims are the policy
statements for example, “To foster in the heart of people in general and students in particular,

46
the loyalty and abidance of Islam, Quran and Sunna,” or “to develop the scientific attitude
among the students.” Goals are the statements at the level wise that is goals of elementary
education, secondary education, higher education, teacher education etc.

Let us take another example from the financial organization that might have an overall
aim to increase profits and, in order to achieve this, set a clear goal to increase profits by
25 percent within a specific time frame say three years.

Goals are;
 Derived from various aims and provide curriculum decision-makers with broad
statements of what they should accomplish in terms of student learning as a result
of a particular educational or training program.
 A curriculum goal has a purpose or end stated in general terms without criteria or
achievement.
Writing goals: (examples)
 Parenting is an aim and the following goals are derived from this aim.
1. Study the qualities of good family.
2. Determine the resources necessary for a healthy family.
3. Plan for the birth of children.
4. Establish an effective environment for developing children.
5. Provide for children through their adolescence.

2.2.3 What is an Objective?

Objectives are the activities carried out to bring aims and goals to realization (fruition).
Someone whose overall goal is to get a more rewarding job, for example, would have a
set of objectives that help him to achieve this. Such objectives might include sending
letters out to companies he wants to work for, brushing up on interview techniques and
learning skills or obtaining qualifications that would increase his employment prospects.

Objectives are:
1. Usually considered to be specific in nature, written in terms of what students will
know, be able to do, or behavior they will exhibit at the end of the instruction.
2. Outcomes that students exhibit as a result of the experiences they receive from the
curriculum.
Immediate, specific outcomes of instruction, daily taught and assessed.

Writing objective: (example)

Goal - Obtain a meaningful job. This goal is translated into number of objectives
 Explore sources of opening knowledge.
 Write letters or applications
 Prepare a resume
 Complete job application
 Participate in job interviews
 Write letter of acknowledgement

47
 Do you know?
In the classroom, an aim is to make students proficient in algebra. A goal is to have
students learn systems of equations. An objective is to give students daily assignments
that help them practice these skills to improve understanding and test scores.

Connection (aim-goal-objective)
 Aims, goals and objectives are linked because all three concern future intentions
and all three must be set in motion if plans are to have a realistic chance of
succeeding. Someone who sets a goal is unlikely to carry it out if he/she doesn't
plan and implement the necessary practical objectives that will help her to achieve
her goal.
 The intent of aims, goals and objectives differ, but it must be remembered that
congruence (similarity, correspondence) must be establish between them if
education is to be meaningful.
 Remember to use different levels of objectives and domains of learning to enhance
your curriculum.

Key Points
 Aims are the broad general statements reflecting the ultimate ends towards which
the whole education system is going on.
 Aims are expression of purpose at highest level i.e. the expected life outcomes.
 Goals are expression of purposes specified for achievement at each level of
education.
 Goals are clear statements of intent and are more specific than aims.
 Objectives are specific outcomes of instruction.
 Aims, goals and objectives are interlinked because all three concern future
intentions.
 If education is to be meaningful then aims, goals, and objectives must correspond
one another.

Activity 2.2

Look into the Education Policy 2009 and write three aims of education relating to
science and technology.
1.
2.
3.
Write three goals of science education at elementary level in Pakistan.
1.
2.
3.

48
Write three objectives of science curriculum.
1.
2.
3.

SAQ-2.2

A. Choose the best.

1. The aims are at the:
(a) National level (b) elementary/secondary/higher level (c) classroom level
(d) none of a,b,c
2. The goals are at the:
(a) National level (b) elementary/secondary/higher level (c) classroom level (d)
none of a,b,c
3. The objectives are at the:
(a) National level (b) elementary/secondary/higher level (c) classroom level (d)
none of a,b,c

49
2.3 Levels of Objectives
As you know, taxonomy of educational objectives is intended to provide for classification
of the objectives of our educational system. It helps in discussion of curricular and
evaluation problems with greater precision.

When developing instructional objectives, providing instruction, and evaluating student

performance, it is important to keep in mind that there are different levels or outcomes of
learning. Distinguishing among different levels and outcomes of learning is important. If
teachers are unaware of different levels of learning, they are likely to focus on one level
to the detriment of others. For example, a teacher may teach a vast amount of factual
information but never get around to teaching students to apply and synthesize this
information. Or a teacher may teach higher level thinking skills without realizing that
these skills require the prior learning of basic skills that must be integrated into these
higher order skills.

In addition, it is not unusual to see a teacher who wants her students to learn higher order
thinking skills give examinations that require only lower level skills. Under such
circumstances, the students are likely to put their efforts into the lower order skills. Skills
at different levels must be taught (and tested) in different ways; and therefore it is
important for teachers and other instructional designers to take into account the different
levels and outcomes of instruction.

2.3.1 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

The term ‘Taxonomy’ is borrowed from biology and its meaning is ‘classification’. In
education it is used for classifying educational objectives and their inter-relation.

Bloom's (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is the most renowned description of

the levels of cognitive performance. The levels of the Taxonomy and examples of
activities at each level are given below. The levels of this taxonomy are considered to be
hierarchical. That is, learners must master lower level objectives first before they can
build on them to reach higher level objectives.

Under this taxonomy the specific objectives are classified into the following three
domains:
1. Cognitive domain objectives.
2. Affective domain objectives.
3. Psychomotor domain objectives.

Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge (Remembering previously learned material)
Example: State the formula for the area of a circle.
2. Comprehension (grasping the meaning of the material
Example: Given the mathematical formula for the area of a circle, paraphrase it
using your own words.

50
3. Application (using knowledge in concrete situation)
Example: Compute the area of actual circles.
4. Analysis (breaking down the material into its constituent parts)
Example: Given a math word problem, determine the strategies that would be
necessary to solve it.
5. Synthesis (putting parts together to form a new whole)
Example: Apply and integrate several different strategies to solve a mathematical
problem.
6. Evaluation (value judgment of a product for a given purpose by using definite
criteria)
Example: When you have finished solving a problem (or when a peer has done so)
determine the degree to which that problem was solved as efficiently as possible.

Affective Domain
Receiving awareness, willingness to receive, selected attention
Example: The pupils can listen/read story in the book “truth is ever
green.
Responding willing responses, feelings of satisfaction
Example: The pupil can feel pleasure to speak truth.
Valuing acceptance, preference, commitment
Example: The pupils can decide to speak truth in specific
condition.
Organizing conceptualization of values, organization of a value system
Example: The pupils can relate truth with reward in the life herein
after.
Characterization reflects a generalized set of values, a philosophy of life
Example: The pupils can adopt truth as habit.
(Story of Abdul Qadir Jilani)

Psychomotor Domain
Reflex Movement muscle movements
Example: The students can imitate in the given situation.
Fundamental Movement walking, running, jumping, pushing, pulling, manipulating
Example: The students can use their five senses in a given
situation.
Perceptual Ability kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile, coordination
Example: The students can coordinate their five senses in any
situation.
Physical Ability endurance, strength, flexibility, agility
Example: The students can use and coordinate their sense to tackle
a novel situation.
Skilled Movements games, sports, dance, the art
Example: The students can use their ability to successfully
accomplish the task.

51
Non-discursive Communication posture, gestures, facial expressions, creative
movement
Example: The students can create or invent new things.

The main value of the Taxonomy is twofold: (1) it can stimulate teachers to help students
acquire skills at all of these various levels, laying the proper foundation for higher levels
by first assuring mastery of lower-level objectives; and (2) it provides a basis for
developing measurement strategies to assess student performance at all these levels of
learning

This taxonomy may assist the teacher in clarifying his educational objectives and
modifying his teaching practices so that relevant desired learning outcomes of learning
are identified and realized.

2.3.2 Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO)

The Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy offers a way of
describing the growing complexity of a learner’s activity. It is based on the work of John
Biggs. It can be used in two ways.
1. To set learning objectives appropriate to where a student should be at a particular
stage of their program.
2. To set learning objectives appropriate to where a student should be at a particular
stage of their program.

When writing your course objectives ensure that the verbs you use correspond with the
level of cognitive engagement appropriate for your students. The SOLO taxonomy lists
levels of understanding (objectives) and the indicative verbs associated with each level.

Level of Understanding: Pre-structural

No understanding demonstrated and approach involves acquiring disconnected bits of
information. Student misses the point.

Level of Understanding: Uni-structural

Student shows concrete, reductive understanding of the topic. Simple and obvious
connections are made but broader significance is not understood.
Indicative verbs: identify, memorize, do simple procedure

Level of Understanding: Multi-structural

Student can understand several components but the understanding of each remains
discreet. A number of connections are made but the significance of the whole is not
determined. Ideas and concepts around an issue are disorganized and aren't related
together
Indicative verbs: enumerate, classify, describe, list, combine, do algorithms

52
Level of Understanding: Relational
Student can indicate connection between facts and theory, action and purpose. Shows
understanding of several components which are integrated conceptually showing
understanding of how the parts contribute to the whole. Can apply the concept to familiar
problems or work situations.
Indicative verbs: compare/contrast, explain causes, integrate, analyze, relate, and apply etc.

Level of Understanding: Extended Abstract

Student conceptualizes at a level extending beyond what has been dealt with in the actual
teaching. Understanding is transferable and general sable to different areas.
Indicative verbs: theorize, generalize, hypothesize, reflect, generate

Key Points
 The term ‘Taxonomy’ means ‘classification’. In education it is used for classifying
educational objectives and their inter-relation.
 Under Bloom’s taxonomy the specific objectives are classified into: Cognitive
domain objectives, affective domain objectives, psychomotor domain objectives.
 Cognitive domain is related to knowledge, affective domain related to
feeling/emotions/interests/attitude while psychomotor domain related to skills.
 SOLO taxonomy offers a way of describing the growing complexity of a learner’s
activity.
 SOLO Taxonomy can be used in two ways: (1) To set learning objectives
appropriate to where a student should be at a particular stage of their program.
(2)To set learning objectives appropriate to where a student should be at a
particular stage of their program.

Activity 2.3
Write the levels of each of the Domain of Blooms and SOLO Taxonomies. Move from
HOTS (higher level thinking skills) to LOTS (lower order thinking skills)

Bloom’s Taxonomy SOLO Taxonomy

Cognitive domain Affective domain Psychomotor domain
HOTS

LOTS

53
SAQ-2.3

Fill in the blanks.

1. The lowest level of cognitive domain is-----------------.
2. The highest level of affective domain is------------------.
3. The lowest level of psychomotor domain is-------------- and highest level is -------
----------------.
4. SOLO stands for-----------------------------------------------------------------.
5. The number of levels of SOLO Taxonomy is -------------------------.
Answer these questions in detail.
1. Discuss the taxonomy of educational objectives of cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domain as given by B.S. Bloom and his associates.

54
2.4 The Science Curriculum
The philosophy and spirit of science education is reflected not only in the program aim
goals and objectives, but in the documents and in-service development to support the new
curricula. In addition, the philosophy for science education is closely related to the
concept of Core Curriculum.

For schools, scientific literacy has been defined by seven Dimensions of Scientific
Literacy, which are the foundation for the renewed curriculum. Actively participating in
12 years of studying science program will enable a student to:
 Understand the nature of science and scientific knowledge. Science is a unique
way of knowing.
 Understand and accurately apply appropriate science concepts, principles, laws and
theories in interacting with society and the environment.
 Use the processes of science in solving problems, making decisions, and furthering
understanding.
 Understand and appreciate the joint enterprises of science and technology and the
interrelationships of these to each other in the context of society and the
environment.
 Develop numerous manipulative skills associated with science and technology.
Many of these deal with measurement.
 Interact with the various aspects of society and the environment in ways that are
consistent with the values that underlie science.
 Develop a unique view of technology, society and the environment as a result of
science education, and continue to extend this interest and attitude throughout life.

2.4.1 Structure of the Science Curriculum

Elements
The science curriculum should be based on three elements that are interrelated:
 Science understanding: Understanding of scientific concepts, explanations and
theories enables people to explain and predict natural phenomena and to apply that
knowledge and understanding to new situations and events. These concepts,
explanations and theories are drawn from physics, chemistry, biology and
geosciences.
 Science inquiry skills: Science inquiry poses questions, involves planning and
conducting investigations, collecting and analyzing evidence and communicating
findings. This element is concerned with evaluating investigations and claims and
making valid conclusions. It also recognizes that scientific explanations change as
new or different evidence becomes available from investigations.
 Science as a human Endeavour: Science influences society through its posing of
social and ethical issues. Societal challenges or social priorities influence the
direction and development of scientific research. This element highlights the need

55
 for informed, evidence based decision making about current and future applications
of science where there is, or would be, an impact on society and the environment. It
acknowledges that in making decisions about science and its practices, moral,
ethical and social implications must be taken into account. It also acknowledges
that science has advanced through, and is open to, the contributions of many
different people from different cultures at different times in history and offers
rewarding career paths.

All three elements of science are important and should be evident across each stage of
schooling. In delivering the science curriculum the focus is on science understanding
through the development of science concepts. The science inquiry skills and the human
endeavour dimensions are embedded in the development of these science concepts.

Stages of schooling
It is proposed that in Pakistan the curriculum will be revised after every five years. The
current curriculum 2006 has completed its five years but the textbooks based on this
curriculum are still not published. So according to the policy document this science
curriculum should be revised now.

Our science curriculum and most of the science curricula of many nations are based on
Piaget developmental stages. Piaget is fundamentally a genetic epistemologist and
therefore engaged himself in studying how human mind develops ideas about the
environment. Specifically, he studied changes in knowledge and interpreted them from
the psychological point of view by studying children. He believes that children are eager
to learn and are active in their own development. This development takes place in four
stages. He further said that cognitive development depends upon four factors (1)
Maturation (2) Experience (practice, physical, logical, and mathematical) (3) Social
environment (4) Equilibrium.

Stage 1, which typically involves students from 5 to 8 years of age (integrated science
course)
Stage 2, which typically involves students from 8 to 10 years of age (Science as a
separate subject, class IV-V)
Stage 3, which typically involves students from 10 to 14 years of age (Science as
separate subject, CLASS VI-VIII)
Stage 4, which typically involves students from 14 to 18 years of age (CLASS, IX-XII)

Developing scientific capabilities takes time and the science curriculum should reflect the
kinds of science activities, experiences and understanding appropriate for students of
different ages. Early science experiences should relate to self awareness and the natural
world. During the primary years, the science curriculum should develop the skills of
investigation, using experiences which provide opportunities to reinforce language,
literacy and numeracy relevant to science. In secondary school, some differentiation of
the sub-disciplines of science is appropriate, although as many science issues are
interdisciplinary, an integrated approach to science education is also appropriate. The

56
senior secondary science curriculums should be differentiated into courses, to provide for
students who wish to pursue career-related science specializations, as well those who
prefer a more general, integrated science for citizenship. A proposed structure for class I
to XII curriculum is provided below.

Table 2.1: A proposed structure for I-XII science curriculum

Curriculum focus Source of interesting questions and the Relevant big ideas of science
related science
Stage 1 Awareness of self Everyday life experiences involving Exploration
and the local natural science at home and in nature Observation
world Order
Questioning &
speculating
Stage 2 Recognizing Wide range of science phenomena that Change
questions that can provide questions of interest and public Patterns
be investigated importance to primary school students Systems
scientifically and Cause & effect
investigating them Evidence &
Explanations
Stage 3 Explaining Simple everyday science phenomena Energy
phenomena involving and the major concepts from the Sustainability
science and its physical, biological, earth and space Equilibrium &
applications sciences and from the applications of interdependence
science that shape the personal and Form & function
public worlds of adolescents Evidence, models &
Theories
Stage 4 Opportunity to Separate subjects: All of the above would
pursue science  Physics be embedded in the
subjects relevant to  Chemistry different science
interests and future  Biology subjects
intentions  Environmental science
 Science for life & work

Key Point 2.4

 The main objective of school science education is to develop young people’s
science capabilities.
 There are seven dimensions of scientific literacy for school.
 Science as a separate subject is taught in Pakistan from class IV.
 At elementary level the curriculum focus is on Awareness of self and the local
natural world, Recognizing questions that can be investigated scientifically and
investigating them
 At secondary level the curriculum focus is to explain phenomena involving science
and its application Opportunity to pursue science subjects relevant to interests and
future intentions.

57
SAQ-2.4

A. Fill in the blanks.

1. The science as a separate subject is taught in Pakistan from class-----------.
2. The science curriculum is developed by the curriculum committee from class IV
to ------------------.
3. The curriculum focus of elementary science is -----------------------and--------------
------------------.
4. The curriculum focus of secondary science is -----------------------and---------------
-----------------.
5. The curriculum focus of National Curriculum 2006 is outcome focus, students-
centered and -------------------------------.
B. Answer the question in detail.
What are the elements of science curriculum? Discuss in detail the functions of each
element.

58
2.5 Elementary Science Curriculum
Learning in science is fundamental to understanding the world in which we live and
work. It helps people to clarify ideas, to ask questions, to test explanations through
measurement and observation, and to use their findings to establish the worth of an idea.
Science is not seen as merely objective and value free but is recognized as being part of
human experience. As such it is an integral part of daily life and relevant to everyone.

National Curriculum for General Science 2006 (Pakistan)

This curriculum aims to promote scientific literacy among the students by:
 Helping students to develop knowledge and a coherent understanding of the living,
physical, material, and technological components of their environment;
 Encouraging students to develop skills for investigating the living, physical,
material, and technological components of their environment in scientific ways;
 Providing opportunities for students to develop the attitudes on which the scientific
investigation depends;
 Promoting science as an activity that is carried out by all people as part of their
everyday life;
 Portraying science both as a process and a set of ideas , which have been
constructed by people to explain everyday life and unfamiliar phenomena;
 Encouraging students to consider the way in which people have used scientific
knowledge and methods to meet particular needs;
 Developing students’ understanding of the evolving nature of science and
technology;
 Assisting students to use scientific knowledge and skills to make decisions about
the usefulness and worth of ideas;
 Helping students to explore issues and to make responsible and considered
decisions about the use of science and technology in their environment;
 Developing students’ understanding of the different ways people influence and/or
are influenced by science and technology;
 Nurturing scientific talent to ensure a future scientific community; and
 Developing students’ interest in and understanding of the knowledge and processes
of science that will form the basis of their future education in science and
technology and careers.

Objectives: Main objectives of this document (science curriculum 2006);

1. Emphasize scientific literacy for all students;
2. Promote inquiry-based and student-centered science education;
3. Emphasize understanding, not content coverage;
4. Promote learning that is useful and relevant;
5. Promote interdisciplinary learning;
6. Promote spiritual and moral development of the students; and

59
7. Act an effective instrument for a systematic and lifelong learning of the students of
Grade IV-VIII and for all stake holder of the Pakistan school education system
including administrators, teachers, students, parents, and civil society.

This document has been divided into the following components in order to achieve the
desired aims and objectives:

 Curriculum focus
 The inquiry-based curriculum
 The student-centered curriculum
 An outcome-focus curriculum
 The conceptual map for the curriculum outcomes
 Criteria for the selection of:
 Content strands, standards, and benchmarks
 Students learning outcomes (SLOs), Grades IV-VIII
 SLOs and Benchmarks Achievement Objectives

This Elementary school curriculum presents a paradigm shift from the characteristics of
traditional approaches to inquiry-based approaches in the following manners;

Table 2.2: Paradigm shift: Traditional to Inquiry

TRADITIONAL INQUIRY BASED

Principle Learning Theory Behaviourism Constructivism
Students’ Participation Passive Active
Students’ Involvement in Outcomes Decreased responsibility Increased responsibility
Students’ Role Direction follower Problem solver
Curriculum Goals Output oriented Process oriented
Teachers’ Role Director/transmitter Guide/facilitator

Therefore this curriculum, which strive the scientific literacy, is intended to engage
students in asking and answering meaningful questions. The teacher will pose some of
these questions, the student will generate others. Generally these questions are:
Why…? How…? Should…? There are three basic processes used to answer these
questions.
1. Scientific Inquiry addresses “why” questions.
2. “How” type questions are answered by engaging students in Problem solving
process.
3. “Should” questions are answered by engaging students in Decision making.

60
Table 2.3 An example of the questions WHY, HOW, SHOULD

Questions Why does my tea gets cool How can I make a Should we use
so quickly? container to keep my tea Styrofoam cups or
(science question) hot? ceramic mugs for
drinking tea?
Process involved in Scientific inquiry Technological problem Decision making
answering the solving
questions:
Response: Heat energy is transferred by A Styrofoam cup will keep Personal health, the
conduction, convection, and liquids warm for a long time environment, cost and
radiation availability must be
considered along with
science and technology
information
Problems arise from: Curiosity about events and Copying with everyday life, Different views or
phenomenon in the natural practices and human needs perspectives based on
world different or the same
information
Types of questions: What do we know? How can we do it? What alternatives or
How do we know? Will it work? consequences are there?
Which choice is best at
this time?
Solutions Knowledge about the events An effective and efficient
Result in: and phenomena in the natural way to accomplish a task
world

Activity 2.5
Write down ten questions of ‘how’, ‘why’, ‘when’, ‘what’, ‘if-then’, ‘should’.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

61
Learning Strands, Content Standard, and Benchmarks
 LEARNING STRANDS (General Learning Outcomes)
Learning strands are the major learning areas, for example, knowledge, skills, attitude,
and application, that student will be educated to in a curriculum framework.

In the National Science Curriculum 2006, following six learning strands have been
selected for the students of Grade IV-VIII:
1. Life science
2. Physical science, and
3. Earth and space science

These strands will cover the first part of the General Curriculum Outcomes, i.e.
knowledge.
1. Skills
2. Attitudes, and
3. Science, Technology, Society, and Environment (STSE)

These are called the integrating strands which cover the remaining three parts of the
General Curriculum Outcomes.

 Content Standards
Content standards are basically the description of the contextual content strands. Content
standards outline what students should know and be able to do in science.
This curriculum focuses on the subject matter of science, including the learning theories,
concepts, and principles that are essential to an understanding of each science area.
Therefore, the following widely accepted science disciplines have been selected as
content standards for the science curriculum 2006 (Grades IV-VIII).

1. Life Science
Students will understand, explain and differentiate between the structures,
characteristics and basic needs of living things, the process of life, and will also
investigate the diversity of life and how living things interact with each other and
their environment.
2. Physical Science
Students will describe and explain common properties, forms, and interaction of
energy and matter, their transformation and applications in chemical, physical, and
biological system.
3. Earth and Space Sciences
Students will be knowledgeable of the structure, process, and interactions among
the Earth’s systems. They will also understand the Solar system and the scientific
theories about the origin of the Solar system, and explain how we learn about the
universe.
4. Skills
Students will develop the skills require for science and technology inquiry for
solving problems. The skills will be helpful for them to communicate scientific

62
 ideas of results. They will learn to work collaboratively and to make informal
decisions.
5. Attitudes
Students will show a sense of curiosity and wonder about natural world. They will
be encouraged to develop such attitudes that support the responsible attainment of
application of scientific and technical knowledge. Such knowledge will be for the
benefit of themselves, environment and society.
6. Science Technology and Society
Students will develop an understanding of the nature of science and technology.
They will build up a relationship between science and technology. They will also
develop a relationship of the social and environmental context of science and
technology.

 Benchmarks (Key Stage Curriculum Outcomes)

Benchmarks are the statements that identify the outcomes of students what they are
expected to know, be able to do, and value by the end of, for example, Grades
V,VIII,X,XII as a result of their Grade-wise cumulative learning experiences.

Benchmarks, also, represent what is intended or what learning outcome is expected from
students at the end of grade-cluster. At the end of a particular key-stage or grade-cluster
majority of the students will have fully achieved the intended Benchmarks while other
may not.

In this curriculum, two sets of benchmarks have been selected. First, the benchmarks for
the grade-cluster IV-V, - What learning outcomes will be expected from all students at
the end of grade-V in the six learning strands (i.e. life science, physical science, earth and
space science, skills, attitude and STSE.While the second set of benchmarks for the
grade-cluster VI-VIII, - What learning outcomes will be expected from all students at the
end of grade-VIII in the six learning strands (i.e. life science, physical science, earth and
space science, skills, attitude and STSE.

These Benchmarks are intended for all students. However, it is acknowledged that
different students will achieve these benchmarks in different ways and to different depth
and breadth depending on interest, ability and context.

Also at the same time, the selected benchmarks will present opportunities and challenges
for teachers to be able to help their students in achieving the desired learning outcomes at
the end of Grade V and Grade VIII.

 Students’ Learning Outcomes

Students’ learning outcomes are the learning statements, specially describing what
students are supposed to learn and able to do at each Grade level in order to achieve the
specified Benchmarks for every Grade-Cluster. In other words, SLOs are the incremental
steps toward accomplishment of Benchmarks, which are organized around the standards

63
and listed for each grade level as students advance in their knowledge, skills, attitudes
and applications.

SAQ-2.5
A. Fill in the blanks.
1. The elementary school science curriculum isa shift from traditional approach to--
---------------------.
2. The student role in traditional approach is ------------------.
3. The student role in inquiry based approach is ------------------.
4. The teacher role in traditional approach is ------------------.
5. The teacher role in inquiry based approach is ------------------.

B. Answer the question in detail.

1. What are the aims of elementary science curriculum?
2. Enlist the objectives of elementary science curriculum 2006.
3. How you find the National Curriculum 2006 different from the National
Curriculum 2002?
4. Define the terms: learning strands, content strands, bench mark, and students
learning outcomes.

64
Suggested Answer
Activity 2.1 Visit: www.MoE.edu.pk

SAQ 2.1 A. a, d, d, b, d.
B. See the 2.1 part of the unit.
C. See the 2.1 part of the unit.

Activity 2.2 a, b, c

SAQ 2.2 See the 2.2, parts of the unit.

Activity 2.3 See the 2.3 part of the unit

SAQ 2.3 1. Knowledge

2. Characterization
3. Reflex movement, Non-discursive communication
4. Structure of observed learning outcomes
5. Five
SAQ 2.4 A. 1.IV,
2. XII,
3. Awareness of self and the local natural world
4. Explaining phenomena and its application
5. Inquiry based
B. See the 2.4 part of the unit

SAQ-2.5
See the 2.5 part of the unit.

65
Bibliography
 Abimbola (1993) "Guiding Philosophical perspectives U.M.O Ivowi, (Ed.)
Curriculum development in Nigeria, (pp. 4-16) Ibadan: Sam Bookman Educational
and Communication Services.

 Federal Republic of Nigeria.(1998). National policy on education, Lagos:

NERDC Press. Olawepo, J.A. (1997). Introduction to principles and practice of
Instruction.Unpublished manuscript. Available from the author, Department Of
Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of llorin, llorin,
Nigeria.

 Government of Pakistan. (2006). National Curriculum for General Science (Grade

IV-VIII, 2006). Ministry of Education, Islamabad.

 Kumar A. (1995). Teaching of Physical Sciences. New Delhi: Anmol Publications

Pvt Ltd.

 Safdar, M. (2010). A comparative study of Ausubelian and Traditional methods of

Teaching Physics at secondary school level in Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D Level
Thesis. National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad.

 Shah, I. (2004). Making University Laboratory Work in Chemistry more Effective.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Glasgow: Glasgow University, Scotland.

 www.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp.

 Zais, R.S. (1976). Curriculum: Principles and foundations. New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Company. Inc.

 Zaman. T. (1996). The Use of an Information Processing Model to Design and

evaluate a physics undergraduate laboratory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Glasgow: Glasgow University. (3-4,6,9,11,12,48)

66
Unit–3
Unit–3

THE SCIENCE TEACHER

Written by: Arshad Mehmood Qamar

Dr. Muhammad Safdar
Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

67
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................... 69
Objectives........................................................................................................... 69
3.1 The Changing Role of Science Teacher............................................... 70
3.2 Characteristics of a Good Science Teacher ......................................... 72
3.3 Teacher as a Reflective Practitioner .................................................... 77
3.4 Teacher as a Class Room Based Researcher........................................ 81
3.4.1 Action Research (Definition) ................................................ 81
3.4.2 Classroom Action Research .................................................. 82
3.4.3 Reasons to Conduct Action Research ................................... 82
3.4.4 Three Levels of Action Research .......................................... 82
3.4.5 Conducting Action Research ................................................ 82

68
Introduction
A traditional science teacher teaches the truth while the good one teaches how to find it.
Schools provide environment for teaching and learning process. Teachers are catalysts for
learning. In promoting learning there is no single factor for effectiveness, though there
are very characteristics of effective teaching and teacher. What do we expect effective
science teachers to be like? Three main factors are associated within teachers’ control
that exerts a significant influence on students’ learning, making up to a 30 per cent
difference in their progress:

1. Teaching skills
2. Professional characteristics
3. Classroom environment.

A good teacher is congenial (friendly/ good natured / hospitable) and conscientious

(painstaking/reliable/hard working) person, respected and intelligent. He possesses a
sense of humour and also aptitude for teaching. Role of a teacher is wholistic in nature.
At one time a teacher is a scientist at another time he is acting like a judge. Another
requirement for a good teacher is that he should have a high sense of principles and an
aptitude for creative work and scientific curiosity.

What do we expect effective teachers to be like? We will study in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 Understand the characteristics of a good science teacher;
 apply the changing role of the science teacher in this current scenario;
 use the reflective teaching;
 develop and conduct action research to solve the classroom problems ;

69
3.1 The Changing Role of Science Teacher
There is a proverb, “The mediocre teacher tells, the good teacher explains, the superior
teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires his or her students to discover”
(William Arthur Ward).Teacher plays a pivotal role in the education system. There was a
time when he was considered the master of the situation but the scenario has been
changed. The paradigm is shifted from teacher centered to student centered and the role
of the teacher has become more important than before.

As you know that the teaching and learning have moved from instructivism to
constructivism, same is the case with the role of the teacher. This is the age of science
and technology, therefore, the role of the science teacher is very crucial. Hokanson and
Hooper suggest that there has been a change in education:

 From instructivism to constructivism

 From teacher centered to learner centered
 From behaviourist to cognitive approaches
 From representation to generation of knowledge
 From transmission to construction of knowledge
 From linear logic to nonlinear, network logic.

Hence, in this scenario the role of the teacher is shifted from fact teller to collaborator,
guide and facilitator. It is suggested that science teachers have an important role to play
in structuring learning in which learners take control of the process (cognitive process).
Science teacher helps to design the environment for learning and ensure that it engages
the learner, collaborating with other learners, resources and experts to construct
knowledge. The learner controls over his/her own experiences and the depth and range of
studies, content and delivery media, enable him/her to tailor the learning experience to
meet his or her specific needs and interest. These are essential features of effective
learning, not least in the self-efficacy which they promote in students and its effect on
motivation and achievement.

Different aspects of instruction and Construction

Function Instruction Construction

Classroom activity Teacher-controlled; didactic Learner-centered, interactive
Teacher’s role Fact teller; expert Collaborator, learner
Student’s role Listener, always the learner Collaborator but some time expert
Instructional emphasis Facts, memorization Relationships, inquiry and invention
Concept of knowledge Accumulation of facts Transformation of facts
Demonstration of success Quantity Quality of understanding
Assessment Norm-referenced, multiple choice items Criterion-referenced, portfolios, and
performances
Technology use Drill and practice Communication, collaboration,
information access and retrieval,
expression.

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Table 3.1: Difference between Instruction and Construction
Source: Louis Cohen: A Guide to Teaching Practice. 5th ed. p. 172

Conventional and Restructured Learning Settings

Conventional setting Restructured setting

Student role Learn facts and skills by absorbing the Create personal knowledge by acting on
content presented by teachers and media content provided by teachers, media
resources. resources and personal experience.
Curriculum characteristics Fragmented knowledge and disciplinary Multidisciplinary themes, knowledge
separation. Basic literacy established integration and application. Emphasis on
before higher level inquiry is encouraged. thinking skills and application. Emphasis
Focus on breadth of knowledge. on depth of understanding.
Social characteristics Teacher-controlled setting with students Teacher functions as facilitator and
working independently. Some learner. Students work collaboratively
competition. and make some decisions.
Assessment Measurement of fact knowledge and Assessment of knowledge application.
discrete skills. Traditional tests. Performance of tasks to demonstrate
understanding.
Teacher role Present information and manage the Guide student inquiry and model active
classroom. learning.
Possible use of internet Source of information for absorption. Source of information for interpretation
and knowledge creation. Outlet for
original work.

Table 3.2 Source: Louis Cohen: A Guide to Teaching Practice. 5th ed. p. 172

Key Points
 Effective classroom teaching in science requires advance thinking and proper
planning.
 Traditional methods are concerned with the recall of factual knowledge and largely
ignore higher levels of cognitive outcomes.
 In traditional way the student learn facts and skills by absorbing the content
presented by teachers.
 Constructivist student create personal knowledge by acting on content provided by
teachers, media resources and personal experience.
 A good teacher provides guidance for the learner.
 In traditional setting the teacher present information and manage the classroom.

Activity 3.1
Observe at least three science teachers of your secondary school during teaching science
and complete the following table given below and give your conclusion. Are they
cognitivists or behaviourists or constructivists?

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Function Performance observed
Classroom activity
Teacher’s own knowledge
Teacher’s role
Student’s role
Instructional emphasis
Concept of knowledge
Demonstration of success
Assessment technique
Use of Aids

SAQ 3.1

A. Choose the best answer.

1. Which method is used frequently by Traditional Teacher in the teaching of

science?
(a) Activity (b) discovery (c) lecture (d) simulation
2. Which method(s) is/are used frequently by cognitivist Teacher in the teaching
of science?
(a) Activity (b) discovery (c) simulation (d) a, b, c all
3. The role of the teacher in traditional teaching is:
(a) authoritative (b) fact teller (c) lecturer (d) a, b, c all
4. The role of the teacher in constructive teaching is:
(a) guide (b) facilitator (c) collaborator (d) a, b, c all
5. The modern education system is:
(a) Curriculum centered (b) teacher centered (c) student centered (d) a, b, c all

B. Answer the questions.

1. Over the period of time the role of teacher has been changed. Discuss what kind
of changes has been occurred regarding this.
2. Differentiate and discuss the constructive learning setting and conventional
learning setting.

3.2 Characteristics of Good Science Teacher

Knows the subject matter  Regularly reads books and professional journals on the subject
 Maintains an up-to-date knowledge
 Takes classes, participate in science workshops, seminars, etc. and
other opportunities to learn about the subject matter
Have awareness about national  Have detailed subject knowledge
professional teaching standards  Have knowledge and understanding of human growth and development
 Have knowledge of Islamic ethical values/social life skills.
 Have ability for instructional planning and strategies.
He prepares himself for class  Has a detailed outline for the year
 Prepares weekly class outlines
 Allots preparation time
 Periodically evaluates use of class time

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  Avoids frequent irrelevant anecdotes and departures from the subject (a
sure indication of lack of preparation or interest in the subject)
 Plans useful homework and assignments
Acquires and maintains excellent  Explains ideas clearly
teaching skills  Asks fellow teachers to offer suggestions
 Swaps ideas with other teachers
 Attends seminars or classes on teaching techniques
 Makes the subject interesting
Has good relationship with  Is courteous and fair to all students regardless of intelligence or social
students class
 Avoids sarcasm or humiliation
 Knows students personally by name and background
 Does not attempt to establish a buddy relationship, but maintains
appropriate professional distance
 Likes students; talks with them easily
 Finds means of obtaining student feedback or suggestions and makes
use of them
 Allows for individual differences
Employs a range Teaching  A formal, didactic style with little or no interaction between teacher and
Strategies and style students
 Teacher presents the overall structure of the lesson but there is a room
for students’ own contributions
 Teacher and students largely negotiated the content and activities
between themselves
Demonstrate positive attitude and  Demonstrate involvement, application and enjoyment
behavior  Have pride to his achievement
 Respect the views of others
 Work independently and collectively
 Can solve problems
 Work safely, carefully and considerately
Has understanding about the use  A.V Aids ( I see and I remember)
of modern teaching techniques,  I do and I understand
tactics, methods  Use different teaching methods in one lesson (lecture cum discussion,
lecture cum demonstration, discovery/inquiry , project )
 Familiar with individual differences and local knowledge
Knows the steps in executing the  Motivation ; objectives; teaching/learning; check understanding; provide
lesson plan (steps are explained feedback/guided practice; summary; independent practice; evaluate
below the table)
Maintains discipline in the science  Be tough but fair.
classroom and lab  School control begins in the classroom.
 Contact parents before something negative happens.
 Respect all students.
 Use positive intervention.
 Be assertive.
 Allow the students to help make the rules.
 Teach the rules and review the rules.
 Make each child feel loved and secure.
 Teach procedures, practice them, and review them.
 Set limits.
 Manage your consequences and be consistent.
 Don’t take students’ misbehavior personally.

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 Knows and applies different  High level open-ended questions (oral, written)
assessment techniques  Structured interview, viva voce, post-labs, projects
Knows the Motivation techniques  Establish a state of readiness for the instruction and relate the lesson to
the previous learning.
 Reward, appreciation, provide academic freedom
Explain the Learning  Explain to students as if they do not know anything.
 Provide examples, demonstrate the learning, and use questions to guide
the learning. If this is a discovery lesson, let the students arrive at the
answer inductively.
Check for Understanding  Provide feedback and reinforcement; ask questions and answer
questions. ncourage students to express confusion/misunderstanding
and to ask for examples.
Guide for Practice  Give directions for the activity;
 Identify materials and their use;
 Determine the means of collecting and reporting data.
 Provide continuous feedback and reinforcement.
 Make corrections. Monitor and make contact with all students. Give
learning cues. Re-teach areas of confusion.
Provide Independent Practice  Students work independently. Time limits should be set.

You studied in this unit the qualities and the role of a good (science) teacher, you reach
on the conclusion that there is no hard and fast list that tells you who is a good teacher or
who is not a good teacher. However, there are traits that excellent teachers have in
common. These are not the usual qualities such as being a good friend or having a nice
personality. These are what researchers from around the world have found when they
watched those teachers whose students excelled once they left that teacher's classroom.
Of course, not every teacher is going to be a skillful teacher for every child and a child
spends only about 8 percent of the year in school, which means that regardless of the
quality of teacher, a supportive home environment is essential to excellent learning.

Below are the traits of a good teacher as expressed by the young people around the world.

From Indonesia:
A great teacher smiles to his/her pupils even when they screw him up.
A good teacher shows the whole wide world to the students.

From India:
One who helps his students in all respects. He makes his students able to live better life.
He teaches students to take decisions in all the conditions.

From Ireland:
It is fundamental that a teacher cares about humanity in general.

From Chile:
A good teacher is someone who can learn from his students, who can learn with them,
and for them.

74
From Egypt:
To win their confidence should be the teacher's first aim - though strictness has to be in
its place.

From Germany:
A good teacher, of course, has to be humorous. A teacher has to enjoy what she does!
Has to remember how it was when he/she was a child.

From Pakistan:
A guide. A real friend is someone who knows all about you and still he loves you. A
good teacher is a good friend. Good teaching is keeping yourself in the shoes of your
students.

From Malaysia:
One who doesn't 'teach' but instead is willing to 'learn' with the child and from the child.

From Mexico:
The teacher is to the students what the rain is to the field.

From Chad:
A good teacher should answer all questions, even if they are stupid.

From Nigeria:
A good teacher must be prepared to be foolish if that will help his pupil attain wisdom.

From Jamaica:
To become a good teacher, you not only teach the children, but you also have to learn
from them.

Hence, this is all about good teacher and good teaching.

75
Key Points
 An effective teacher has good classroom management skills.
 Wait five or more seconds after asking a question.
 A good teacher is creative, energetic and has patience.
 A good teacher takes interest in helping people learn.
 Provide feedback and reinforcement;
 Ask questions and answer questions.
 Encourage students to express confusion/misunderstanding and to ask for
examples.

Activity 3.2
List down some more qualities possessed by good science teacher.
1. -----------------------
2. -----------------------
3. -----------------------
4. -----------------------
5. -----------------------
6. -----------------------
7. -----------------------
8. -----------------------
9. -----------------------
10. -----------------------

SAQ-3.2
Answer the questions.
1. In your point of view what are the characteristics of a good science teacher. How
can a good science teacher facilitate teaching learning process?

76
3.3 Teachers as a Reflective Practitioner
Dear students, you, at school, college and university have experienced good/better, not
good teachers—some teachers made the lesson easy for you and some have not helped
you very much at all. Why does this happen? What makes the difference between a good
teacher and a bad teacher (bad in teaching methodology)? How do particular approaches
to teaching help or hinder the performance of the individual? We can find answer of these
questions in the literature on effective teaching and effective teacher. You can see how
the ideas about good teacher have changed over the years by reading literature. The
literature reflects that how teacher can help learners to develop their knowledge, skills,
and attitude, but it is concluded that no single teaching strategy is effective all the time
for all learners.

There are empirical evidences that inexperienced teachers may not analyze, evaluate and
direct their teaching practices in meta-cognitive manner that is the mark of reflective
practitioner. Some of the reasons for this are explained in the work of many
educationists/researchers. The following table summarizes some of these reasons and
indicates how you might deal with these issues. These points are not presented to
discourage you but encourage you to face the challenges. That is why you may be able to
become a reflective teacher and so that you can start to develop strategies for overcoming
these difficulties.

Table 3.3

Common barriers to reflection What might you do?

Beginning teachers may be so preoccupied with the Prepare thoroughly so that you are confident of your
subject matter, or with their delivery of the lesson, that knowledge and clear about the structure of your lesson.
they have little time to consider how well it is going. Use
Beginning teachers may be reluctant to be self-critical at Do not expect yourself to be perfect rather accepting that
a time when they are lacking in self-confidence and you need to improve.
when they are fearful of failure.
Beginning teachers may lack the knowledge of diverse Talk to other teachers about how they teach. Ask for
teaching strategies that might help them to perceive advice. Observe other teachers. Look for ideas on the
alternatives to their current practice. internet. Be preemptive thinker prepare yourself to take a
risk and “step outside of your comfort zone”
Inexperienced teacher may have a very limited number Practice deliberately looking at situations from more than
of “frames” within which to consider their teaching. one perspective. Try to look at your teaching through the
eyes of yours students.
Some beginning teachers are unable to achieve the Get feedback from yours students. Ask your
detachment from their own practice that would enable management/colleagues to observe your teaching and
them to reflect upon it objectively and critically. give you feedback. Rectify yourself in the light of
feedback and establish a “reflective partnership”.
Beginning teachers may see each class and each Look for patterns in your interactions with students,
student as unique and therefore see limited potential in analysing these patterns and try to work out why you
reflection on practice. usually behave in this way.
Beginning teachers may feel powerless to change the Don’t try to change the whole education system in one
situations in which they are placed. year. Be realistic about what you can change, and try to
change.
Beginning teachers may feel that they have no control All these issues are things that you need to reflect on.

77
 over the social, moral, and political issues that impose You may not be able to change them immediately but you
on their classroom. can at least discuss them with other teachers.
The routine of teacher may make it difficult to develop a Challenge yourself to question every major teaching
challenging and questioning view. decision you make.
Trainee/beginning teachers are often confused by the Begin your reflections by adopting just one theoretical
range of theoretical models of teaching and learning with stance. Use that perspective to interpret what is
which they are confronted. happening, and then adopt a different theoretical stance.
Reflection is not a normal mode of behavior for many Develop the habit of reflection on everything that happens
people. in your life.
It is easy to confuse knowledge acquisition with The essence of reflection is not to discover something
reflection. new, but to come to a better understanding of something
that is already familiar.

The process of making good teachers is complex. Reflection is a crucial part of that
process and it cannot be developed without training, modeling and structured
experience.” Generally, reflection is a mode of thinking that can be identified, described
and developed. It also suggests that a teacher who is not reflective can be transformed
into one who is reflective. This transformation requires knowledge and practice. It also
requires perception because perception is the filter through which individuals interpret
their experiences. Our perception are primarily depends upon how we see the world
(idealist, realist, pragmatist etc.). These belief and values about the world determine what
information we use when reflecting on our experiences.

Unless teachers understand what they are doing and why they are doing it, there is a little
chance that their efforts will result in student learning or that their actions are morally
appropriate. Reflective teaching should involve “searching for patterns about one’s
thinking about classroom/lab practices and questioning that why and how some lessons
are labeled as success and failure.

Reflective thinking is a learned process that requires time. Generally there is little, if any,
time left at the day's end to reflect on previous events, and to design meaningful, creative
problem-solving strategies. However, given the intent of the student teaching
experience, time for reflection should be a critical and ongoing practice. The following
are some examples of activities that promote reflection and may be tailored to fit into the
school day and beyond.

Think Aloud:
Intentionally express out loud thinking about teaching with your teacher intern. This is
especially effective when teaching the teacher intern how to plan. It uncovers the
reasoning behind making decisions. Another component of the think aloud is describing
and analyzing positive and negative experiences as they surface. This can be a
therapeutic and valuable tool that can be accomplished on one’s own or in conjunction
with individuals from the mentoring team.

Reflective Journal:
This is a process of recording and analyzing events in a prescribed manner and it can be a
productive strategy to foster reflective thinking. The journaling process may be formal or

78
informal. It can be a description of a significant event or an aspect of teaching on which
a teacher intern is asked to focus.

Competency Continuum:
Think about the areas in teaching identified in the performance standards on the
evaluation form. Select an area and rank yourself on a continuum from most competent
to least competent. Begin to identify the factors that inhibit your ability to be more
competent and identify what would be most helpful to gain more competencies. Use this
continuum as a tool for discussion and action planning between you and your mentoring
team.

Data Collection/Action Research:

Consider a problem area such as student motivation that concerns you. Intentionally
design a procedure for collecting information (data) to learn more about the problem.
Use this data to further analyze the situation, to act on the problem, or to reevaluate.

Video/Audio Tape and Reflective Analysis:

View or listen to the tape for the purpose of analyzing your instruction and student
response. The video or audio tape may be used as a tool for reflective dialogue between
the teacher intern and individuals from the mentoring team. It could be combined with a
journal entry.

Written Self-Evaluation:
This is a structured self analysis. In Pakistan, usually it is used in ISSB (Inter Services
Selection Board) when the candidates who come for their selection in Pakistan army,
navy, air force, or join civil services, etc. It is written at midterm and at the end.

Use of the Problem Solving Process:

This six step process may be used for any problem situation in or out of the classroom
setting. It is intended as a tool for collaborative or individual problem solving and
reflective thinking as well as a design for action.
1. Identify the problem
2. Generate possible solutions
3. Evaluate the solutions
4. Design as action plan
5. Implement the plan
6. Evaluate the results

Coaching and Conferencing Process:

This is a process that occurs on a regular basis during the student teaching experience. It
provides an opportunity to talk about teaching and learning and should be a natural flow
of conversation that includes sharing ideas, giving and receiving formative feedback.
This process may be ongoing and informal, or scheduled and structured. It may or may
not include an observation. The intent of the process is to engage in an activity that

79
promotes dialogue about teaching effectiveness, and encourages reflective thinking about
teaching, learning, and performance.

Development of a Professional Portfolio:

The process of creating and selecting documents for inclusion in the portfolio requires a
significant amount of reflective thinking about yourself as a teacher and your growth
related to the performance standards for student teaching. It is an opportunity to talk
about your experience and performance with the individuals who form your mentoring
team. It can be one of the most intensive processes for reflection.

Activity 3.3
1. Think back to your own days at school and recall educational experiences
preferably in science which you remember and give value. Why was that a
successful learning experience for you? You may find it helpful to first think of the
qualities of your science teacher and then the teaching-learning process.
2. The second task is to repeat the above activity No. 1 but this time focusing on an
educational experience which failed to engage or motivate you. Compare your
comments with your fellow men.

SAQ-3.3
Inexperienced teachers may not analyze, evaluate and direct their teaching practices in
meta-cognitive manner. Do you agree with this statement?

80
3.4 Teachers as a Classroom Based Researcher
The purpose of action research is to solve practical problems through the application of
the scientific method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local
setting. It is not concerned with whether the results are generalizable to any other setting
and is not characterized by the same kind of control evident in other categories of
research. The primary purpose of action research is the solution of a given problem.
Whether the research is conducted in one classroom or in many classrooms, the teacher is
very much a part of the process. It is, therefore, necessary to involve the teachers in
research training programs that the research produces valid results.

It is a mean by which teachers and concerned school personnel can attempt to improve
the educational process within their environment. There is no doubt about it that action
research provides immediate answers to problems that cannot wait for theoretical
solutions.

As you know that there are loads of things you can do by yourself which reveal plenty
about you as a teacher – your attitude to your work and your students, your role in the
classroom, your management techniques, your lesson planning abilities, etc. The first
thing you need to do is, think about which aspect of your lessons you want to research.

 How effectively do you present new grammar structures?

 How helpful are your techniques for explaining new vocabulary?
 Do you provide adequate feedback on students’ performance?
 Do you set up and conclude activities in a logical and engaging way?

Action research can be as simple as testing a new teaching method, or it can answer far
more complex questions about curriculum, school management, or other large,
multidimensional issues.

3.4.1 Action Research (Definition)

According to Gay (1987) action researches are solely conducted to solve the classroom
problems through the application of scientific method.

Action research is the process of systematically testing new ideas in the classroom or
school, analyzing the results, and deciding to implement the new idea or begin the
process again with another idea.

Do you know?
Action research differs from formal research conducted by education theorists because
it is typically designed and controlled directly by the teacher or in collaboration with
other practitioners.

81
3.4.2 Classroom Action Research
 Begins with a question, such as "Why don't my students take better notes?"
 Proposes a classroom-based practice (intervention) to change the identified
problem, such as "Will using a graphic organizer to teach a concept improve note-
taking skills?"
 Uses a systematic approach to testing and analyzing the idea or intervention (Did it
improve their skills? How?
 Is teacher or practitioner directed?
 Has an end goal of improving a teaching practice or other educational process ?

3.4.3 Reasons to Conduct Action Research

 Many teachers argue that the problem with theory is that it ignores practice. Theory
is often tied to large-scale research projects designed and conducted by educational
researchers, with little or no teacher input.
 Of course, formal research occupies an important place in the field of education;
yet, it can be difficult to translate its findings into new practices. Action research
allows teachers to pursue critical inquiry to activate change, on their own terms.
Teachers may want to take formal research findings and translate them into their
own action research question.
 We offer a list of five compelling reasons to undertake an action research project
this year.
 It will help you build a reflective practice, based on proven techniques.
 It allows you to try out new ideas and reliably assess their effectiveness.
 It will build confidence in your instructional decisions.
 It contributes to the professional culture of teaching at your school.
 It can create meaningful and lasting change in your practice, your students'
learning, and your school.

3.4.4 Three Levels of Action Research

There are typically three different levels of action research.
 The first level is conducted by an individual to test methods for implementation in
the classroom.
 The second level is undertaken by a group of teachers testing a method for use
department or grade.
 The third level involves teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders; its
purpose is to affect change in the larger school community.

3.4.5 Conducting Action Research (A Simple Methodology)

In order to conduct your research systematically, you need to choose an action research
method. There are many available, some more rigorous than others. Here we offer a
simplified set of steps that are included in most action research projects.

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1. Identify the question, issue, or problem
This is always your starting point. You may need time to determine the right focus
for your question. Action research provides immediate answers to problems that
cannot wait for theoretical solution.
2. Define a solution.
The solution will be a new instructional technique, strategy, new environment, or
new material that you feel has potential to correct the problem.
3. Apply the technique and collect data.
Here you will need to define how you will apply the technique and the method you
will use to collect your data. If possible, it is helpful to have at least two groups that
you can use for your research, one acting as the test group and one for the control
group (the group that doesn't use the strategy or technique). You will need to define
in advance how you will record reactions to your intervention.
4. Analyze your findings.
Determine whether the solution had an impact on learning. This is where having a
control group to compare your test groups can help you determine whether the
technique has caused a desirable change, an undesirable change, or no change at
all.
5. Take action.
This can be either in the form of revising your intervention and returning to Step 2
to test another intervention, or by changing your practice to reflect a successful new
technique.

Key Points
 Action researches are conducted to solve the classroom problems through the
application of scientific method.
 Action research helps the teacher to build a reflective practice, based on proven
techniques.
 The results of action research provide confidence to the teacher in his instructional
decisions.
 It contributes to the professional culture of teaching at his school.
 Action research can create meaningful and lasting change in your practice, your
students' learning, and your school.

Activities
1. Take a problem and keeping in view the procedure given in the article 3.4.5,
conduct an action research to solve your classroom problem.
2. You are teaching science to class say VI. You observe that a child who is passive
(active) in the class but his performance in the examination is well (not well). Try
to explore it.

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SAQ 3.4

1. What steps you follow to conduct an action research?

2. How we can say that action research differs from formal research?

Suggested Answers

SAQ-3.1
Part A (c), (d), (d), (d), (c)
Part B See the 3.1 part of the unit.

SAQ-3.2 See the 3.2, part of the unit.

SAQ-3.3 See the 3.3, part of the unit.

SAQ-3.4 See the 3.4, part of the unit.

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References
 Government of Pakistan. (2006). National Curriculum for General Science (Grade
IV-VIII, 2006). Ministry of Education, Islamabad.

 www.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp.

 Louis Cohen, Lawrence, M. Keith,(2000). A Guide to Teaching Practice (5 th ed).

New York. Routledge Falmer.

 Safdar, M. (2010). A comparative study of Ausubelian and Traditional methods of

Teaching Physics at secondary school level in Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D Level
Thesis. National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad.

 Zaman. (1996). The Use of an Information Processing Model to Design and

evaluate a physics undergraduate laboratory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Glasgow: Glasgow University.

<HarryKRose@aol.com>

85
86
Unit–4
Unit–4

LEARNING SCIENCE

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Shah
Arshad Mehmood Qamar

87
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................... 89
Objectives........................................................................................................... 89
4.1 Learning ............................................................................................... 90
4.1.1 Outcomes of Learning........................................................... 91
4.1.2 Theories of Learning ............................................................. 92
4.2 Reception Learning .............................................................................. 95
4.3 Relational Learning .............................................................................. 97
4.4 Rote Learning....................................................................................... 97
4.5 Meaningful Learning ......................................................................... 100
4.6 Constructivists Approach to Learning ............................................... 105
4.7 Children’s Misconceptions in Science ............................................... 107
4.7.1 Implication for Teachers ..................................................... 107

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Introduction
The simplest form of learning is imitation because the students change their behaviour
without any risk of being wrong. Learning occupies a very important place in our daily
life. It provides a key to structure our insight and behaviour. The process of learning
starts from the child’s birth rather in the womb of the mother. Observation and sense
experience, (direct or indirect) play a vital role in shaping and moulding the behaviour of
the individual from the very early stage (sensory motor stage as Piaget said). When a
child touches a hot-pot he gets burnt. Next time, when he comes across a hot thing, he
withdraws his hand within no time. With this experience, he has learned to avoid all
burning things and reaches on the conclusion that if someone touches a hot body, one
gets burnt. In the same way from other experience, he concludes, for instance, “Man is
mortal”, “truth is evergreen”, and “a stitch in time saves nine”, etc. All these conclusions
derived from experiences either direct or indirect, bring about a change in the behaviour
and insight of the individual. These changes are brought about by experience are
commonly known as learning.

In this unit we will study what learning is and how it takes place effectively and
efficiently in classroom and science laboratory.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 Define and understand the meaning of learning.
 Know about the outcomes of learning.
 Understand reception and relational learning.
 Differentiate between rote and meaningful learning.
 Apply meaningful learning model in the class room.
 Know and understand the constructivist approach to learning.
 Gain insight about misconceptions in science.

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4.1 Learning
The term “learning” has not been always interpreted in the same way by the numerous
thinkers, educationists and psychologists. In the view of Safdar (2010), Learning involves
many skills and experiences, which are possible in science classroom and laboratory
situation. The simplest form of learning is imitation that is producing things as a copy of
the real one. In the views of Shah (2004), imitation is useful form of learning especially
in the laboratory situation. It encourages one to grow and pretend freely without risk of
being wrong or embarrassed.

In the view of Kingsley and R. Garry (1957) “learning is the process by which behaviour
is originated or changes through practice and training”. Kimble (1961) states, “learning
is relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality that occurs as a result of
reinforced practice”.

Learning may be more formally defined as a relatively permanent change in the potential
behaviour resulting from experience. Bigge (1982) stated that learning in contrast with
maturation, is an enduring change in a living individual that is not heralded by his genetic
inhabitance. It may be considered a change in insight, behaviour, perception or
motivation or a combination of these. Learning is a change in human disposition or
capabilities, which can be retained, and which is not simply ascribable to the process of
growth.

Learning involves change which is concerned with the acquisition of habits, knowledge
and attitudes. The sense of learning according to Gagne (1977) is simply the development
of capabilities that are the outcomes of learning. These include: a) verbal information (b)
Intellectual skills (c) Cognitive Strategies (d) Attitude (e) Motor Skills.

In the view of above definitions the term learning is put to multiple uses: (1) The
acquisition and mastery of what is already known about something, (2) the extension and
clarification. It is difficult to summarize learning in a single phrase or sentence, which
will encompass all situations. Here learning will be seen as active, goal directed
construction of meaning. Learning involves experience that will change the behaviour
and attitude.

It is used to describe learning as; a product (the emphasis is on the outcomes of the
experience), a process (the emphasis is on what happens when a learning experience
takes place), and a function (the emphasis is on certain important aspect like motivation
which help product learning).

 Factors affecting learning

There are so many factors, which influence learning in one way or another but the major
factors affecting learning are:
1. Learner’s intention to learn (saying of the Holy Prophet Muhammad peace be upon
him “deeds are based on intentions”)

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2. Interest of the learner towards learning something
3. Motivation
4. Attitude (personal likeness or dis-likeness toward something, phenomena, subject,
etc.
5. Poor communication in the learning situation
6. Remembering and forgetting (mental tendency or capacity)
7. Difficulty in learning material
8. Teaching and learning strategies

Learning is not a passive absorption of learning material (rote learning) but active mental
process (meaningful learning). In the view of Zaman (1996), “Learning is a flow of
information from perception filter to working memory space here it reshapes and
organizes according to the pre-knowledge exists in the cognitive structure of the
individual and then it goes into the long term memory in the form of chunks for further
retrieval”.

School learning cannot take place in the absence of considerable mental processing
activity, conscious and deliberate or otherwise, on the part of the person who learns.
Learning always involves (mental) doing. When we go about activities such as working,
playing and learning, we use our mind and our senses in consistent ways, we have
acquired preferred patterns of perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem solving.
Complex cognitive strategies of structure and control are at working that enables us to
deal successfully with the stimuli that come our way.

4.1.1 Outcomes of Learning

Learning, as a useful process, may result in the following outcomes:
1. Bringing desirable changes in behaviour. Learning is a process of bringing
changes in behaviour. It can help in introducing desired changes in the behaviour of
a learner, in all its three domains i.e. cognitive, conative, affective.
2. Attaining of teaching-learning objectives. The teaching-learning objectives and
teaching learning situation can be effectively reached through the help of learning
and consequently a child can be made to acquire essential knowledge, skills,
application, attitudes and interests etc.
3. Attaining of proper growth and development. Learning helps in reaching one’s
maximum in terms of growth and development in various spheres namely physical,
mental, emotional, social, moral, language and aesthetic.
4. Attaining balanced development of personality. Our educational efforts are
directed to bring an all-round development in the personality of a child. Learning
result in bringing such an all-round development in personality.
5. Attaining proper adjustment. Adjustment is a key to success in life. Learning
helps an individual to get adjusted himself to the environment.
6. Realizing of the goals of life. Every person has his own philosophy of life and
tries to achieve the goals of his life. Learning process helps an individual to realize
his goals.

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In this way the process of learning results in varying outcomes which can be said to
contribute significantly in the overall improvement and progress of the learner for helping
him to achieve the concept of “satisfying life”.

In most of the countries of the world and in Pakistan also, in science classroom or
laboratory courses, the learning outcomes, which are tested, are those, which are the
easiest to measure by pencil-and-paper tests. Greater emphasis is placed upon students’
ability to describe experimentation rather than upon their experimental skills, on the
production of ‘right answers’ than on critical thinking, on correct conduct of experiments
rather than experimental design or planning.

4.1.2 Theories of Learning

What goes into the process of learning? How does an individual learn a set of facts and
figures, skills, habits, interests, attitudes, and similar other things in life? Such questions
have always been a subject of inquiry and investigation for psychologists and, as a result,
a number of theories have come into existence.

Bigge (1982) and Mangal (2005), provides the simplest grouping that is classifying
theories into two families: (1) Stimulus-Response (S-R) or connectionist or conditional
theories of the behaviorist family and, (2) Cognitive theories of the Gestalt-field family.

Merriam and Caffarella (1991) classify learning theories into four orientations: “(1)
behaviorist, (2) cognitive, (3) humanist, and (4) social learning.” Romiszowski (1986),
proposes a similar model, but uses the following categories: “behaviorist, cognitive,
developmental, humanist, and cybernetic.”

The table shown below builds on a table from Merriam and Caffarella to include
Romiszowski’s cybernetic orientation, and also expanded Merriam and Caffarella
category of social learning to include situated learning as well.

Five Orientations to Learning Theories

Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social/Situated Cybernetic

Learning
Theorists Thorndike, Koffka,Kohler, Rousseau, Bandura, Weiner,
Pavlov, Wertheimer, Pestaloozzi, Rotter, Shannon,
Watson, Lewin, Froebel, Vigotsky, Miller,
Guthrie, Reigeluth, Neill, Brown, Gibson,
Hull, Piaget,Ausubel, Rogers and Argyris, Landa,
Tolman, Bruner, Gagne. Maslow. Lave and Pask.
And Skinner. Wenger,
Brandsford,
Collins &
Duguid.
Views of the Change in Defined by A personal Interaction with Systemic and
learning behaviour. Internal mental Act to fulfill and observation of defined by
process process potential. others in a social capacities of
(Including insight, context. memory,

92
 perception, throughput, and
information feedback loops.
processing, and Learner is ‘wired’
memory. into the
environment
Locus of Stimuli Internal Affective & Interaction of Feedback
Learning In the Cognitive cognitive person’s And self
External Structure. needs. behaviour, and Regulating
Environment. environment. Systems in a
complex
Environment.
Purpose of Produce Develop capacity Become self- Model new Develop the
instruction Behavioural and skills to learn actualized, Roles and learner as
Change in better. Autonomous behaviour. ‘information
desired processor’.
Direction.
Role of the Design stimuli Structure content Facilitate Present models of Design
Designer to elicit desired of learning activity. development new roles and Systems that
response. Meaningful and Of the whole behaviours. accept student
logical person. inputs and provide
arrangement of meaningful
contents. feedback.

Table 4.1 Source: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsy/infoproc.html

Key Points
 Learning is the act or experience of an individual that learns; knowledge or skills
that are acquired by instruction or study; modification of a behavioural tendency by
experience.
 Learning is not passive absorption of content but an active mental process.
 From an educational perspective, learning involves helping people along the
learning processes, and learning includes all the things that we do to make it
happen.
 Learning occurs when people take newfound information and incorporate it into
their life.
 Learning theories may be classified into four orientations: (1) behaviorist, (2)
cognitive, (3) humanist, and (4) social learning.

Activity 1
Indicate whether the following ideas about learning are true or false.
1. Learning is the acquisition of knowledge by study.
2. Learning is the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by
experience.
3. Learning is the sudden or slow acquisition of insight into the rules governing
certain relationships in the environment.

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4. Learning is the discovery of new facts and relating them to those already known.

SAQ-1

1. Keeping in view the different definitions of “Learning” presented by different

educationists/psychologists, write a comprehensive definition of your own.
2. How you can say that learning plays a vital role in the life of an individual?
Elaborate by giving examples from your personal experience.
3. What are the instructional purposes of behaviourists and cognitivists in learning
science?

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4.2 Reception Learning
In reception learning, the information is provided directly to the learner and it does not
involve discovery. He considered that both discovery and the reception learning method
could be classified either as meaningful or as rote learning. El-Banna, (1987), states that
in reception learning, the content is presented to the students, either by teachers or by
written materials, in its final form. All that students have to do is to incorporate this
content in to their cognitive structure to learn it and remember it.

Ausubel proposed the idea of a subsumer as a point of attachment for new knowledge.
According to Novak (1978), “any concept, principle or organizing idea that the learner
already knows and that can provide association or anchorage for various components of
new knowledge is a subsumer.”

Subsumption does not occur in the basic stage of development but rather results from
growing differentiation and integration of relevant concepts in cognitive structure.
Zaman (1996), says, “New knowledge is linked to especially relevant concepts or
propositions and this process is continuous. Major changes in meaningful learning occur,
not as a result of a stage of cognitive development, but rather as a result of growing
differentiation and integration of specifically relevant concepts in cognitive structure.” If
the subsumers or anchoring ideas or concept were there (in the pupils’ cognitive
structure) the pupil was effectively ready to absorb the new coming ideas.

Ausubel’s view of readiness/subsumer is close to that of Gagne. Ausubel was in fundamental

agreement with Gagne in that the key to readiness was pre-requisite knowledge. During the
process of subsumption both the anchoring concept and the new knowledge are modified but
retain their separate identities. As a result of the continuity of modification and elaboration in
the learner’s cognitive structure, meaningful learning occurs.

The great emphasis of Ausubel et al. (1968) was in their clear way of distinguishing from
rote memorization from what they call meaningful learning. In addition, they separated
these very clearly from the reception-discovery learning axis. The figure given below
gives clearer picture which is derived from the Ausubel et al (1968).
Reception-discovery and meaningful-rote learning axis

Figure 4.1 (Safdar (2010)

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Ausubel states that people acquire knowledge through reception rather than through
discovery. Concepts, ideas, principles are presented understood not discovered. The more
organized and focused the presentation, the more thoroughly the individual will learn.

Key Points
 Reception learning involves provision of direct information in finished form.
 It is opposite to the discovery learning in which the students work like a scientists
and discover knowledge rather than receive it.
 Reception learning is also distinguished from rote learning.
 Much school-based learning in science in Pakistan is Rote-Reception.

SAQ-2

1. Do you agree that much of the school-based learning (specifically in science

subjects) in Pakistan is Rote-Reception?
2. How can we shift this paradigm of transmission of knowledge to transformation of
knowledge?

96
4.3 Relational Learning
Relational learning is a way of being with students from a social constructionist
perspective where those involved in education. Students, mentors/teachers learn from
each other through the sharing of ideas and together create the learning/teaching world.
Relational learning is practices that invite both students and teachers to enter into a
dialogue about learning. The involvement of multiple parties in the task of learning
deconstructs the hierarchy within the traditional teaching relationship and opens space for
more collaborative experiences.

Most students come to the classroom or university with the traditional model in mind, as
this is the way in which they have been taught to interact within a classroom their entire
lives. While there may be a place and time for a teacher-centered model, the relational
approach lends itself to the active process of co-constructing knowledge not only in the
classroom but outside in the world.

The students are asked by the teacher to change these verbs into nouns. The students do
this and relate these words. Similarly, in science, the students relate the already learnt
concept with the concept to be learned, e.g. if a student has already learnt the concept of
Weight and later he relate the concept with Force, the resulting learning is called
relational learning.

In other words relational learning is a way of being with students from a social
constructionist perspective where those involved in education— students, mentors, and
professionals— learn from each other through the sharing of ideas and other create the
learning/ teaching world.

Relational learning is the practices that invite both students and teachers/professors to
enter into a dialogue about learning. The involvement of multiple parties in the task of
learning deconstructs the hierarchy within the traditional teaching relationship and offers
space for more collaborative experiences. Most students come to the classroom with the
traditional model in mind, as this is the way in which they have been taught to interact
within a classroom throughout their entire lives. While there may be a place and time for
a teacher centered model, the rational approach lends itself to the active process of co-
constructing knowledge not in the classroom but outside the classroom that is outside in
the world.

4.4 Rote Learning

Today's public educators look down on rote learning and consider this form of learning as
to be “out of style,” “boring” and even “mindless.” “Having to spend long periods of time
on repetitive tasks is a sign that learning is not taking place.

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According to the Noah Webster's Dictionary (1850) “rote” means “to fix in memory by
means of frequent repetition.” That certainly is the essence of what we mean by rote
memorization. So rote means to use memory with little intelligence or repetition carried
out mechanically or unthinkingly.

Rote memorization is not only the easiest way but sometime it is the only way to learn
something. Below are just a few examples where rote learning plays an important role.
 A child whose ability to discriminate between left and right has not been
automatized will confuse letters like b and d, or when writing, or confuse 17 and
71.
 There is no substitute for rote memorization in learning the arithmetical facts.
Children learn mathematical tables through memorization that help them to solve
the multiplication, division and other mathematical problems quickly.
 The child’s lifelong access to the intellectual treasures of centuries depends on his
mastery of twenty-six abstract symbols in an arbitrarily fixed order, i.e. the
alphabet. His ability to organize and retrieve innumerable kinds of information
from sources ranging from encyclopedias to computers depends on his having
memorized that purely arbitrary order.
 Children learn poem, verses of the sacred books, national anthem by rote learning.

In rote learning the students just absorb the material in a parrot fashion, and may give the
wrong impression of having understood what they have written or said. In Pakistan, it is
strongly discouraged in the new curriculum of science and mathematics and first time the
standards are set. Standards specifically emphasize the importance of deep understanding
over the mere recall of facts, which is seen to be less important. The advocates of
traditional education have criticized the new standards as slighting learning basic facts
and elementary arithmetic, and replacing content with process-based skills.

Basic sciences must include the mastery of concepts instead of mere memorization and
the following of procedures. It must include an understanding of how to make the
learning material meaningful and to use the scientific equipments in the laboratory to
arrive meaningfully at solutions to problems, to verify laws, principles.

The advocates of traditional methods argue that rote learning is the only way to learn
material in a timely manner. For example, when learning the English alphabet, the
vocabulary of a foreign (second or third) language, there is no inner structure or their
inner complexity is too subtle to be learned explicitly in a short time.

Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization. Alternative to rote

learning include associative learning and active learning.

Brevity is not always the case with rote learning. For example, many Muslims learn by
heart and can recite the whole Holy Quran. Their ability to do so can be attributed, at
least in some part, to having been assimilated by rote learning.

98
Rote learning is prevalent in many religious schools throughout the world. For example,
Jewish use this approach when teaching children Torah and Muslim Madrasas utilize it in
teaching of Holy Quran. It is used in various degrees, at a younger age, the main purpose
being to memorize and retain as much textual material as possible, to prepare a student
for a more analytical learning in the future.

Key Points
 Rote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization.
 Rote memorization is a necessary step in learning some basic concepts. For
example in the subject of chemistry, the students learn the symbols of elements by
rote.
 The memorization of Alpha-Bets of any language is a first step, and one that
provides a foundation for the deep understanding that follows at a latter stage.
 Rote learning is quick and easy method to learn basic skill (learning of the verses
of the Holy Quran, mathematical tables, definition of nouns, verbs, etc.)
 Rote Learning is boring and extremely limited. (No one is going to learn the
subtleties of Spenser's use of Allegory with Rote Learning).
 In Pakistan, rote learning is strongly discouraged in the new curriculum of science
and mathematics.

Activity 2
There are five concept/facts in mathematics course (1-5). The students learn these as per
the following figure. Explain this and it is what type of learning?

1 2 3 4 5

SAQ 3

How you support this statement that ‘rote learning is necessary first step in learning
science subject’.

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4.5 Meaningful Learning
Two of the most important educational goals are to enhance retention and to promote
transfer (which, when it occurs, indicates meaningful learning). Retention is the ability
to remember material at some later time in much the same way it was presented during
instruction. Transfer is the ability to use what was learned to solve new problems, answer
new questions, or facilitate learning new subject matter (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996). In
short, retention requires that students remember what they have learned, whereas transfer
requires students not only to remember but also to make sense of and be able to use what
they have learned. Stated somewhat differently, retention focuses on the past; transfer
emphasizes the future. After reading a textbook lesson on Ohm's Law, for example, a
retention test might include questions asking students to write the formula for Ohm's
Law. In contrast, a transfer test might include questions asking students to rearrange an
electrical circuit to maximize the rate of electron flow or to use Ohm's Law to explain a
complex electric circuit.

Consider three learning scenarios. The first exemplifies what might be called no learning,
the second, rote learning, and the third, meaningful learning.

No Learning
Shabana reads a chapter on electrical circuits in her science textbook. She skims the
material, certain that the test will be a breeze. When she is asked to recall part of the
lesson (as a retention test), she is able to remember very few of the key terms and facts.
For example, she cannot list the major components in an electrical circuit even though
they were described in the chapter. When she is asked to use the information to solve
problems (as part of a transfer test), she cannot. For example, she cannot answer an essay
question that asks her to diagnose a problem in an electrical circuit. In this worst-case
scenario, shabana neither possesses nor is able to use the relevant knowledge. Shabana
has neither sufficiently attended to nor encoded the material during learning. The
resulting outcome can be essentially characterized as no learning.

Rote Learning
Zaineb reads the same chapter on electrical circuits. She reads carefully, making sure she
reads every word. She goes over the material, memorizing the key facts. When she is
asked to recall the material, she can remember almost all of the important terms and facts
in the lesson. Unlike Rifet, she is able to list the major components in an electrical circuit.
However, when Zaineb is asked to use the information to solve problems, she cannot.
Like Shabana, she cannot answer the essay question requiring her to diagnose a problem
in an electrical circuit. In this scenario, Zaineb possesses relevant knowledge but is
unable to use that knowledge to solve problems. She cannot transfer this knowledge to a
new situation. Zaineb has attended to relevant information but has not understood it and,
therefore, cannot use it. The resulting learning outcome can be called rote learning.

100
Meaningful Learning
Amen reads the same textbook chapter on electrical circuits. She reads carefully, trying to
make sense out of it. When asked to recall the material, she, like Zaineb, can remember
almost all of the important terms and facts in the lesson. Furthermore, when she is asked
to use the information to solve problems, she generates many possible solutions. In this
scenario, Amen not only possesses relevant knowledge, she also can use that knowledge
to solve problems and understand new concepts. She can transfer her knowledge to new
problems and new learning situations. Amen has attended to relevant information and has
understood it. The resulting learning outcome can be called meaningful learning.

Meaningful learning occurs when students build the knowledge and cognitive processes
needed for successful problem solving. Problem solving involves devising a way of
achieving a goal that one has never previously achieved; that is, figuring out how to
change a situation from its given state into a goal state (Mayer, 1992). Two major
components in problem solving are (a) problem representation, in which a student builds
a mental representation of the problem, and (b) problem solution, in which a student
devises and carries out a plan for solving the problem (Mayer, 1992).

Ausubel’s cognitive learning theory has been found to be useful guide for learning
events. The key concepts involved in the theory are a guide for teachers to improve
teaching and learning. According to Ausubel (1967), “Meaningful learning occurs when
the learner’s appropriate existing knowledge interacts with the new learning.”

As an educational psychologist, Ausubel was concerned with prior knowledge as a factor

influencing learning. According to Ausubel (1978), “the most important factor
influencing learning is the quantum, clarity and the logical organization of a learner’s
present knowledge. This present knowledge which is available to the learner at any time
is referred to as his cognitive structure”. (A cognitive structure consists of stable
organization of concepts, facts, rules, theories and the raw perceptual data, arranged
hierarchically, with the most generic concept at the apex and increasingly specific
concepts toward the base.)

Ausubel (1968) stated that if I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one
principle; “I would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what
the learner already knows”. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly. Novak (1980)
agreed that Ausubel’s theory is applicable and more powerful for teaching science
education than the developmental psychology of Piaget.

Both Ausubel and Piaget have offered some key insights for sciences. Forgotten is caused
mainly by the connections between the ideas being lost so that the persons can find their
way in their long term memory to retrieve the answer they want.

According to Ausubel (1978), “A primary process is learning subsumption in which new

material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive,

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non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences;
forgetting occurs because certain details get integrate and lose their individual identity.”

The major pedagogical strategy proposed by Ausubel (1963) was the use of advance
organizers. It is the job of the organizers to: “Delineate clearly, precisely, and explicitly
the principal similarities and differences between the ideas in a new learning passage, on
the one hand, and existing related concepts in cognitive structure on the other.” Ausubel
(1963) states, “advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries, which
simply emphasise key ideas and presented at the same level of abstraction and generality
as the rest of the material. Organisers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning
material and existing related ideas.”

According to Shah (2004), “Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential
fit between the student’s schemas and the material to be learned. To foster this
association, Ausubel suggests that the lesson always begin with an advance organizer- an
introductory statement of a relationship of high-level concept, broad enough to
encompass all the information that will follow. The function of the advance organizers is
to provide scaffolding or support for the new information. It is a conceptual bridge
between new material and a student’s current knowledge.”

Prior knowledge is the most important factor in learning. This means that learning
primarily depends on what the learner already knows. Ausubel (1968) describes
meaningful learning (as distinct from rote learning) as; non-arbitrary, substantive, non-
verbatim incorporation of new knowledge into a cognitive structure.” He claims that
meaningful learning occurs when the learner’s appropriate existing knowledge interacts
with the new learning. On the other hand, rote learning of new knowledge occurs when
no such interaction take place.” Ausubel’s theory consists of three principles of
expository teaching: (1) the concepts are meaningful only when the student can visualize
(i.e. elicits an image in the content of one’s consciousness) them and subsume them in the
cognitive structure. (2)When teaching a concept, proceed from the most generic concepts
to the most specific ones (i.e. the most general ideas of the subject should be presented
first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifics). (3) Students’
readiness (which includes current knowledge, stage of cognitive development, and
predominant mode of intellectual functioning) and integration of guest and host ideas
through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Scope and Practical Application

Ausubel (1968), indicates that “his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning
in school setting. He distinguishes reception learning from rote learning and discovery
learning; the former because it does not involve subsumption (i.e. meaningful material)
and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving.”

People think that they acquire knowledge primarily through reception rather than through
discovery. He is in the favour that concepts, principles and ideas are presented and

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understood, not discovered. The more organized and focused the presentation, the more
thoroughly the individual will learn.”

Ausubel believes that “learning should progress deductively – from the general to the
specific, and not inductively, as Bruner recommended (from specific to general). He
supports the use of direct instructional methods (lecture), and argues that large bodies of
knowledge are best obtained through this type of learning.”

Direct instructional methods are much more than lecture. It can involve worksheets,
textbooks, web-cites as well as teaching with questioning. The key thing is that the
instruction is directed by the teacher. This theory can help teachers as;
1. We need to remember that inputs to learning are important.
2. Learning materials should be well organized.
3. New ideas and concepts must be potentially meaningful to the learner.
4. Anchoring new concepts into the learner’s already existing cognitive structure will
make the new concepts recallable.

Ausubel (1960), proposed his expository teaching model to encourage meaningful

learning rather than rote reception learning. In his approach to learning, teacher presents
material in the carefully organized sequenced and finished form. Students receive the
most usable material in the most efficient way. It is most appropriate when we want to
teach about the relationships among several concepts. Another consideration is the age of
the students. This approach requires students to manipulate abstract ideas; this means
expository teaching is more developmentally appropriate for students of elementary and
secondary stages.

Key Points
 In meaningful learning prior knowledge is the most important factor. This means
that learning primarily depends on what the learner already knows.
 Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the
student’s schemas and the material to be learned.
 Meaningful learning (as distinct from rote learning) as; non-arbitrary, substantive,
non-verbatim incorporation of new knowledge into a cognitive structure.
 Cognitive structure means the stable organization of concepts in the human mind.

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Activity 4.3
There are five facts in math course (1-5). The students learn these facts and stored in the
mind in relational manner. Explain this and it is what type of learning?

1 2 3 4 5

SAQ 4

1. How you differentiate between rote and meaningful learning? Which approach
is better for learning science concepts?
2. Give two solid suggestions (for learning science in Pakistan) that how we can
shift learning paradigm from instruction to construction of knowledge.

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4.6 Constructivist Approach to Learning
Constructivism is a theory which regards learning as an active process in which learners
construct and internalize new concepts, ideas and knowledge based on their own present and
past knowledge and experiences. Hence the knowledge is constructed rather than received.

There are two types of constructivism: (1) cognitive constructivism and (2) social
constructivism. Although both share common characteristics such as the view that
knowledge is constructed through reflective abstraction, through the learner’s cognitive
structures and processing, through active participative learning, and through a recognition
that learning is not fixed and inert. Learning moves away from the behaviourist paradigm
to the ongoing development of conceptual understanding. The learner actively constructs
meaning rather than passively accepts meaning.

Cognitive constructivism owes its genesis largely to Piaget and is concerned with
thinking and learning. Social constructivism owes much of its derivation from Vygotsky.
For Vygotsky learning is social, collaborative and interactional process. He further
suggests that the teacher must provide the necessary ‘scaffolding’ in developing and
accelerating students’ ability to think for themselves, control and take responsibility for
their own learning.

Teacher can provide scaffolding in a variety of ways: by asking questions, by providing

reminders, by guiding towards the solution of a problem, by demonstration, further
scaffolding requires the provision of rich feedback on learning to students.

Scaffolding is not only provided by teacher. Small group of children can provide
scaffolding for each other. This emphasizes Vygotsky’s point of view that learning is
social as well as individual activity. Collaborative learning enhances learning, as students
talk about the issues involved with each other, as well as with the teacher.

Vygotsky give the concept of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) which is used to
delimit the sphere of learning. It is defined as the distance between the actual
development of the individual and the level of potential development as determined by
the social interaction (that is by adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers. In social constructivist learning the community (e.g. of learners, parents, teachers,
other adults both in school and outside the school) is important and provided much
learning meaningful which is the key element of the theory. The school reaches out of its
confines to the outside world and the outside world reaches into the school. We know that
for the last three four decades the teaching and learning have moved from instructivism to
constructivism.

From the above discussing we reach on the conclusion that constructivism is the
development of:
 Situated learning
 Meta-cognition

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 Higher order thinking
 The social basis of learning
 Movement from didactic to teaching
 Student-centered learning
 Intrinsic motivation
 The emphasis on the process of learning rather than on product.

In terms of implications for teaching and learning, we see that the constructivists have
different approach which is different from the conventional, traditional classroom. There
are certain principles which you must know before teaching by using this approach:
 Encourage and accept students’ initiative and autonomy;
 Follow students’ responses to learning and prepare yourself accordingly to meet
students’ needs;
 Check students’ understanding of concepts;
 Enter into dialogue with students about their learning;
 Ask thought-provoking, open-ended and higher order questions;
 Ask students to elaborate on their initial responses;
 Challenge students’ thinking, ideas and assumptions;
 Promote students’ curiosity and enquiry;
 Engage students in meaningful and relevant problem-solving;
 Seek out students’ values and concepts;
 Use diagnostic and formative assessment to guide learning;
 Reduce grading and standardized testing.

SAQ 5

1. Think you are a constructivist. What five main principles do you keep in mind to
teach science at elementary level?
2. Do you think that learning is a social activity and students learning in pear
groups more than individually? Support your answer with concrete evidences.

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4.7 Children’s Misconception in Science
Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a conceptual
misunderstanding. These are cases in which something a person knows and believes does
not match what is known to be scientifically correct.

A lot of people who hold misconceptions do not even know that their ideas are false or
incorrect. When they are told they are wrong, they often have a hard time giving up their
misconceptions, especially if they have had a misconception for a long time.

The irritating thing about misconceptions is that people continue to build knowledge on
their current understandings. Possessing misconceptions can have serious impacts on an
individual's learning. Misconceptions generate more mistakes because they are incorrect
representations of conceptual relationships (Strike, 1983). This means that a student's
preconceptions or existing associated misconceptions (ACs) hinder effective concept
learning in the future.

4.7.1 Implication for Teachers

 Provide children of all ages with lots of hand-on activities to help them to
clarify/rectify their concepts. (Make sure they predict what they think will happen).
 If an idea is derived from a narrow range of evidence then provide more evidence.
 If testing a prediction based on an idea could help challenge the child’s existing
idea then help the child to make that prediction and consider the challenge. This
should assist children in fair testing and using process skills.
 To rectify the misconceptions, and make the lesson more meaningful, clarify the
concepts with the help of examples and non-examples.
 Develop a scientific dictionary, word bank etc.
 If children have a locally correct idea about a phenomenon in one situation but do
not recognize that the same explanation holds in different situations they need to be
helped by the teacher to make links between the situations. This may mean
repeating experiments, for example, evaporation through clothes, water in a dish, a
jar on the play ground. Each strategy helps the teacher support the child in
extending their conceptual understanding.

What do we know about rectifying students’ misconceptions? (Empirical support)

This study was undertaken as an assignment in a Junior Science Methodology course as
part of a Graduate Teacher training program. As such it was more of a learning exercise
rather than a true research project. The objectives of the study were to define three
scientific concepts and identify for each some of the misconceptions that students

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commonly have. Six students of different ages were interviewed, using a predetermined
set of questions and activities for each concept and their responses recorded, in an
attempt to discover what the students’ misconceptions were, how they acquired them and
whether the exercises, combined with discussion, helped to modify any such
misconceptions. Three examples of science concepts and their associated misconceptions
are given in Table 4.2.

Three examples of science concepts and their associated misconceptions

Scientific Concepts Associated Misconceptions

Scientific concepts Associated misconceptions

1. Whether something sinks or floats depends on a  Things float if they are light and sink if they are
combination of its density, buoyancy, and effect on heavy.
surface tension.

2. Clouds contain very small particles of water or ice

that are held up in the air by the lifting action of air
currents, wind and convection. These particles can  Clouds contain water that leaks out as rain.
become bigger through condensation and when
they become too heavy to be held up in the air they
fall to the earth as rain, hail or snow.

3. An animal is a multi-cellular organism that is

capable of independent movement.

 An animal is a land mammal other than a human

being. Insects, birds and fish are not animals.
Table 4.2

Methodology
Six students, ranging between 6 and 15 years old were interviewed, to test both the
misconceptions themselves, and whether they changed with the age of the students (Table
4.3).
The students could be roughly split into three age groups: (a) 6 to 7 years old, (b) 10
years old and (c) 14 to 15 years old.

Age demographic of students interviewed

Student Age
1 6
2 7
3 10
4 10
5 14
6 15
Table 4.2

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Approach
Three different approaches were used for the interviews. For Misconception 1, students
tested the question using practical activities. For Misconception 2, students had to give
verbal responses. For Misconception 3, a questionnaire was used (adapted from Dawson,
1997), in which, having been asked the question, students ticked off their answers on a
worksheet. The aim of using three different approaches was to make the interviews: a)
more fun for the students, b) more informative for the interviewers, and c) allow a range
styles for presenting results. In all cases, probing and clarifying questions were used in an
attempt to identify the bases for the students’ responses.
Student interviews: The student interviews were divided into four parts.
1. Students were asked a question or series of questions.
2. Students were asked to answer or test the question(s).
3. Students’ answers or discoveries were discussed with the interviewer.
4. Students were asked to answer further, or test discoveries again.
The approaches for the student interviews were as follows.

Misconception 1: Things float if they are light and sink if they are heavy.
1. Why do some things float and some things sink?
2. Feel these two items. (Metal and plastic spoons of the same size) Which is heavier?
Will they float or sink? Why? Test this to see whether you were right. Why was it
so?
3. What about these two items? (Small metal pin/drawing pin and large plastic
spatula/chopstick) Will they float or sink? Why? Test this to see whether you were
right.
Why was it so?
4. What about these two items? (Metal lid and plastic animal Will they float or sink?
why? Test this to see whether you were right. Why was it so?
5. What about these two items? (Two plastic animals of the same size) Will they float
or sink? Why? Test this to see whether you were right. Why was it so?
6. Discuss.

Misconception 2: Clouds contain water that leaks out as rain.

1. What is a cloud?
2. What makes up a cloud and how does it form?
3. How does rain get out of clouds?
4. What happens to the cloud when it rains?
5. Discuss.

Misconception 3: Birds, fish and insects are not animals.

1. What is an animal?
2. Look at the worksheet and tick whether you think each thing listed is an animal,
plant or something else.
3. How did you decide on these answers?
4. Discuss.
5. Would you change any of your answers?

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Results

Misconception 1: Things float if they are light and sink if they are heavy

Why do some things float and some things sink? In response to the initial question of
why some things float and some things sink, four out of six of the students initially
explained sinking and floating in terms of weight. However, most had some
understanding that shape or other factors could influence this, but found it difficult to
describe. The eldest student (age 15) had a clear and accurate understanding while the
youngest (age 6) had some vague notions of water and air pressure deciding what would
sink or float.

Experiment 1: Heavy metal and light plastic. A plastic and a metal spoon of same size
and shape but markedly different weights were tested. Three out of five students (there
was one missing response for this section) predicted that on the basis of weight alone the
metal spoon would sink. The youngest student made the same decision but on the basis of
the materials the spoons were made of. While the eldest wouldn’t commit to whether the
metal spoon would sink or float as he couldn’t predict its ability to break surface tension.

Experiment 2: Light metal and heavy plastic. A plastic spatula (Sue)/toy (Fiona) and a
metal pin (Sue)/drawing pin (Fiona) of markedly different shape, size and weight were
tested. Despite the large weight difference, two of the students thought that the pin was
heavier (less than 1g) than the spatula (15g). The eldest child (age 15 years) felt that the
pin would not break surface tension and would therefore float. One student thought that
the drawing pin would float because it was boat shaped and that the toy would sink as the
plastic was rough. Two of the children quickly recognised that their first explanation had
been incorrect as testing showed that the drawing pin, although lighter sank, while the toy
floated. The others in general continued to insist that they were right even after observing
results to the contrary). For example, even after careful weighing, one student (age 10
years) still maintained that the pin was heavier than the spatula.

Experiment 3: Metal and plastic of differing surface areas (plastic lighter than metal
but smaller surface area). Some of the students predicted that the plastic would float
(one justified this on the basis that it was less dense). Two students thought the plastic toy
would sink because it was heavy. Most of the students thought the lid would float.
Various reasons were given but many related, eventually, to the shape of the lid, the
youngest (age 6 years) acknowledging that the lid needed to be placed carefully for this
to occur. The eldest child (age 15 years), despite having used surface tension as his
argument throughout the interview, did not recognize that here was actually a case for
demonstrating surface tension and actually expected the lid to sink, which he attributed in
this case to its density.

Experiment 4: Two plastic toys of approximately the same weight and shape. Three of
the five students (there was one missing response for this section) based their answers on
the experience of the plastic toy used in Experiment 3 and thus predicted that both would

110
sink. Two students were correct in their conclusions although it was hard to see how they
determined the differences.

Misconception 2: Clouds contain water that leaks out as rain. What is a cloud?
All four younger student described clouds in terms of their visual appearance on a fine
day. The 7 year old described clouds as ‘steam-like’, analogous to the steam generated in
the bathroom after showering. The eldest student (age 15 years) described clouds as water
vapour floating above the dew point, while the 14 year old described them as water
mixed with air that stays together.

What is a cloud made of and how do they form? Three of the students said that clouds
were made of water or water vapour. Two said they were made of gas (undefined) and
one that they were made of undefined crystals. In terms of how they form, two students
(ages 10 and 14 years) stated that they had no idea and left it at that. Three children (ages
7, 10 and 15 years) talked about evaporation of water; two of them (ages 7 and 15 years)
additionally defined the ocean as the source of the water. The youngest (age 6 years)
described clouds as coming from the sky.

How does the rain get out of a cloud? Three of the students (ages 7, 10 and 15 years)
had a general concept of water (or clouds) getting heavier until it rained. Three did,
however, have strong misconceptions:
Age 6: “Clouds melt”
Age 10: “Clouds bump together and the rain gets squeezed out”
Age 15: “Too much evaporation gets into the clouds until they fill up and burst open and
drain out. Like too much water in a balloon that then bursts.”

What happens to a cloud when it rains? Before describing the answers to this question it
has to be acknowledged that it was not a good question as there is no clear answer. We
originally designed the question to direct the students to the idea that clouds are made of
water, not just contain it. Most of the students felt that the cloud would go away or at
least diminish in size as it rained. The youngest (age 6 years) thought that clouds get
bigger when it is raining (which is admittedly true in one sense).

Misconception 3: An animal is a land mammal other than a human being, and

birds, fish and insects are not animals

An animal is a land mammal other than a human being. Four of the students had no
general misconceptions about what an animal is and classified them correctly in the
survey. The other two (ages 7 and 10 years) initially felt that humans were not animals
but corrected that idea following some discussion. The 6 year-old correctly classified all
of the animals but also included trees in this category. He had been taught the definition
of an animal at school just three weeks prior and had decided that trees also fitted into
that criterion, based on the idea that animals were alive, ate and could grow. During
discussions, it did however, become apparent that despite getting the responses correct,
student descriptions of defining features for being an animal included such things as

111
having a heart, a brain, eating meat and having a digestive system, thus showing some
degree of misconception.

Birds, fish and insects are not animals. Only one student had a misconception in
classifying birds, fish and insects as animals. Despite an initial reluctance to participate in
the classification exercise, she eventually classified all animals correctly except for
insects, which she intimated were not animals as she had been taught that at school. She
had been recently studying insects and learning the definition of an insect, and felt
therefore that this separated them from animals.

Key Points
 In constructivism theory the knowledge is constructed rather than received.
 Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a conceptual
misunderstanding.
 To make the lesson more meaningful, clarify the concepts with the help of
examples and non-examples.
 The irritating thing about misconceptions is that people continue to build
knowledge on their current understandings.

SAQ 6

Misconceptions have a serious impact on the learning of the individual. Make a small
group discussion with your colleagues to rectify students’ misconceptions specifically
in science.

Main Points

 Learning defined as a change in behavior. (1960s—1970s)

 Learning is approached as an outcome, the end product of some process.
 By definition, rote learning hindered comprehension, so by itself it is an ineffective
tool in mastering any complex subject at any level.
 Cognitivist view learning as the relatively permanent change in the behavior of the
learner due to some educational experience. It is the connection between Stimulus
and Response. Cognitivists see learning as the transmission and processing of
knowledge and strategies, while constructivists believe in the personal discovery
and experimentations of the individuals.
 Learning may result in the following outcomes: Bringing desirable changes in
behavior, Attaining of teaching-learning objectives, Attaining of teaching-learning
objectives, Attaining balanced development of personality, Attaining balanced
development of personality, Attaining proper adjustment.

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 In reception learning, the content is presented to the students, either by teachers or
by written materials, in its final form. All that students have to do is to incorporate
this content in to their cognitive structure to learn it and remember it.
 Rote learning occurs when there is no logical relationship between the ideas and
the concepts are placed in the mind separately.
 Meaningful learning occurs when the learner’s appropriate existing knowledge
interacts with the new learning.
 Constructivism is a theory which regards learning as an active process in which
learners construct and internalise new concepts, ideas and knowledge based on
their own present and past knowledge and experiences. Hence the knowledge is
constructed rather than received.
 In reception learning, the goal of the teacher is to select learning materials that are
appropriate for students and then present it in well organized lessons that progress
from general to specific in hierarchy.
 Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a conceptual
misunderstanding. These are cases in which something a person knows and
believes does not match what is known to be scientifically correct.
 Han cock defined a “misconception as any unfounded belief that does not embody
the element of fear, good luck, faith or supernatural intervention.

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Suggested Answers

Activity 4.1 T, F, T, T

1. SAQ-1 See the 4.1 and 4.1.1 and 4.1.2part of the unit.

2. SAQ-2 See the 4.2, parts of the unit.

Activity 4.2 rote learning

3. SAQ-3 See the 4.3, 4.4 parts of the unit.

Activity 4.3 meaningful learning

4. SAQ-4 See the 4.5 part of the unit.

5. SAQ-5 See the 4.6, 4.7.1 parts of the unit.

6. SAQ-6 See the 4.7, 4.7.1 parts of the unit.

114
Bibliography
 Ausubel, D P. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

 Crow, L.D. and Crow, A. (1963). Science Instruction in the Middle and Secondary
Schools, London: Charles E Merrill Publishing Company.

 Gagne, R.M. (1977). The condition of learning, 3rd edition new youk: Holt Rienfant
and Winston.

 Government of Pakistan. (2006). National Curriculum for General Science (Grade

IV-VIII, 2006). Ministry of Education, Islamabad.

 Gupta S. K. (1989). Teaching Physical Sciences in Secondary Schools. Delhi:

Sterling Publishing Pvt. Ltd.

 Gupta V. K. (1995). Teaching and Learning of Science and Technology. Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.

 Johnstone, A. H. (1986). A working model applied to Physics Problem Solving.

International Journal of Science Education. 15(9). 663-684.

 Kumar A. (1995). Teaching of Physical Sciences. New Delhi: Anmol Publications

Pvt Ltd.

 Louis Cohen, Lawrence, M. Keith,(2000). A Guide to Teaching Practice (5th ed).

New York. Routledge Falmer.

 Piaget, J. (1964). The Psychology of the Child. New York: Barbel Inhelder.

 Safdar, M. (2002). Cognitive Learning Style Field Dependence / Field

Independence in the Secondary School Physics Laboratories. Islamabad:
Unpublished M.Phill Level Thesis. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.

 Safdar, M. (2010). A comparative study of Ausubelian and Traditional methods of

Teaching Physics at secondary school level in Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D Level
Thesis. National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad.

 Shah, I. (2004). Making University Laboratory Work in Chemistry more Effective.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Glasgow: Glasgow University, Scotland.

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 Smith, R. M. (1993). Learning how to learn. Buckingham: Follett Publishing
Company.

 www.journal.naeyc.org/about/permissions.asp.

 Zaman. (1996). The Use of an Information Processing Model to Design and

evaluate a physics undergraduate laboratory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Glasgow: Glasgow University.

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Unit–5
Unit–5

STRATEGIES AND METHODS

FOR TEACHING SCIENCE

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Shah
Arshad Mehmood Qamar

117
 CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 119

Objectives......................................................................................................... 119
5.1 Strategies as Guidelines for Teaching................................................ 120
5.2 Teacher-Centered Strategies .............................................................. 124
5.3 Student-Centered Strategies ............................................................... 129
5.4 Individualized Strategies .................................................................... 133
5.5 Effective Use of Direct Instruction .................................................... 135
5.6 Teaching Science by Inquiry ............................................................. 140
5.7 Problem Solving Method of Teaching ............................................... 144
5.8 Hands-on, Minds-on Science Teaching ............................................. 148
5.9 Play Way Method .............................................................................. 151
5.10 Five-E Model ..................................................................................... 152
5.11 Demonstration Method ...................................................................... 155
5.12 Questioning Techniques..................................................................... 156
5.13 Learning in the Science Laboratory ................................................... 162
5.14 Some Teaching/Learning Devices ..................................................... 165

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Introduction
You have studied in unit 4 about the learning process, the difference between rote,
reception and meaningful learning that is how students learn. In this unit you will study
how teachers teach their students by using different teaching strategies and method to
make the learning more meaningful to them.

Teaching is a dynamic and well planned process. Its major is objective to acquire
maximum learning experiences. In order to achieve this great objective, various teaching
strategies, methods and techniques based on psychological researches are used. The
concept of strategy will give us a useful look at the various issues which are discussed in
this unit. In essence, strategies are the ways of achieving goals.

Teaching Strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired
learning behavior in terms of goals of instruction, and an outline of planed tactics
necessary to implement the strategy. So, two things are very common in any teaching
strategy; (1) generalized plan for the presentation of a lesson, and (2) desired learning
behavior in terms of goals of instruction.

Teaching strategies can be classified as autocratic strategies (teacher centered) of

teaching strategies and permissive / democratic strategies (student centered) of teaching
strategies. Autocratic styles involves the following strategies; lecturing, lesson
demonstration, tutorials, and programmed instruction while permissive strategies
involves discussion, project, problem solving, role playing, assignment, discovery,
inquiry, independent study, etc.

Teaching method is a style of the presentation of the content in the classroom. Method
refers to the formal structure of the sequence of acts commonly denoted by instruction.
Teaching methods are the well accepted procedure over time and have some
psychological theory in its support. So, method is the way of teaching and influencing the
behaviours of the individuals.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 Define teaching strategy, method, technique, and tactics;
 Differentiate between teaching method and teaching strategy;
 Know about teacher centered and student centered strategies;
 Differentiate between small group and large group strategies;
 Apply direct instruction as a teaching strategies in the classroom;
 Apply problem solving method in the laboratory and science classroom;
 Use teaching-learning devices (concept map, V diagram) to make the learning
more meaningful to the learners;

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 Use the science lab effectively;
 Apply the questioning answering technique effectively in the classroom;
 Apply 5E Model of teaching science to promote Active, Collaborative, Inquiry-
Based Learning.
 Apply play-way and demonstration methods to make the science concepts more
understandable to the learners.
 Apply different teaching methods and techniques to achieve the desired learning
behavior.

5.1 Strategies as Guide Lines for Teaching

Strategy means the art/skill of war. It is the science or art of planning and directing large
military movements and operations. It is very clear that the strategy is such planning
which is related to the working system. Although the word ‘strategy’ is being used with
reference to wars but for the last few years it is also being used in social planning and
teaching.

Strategies are the ways of achieving goals. These are the repeatable acts chosen and
maintained in logical relationships with one another to serve long term objectives.
Strategies provide guide lines for teaching in the classroom and outside the classroom,
and help in answering the questions:
1. Why to teach? (Teaching Objectives): The answer is that we have some
predetermined teaching objectives and we want to achieve these objectives through
teaching-learning process.
2. What to teach? (Curriculum): The answer is curriculum/content that is to achieve
the predetermined objectives we teach the students a specific content to achieve
that objectives. For example, if our objective is to produce good citizen, we should
teach social studies, sociology, etc. Similarly, the content about life sciences
should be taught at secondary level if we want someone to become a doctor.
3. When to teach? (Time management): Answer of this question is related to the
time/age/level of the learner. This question provides us the opportunity to think that
what content and how much content should be taught at what level and at what
time during the learning time span of an individual.
4. How to teach? (Methodology): Teaching strategies guide us in selecting suitable
teaching methods to achieve the teaching objectives at the optimum. Teaching
method is a style of presenting the content in the class. Different teaching methods
are used for the teaching of different subjects. Method is a systematic way of doing
something having orderly basis. It is well accepted procedure over time. It has a
definite structure. It has any psychological theory in its support.
Some teaching methods are student-centered and some are teacher-centered. In
sciences, mostly, those teaching methods are used in which students are active and
the teacher’s role is as a guide/mentor.
5. To whom we teach (pupils/ inexperienced persons)? To answer this question we
see the developmental level of the students. Piaget says that learning is the function

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 of development. That is, learning depends on the mental development of learner.
Therefore, it is the responsibility of the teacher to teach his students according to
their developmental level.

Piaget (1969) divided intellectual development into four broad stages. Long periods of
development can be subdivided into periods of shorter lengths to analyze and conceptualize
development more efficiently. Each child normally passes through these scientific stages of
cognitive development before being capable of abstract or formal thinking. These stages with
examples of behaviours associated with each stage are as under:
1. The stage of sensory motor intelligence (Aspects of sensory motor stage: 0-2
years)
i. Mainly directed by stimuli outside the mind. (Stimulus-bound and unable to
initiate thought)
ii. Pre-verbal (no language).
iii. Thought proceeds from action.
iv. Learns to perceive and identify objects.
v. By the end of the period child distinguishes parents, animals, and knows
names.
vi. Rudimentary sense of direction and purpose appears late in stage.
vii. Time (present-and limited to the duration of their actions.)
viii. Space (immediate – and is limited to the area in which children act.)

2. The stage of pre-operational thought (Aspect of pre-operational stage: 2-7

years)
i. Performs operations-combining, separating, grouping, ordering, seriating,
multiplying, dividing, substituting, and reversible thinking.
ii. Analyses.
iii. Aware of variables.
iv. Classifies. (The child develops classification ability).
v. Limited hypotheses are possible.
vi. Understanding of space and time are greatly expanded.
vii. The child develops conservation ability.
viii. Measures.
ix. The child develops the ability to apply logical thought to concrete problem.

3. The stage of concrete operations (Aspects of concrete operational stage: 7-11

years)
i. Performs operations - combining, separating, grouping, ordering, seriating,
multiplying, dividing, substituting, and reversible thinking.
ii. Analysis
iii. Aware of variables.
iv. Classifies.
v. Limited hypotheses are possible.
vi. Understanding of space and time are greatly expanded.
vii. Measures.

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 viii. The child develops conservation ability.
ix. The child develops the ability to apply logical thought to concrete problem.

4. The stage of formal operation (formal operational stage: 11-15)

i. Performs hypothetical and prepositional thought.
ii.. The child develops abstract and reflective thinking (evaluates his thinking
process).
iii. Synthesizes.
iv. The child controls variables.
v. Understands probability.
vi. Does ratios, proportions and combinational logic.
vii. Imagines.

The child’s cognitive structures reach their greatest level of development and the child
becomes able to apply logical reasoning to all classes of problem (Gupta, 1995).

Figure 1: Piaget’s four stages of mental development

Source: Piaget, J. (1969, p.11)

The chronological ages during which children can be expected to develop behaviour
representative of a particular stage are not fixed. The age spans suggested by Piaget are
normative and denote the time during which a typical or average child can be expected to
display the intellectual behaviours that are characteristic of the particular stage. The age
at which the stages occur can vary with the nature of both an individual’s experience and
his or her heredity. Progress through stages is not automatic.

6. To what extent we have achieved (assessment/evaluation)? Strategy provides the

teacher an opportunity to allocate and use the resources (human material and
financial) accordingly, and to achieve the instructional objective to the optimum.
Assessment and evaluation techniques/procedures (tests, etc.) help the teacher to

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 evaluate teaching objectives, teaching methods, teaching content and the major
purpose is to improve the teaching-learning process

Teaching strategy is an overall plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired
learning behavior in terms of goals of instruction and an outline of planned tactics to
implement the strategy. Good strategy provides guide lines in allocating the effective and
efficient use of time, choosing appropriate methods of instruction, and building a
productive learning environment.

Key Points
 Teaching strategy is an overall plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired
learning behavior and an outline of planned tactics to implement the strategy.
 Strategies provide guide lines for teaching and learning in the classroom, and help
in answering the questions.
 Strategies answer the questions like; why, how what, when, etc.
 Piaget says that learning is the function of development, and divides the
development into four stages.

5.1 Self Assessment Exercise

Q: Answer these questions

1. Keeping in view the different stages of educational process, explain how
teaching strategy helps to provide guide lines to teaching.
2. Learning is the function of development, keeping in view this statement
presented by Piaget, explains the stages with examples of behaviour
associated with each stage.

Q: Choose the best

1. Strategy mean:
a). Art of teaching (b) science of teaching (c) art of war (d) relatively
permanent change in behavior through experience
2. According to Piaget 11-15 years stage is called:
(a) Sensory motor stage (b) pre-operational stage
(c) Concrete operational stage (d) formal operational stage
3. According to Piaget 0-2 years stage is called:
(a) Sensory motor stage (b) pre-operational stage
(c) Concrete operational stage (d) formal operational stage
4. According to Piaget 2-7 years stage is called:
(a) Sensory motor stage (b) pre-operational stage
(c) Concrete operational stage (d) formal operational stage
5. According to Piaget 7-11 years stage is called:
(a) Sensory motor stage (b) pre-operational stage
(c) Concrete operational stage (d) formal operational stage

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5.2 Teacher Centered (Large Group) Strategies
Despite criticism, lecturing/presentation maintains its popularity among teachers

The main focus of teaching is to bring about desirable change in the behavior of the
learners. There are number of teaching strategies used to achieve the desired objectives.
Some strategies are for large group (e.g. lecturing) and some are for small group (e.g.
discussion, cooperative and collaborative learning). In this section we will talk about
lecturing as teacher centered strategy and in the next section you will learn about
“discussion” as small group teaching strategy”.

Presentation (Lectures)
Lecturing some time called presentation teaching and generally described as teacher-
centered teaching strategy involving one way procedure. Lecturing is a formal discourse
between an experienced person and comparatively inexperienced persons. Some of the
characteristics of experienced person are depth of knowledge in a subject, ability to
expose and explain the concepts in a coherent manner, use of apt language, wit and
humour, skill of drawing the attention of the students/pupils/audience, etc. These
characteristics are necessary for the success of lecturing. However, all lectures are not
effective and interesting. There are number of drawbacks of lecturing as pointed by
educators.

Students, think of all the lectures you have heard in your lifetime. You can remind that
some were stimulating, leaving you eager to learn more about the topic; other may have
been boring, causing you to struggle to stay awake. Some lecture may have been
humorous but you did not learn very much. You may remember some explanations that
were very concise and clear, while others were ambiguous and confusing.

Activity 1

1. Make a list of the essential characteristics of the best lectures you have ever heard.
2. Make a similar list of the characteristics of the worst lectures you have ever heard.

Lecturing by teachers comprise one-sixth to one-fourth of all classroom time but in

Pakistan this time is almost more than three-fourth. The amount of time devoted to
presenting and explaining information increases at the higher grade levels of elementary
school. Some educators have argued that teacher devotes too much time to talking and
there is a need to decrease the amount of teacher talk and making instruction more
student-centered. Nonetheless, lecturing remains a popular teaching strategy.

The popularity of presenting and explaining is not surprising, since the most widely held
objectives for education at the present time are those associated with the acquisition and
retention of knowledge/information. Specifically in Pakistan, curricula in school are
structured around bodies of information organized as science, mathematics, English,

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Islamic studies, and social studies. Consequently, curriculum standards, textbooks, and
assessment techniques routinely used by teachers are similarly organized. Further, direct
questions are asked even in basic sciences in the many exams that students are required to
take.

Psychological principles of lecturing

Like other teaching strategies, lecturing is also based on some psychological principles
and the teacher must know in order to plan his lesson.

 The lecturing in its pure form is one way communication and if learning has to take
place, it ought to be an active. The learners should meaningfully react to the stimuli
of the teacher’s teaching so that learning takes place.
 The teacher should be aware of the need of the students and the variety of the
techniques and tactics he can adopt to suit to different subjects and students’ need.
 The teacher’s concern should be the learning rather than teaching.
 In lecturing the information is given through auditory medium. This information is
converted into schemas (mental images) in the students’ mind. The teacher should,
therefore, give pause to build these mental images.
 The language used by the teacher should be according to the cognitive level of the
students. The use of language depends on factors such as difficulty level of
vocabulary, suitable examples, fluency, pronunciation, rate of speaking, etc.
 Teacher must present the summary of the lecture (lesson) on the board.
 If the lecture is linger on it begins to be boring, so the teacher should keep up the
interest by providing some humorous comments.
 The teacher should have a realistic idea of his own teaching ability and the learning
capacity of his students under the existing condition. So an unbiased assessment of
his learning outcomes is essential for growth and progress in the lecturing process.

Although, only lecturing is ineffective in the teaching of science yet it may be effective if
used in some modified form such as lecture-cum-demonstration, lectures with interposed
questions and lecture-cum-discussion.

Overview of lecturing/deductive teaching/expository teaching/presentation teaching

To make the lecturing more effective and student-centered the model presenting by David
Ausubel is being adopted now a days in most of the countries. This strategy requires a
highly structured environment characterized by a teacher who is an active presenter and
students who are active listeners.

This strategy requires a teacher to provide students with advance organizers before
presenting new information to make special efforts during lecturing and following a
presentation to strengthen and extend student thinking. There are two reasons to use this
strategy in the classroom, and I recommend that this strategy is effective particularly in
the Pakistani situation. The first reason is that this strategy is compatible with current

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knowledge from cognitive psychology about the way individual require, process, and
retain new information.

The outcomes of this strategy is very clear: (1) to help students acquire, assimilate, and
retain new information; (2) expand students’ conceptual /cognitive structure (more or less
stable organization of the concepts in the human mind); (3) and develop particular habits
of listening and thinking about information.

Lecturing or presentation is a teacher-centered strategy consisting of four phases:

1. The flow proceeds from the teacher’s initial attempt to clarify the aims of the
lesson and get students ready to learn, through;
2. Presentation of an advance organizers;
3. Presentation of the new information; and
4. Interaction aimed at checking student understanding of the new information and
extending and strengthening their thinking skills.

When using this strategy/model, the teacher strives to structure the learning environment
tightly. Except in the final phase of the model, the teacher is an active presenter and
expects students to be active listener. This strategy requires a physical learning
environment that is conducive to presentation and listening, including appropriate
facilities for the use of instructional technology (computer, multimedia/ A. V. aids etc.).

Alternative Teaching Strategies

The other large group teaching strategies frequently used in the teaching of science are:
A. Gagne’s general learning hierarchy with eight types of learning
Type 1: signal learning
Type2: stimulus response learning
Type3: chaining
Type4: verbal learning
Type5: discrimination learning
Type6: concept learning
Type7: rule learning
Type8: problem solving

Gagne urges educators to analyse their learning outcomes and then to construct their
learning hierarchy to guide the instructional sequence. He claims that if the primary
objective of the learning is stated in behavioural terms, it is possible to identify a set of
learning tasks that will increase the probability that the student will attain this primary
objective. Gagne says that the teachers/educators must state learning outcomes in
behavioural terms. Gagne provides educators a simple-to- complex learning ladder.

B. Jerome Bruner’s teaching strategy of concept/discovery learning

Bruner has made two major contributions to science education; (1) concept learning and
(2) discovery learning. Both focus on the active aspect of learning. His work on concept
learning stresses the importance of helping students to organize objects and events.

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Bruner’s work on concept learning stresses the importance of helping students to
organize objects and events, which permits them to reduce the complexity of the
environment.

Bruner has hypothesized four benefits of discovery learning:

 The increase of intellectual potency,
 The shift from extrinsic to intrinsic reward,
 Learning the heuristics of discovering, and
 The aid to memory processing.

C. Teaching strategy of Jean Piaget (psychological developmental)

Piaget asserts that learning is a function of development. He claims that cognitive
development, intellectual development and development of intelligence are more or less
synonymous.

Piaget’s theory of intellectual development has two components, one cognitive and other
affective. Piaget (1964) saw cognitive acts as “acts of organization and adaptation to the
environment.” Piaget asserted that, “the basic principles of cognitive development are the
same as that of biological development. From the biological point of view, organization
is inseparable from adaptation; these are the complementary processes of a single
mechanism, the first being the internal aspect of the cycle and adaptation constitutes the
external aspect.” For Piaget “intellectual activity could not be separated from the “total”
functioning of the organism.”

The process responsible for cognitive development is assimilation and accommodation.

In the process of assimilation which is the cognitive process, the individual integrates
new knowledge (factual, conceptual, procedural, motor) into existing knowledge or
schemata or patterns of behaviour. When a child confronted with a new stimulus, he can
create a new schema into which he can place the stimulus or he can modify an existing
schema so that the stimulus will fit into it.

Accommodation involves modification or change in some elements of an old scheme or

learning a new scheme, which is more appropriate for the new object. Accommodation
accounts for development (a qualitative change), and assimilation accounts for growth (a
quantitative change); together they account for intellectual adaptation and the
development of cognitive structures.

In the view of Siann and Denis (1985), “learning takes place through the interaction of
‘assimilation’ and ‘accommodation’. An intelligent behaviour requires a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, and is called equilibrium.” According to Piaget (1964),
“a state of “equilibration” between assimilation and accommodation is as necessary as the
process itself. Equilibrium is a self-regulatory mechanism necessary to ensure the
developing child’s efficient interaction with the environment.” Piaget viewed cognitive
development as “having three components: content, function, and structure.” For Piaget,
“all knowledge is physical knowledge, logical-mathematical knowledge, or social

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knowledge.” For conceptualizing cognitive growth, Piaget (1969), divided intellectual
development into four broad stages. Long periods of development can be subdivided into
periods of shorter lengths to analyse and conceptualize development more efficiently.

Key Points
1. Lecturing sometime called presentation teaching.
2. The lecturing in its pure form is one way communication and if learning has to take
place, it ought to be an active. The learners should meaningfully react to the stimuli
of the teacher’s teaching so that learning takes place.
3. Lecturing or presentation is a teacher-centered strategy consisting of four phases:
The flow proceeds from the teacher’s initial attempt to clarify the aims of the
lesson and get students ready to learn, through; Presentation of an advance
organizers; Presentation of the new information; and Interaction aimed at checking
student understanding of the new information and extending and strengthening
their thinking skills.
4. Learning takes place through the interaction of ‘assimilation’ and
‘accommodation’.
5. Bruner has hypothesized four benefits of discovery learning: The increase of
intellectual potency, the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic reward, learning the
heuristics of discovering, and the aid to memory processing.

5.2 Self Assessment Exercise

1. Write the Psychological principles of lecturing.

2. Write four advantages and four drawbacks of lecturing as teaching strategy.
3. How we can make lecturing more effective?
4. Write four benefits of discovery learning.
5. Enlist Gagne’s eight types of learning.

Choose the best:

1. Lecturing is sometime called:
(a) presentation teaching (b) activity based teaching
(c) Cooperative teaching (d) deductive teaching
2. Learning takes place through the interaction of ‘assimilation’ and:
(a) Organization (b) Accommodation
(c) Equilibration (d) Chunking
3. In lecturing the information is given through medium
(a) visual (b) audio (c) audio-visual (d) non of a, b, c
4. For Piaget all knowledge is:
(a) Physical knowledge (b) Logical-mathematical knowledge
(c) Social knowledge (d) a, b, c, all
5. According to Gagne how many types of learning are:
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8

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5.3 Student-Centered Strategies
Lesson organized around teacher-centered models are generally characterized by task
structures by which teacher work mainly with the whole class or the students work
individually to master academic content. These goal and reward structures are mostly
based on individual competition and effort. In contrast, in student-centered strategies, the
major focus is on the social aspect instead of individual tasks.

5.3.1 Cooperative Learning

The cooperative learning strategy is characterized by cooperative task, goal, and reward
structures. Students are encouraged to complete the task with their cooperation and
coordination with one another. The cooperative learning environment sets the stage for
students to learn very valuable collaboration and social skills that they will use
throughout their lives.

The learning outcomes (the three instructional goals) of cooperative learning are:
1. Academic achievement;
2. Tolerance and acceptance of diversity; and
3. Development of social skills.

Cooperative learning lessons can be characterized by the following features:

 Students work in teams to master learning goals;
 Teams are made up of high, average, and low achieving students;
 Whenever possible, teams include a racial, cultural, and gender mix;
 Reward systems are oriented to the group as well as the individual.

Cooperative learning is equally affected both low and high-achieving students who work
together on academic tasks. Higher achievers work as tutor for low achievers, thus
providing special help from peers who share youth-oriented interests and language. In
this process, higher achievers gain academically because serving as a tutor requires
thinking more deeply about the relationships of ideas within a particular subject.

A second important effect of cooperative learning is wider tolerance and acceptance of

people who are different by virtue of their race, culture, social class, or ability.
Cooperative learning presents opportunities for students of varying backgrounds and
conditions to work independently on common tasks and, through the use of cooperative
reward structures, to learn to appreciate each other.

The third and important goal of cooperative learning is to teach students skills of
cooperation and collaboration. These are critical skills in a society in which much adult
work is carried out in large, interdependent organizations and communities are becoming
more culturally diverse and global in their orientations. Yet, many youth and adults
equally lack effective social skills.

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Phases/steps involved in cooperative learning
1. The lesson begins with the teacher going over the goals of the lesson and get
students to learn;
2. This phase is followed by the presentation of information, often in the form of text
rather than lecture;
3. Students are then organized into study teams;
4. In this step, students assisted by the teacher, work together to accomplish inter-
dependent tasks;
5. This phase includes presentation of the group’s end product or testing on what
students have learned; and
6. Recognition of group and individual efforts.

The learning environment for cooperative learning is characterized by democratic

processes and active roles for students in deciding what should be studied and how. The
teacher may provide a high degree of structure in forming groups and defining overall
procedures, but students are left in control of the minute-to-minute interactions within
their groups.

5.3.2 Discussion as student centered (Small Group) Strategies

It is a process in which a small group (from 5-10 students) assembles to communicate
with each other by using speaking, listening and non-verbal communication in order to
achieve predetermined instructional objectives.

The salient features of this strategy are as under:

 The discussion occurs in small groups;
 The group member perform two roles:
1. As leader/moderator (mostly the teacher)
2. Participants (students)
 Group members have different influence over one another therefore learning of
each student is affected/influenced by the other;
 Participant use the available time to communicate with each other;
 Group members communicate by speaking, hand gestures, and facial expressions
while other receive by listening and by seeing;
 The processes of speaking, listening, observing are the features of this strategy.

Bridges (1979), states that discussion method has advantages over other methods. It
encourages young children and illiterate adults to express their ideas and to learn new one
because they cannot read or write.

The exercise of communication skill involved in the method develops more abstract
learning process. A good discussion motivates the students to engage to further inquiry
and provide the teacher with feedback on students’ progress.

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Discussion may be organized in three ways: (1) in groups with teacher; (2) in groups
without teacher; (3) one-to-one teaching.

In groups with teacher there is step by step discussion and this discussion is controlled by
the teacher. In free group discussion or in groups without teacher, the role of the teacher
is non-directive. In one-to-one teaching this approach may take the following forms;
individual tutorials, student counseling, and student-to-student counseling.

Techniques of leading discussion

 The teacher must relate the discussion with the objective.
 Teacher may also pause during his small lecture and invite questions on some
important topics.
 He may also use questioning technique (what is your opinion about the
issue/problem? What do you think about this reason? )
 Pose questions about the missing links.
 Throw the question to the students and inviting their opinion.

Drawbacks of discussion
 Students often distract from the main issue of discussion.
 Topic may not be interested by the students.
 Low motivational level of the participant.
 There may be some angry remarks by some students.
 There may be low participation or over participation or complete withdrawal of the
students from the discussion.
 If the teacher has no command or have little knowledge about the issue/problem,
misconception may occur.

In the process of discussion, the teacher starts first, identifies fair and foul, sets the time
for discussion, delimits the boundaries for discussion, when students deviate, the teacher
takes them on the right path and provides feedback where necessary.

Key Points
1. The cooperative learning environment sets the stage for students to learn social
skills that they will use throughout their lives.
2. The learning outcomes of cooperative learning are: Academic achievement;
Tolerance and acceptance of diversity; and Development of social skills.
3. Cooperative learning is equally beneficial for both low and high-achieving
students.
4. In cooperative learning higher achievers work as tutor for low achievers, thus
providing special help from peers.
5. Higher achievers gain academically because serving as a tutor requires thinking
more deeply about the relationships of ideas within a particular subject.

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6. The discussion strategy occurs in small groups; and the group member perform
two roles: As leader/moderator (mostly the teacher) Participants (students)
7. The processes of speaking, listening, observing are the features of the discussion
strategy.
8. In the process of discussion, the teacher starts first, identifies fair and foul, sets the
time for discussion, delimits the boundaries for discussion, when students deviate,
the teacher takes them on the right path and provides feedback where necessary.

5.3 Self Assessment Exercise

1. Write the techniques to lead discussion fruitfully.
2. Write four advantages and four drawbacks of discussion as teaching strategy.
3. What are the three major goals of cooperative learning?
4. Write six phases of cooperative learning

Choose the best:

1. The goals of cooperative learning is:
(a) Development of intelligence (b) development of physical culture
(c) Development of social skills (d) development of mind

2. The learning outcomes of cooperative learning :

(a) Academic achievement (b) acceptance of diversity
(c) Development of social skills (d) a, b, c all

3. Cooperative learning is effective for:

(a) Lower achievers (b) higher achievers
(c) Average students (d) a and b both

4. How many phases there are in cooperative learning:

(a) Two (b) four (c) six (d) eight

5. The process of cooperative learning is:

(a) Autocratic in nature (b) democratic in nature
(c) Dictatorship in nature (d) individualized in nature

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5.4 Individualized Strategies
All students do not learn and master skills uniformly. That is why, in order to maximize
potential of each student, individualization is required. Individualization becomes
significant when there are students from different backgrounds and varying abilities.
There are three basic techniques for individualization:
i. Individualized instruction
ii. Independent study
iii. Mastery learning

At this level, only individualized instruction will be discussed.

Individualization is a type of instruction in which the student engages in activities

uniquely appropriate to his learning. This type of instruction promotes independence;
provides opportunities for study beyond the regular curriculum and permits maximum
use of instructional resources. The goal of individualization is not a tutorial situation but
an appropriate instructional content for each learner.

The benefits of individualization are enormous and address the learner characteristics and
are an endeavor to work according to the learning styles. Far greater flexibility is the
prerequisite of individualization which is too much expensive. The problem of
individualization cannot be solved by single sole approach but need to be addressed by
several approaches.

i. Individualized Instruction

Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which content, instructional

technology (such as materials) and pace of learning are based upon the abilities and
interests of each individual learner.

Individualized instruction can take several forms. Ideally in individualized instruction,

students are engaged in learning tasks according to their interests, needs and abilities.
Accordingly, teachers might vary one or more of the following:
1. The learning pace
2. The instructional objectives
3. The learning method
4. The learning materials

Here is detail of these factors:

1. The Learning Pace

All students do not learn at the same pace. Some students need more time to attain
understanding. Hence, one and simplest methods to individualize instruction is that
of permitting students to work on the same assignments at their own pace. This task
is done by breaking down the instructional material into a series of short and

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 related activities or lessons. The faster students or high achievers can move
through the lessons rapidly without having to wait for classmates to catch up.
Whereas students experiencing difficulty can move through the materials at a
slower pace, reworking troublesome areas, and seeking assistance when unable to
master the material.
2. The Instructional Objectives
Another technique that can be used for individualized instruction is varying
objectives. If teacher take a pretest on intended learning outcomes (objectives),
he/she may find that some students have already mastered these outcomes. Hence,
instead of insisting that all students work on the same outcomes, teacher can tailor
activities to the needs and abilities of different students or groups of students. Low
ability students might need to work on all objectives, whereas better students might
need to work on small objectives and related activities to accommodate his type of
individualization
3. The Learning Method
Vary the method used in accomplishing the desired outcome is also one of the
individualization techniques. Even when students are working on the same
outcomes, they can use different means of achieving mastery. Some student may
rely on a textbook, whereas another may work with tutors. Other students with
learning difficulties may need to work with special teachers. Self instructional
packages, learning centers and computer assisted instruction (CAI) are other
possible methods that could provide individualized instruction.
4. The Learning Material
Varying the materials used to accomplish objectives can also lead to individualized
instruction. As just noted, textbooks can be used in individualized instruction.
Some students, however, may read at lower reading levels than their classmates. In
fact, some may have severe reading problems, which would hamper the use of any
textbook. If reading is problem, textbooks at different levels can be made available,
as can other modes-such as films, audiotapes, video tapes, simulations,
demonstrations, overheads and models.

Research projects, science projects, essays are also excellent way of individualizing
instruction. They allow students or small groups of students to pursue areas of interest.
For example, assays can be assigned on board topics such as new scientific discoveries,
nuclear technology, whereas research projects can be given in such areas as creating an
air car, building classroom models, or writing and /or performing a play. Research
projects are more challenging than essays; however students involved in research often
gain needed practice in finding and developing material.

Group organizational structures-sometimes referred to as cooperative or team learning-

enable and encourage students to learn and to assist each other. Students often learn and
retain more when taught by peers. Thus, groups can be formed so that a range of ability
levels and skills is represented within the groups. Also, student’s assistants can be
assigned to work with specific groups on problems, to lead seminars, to demonstrate
equipment or to direct instruction.

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5.5 Effective Use of Direct Instruction
The terms direct instruction or explicit instruction usually refer to whole-class expository
teaching techniques (sometimes less flatteringly called “chalk and talk”). Common forms
of direct instruction include lectures and demonstrations. They are teacher-centered
approaches in which the teacher delivers academic content in a highly structured format,
directing the activities of learners and maintaining a focus on academic achievement.
When used effectively, direct instruction has the following important features:
1. The learning outcomes are clear to students.
2. The teacher controls the time for various instructional activities.
3. The teacher organizes and controls the sequencing of lesson activities.
4. There is an emphasis on academic achievement.
5. The teacher carefully monitors students.
6. Feedback to students is academically oriented.

Lectures and demonstrations have been very popular approaches to teaching for many
years. Even though student-centered approaches to teaching have become more popular
in recent years, there are two main reasons why many teachers still used direct
instruction.

1. Because it gives them maximum control over what, when and how students learn.
That is why this approach is intuitively attractive to many teachers.
2. Because it has strong research support: If you read some of this research you will
find that much of the research support for direct instruction comes from studies of
student achievement on standardized tests, and in skills-based subjects such as
Reading and Mathematics.
3. Because in some circumstances, it is simply the most appropriate strategy to use.
For example, when students are being introduced to a new area of study it may be
useful to develop their basic knowledge and skills through direct instruction
techniques before giving them a more active role in knowledge-seeking through
strategies such as problem solving or experimentation.
4. Sometimes it is better for teachers to explain and demonstrate things directly rather
than leaving learners to discover knowledge of their own. This does not mean that
direct instruction excludes the use of constructivist approaches to teaching; it
simply emphasizes that sometimes students need careful guidance in their learning.
5. Because direct instruction is used so often (particularly in the form of lectures), it
has a reputation of being a dull and boring technique used by teachers who are
stern, authoritarian, dominant or lazy. This does not have to be the case. The
control and structure that characterize direct instruction can be achieved in
interesting, warm, concerned and flexible ways so that a positive classroom climate
is maintained and students enjoy learning. Like all other teaching strategies, its
success depends primarily on the teacher’s efforts.

Direct instruction teaching model aimed at helping students learn basic skills and
knowledge that can be taught in a step-by-step manner. This model does not have the

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same name. Sometimes it is referred as active teaching. The rationale and procedure
underlying this model was probably used by adults to teach to drive a car, brush your
teeth, write a research paper, or solve algebraic equations. The direct instruction model is
straightforward and can be relatively short time.

Briefly, direct instruction was designed to promote mastery of skills (procedural

knowledge) and factual knowledge that can be taught in step-by-step fashion. This model
is not intended to accomplish social learning outcomes or higher level thinking.

Direct instruction is a teacher-centered strategy that has five steps. (1) Establishing
set, (2) explanation and/or demonstration (3) guided practice, (4) feedback, and (5)
extended practice. A direct instruction lesson requires careful orchestration by the teacher
and a learning environment that is task oriented. The direct instruction learning
environment focuses mainly on academic tasks and aims at keeping students actively
engaged.

There are three theoretical traditions that provide the rationale for contemporary use of
direct instruction: behaviorism, social learning theory, and teacher effectiveness research.

1. Behavioral theories (behaviourism) maintain that humans learn to act in certain

ways in response to positive and negative consequences. Behaviourists are
interested in studying observable human behaviour rather than things that cannot be
observed, such as intension (thought), cognition. B. F. Skinner’s work is of great
importance for teachers that how a particular behaviour is encouraged through
reinforcement.
2. Social learning theory suggests that much of what humans learn comes through
the observation of others. Bandura (1977), argued that classical behaviorism
provide a limited view of learning and study observable human behaviour, while
social learning theory helps to study the unobservable aspects of human learning,
such as intention(thinking) and cognition. This theory makes distinctions between
learning (the way knowledge is acquired) and performance (the behaviour that can
be observed). He further goes onto say that most human learning is done by
selectively observing and placing into memory the behaviour of others.

According to Bandura (1986), observational learning is three-step process: (1) the learner
has to pay attention to critical aspects of what is to be learned; (2) the learner has to retain
or remember the behaviour, and; (3) the learner must be able to reproduce or perform the
behaviour. Practice and rehearsals used in direct instruction are processes that help
learner retain and produce observed behaviours. The principles of social learning
translate into the following teaching behaviour:
 Use strategies to gain students’ attention.
 Ensure that the observation is not too complex.
 Link new skills to students’ prior knowledge.
 Use practice to ensure long-term retention.

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 Ensure a positive attitude toward the new skill so students will be motivated to
reproduce or use the new behaviour.

3. Teacher effectiveness research is an approach to studying teaching that looks at the

relationship between teachers’ observable behaviour and students’ achievement.

The empirical evidence for direct instruction model comes from many studies conducted
during 1975-1990. All most all the researches produce the same results that the teachers
who had well organized classrooms, structured learning experiences, and higher student
time-on-task, higher students achievement than teachers who used traditional and less
teacher directed approach.

Conducting Direct Instruction Lesson

Experienced teachers learn to adjust their use of direct instruction to fit various situations;
most direct instruction lessons have five essential phases or steps. The lesson begins with
the rationale for the lesson, establishing set, and getting students to learn. This
motivational phase is then followed by presentation of the subject matter and
demonstration of a particular skill. The lesson then provides opportunities for guided
students practice and feedback on students’ progress. In the practice-feedback session,
teacher must provide opportunities for students to transfer the knowledge/skills learned to
real life situation. In the last phase of this model, lesson concludes with extended practice
and the transfer of skill. The five phases of this strategy is shown below in table 3.2.

Phases of Direct Instruction Model

Phases Activities/teacher behavior

Phase-I: Clarify goals and establish set. Teacher gets students ready to learn by going over
goals for the lesson, giving background information,
and explaining why the lesson is important.
Phase-II: Demonstrate knowledge or skill. Teacher demonstrates the skill correctly or presents
step-by-step information.
Phase-III: Provide guided practice. Teacher structure initial practice.

Phase-IV: Check for understanding and feedback. Teacher checks to see if students are performing
correctly and provides feedback.

Phase-V: Provide extended practice and transfer. Teacher sets conditions for extended practice with
attention to transfer of the skill to more complex
situations.
Table 5.2

When should direct instruction be used a teaching strategy?

 In general, academic learning is influenced by the amount of time that students
spend engaged in appropriate academic activities.
 Learning is easier for students when their teachers carefully structure new
information. Teachers should help students to relate new information to what they
already know.

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 Teachers should monitor student feedback and provide corrective feedback. All of
these things are possible through direct instruction, and often it is the most
appropriate way to achieve them.
 Direct instruction can be used to help students achieve many types of learning
outcomes, particularly those that are based on knowledge and attitudes / values.
Direct instruction can also be used to demonstrate skills, but skill development
requires practice by the learners. Some of the advantages of direct instruction and
some of the situations in which it is likely to be an appropriate choice of teaching
strategy are:
 Direct instruction can be an efficient way to introduce students to a new area of
study by giving them a broad overview that defines key concepts and shows how
they are interrelated. This helps students to develop the foundational knowledge
that they need for later learning (possibly using student-centered strategies). This is
particularly useful if important information (including relevant examples and
results of recent research) is not otherwise readily available to students.
 Direct instruction allows the teacher to highlight important points or possible
difficulties for students so that their exposure to these things is not left to chance.
 Direct instruction can be equally effective with small and large groups and with
students from most cultures.

Generally, direct instruction allows teachers to create a non-threatening environment for

students. Those who are shy, not confident, or not knowledgeable are not forced to
participate and become embarrassed. But after getting feedback, teacher can take
measures to modify the behaviours of such type of students through different
motivational techniques.

Key Points
1. Individualized strategies include individualized instruction, independent study,
mastery learning, and drill and practice.
2. They represent techniques tailored to fit student’s needs and abilities.
3. Individualization can be provided by students working at their own pace on
different objectives, working with different materials, and working on essays or
projects.
4. In individualized instruction, students are engaged in learning tasks according to
their interests, needs and abilities.
5. Direct instruction refers to whole-class expository teaching techniques.
6. Direct instruction can be equally effective with small and large groups and with
students from most cultures.

Five phases of direct instruction are: Clarify goals and establish set, demonstrate
knowledge or skill, provide guided practice, check for understanding and feedback,
provide extended practice and transfer.

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5.4 Self Assessment Exercise

1. What is individualized instruction? How a teacher can make its teaching effective
by using this strategy specifically when teaching slow learners.
2. What is direct instruction? Describe its five phases along with teacher’s activities.
3. When should direct instruction be used as teaching strategy?
4. Give one similarity and one difference of direct instruction and individualized
instruction.

Choose the best:

1. The phases of direct instruction are:
(a) two (b) three (c) four (d) five

2. Direct instruction is a:
(a) Teacher-centered (b) student-centered
(c) Non of a, b (d) both a, b,

3. Social learning theory suggests that much of what humans learn comes
through:
(a) Personal experiences (b) the observation of others
(c) Social interaction (d) b and c

4. The last phase of direct instruction is:

(a) Provide guided practice (b) Clarify goals and establish set
(c) Demonstrate knowledge or skill (d) Provide extended practice and transfer.

(4) The Direct instruction can be effective with:

(a) Small group (b) large group
(c) Both large and small group (d) individualized

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5.6 Teaching Science by Inquiry
Scientific Inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world
and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also
refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of
scientific ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world.

To a scientist, inquiry refers to an intellectual process that humans have practiced for
thousands of years. However, the history of inquiry in American science education is
much briefer. Until about 1900, science education was regarded as getting students to
memorize a collection of facts. In fact, many of today’s teachers and students can confirm
that this approach is still with us.

In Pakistan, much teaching (which can be described as traditional) is based on teacher-

centered, lecture presentations to students where the role of the learners is the recording
of what the teacher says and its accurate memorization. Credit is given of the correct
recall of as much as possible in formal tests and examinations. This approach does not
occur in all countries and education systems but is a particular feature of much Pakistani
education and in many other countries.

In 1910, John Dewey criticized this state of affairs in science education. He argued that
science should be taught as a way of thinking. According to this view, science should be
taught as a process. During the 1950s and 1960s, educator Joseph Schwab observed that
science was being driven by a new vision of scientific inquiry. In Schwab’s view, science
was no longer a process for revealing stable truths about the world, but instead it reflected
a flexible process of inquiry. He characterized inquiry as either “stable” or “fluid.” Stable
inquiry involved using current understandings to “fill a … blank space in a growing body
of knowledge.” Fluid inquiry involved the creation of new concepts that revolutionize
science.

To help science education reflect the modern practice of science more accurately,
Schwab advocated placing students in the laboratory immediately. In this way, students
could ask questions and begin the process of collecting evidence and constructing
explanations. Schwab described three levels of openness in laboratory instruction. At the
most basic level, the educational materials pose questions and provide methods for
students to discover relationships for themselves. At the second level, the materials again
pose questions, but the methods are left to the students to devise. At the most
sophisticated level, the materials present phenomena without posing questions. The
students must generate their own questions, gather evidence, and propose explanations
based on their work. This approach stands in contrast to the more typical one, where the
teacher begins by explaining what will happen in the laboratory session.

In the late 1950s and the 1960s, Joseph Schwab published articles on inquiry (or enquiry,
his preferred spelling). Schwab laid the foundation for the emergence of inquiry as a
prominent theme in the curriculum reform of that era (Schwab, 1958; 1960; 1966).

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In1958 he grounded in science itself his argument for teaching science as inquiry: “The
formal reason for a change in present methods of teaching the sciences lies in the fact that
science itself has changed. A new view “Teaching Science as Inquiry concerning the
nature of scientific inquiry now controls research.” According to Schwab, scientists no
longer conceived science as stable truths to be verified; they were viewing it as principles
for inquiry, conceptual structures revisable in response to new evidence. Schwab
distinguished between “stable” and “fluid” inquiry. These terms suggest the distinction
between normal and revolutionary science as made popular by Thomas Kuhn in his
classic of 1970, The Structures of Scientific Revolutions. Stable inquiry uses current
principles to “fill a...blank space in a growing body of knowledge” (1966), while fluid
inquiry is the invention of conceptual structures that will revolutionize science.

Schwab observed that teachers and textbooks were presenting science in a way that was
inconsistent with modern science. Schwab in 1966 found that science was being taught
“...as a nearly unmitigated rhetoric of conclusions in which the current and temporary
constructions of scientific knowledge are conveyed as empirical, literal, and irrevocable
truths.” A “rhetoric of conclusions, then, is a structure of discourse which persuades men
to accept the tentative as certain, the doubtful as the undoubted, by making no mention of
reasons or evidence for what it asserts, as if to say, ‘this, everyone of importance knows
to be true.’” The implications of Schwab’s ideas were, for their time, profound. He
suggested both that science should be presented as inquiry, and that students should
undertake inquiries.

In order to achieve these changes, Schwab argued in the year 1960, science teachers
should first look to the laboratory and use these experiences to lead rather than lag behind
the classroom phase of science teaching. He urged science teachers to consider three
levels of openness in their laboratories. At the primary level, the materials can pose
questions and describe methods of investigation that allow students to discover
relationships they do not already know. Next, the laboratory manual or textbook can pose
questions, but the methods and answers are left open. And on the most sophisticated
level, students confront phenomena without questions based in textbooks or laboratories.
They are left to ask questions, gather evidence, and propose explanations based on their
evidence.

Schwab also proposed an “enquiry into enquiry.” Here teachers provide students with
readings, reports, or books about research. They engage in discussions about the
problems, data, role of technology, interpretation of data, and conclusions reached by
scientists. Where possible, students should read about alternative explanations,
experiments, debates about assumptions, use of evidence, and other issues of scientific
inquiry.

Joseph Schwab had a tremendous influence on the original design of instructional

materials—the laboratories and invitations to inquiry—for the Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study (BSCS). Schwab’s recommendation paid off in the late 1970s and
early 1980s when educational researchers asked questions about the effectiveness of

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these programs. In 1984 Shymansky reported evidence supporting his conclusion that
“BSCS biology is the most successful of the new high school science curricula.”

In 1964 F. James Rutherford observed that while in the teaching of science we are
unalterably opposed to rote memorization and all for the teaching of scientific processes,
critical thinking, and the inquiry method, in practice science teaching does not represent
science as inquiry. Nor is it clear what teaching science as inquiry means. At times the
concept is used in a way that makes inquiry part of the science content itself. At others,
authors refer to a particular technique or strategy for bringing about learning of some
particular science content. Rutherford (1964) presented the following conclusions:

1. It is possible to gain a worthwhile understanding of science as inquiry once we

recognize the necessity of considering inquiry as content and operate on the
premise that the concepts of science are properly understood only in the context of
how they were arrived at and of what further inquiry they initiated.
2. As a corollary, it is possible to learn something of science as inquiry without
having the learning process itself to follow precisely any one of the methods of
inquiry used in science.
3. The laboratory can be used to provide the student experience with some aspects or
components of the investigative techniques employed in a given science, but only
after the content of the experiments has been carefully analyzed for its usefulness
in this regard.

The Process of Scientific inquiry

Inquiry has four objectives. The first is to help students understand the basic aspects of
scientific inquiry. Science proceeds by a continuous, incremental process that involves
generating hypotheses, collecting evidence, testing hypotheses, and reaching evidence
based conclusions. Rather than involving one particular method, scientific inquiry is
flexible. Different types of questions require different types of investigations. Moreover,
there is more than one way to answer a question. Although students may associate
science with experimentation, science also uses observations, surveys, and other non-
experimental approaches.

The second objective is to provide students with an opportunity to practice and refine
their critical-thinking skills. Such abilities are important, not just for scientific pursuits,
but for making decisions in everyday life. Our fast changing world requires today’s youth
to be life-long learners. They must be able to evaluate information from a variety of
sources and assess its usefulness. They need to discriminate between objective science
and pseudoscience. Students must be able to establish causal relationships and distinguish
them from mere associations.

The third objective is to convey to students the purpose of scientific research. Ongoing
research affects how we understand the world around us and provides a foundation for
improving our choices about personal health and the health of our community.

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Some Examples of Inquiry
If I think back to those aspects of my early education that have meant the most to me, I
associate all of them with struggling to achieve an understanding that required my own
initiative: writing a long report on “The Farm Problem” in seventh grade in which I was
forced to explain why our government was paying farmers for not growing a crop; being
assigned to explain to my eighth-grade class how a television set works; or in ninth grade
grappling with the books on spectroscopy in the Chicago public library in order to
prepare a report on its uses in chemistry.

What I mean by teaching science as inquiry is, at a minimum allowing students to

conceptualize a problem that was solved by a scientific discovery, and then forcing them
to wrestle with possible answers to the problem before they are told the answer. To take
an example from my field of cell biology: the membrane that surrounds each cell must
have the property of selective permeability—letting foodstuffs like sugars pass inward
and wastes like carbon dioxide pass out, while keeping the many large molecules that
form the cell tightly inside. What kind of material could this membrane be made of, so
that it would have these properties and yet be readily able to expand without leaking as
the cell grows? Only after contending with this puzzle for a while will most students be
able to experience the pleasure that should result when the mechanism that nature derived
for enclosing a cell is illustrated and explained.

Classroom research with long-term follow up shows that students are more likely to
retain the information that they obtain in this way—incorporating it permanently into
their view of the world. But there is much more. Along with science knowledge, we want
students to acquire some of the reasoning and procedural skills of scientists, as well as a
clear understanding of the nature of science as a distinct type of human endeavor. For
some aspects of science knowledge that are more accessible to direct study than is the
nature of the cell membrane, we therefore want students not only to struggle with
possible answers to problems, but also to suggest and carry out simple experiments that
test some of their ideas. One of the skills we would like all students to acquire through
their science education is the ability to explore the natural world effectively by changing
one variable at a time, keeping everything else constant. This is not only the way that
scientists discover which properties in our surroundings depend on other properties; it
also represents a powerful general strategy for solving many of the problems that are
encountered in the workplace, as well as in everyday life in our society.

Some Thoughts of a Scientist on Inquiry

As an example, a set of fifth-grade science lessons developed by the Lawrence Hall of
Science concentrates on giving students extensive experience in manipulating systems
with variables. In this case, eight weeks of lessons come in a box along with a teacher’s
guide with instructions on how to teach with these materials (1993). The class starts by
working in groups of four to construct a pendulum from string, tape, and washers. After
each group counts the number of swings of its pendulum in 15 seconds with results that
vary among pendulums, the class is led to suggest further trials that eventually trace the
source of this variability to differences in the length of the string. Hanging the pendulums

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with different swing counts on a board in the front of the room makes clear the regular
relation between pendulum length and swing rate, allowing each group to construct a
pendulum with a predictable number of swing counts. This then leads to graphing as a
means of storing the data for reuse in future pendulum constructions. A teacher could
also exploit this particular two week science lesson to acquaint students with the history
of time keeping, emphasizing the many changes in society that ensued once it became
possible to divide the day and night into reliable time intervals through the invention of
pendulum clocks (Boorstin, 1985).

Contrast this science lesson with more traditional instruction about pendulums, in which
the teacher does all of the talking and demonstrating, the students displaying their
knowledge about which variables—length, weight, starting swing height—affect swing
rate by filling in a series of blanks on a ditto sheet. A year later, the students are unlikely
to remember anything at all about pendulums; nor have they gained the general skills that
are the most important goal of the hands-on experience: recognition of the power of
changing one variable at a time; the ability to produce graphs to store and recall
information; the realization that everyone can carry out interesting experiments with
everyday materials.

...inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing

questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already
known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of
experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing the
results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical and logical
thinking, and considerations of alternative explanations. (Bruce Alberts, p.32 )

5.7 Problem Solving Method of Teaching

In school and college students learn concepts, rules, principles and laws. These learning
rules and principles help them to learn higher order rules and principles in future.
Learning rules and principles help in solving problems (e.g. principle of lever help us to
solve the problem of lifting heavy load with the minimum effort, similarly, Archimedes
principle solve the problems of how ships float on the surface of water, Flaming right
hand rule / left hand rule help in finding the direction the current etc., in the circuit).
Problem solving may be viewed as a process by which the learner discovers a
combination of previously learned repulse (to make somebody feel strong dislike) which
can be applied to achieve a solution for a novel situation (Gagne, 1976)

Problem solving is not simply a matter of applying learned rules but a process that yield
new learning. The learners are placed in a problematic situation. They recall previously
acquired rules in the attempt to find not only the solution of the problem but also learn
something new.

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Solution to problems is not an easy or sudden process. Students may encounter
difficulties in achieving a solution to problems. Problem-solving behavour involves a
process of overcoming difficulties that appear for the solution of the problem.

Steps in Problem Solving

There are many view point regarding the steps of problem solving. But the major steps
are:
 A felt need; the problem solver must feel the difficulty and speculate the probable
solution.
 Locating /recognizing/defining the problem; after the difficulty is felt, the next
step is to locate or understand the nature of the problem. The more clearly an
individual can state the nature of the problem, the more likely he is to solve it. In
locating the problem, the teacher may help students save time.
 Data collection; gathering data to solve a problem is not an easy job. The teacher
must instill in students a respect for factual knowledge. The pupils must find out
what others have done with the same or similar problems. The students must be
encouraged to make a brief record of sources of information.
 Formulation of hypothesis; a hypothesis is simply a theory or a tentative/possible
solution. The worth of the possible solutions depends on the originality and
intelligence of the problem solver.
 Testing of hypothesis; after some tentative solutions are accepted, the pupils can
be asked to try or test the possible solutions and their consequences. Thus, this is
the step of judging and predicting. The pupils may test the possible solutions either
in an actual situation or in the laboratory or through group discussions. This testing
whether theoretical, situational or experimental, gives additional information or
data about the problem. The new information may result in an alteration of the
hypothesis.
 Making a generalization; testing the hypothesis is often the final step in the
solution of the problem. However, higher form of reasoning demand stills another
step-making a generalization. The final step is an attempt to consolidate the
conclusion in order to conserve the meaning. It is a verbal description of the salient
information that has been obtained. The teacher must take the responsibility for
impression upon students the value of making sound generalizations. Making a
generalization will help the students in solving other problems in future.

However, these steps are not too difficult for children at the beginning of their
school experience. Elementary level students may not find out correct solution to
problems. But they can feel the problem. They can gather data. They can make
partially correct solution. They can evaluate the solutions and their knowledge. It
is, therefore, requested to the teacher to remember that the correct solution is not
important than the process and the interest involved.

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Teaching Problem Solving in School
There are different viewpoints regarding the major purposes of teaching problem solving
in school. These are:
a) Acquisition of knowledge of wide applicability;
b) Learning and using the techniques of problem solving;
c) Learning and transfer of skills, concepts, principles etc., and
d) Development of the ability to transfer the skills acquired through problem solving
in schools to the solution of personal and community/societal problems.

Whatever may be the purpose of teaching problem-solving, the teacher must know the
following points in providing instruction for problem solving:
1. The teacher must describe what the problem is, and what constitute the solution.
The teacher will not tell the students how to solve the problem but guide them
towards the solution.
2. While presenting a problem the teacher must assess the pre knowledge of the
students that will be required in solution of the problem.
3. The teacher should help the students to recall the relevant concepts, principles and
also help them to apply these concepts, principles in the solution of the problem.
By providing advance organizers (demonstration, question etc.) the teacher can
help students apply the relevant information in the problem situation.
4. After trying and solving the problem the students should be required to give a full
demonstration of the problem solution. In order to test their real understanding of
problem solving the teacher should use their problems of the same kind and verify
their learning and understanding.

Key Points
1. In Pakistan, much teaching is based on inquiry teacher-centered, lecture
presentations to students where the role of the learners is the recording of what the
teacher says and its accurate memorization.
2. Scientific Inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural
world.
3. Inquiry has three main objectives: To help students understand the basic aspects of
scientific inquiry; to provide students with an opportunity to practice and refine
their critical-thinking skills; to convey to students the purpose of scientific
research.
4. Problem solving may be viewed as a process by which the learner discovers a
combination of previously learned repulse (strong dislike) which can be applied to
achieve a solution for a novel situation.
5. The steps involved in problem solving are: A felt need; Locating
/recognizing/defining the problem; Data collection; Formulation of hypothesis;
Testing of hypothesis; Making a generalization;

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5.5 Self Assessment Exercise
1. Do you think that in Pakistan, much teaching is based on inquiry or teacher-
centered, lecture presentations to students where the role of the learners is the
recording of what the teacher says and its accurate memorization.
2. What is problem solving approach? Write the steps involved in problem solving
strategy.
3. Differentiate between inquiry and problem solving strategies with the help of an
example.

Choose the best:

1. The first step involved in problem solving is:
(a) Data collection (b) Formulation of hypothesis
(c) a felt difficulty/need (d) data analysis

2. Inquiry has three main objectives:

(a) To help students understand the basic aspects of scientific inquiry;
(b) To provide students with an opportunity to practice and refine their critical-
thinking skills;
(c) To convey to students the purpose of scientific research. (d) a, b, c, all

3. Hypothesis is:
(b) A tentative solution of a problem (b) a declarative statement
(c) An intelligence guess (d) a, b and c all

(4) The objective of scientific inquiry is:

(a) To learn by heart (b) To provide an opportunity to students to practice and
refine their critical-thinking skills
(c) To demonstrate knowledge or skill (d) To provide extended practice and
transfer.

(5) The science teaching in Pakistan is primarily:

(a) Reception (b) meaningful
(c) Discovery (d) inquiry

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5.8 Hands–On, Minds –On Science Teaching
 Hands-On: Students are actually allowed to perform science as they construct
meaning and acquire understanding.
 Minds-On: Activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop
thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers that
enhance their knowledge and thereby acquire an understanding of the physical
universe in which they live.

In the teaching and learning of science, this approach allows students to fully participate
in the learning process. It encourages full involvement of learners. Now- a-days along
with traditional teaching, technology becomes an additional tool, supporting the learning
process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. Therefore for educators, it
becomes a challenge to define the new approach for teaching and learning with adequate
clarity.

At lower grades and also to some extent at higher grades (9 to 12) in Pakistan, science
instruction lacks a clear focus; therefore, students are not very well prepared with science
content. Therefore, the natural curiosity of children, readiness to understand their
surroundings, is often reduced by instruction that lacks or discourages inquiry and
discovery. In the higher grades, science instruction becomes increasingly textbook-
centered. Even though the curriculum at higher grades contains laboratory experiences
(or demonstrations), students are rarely encouraged to use scientific methods to solve
problems relevant to their perception of the world.

The typical pedagogical pattern reflects an authoritarian, didactic approach to classroom

management. The reason may be that many teachers have never encountered a learning
experience in which they constructed meaning from the experience. Similarly, the
professional preparation of most administrators has not provided experience with this
type of learning. It is little wonder, therefore, that many classrooms present an
environment in which students learn by rote and repetition from teachers who exercise
authoritarian control over the learning process.

Many educators who would like to change this approach lack the support of colleagues,
administrators, and parents, who only remember a more traditional approach.

The comparative performance of America's children on science achievement tests clearly

demonstrates the failures of the current delivery system. Without significant
transformation of the curricula, strategies, and methods used in our classrooms, science
learning will not improve. Moreover, the reform of science education must address the
needs of all children, but it will do so only with the support of teachers, administrators,
policymakers, business and community leaders, and the general public.

Many of those working to improve science education have collaborated to create a

challenging vision for instructional design. Their vision builds on these beliefs:

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 Thinking skills, especially higher-order skills, must be learned through practice.
 A curriculum based on constructivist theory is well-suited to the teaching and
learning of science.
 Learning assessment must be built into the process of instruction.
 All students should have access to meaningful, engaged learning in science.

Students:
 Take advantage of every opportunity presented to engage in the process of "doing"
science.
 Develop the skills needed to seek information and solve problems.
 Keep an open and questioning mind, and constantly seek new knowledge and
understanding.
 Learn to work with others, to share responsibly for acquiring new knowledge and
understanding with peers, and to value new experience as an opportunity to inquire
and learn.

Parents and Community Members

 Support teachers by establishing high expectations consistent with those required
for successful learning. Demand high standards for learning and achievement for
schools and students.
 Encourage and nurture the natural curiosity that children have about nature.
 Provide opportunities for learning in the home, allowing students to participate in
activities that stimulate inquiry and investigation.
 Ensure that all expected "homework" is completed, providing support and
assistance as needed and appropriate.
 Create partnerships between schools and community facilities and resources that
provide students with access to knowledge and experiences that extend and
complement learning experiences in schools (e.g., museums, zoos, natural life
preserves, science centers, aquariums, planetariums, botanical gardens).

Teachers
 Commit to a professional development program that will enable you to change
instructional strategies, adapting them to new methods for teaching. A thorough
understanding of constructivist approaches to learning should be part of that
program.
 Create more opportunities for students to engage in science learning that is
authentic and patterned after the methods that scientists use.
 Understand the standards established for curriculum, instruction, and assessment
and use them as guidelines for making instructional decisions.
 Establish high achievement standards for all students and be certain that every
effort is made to provide effective learning opportunities for each student.

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 Model attitudes that foster inquiry, acquisition of new knowledge, and lifelong
learning.
 Seek ways to relate the learning of science to other disciplines and use technology
to enhance and extend classroom experiences.

School administration
 Become informed about the change process that will be needed to create a science
classroom that provides active, hands-on, minds-on, authentic learning for students.
 Help restructure time and facilities, the acquisition of resources, and the
professional development of teachers.

Establish supervision systems that expect and support teacher performance that is
consistent with the principles of active, engaged learning for all students in every science
classroom.

Policymakers:
 Create policies and laws that enable significant reform of the structure and
organization of schools (e.g., length of school day and year, greater flexibility in
accreditation, encouragement and support for innovation).
 Exercise patience in pressing for reform.
 Provide funding for resources and training to implement reform.
 Do not impose mandates that amount to "tinkering" rather than reform.

Implementation Pitfalls:
Under the new vision of science teaching and learning, teachers must alter significantly
the types of instruction that they have used in the past. First, they must understand that
simply "studying the content of science" is not the same as learning science. While
knowledge of facts is important, facts must be learned within the context of authentic
experience. Science teachers must rethink their traditional role as "knowledge deliverer"
and accept a new responsibility as facilitator, coach, and coordinator of experiences.
Science teachers will need more planning time and more instructional time than is usually
allocated to make these changes.

One of the benefits of this new type of science learning will be the opportunity to learn
principles and processes without being limited by traditional subject matter boundaries.
Those who make policy regarding the accreditation of learning for promotion and
admission to higher levels will have to adjust their thinking away from traditional
subject/credit practices. New criteria will be needed. Such a change will help establish
the new model, and without it, traditional patterns will prevail.

Text material will always be needed to support science instruction. However, teaching
based on this new view will require instructional materials that are far different from
most of those currently available. These materials will not all be delivered through print
media. Publishers must encourage the preparation of materials that foster inquiry,

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describe authentic problems, and incorporate technology. Until such resources are readily
available, practitioners will have to seek out nontraditional materials.

Administrators, parents, and community members must accept this reform as a better way
of learning science. Without informed support, the needed policy changes, organizational
restructuring, and greater emphasis on science learning will not be realized. The
transformation of science education will require major commitments from all sectors of
the greater school community.

5.9 Play-Way Method

Play is the natural need of the child. Through play he/she enacts many roles of the adults
of his world as he/she sees them; the child cast himself in those roles with which he seeks
identification. The child’s choice for play is selective and carries emotional attachment.
The emotions may be positive one of love, or a negative one of fear/anger. The child who
assume the role of a doctor/ pilot/soldier administering shots may be reducing the fear he
feels as the doctor sticks the needle in him/the paratrooper jump from the air craft/ the
soldier wounded by a bullet, he may be assuming the role of the one who wishes to
imitate. Child is learning while playing.

Learning don’t come from listening and seeing only but also more understandable from
actions, from doing and from personal experience. Play-way method is a means of
training individuals as individuals and a wonderful technique of making school education
interesting and practical. It is our common observation that the child who learns best is
one who takes interest and start the activity/work with purpose and sees significance in
what he does.

Principles of play-way method

The play-way method is based on the following principles:
1. Learning process to be conducted through playful activities because they are
soothing, purifying and interesting;
2. Learning should be taken place in an atmosphere of freedom without any restraints
(act of controlling).
3. Method of imparting should be informal and natural to suit the interests and needs
of children.
4. Teachers’ attitude should be such as to encourage free expression on the part of the
pupils.
5. Enough opportunities should be provided to children for expression.
6. Children should fully enjoy the learning process. They should be active participant
in it and responsible for their own progress and development.

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5.10 Five-E Model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate)
5E Model of teaching science helps to promote Active, Collaborative, Inquiry-Based
Learning.
Engage: learners become interested, raise questions, and focus attention on target
concepts.
Explore: learners interact with materials and each other.
Explain: learners develop explanations that represent their understandings of target
concepts.
Elaborate: Learners apply understandings to a new situation.
Evaluate: Learners review and assess what they have learned and how they have
learned it.

5E Instructional Model to Promote Inquiry-Based Learning

Lesson and Learning Focus Topics Covered and Major Concepts

1: Inquiring Minds Scientists learn about the natural world through
Engage: Students become engaged in the process of scientific inquiry.
scientific inquiry. • Scientists ask questions that can be answered
through investigations.
• Scientists design and carry out investigations.
• Scientists think logically to make relationships between
evidence and explanations.
• Scientists communicate procedures and explanations.
2: Working with Questions Scientists ask questions that can be answered through
Explore: Students consider what makes questions investigations.
scientifically testable. Students gain a common set of • Testable questions are not answered by personal
experiences upon which to begin building their opinions or belief in the supernatural.
understanding. • Testable questions are answered by collecting evidence
and developing explanations based on that evidence.

3: Conducting a Scientific Investigation Scientific explanations emphasize evidence.

Explain: The Explain lesson provides opportunities • Scientists think critically about the types of evidence
for students to connect their previous experiences that should be collected.
with current learning.
Elaborate: In Elaborate lessons, students apply or Scientists analyze the results of their investigations to
extend previously introduced concepts and produce scientifically acceptable explanations.
experiences to new situations.
4: Pulling It All Together Scientific inquiry is a process of discovery.
Evaluate: Students deepen their understanding of • It begins with a testable question.(hypotheses)
scientific inquiry by performing their own investigation • Scientific investigations involve collecting evidence.
and evaluating one performed by another student. • Explanations are evidence based.
• Scientists communicate their results to their peers

Source: Doing Science: The Process of Scientific Inquiry (2005)

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What the Teacher Does?

Stage That is consistent with the BSCS 5E Instructional That is inconsistent with the BSCS 5E
Model Instructional Model
Engage • Stimulates students’ curiosity and generates • Introduces vocabulary
interest • Explains concepts
• Determines students’ current understanding (prior • Provides definitions and answers
knowledge) of a concept or idea • Provides closure
• Invites students to express what they think • Discourages students’ ideas and
• Invites students to raise their own questions questions

Explore • Encourages student-to-student interaction • Provides answers

• Observes and listens to the students as they • Proceeds too rapidly for students
interact to make sense of their experiences
• Asks probing questions to help students make • Provides closure
sense of their experiences • Tells the students that they are
• Provides time for students to puzzle through wrong
• Gives information and facts that
solve the problem
• Leads the students step-by-step to a
solution
Explain • Encourages students to use their common • Neglects to solicit students’
experiences and data from the Engage and explanations
Explore lessons to develop explanations • Ignores data and information
• Asks questions that help students express students gathered from previous
understanding and explanations lessons
• Requests justification (evidence) for students’ • Dismisses students’ ideas
explanations • Accepts explanations that are not
• Provides time for students to compare their ideas supported by evidence
with those of others and perhaps to revise their • Introduces unrelated concepts or
thinking Skills
• Introduces terminology and alternative
explanations after students express their ideas
Elaborate • Focuses students’ attention on conceptual • Neglects to help students connect
connections between new and former experiences new and former experiences
• Encourages students to use what they have • Provides definitive answers
learned to explain a new event or idea • Tells the students that they are
• Reinforces students’ use of scientific terms and wrong
descriptions previously introduced • Leads students step-by-step to a
• Asks questions that help students draw Solution
reasonable conclusions from evidence and data
Evaluate • Observes and records as students demonstrate • Tests vocabulary words, terms, and
their understanding of the concepts and isolated facts
performance of skills • Introduces new ideas or concepts
• Provides time for students to compare their ideas • Creates ambiguity
with those of others and perhaps to revise their • Promotes open-ended discussion
thinking unrelated to the concept or skill
• Interviews students as a means of assessing their
developing understanding
• Encourages students to assess their own progress

Source: Doing Science: The Process of Scientific Inquiry (2005)

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Key Points
1. Learning don’t come from listening and seeing only but also more understandable
from actions, from doing and from personal experience.
2. Play-way method is a means of training individuals. It is a wonderful technique of
making school education interesting and practical.
3. Children will fully enjoy the learning process if they are the active participant in
the learning process and responsible for their own progress and development.
4. 5E Model (engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate) of teaching science
helps to promote Active, Collaborative, Inquiry-Based Learning.
5. Steps of 5-E model are: inquiring mind, working with questions, conducting a
scientific investigation and putting it altogether.

5.6 Self-Assessment Exercise

Play-way method is more effective at elementary level. Do you agree this with statement?
What are the principles which the teachers use to make play-way an effective teaching
strategy?
1. What the word 5-E stands for?
2. Prepare a lesson plan with the help of 5-E model from the 4th/5th class science.
3. What teacher can do during each stage of 5-E model?

Choose the best

1. The 4th stage of 5-E model is:
(a) Evaluate (b) engage (c) elaborate (d) explain

2. 5E Model of teaching science helps to promote:

(a) Active learning (b) Collaborative learning
(c) Inquiry-Based learning (d) a, b, c all

3. The first principle of play-way method is:

(a) Learning process to be taken place in an atmosphere of freedom
(b) Learning process to be conducted through playful activities
(c) Enough opportunities to be provided to children for expression
(d) None of a, b, c

4. Play-way method is a means of training individuals through:

(a) listening (b) seeing (c) doing (d) observing

5. Steps of 5-E model are:

(a) Inquiring mind (b) working with questions
(c) Conducting a scientific investigation (d) a, b, c

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5.11 Demonstration Method
In science instruction, demonstration can be very effective teaching strategy. It provides
excellent ways to introduce science units and lessons. Demonstrations are concrete
experiences that can be considered advance organizers for structuring subsequent
information and activities into a meaningful, instructional framework for students.
Effective demonstrations can focus student’s attention, motivate and interest them in
lesson, illustrate key concepts and principles and initiate inquiry and problem solving.
When used discriminately they enhance the learning environment. When used
indiscriminately or as a substitute for laboratory work, their purposes can be defeated.

Functions of demonstrations
Demonstrations can be used in many ways in science instruction, each of which makes its
own special contribution. They can be used to initiate student thinking and to formulate
problems. They can be planned to illustrate a point, principle, or concept or to answer a
particular question. They are also useful for reviewing and reinforcing an idea. They are
excellent to use to introduce a lesson or a unit of study.

a. Initiate thinking
There are many science demonstrations when presented for the first time to a group
of students, will leave them searching for an explanation. It can stimulate interest
and curiosity.
b. Illustrate a concept, principle ,or a point
Demonstrations provide concrete experiences that can be used to illustrate a
science concept, principle or point. To illustrate a concept, for example, some
teachers first state the concept and then parallel the statement with a demonstration
that illustrates the data. This is direct and explicit way to clarify and explain ideas.
This approach is used only to illustrate the concept, law, or principle and not to
develop the idea.
c. Answering a question
Students sometimes ask questions that can be answered with a demonstration.
These situations usually occur spontaneously and require teachers to have a large
repertoire of demonstrations from which to draw. Such demonstrations should not
be conducted spontaneously unless the teacher is assured that the demonstration
will be presented successfully and that the materials for an unplanned
demonstration can waste class time. Perform the demonstrations the next day if
presented is a problem.,
d. Reviewing ideas
Demonstrations can be the center of excellent review sessions when combined with
oral recitations. They can be performed to reinforce important ideas that were
previously addressed during a lesson or laboratory exercise.
e. Introducing And Concluding Units
Carefully planned demonstrations can be used to introduce new topics and provide
stimulating introductory discussions. They can promote creative thinking on the
part of the students by presenting them with a related or an apparently unrelated

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 event for explanation. Interesting and exciting demonstrations are excellent ways to
conclude units of study. They can serve as a climax as well as summary of the high
points of a unit. They can also motivate and interest students in further study.

5.12 Questioning Techniques

In our daily lives we ask many questions but most of us are not skilled for asking proper
questioning which a sophisticated art is. Research have proved that questioning is second
only to lecturing in popularity as a teaching method. Teachers spend most of their
instructional time for conducting questioning sessions. The following are the reasons for
which teachers ask questions:
i. to assess the previous knowledge of students
ii. to summarize lesson
iii. to asses achievement of objectives
iv. to motivate the students
v. to develop the interest of students
vi. to develop critical thinking skills
vii. to evaluate students’ preparation
viii. to have check on homework

Questioning is an important element of teaching learning process. It enables teachers and

students to establish what is already known, to use and extend this knowledge, and then
to develop new ideas. Questioning is important to developing reflective thinking.
Questioning helps students to reflect on their understanding which can bring changes and
improvements in thinking and learning and ultimately in teaching.

Good questioners must be skilled in formulating good questions: questions must be

asked at the appropriate level, they must be of appropriate type, and, above all, they must
be worded properly.

The art of questioning requires mastery of techniques for follow of student’s responses-or
lack of responses o questioning. The kinds of questions asked the way they are asked, and
the responses given affect both the self esteem of the students and their participation.

Levels of questions
There are two main classifications of questions:
i. Convergent /divergent
ii. Mental operation students

Here is the detail of each of the above mentioned categories.

i. Convergent and divergent

Convergent questions allow for only a few right responses. Such questions require
students to recall and integrate or analyze information for determining “one expected”
correct answer. Moreover alternate response questions such as yes/no, true /false would

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be classified as convergent. The divergent questions allow for may correct responses.
Divergent questions encourage a broader response and engage students in learning
process.
Example of convergent question:
What is 3+4?
What is formula of water?

Example of divergent question:

i. What are the causes of using unfair means in the exam?
Certain questioning techniques can enhance the quality and increase the quantity of
student’s responses. Here are few questioning techniques which can be helpful in
teaching learning science.
ii. Mental operation questions
Moore (2001) has developed the mental operation system for the classification of
questions. This classification is based upon the work of J.P Guilford and Benjamin
Bloom. The following are the categories of mental operation questions:

a. Factual
Factual questions test the students recall or recognition of information learned by
rote.
b. Empirical
Empirical questions require that students integrate or analyze remembered or given
information and supply a single, correct predictable answer. Such questions may
require quite a lot of thinking, but once thought out, the answer is usually a single,
correct answer. Such questions are also narrow.
c. Productive
Such questions do not have a single correct answer, and it may be impossible to
predict what the answer will be.
d. Evaluative
Such questions require the students put a value on something or make some kind of
judgment. Such questions are special cases of productive questions in that they are
often too open ended.

Questioning Techniques
Dear students, in the preceding discussion, you have read the levels of questions. In order
to increase the quantity and quality of questions, certain techniques are associated with
asking questions. The following discussion, you will find useful techniques for
questioning.

i. Redirecting
It is the technique which is effective for increasing the participation of students.
Being teacher you can draw students into a discussion by asking them to respond to
a question in light of a previous response from another student. This technique
requires several correct responses to a single question. The question asked must be
divergent, productive or evaluative.

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Here is an example of how you might redirect a question:
Teacher: we have just discussed Newton’s third law. Let’s take an example, if we
remove the thread of a balloon, can you give some examples of action and
reaction forces?
Ali: When we untied the balloon, air will move in the forward direction, it will be
action force and balloon will move in the backward direction, it will be due
to reaction force
Teacher: Mohsin?
Mohsin: Walking is an example of action and reaction
Teacher: Khalid, what is your opinion
Khalid: ………………

You have noticed, using redirecting correctly, you do not react to the student’s responses.
You simply redirect the question to another student. Due to this technique the
participation of student’s can be increased. They will involve more and as a consequence
learning will be greater and increased interest.

This technique is also helpful for non volunteer students. Teacher can involve such non
volunteers as much as possible because it will stimulate their interest and increase
learning. It should be remembered that non volunteers must not be forced to answer;
instead they must be given the opportunity to contribute to the discussion. Moreover, non
volunteer must be given ample time to consider a response. This time required for
students in considering their responses to questions is referred to as wait time.

Here is detail of appropriate use of wait time in questioning.

ii. Wait time

To answer the questions of teachers, students need to think and ponder their responses.
According to Rowe (1074a, 1974b, 1978) as quoted by Moore ( ), teachers on the
average wait only about one second for students to give an answer. The research of Rowe
has revealed that when teachers learned to increase wait time from 3-5 seconds, the
following were the finding:
a. The response time of students increased
b. Failure to respond tend to decreased
c. Students ask more questions
d. Unsolicited responses tend to increase
e. He confidence of students increased

There are two types of wait time:

a. Wait time 1
It is the time provided for the first student response to question
b. Wait time 2
Total time a teacher waits for all students to respond to the same question or for
students to respond to each other’s responses to a question. It may involve several
minutes.

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If teacher is engaging students more in lessons, he/she must learn to increase his/her wait
time tolerance, so that students may have more opportunities to think their answers.

Usually the questions answer session in class has the following pattern:
Teacher------------------------------- student A
Teacher --------------------------------student B
Teacher-------------------------------------student C

In this pattern teacher ask question to one student and then move to next student and so
on. Students get less time (or no time) to think over their answers and the answers of their
class fellows. In this kind of session, usually lower level questions are asked. Therefore
this is also another drawback of this question answer session. The question answer
session can be made more effective by using questioning techniques properly, asking
higher level questions, and providing proper wait time. Moreover question answer
session can also be made more productive by using following pattern:

In this kind of pattern ,student have more time for discussion, extended responses and
provide opportunities for commenting on other student’s questions and for asking
questions. Students will be involved in real sense if teacher extend wait time from 3-5
seconds, provide them time to think over teacher’s questions and the questions of their
class fellows.

iii. Halting time

In teaching complex material in science, sometimes teacher need to learn to “halt”
in what he /she is saying and gives students time to think. This kind of “pause” is
called “halting time”. In this kind of time, no questions are asked and no comments
are required. In this technique, teacher present some complex material or
complicated directions and then stop momentarily, so that students have time to
consider the information or carry out the directions. During this pause, teacher
usually checks with the class to see whether they are with him/her and understand
what teacher is trying to communicate. if teacher find that his/her observations are
positive, he/she continue. But if teacher observe that students appear to be
confused, teacher may want to redo the explanation or directions.
iv. Reinforcement
During science teaching session, once teacher ask a question and receives an
acceptable response, he/she must react to response. Teacher must provide
reinforcement-that is positive reaction to the student so that it can have a powerful
effect on the direction of the interaction in the classroom. Rewards and praise often
encourage students to participate. Teacher must use phrases such as “fine answer”,
“super”, “good approach” may be used when rewarding student’s correct
responses.

Providing reinforcement is often a good idea, but too frequent use of reinforcement can
negate the benefits of using wait time. If reinforcement is provided too early in an
answering session, other students may decide not to respond because they fear their

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answer could not match an earlier response. To overcome such situation, teacher must
give reinforcement after getting maximum responses from the class for a question, and
then reinforce all of them for their contributions. Teacher can always return to the best
answer for further comment.

Techniques for Good Questioning

According to Moore, asking good questions is an art. It is an art, however, can be
mastered with practice. The improper use of questioning technique can have negative
impact on learning. Here are some tips regarding questioning that can improve
questioning sessions.
i. questions must be clear
ii. distribute your questions about the class fairly
iii. don’t use too many questions in a single time
iv. ask limited questions
v. ask questions at all ability levels in the class
vi. Listen carefully to the responses of student.
vii. Provide proper wait time

Being teacher, you must refine your ability to think, plan, and ask questions throughout
the lessons.

Key Points
1. Demonstrations are concrete experiences that can be considered advance organizers
for structuring subsequent information and activities into a meaningful,
instructional framework for students.
2. Effective demonstrations can focus student’s attention, motivate and interest them
in lesson, illustrate key concepts and principles and initiate inquiry and problem
solving.
3. Asking good questions is an art. It is an art which can be mastered with practice.
4. Tips regarding questioning that can improve questioning sessions are: questions
must be clear; don’t use too many questions in a single time; ask limited questions;
ask questions at all ability levels in the class; Listen carefully to the responses of
student; Provide proper wait time.

5.7 Self Assessment Exercise

1. Write in detail the functions of demonstration.

2. Elaborate the tips regarding questioning technique.
3. Do you think that demonstration can be used as advance organizers?
4. Enlist the techniques of good questioning.
5. Differentiate between convergent and divergent questions.

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Choose the best
1. The proponent of Questioning-Answering technique is:
(a) Socrates (b) Plato (c) Aristotle (d) Alexander

2. The most effective teaching technique is:

(a) Use of writing board (b) use of AV Aids (c) questioning technique (d)
a, b, c, all

3. The important tip regarding Questioning technique is:

(a) Ask long question (b) ask more question at one time
(c) Questions must be clear (d) ask unlimited questions

4. Which of the following are the categories of mental operation questions?

(a) Factual (b) conceptual (c) procedural (d) evaluative (e) a, b, c, d all

6. The major reasons for asking question:

(a) to assess the previous knowledge of students (b) to develop critical thinking
(c) To motivate the students (d) a, b, c, all

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5.13 Learning in the Science Laboratory
No course in science can be considered as complete without including some practical
work in it. The practical work is to be carried out by individuals in a physical science
laboratory. At school stage practical work is more important because of the fact that we
“Learn by doing” scientific principles and applications are thus rendered more
meaningful. It is well-known fact that an object handled impresses itself more firmly on
the mind than an object merely seen from a distance. There is a Chinese proverb;

I hear and I forget,

I see and I remember,
I do and I understand.

Objectives of Laboratory Work

Practical work forms a prominent feature in any science course. The laboratory
experiments help in broadening pupil’s experience and develop initiative, resourcefulness
and cooperation. The main objectives of laboratory work are:
a. Create interest in science;
b. Verify facts taught in theory classes;
c. Develop the habit of doing independent work among students;
d. Prepare students for higher studies and science careers;
e. Develop skills in handling specific science apparatus and equipments.
f. Improve observation and critical thinking;
g. Develop the habit of reasoning;
h. Have a clear understanding of science concepts;
i. Develop the habit of doing systematic work: and
j. Create interest for research.

Laboratory is a spacious room where the students in groups carry out their experimental
work. It provides many opportunities for students to talk and write about science. With a
little thought and planning on the part of the students, its activities can be the basis for
building communication and problem solving skills.

The process of practical work has five stages which are widely known as forming a valid
and satisfactory framework within which practical skills are to be developed and
assessed. (a) “Recognition and formulation of the problem. (b) Planning and designing of
an investigation in which the student predicts the results (Formulation of hypotheses and
designing of procedures). (c) Carrying out the experiments in which the students makes
decisions about investigative techniques and manipulates materials and equipment. (d)
Observational and measuring skills. (e) Analysis, application and explanation in which
the student processes data, discusses results, explores relationships, and formulates new
questions and problems.”

Amit Kumar, (1995), states that the Heuristic method is preeminently a laboratory
method. However, from this it should not be concluded that Practical work in laboratory

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is impossible if the teacher use any other teaching method. Thus irrespective of the
method adopted by the teacher for teaching of physical science, practical work in the
laboratory must be attempted. Practical activities in a controlled environment (laboratory)
have been traditionally an important feature of science.

Organization of Practical Work

The following guide lines will help the science teacher to make his practical work
effective.
i. If teacher following the demonstration method to teach theory, he should remember
the most important principle that practical work should go hand in hand with the
theoretical work.
ii. To arrange the practical work in such a way that each student is able to do his
practical individually. Thus, for practical work individual working should be
preferred in comparison to working in groups.
iii. In case of a large class, it is convenient to divide that class in a suitable number of
smaller groups, for practical work.
iv. To save time on delivering a lecture about do’s and don’ts in laboratory, card
system be used. This card contains certain amount of guidance printed on it is
given to each pupil. Student can complete his practical work according to
instructions given in the card.
v. The apparatus provided should be good so that students get an accurate result.
vi. A true faithful record of each and every experiment should be kept by pupils.
vii. Teacher should see that students enter all their observations directly in their
practical note–book.
viii. While working with large class and with limited apparatus teacher may allow
students to work in groups.
ix. During a practical, class teacher would observe all children in such a way that his
power of control over the class should be such that students continue their work
satisfactorily.

Key Points
1. Practical work is more important because of the fact that we “Learn by doing”
scientific principles/laws, etc.
2. There is a Chinese proverb; I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I
understand.
3. The main objectives of laboratory work are: Create interest in science; Verify facts
taught in theory classes; develop the habit of doing independent work among
students; Improve observation and critical thinking; Develop the habit of
reasoning;
4. The process of practical work has five stages: (a) Recognition and formulation of
the problem. (b) Formulation of hypotheses and designing of procedures. (c)
Carrying out the experiments (d) Observing and measuring skills. (e) Analysis,
application and explanation, discussion of results, exploring relationships, and
formulation of new questions and problems.”

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5.8 Self Assessment Exercise

1. Write all the stages of practical work done in the science laboratory.
2. Write at least seven objectives of laboratory work.
3. What are the guide lines which help the science teacher to make his practical work
effective?

Choose the best

1. The first stage of practical work is:
(a) Analysis of data (b) formulation of hypothesis
(c) Theory building (d) Recognition and formulation of the problem

2. The main objectives of laboratory work are:

(a) Verification of facts taught in theory classes
(b) Develop the habit of doing independent work
(c) Improve observation and critical thinking (d) a, b, c, all

3. Practical work is more important because of the fact that we learn:

(a) By doing (b) by observing (c) by listening (d) by common sense

4. While working with large class and with limited apparatus teacher may allow
students to work:
(a) Individually(b) in groups (c) whole class activity (d) none of a, b, c,

5. In science laboratory we:

(a) Verify knowledge (b) accept or reject hypothesis
(c) Verify scientific facts (d) clarify misconceptions (e) a, b, c, d, all

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5.14 Some Teaching/Learning Devices
In the last few years, much work has focused on the use of concept mapping and V-
diagramming as valuable tools for teachers to help organize and plan science teaching
and learning. Teachers consider these strategies successful contributions to developing
effective and meaningful teaching and learning, exploring children’s conceptions,
developing common knowledge through laboratory work, and assessing children’s
conceptions. Novak and Gowin (1984) claim that concept mapping and V diagramming
help teachers and students to construct new and more meanings of science concepts and
principles.

Concept Mapping
Concepts are an invention of the human mind, ways of organizing the world. A concepts
map is thus a semantic network showing the relationships among concepts in a
hierarchical fashion. Concepts or ideas are linked with phrases that illustrate the
relationships among them. The concept map tells us that meaningful learning depends on
integrating new information in a cognitive structure (i.e. the stable organization of the
concepts in the human mind) laid down during previous learning.

Concept maps can represent ideas about any topic. They are representations of
interrelated concepts and provide a visual image of how the brain connects ideas. A
simple concept map is illustrated in Figure below.

Figure 5.1: Pictorial concept map of a simple circuit

Source: Ebenezer& Connor, 1998.p. 53

Actually, a cognitive map is a kind of visual road map showing some of the pathways we
may take to connect meanings of concepts. The concept maps serve to clarify links
between new and old knowledge and force the learner to externalize those links.

Concept maps are useful tools to help students learn about their knowledge structure and
the process of knowledge construction (meta- knowledge). In this way, concept maps also

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help the student learn, how to learn (meta-learning). Concept mapping requires the
learner to operate at all six levels of Bloom’s educational objectives.

There is an empirical evidence that the students who viewed or made concept maps
would have a broader knowledge base and therefore be more able to solve problems as
compared to those students that learned by rote memorization.

Science teacher can use concept maps to determine the nature of students’ existing ideas,
and make evident the key concepts to be learned and suggest linkages between the new
information to be learned and what the student already knows.

Concept Mapping for Teachers

If teachers learn how to construct concept maps and use them for planning and assessing
lessons, they will be able to teach students better how to make concept maps to organize
their thoughts and ideas. Concept mapping is probably done better first in groups so that
pre-service teachers can interact with each other. Group members can then compare and
debate the construction of their concept maps and subsequently compare their maps with
those of other groups. Finally, individuals should construct and present their own
concepts map for a science lesson.

A simple concept map on static electricity

Static
Electricity

Consists of Causes

Electric
Objects
Charges

That Can be With

Like Unlike
Positive Negative Charges Charges

to to

Repel Attract
Each Other Each Other

Figure 2.6 Source: Ebenezer& Connor, 1998.p.49

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Dear students here is a list which is helpful for you to construct a concept map
1. Choose a passage from a science textbook.
2. Circle or underline the main concepts in this passage.
3. List all the concepts on paper.
4. Write or print the concepts on small cards or stickers so that the concepts can be
moved around. (If you prefer to use a computer-based semantic network, use
SemNet, Learning Tool, Text Vision, CMap, or Inspiration software)
5. Place the most general concept on the top of the paper.
6. Arrange the concepts from top to bottom (from most general at the top to most
specific at the bottom) so that a hierarchy is indicated. In constructing this
hierarchy, place concepts next to each other horizontally if they are considered to
have equal importance or value.
7. Relate concepts by positioning linking verbs and connecting words on directional
arrows. Support the concepts with examples.
8. Have members of a cooperative group critically analyze the concept map to
improve on and further extend your ideas.

Concept Mapping for Students

Concept maps can help student’s related concepts they bring to the classroom or have
learned from instruction. Students may know isolated concepts but not how they relate to
each other. Students may write paragraphs about concepts but still not show that they
understand how the concepts are interrelated. Concept mapping is a powerful strategy
used across the curriculum that can help teach children the structure and meanings
underlying a topic.

As soon as children can read, they can work with simple concept maps. Even before
children can read, they can use picture concepts. Kilshaw presented her 6- and 7-year old
children with lists of words connected with the concept of plant growth after playing a
word association game. She relates that the children worked on their own, beginning by
copying the words on a sheet of paper. Then they were encouraged to draw arrows
connecting the words and write other words to explain the connections. Kilshaw
concluded that concept maps were an excellent tool for assessment but must be used in
conjunction with discussion and questioning of children’s understanding. Cross used
picture cards instead of words, finding these more satisfactory for teaching his 5-, 6-, and
7-year-old children about electric circuits.

Ebenezer and Connor (1998), state that concept maps can be constructed in the classroom
by using three different approaches:
 Students construct the maps using concept words supplied by the teacher.
 Students construct the maps identifying the concepts from an information source.
 Students construct the maps from their own personal knowledge.

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V-diagram
One of the criticisms of laboratory work is that the emphasis is usually on the
methodological aspects of the exercise. Thus, even if the exercise is well designed, and
the students produce a set of results or observations, these are not readily related back in
a meaningful way to the conceptual framework that underpins the experimental work.
The experimental results are isolated from theory, and the experiments can appear to be
trivial and out of a scientific context.

Novak, (1979), Novak and Gowin, (1984), Novak, Gowin and Johansen, (1983), in Bond,
(1986), present an instructional device to link concepts and methods to help to overcome
the above problem is called V mapping.

Diagram of V map, showing main elements

FOCUS QUESTION

Conceptual Methodological

Theories Active
Interplay
Knowledge
Claim
Principles and Value
conceptual schemes

Concepts Transformation

Records

Objects/Events

Figure 5.1 Source: Novak, J.D. (1979, p.484)

At the base of the V diagram are the events or results that occur as an outcome of some
experimental activity. On the left hand side are the theoretical aspects of the work,
increasing in generality from the bottom of the V, where specific concepts are cited, to
general theoretical schemes at the top. The right hand side is concerned with the methods
used to generate knowledge, again arranged in hierarchical order from records taken of
the events to generalized knowledge claims. They further describe that the major purpose
of the V is to help students understand the function of laboratory work in science; it is
particularly useful if constructed as a pre-laboratory activity. The teacher might construct
a V map in a tutorial session, building up the Connections between theory and method by
starting with the discussion of the event being observed. This leads to a discussion of
what records might be taken and what concepts were used to guide observation of these

168
particular events, or take these particular records. An alternative approach is to provide
some aspects of the V and then expect students to complete the maps as an individual
exercise. V maps can also be included in laboratory manuals. He further goes on to say
that the major value of V map is that students can be developed as an active consideration
of all the facets of experimental science, and not just the methodological features. The V
encourages students to think as scientists before they enter the laboratory rather than
behave as recipe followers.

Key Points
1. A concepts map is a semantic network showing the relationships among concepts
in a hierarchical fashion.
2. The concept map tells us that meaningful learning depends on integrating new
information into a cognitive structure laid down during previous learning.
3. The concept maps serve to clarify links between new and old knowledge and force
the learner to externalize those links.
4. Concept mapping requires the learner to operate at all six levels of Bloom’s
educational objectives.
5. V-diagram is an instructional device to link concepts and methods and to help to
make the linkage meaningful.
6. The major purpose of the V is to help students understand the function of
laboratory work in science; it is particularly useful if constructed as a pre-
laboratory activity.
7. The V encourages students to think as scientists before they enter the laboratory
rather than behave as recipe followers.

5.9 Self Assessment Exercise

1. Explain how concept mapping helps teachers and students to construct new and
more meanings of science concepts and principles.
2. Enlist the steps which are helpful for you to construct a concept map.
3. Concept maps can be constructed in the classroom by using three different
approaches. What these approaches are?
4. How V diagram helps the students to understand the function of laboratory work in
science?

Choose the best

1. At the base of the V diagram is:
(a) events/results (b) methodology (c) concepts/theories
(d) evaluation

2. At the left side of the V diagram is:

(a) events/results (b) methodology (c) concepts/theories (d) evaluation

3. At the right side of the V diagram is:

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 (a) events/results (b) methodology (c) concepts/theories
(d) evaluation

4. Teacher can use concept maps to:

(a) Know the students’ current knowledge structure
(b) Develop the linkage between students’ pre and post knowledge
(c) Help students’ to learn process of knowledge construction (d) a, b, c, all

5. Teaching/ learning device that is used in science laboratory:

(a) V diagram (b) concept map (c) CAI/CAL (d) a, b, c, all

170
Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
5.1 Self Assessment Exercise
Q-1 Study 5.1 part of this unit
Q-2 c, d, a, b,c

5.2 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.2 part of this unit
Q-2 a, b, b, d, d

5.3 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.3 part of this unit
Q-2 c, d, d, c, d

5.4 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.4, 5.5 part of this unit
Q-2 d, a, c, d, b

5.5 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.6, 5.7 part of this unit
Q-2 c, d, d, b, a

5.6 Self-Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.9, 5.10 part of this unit
Q-2 c, d, b, c, d

5.7 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.11, 5.12 part of this unit
Q-2 a, c, c, e, d

5.8 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.13 part of this unit
Q-2 d, d, a, b, e

5.9 Self Assessment Exercise

Q-1 Study 5.14 part of this unit
Q-2 a, c, b, d, a

171
Bibliography
 Arends, R. I. (2004). Learning toTeach. (6th ed). New York: McGraw Hill
Company.

 Ausubel, D P. (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York:

Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

 Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The Use of Advance Organizers in the Learning and

Retention of Meaningful Verbal Material, Journal of Educational Psychology,
51, (267-272)

 Bond, et al. (1986). Teaching in laboratory. 1st Ed. London: Nffr-Nelson.

 Collettee A. T. & Chiappetta E. L. (1989). Science Instruction in the Middle and

Secondary Schools (6th ed). Columbus: Merrill Publishing Company.

 Ebenezer, J. V. & Connor, S. (1998). Learning to teach science: A model for the
21st Century. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK).

 Gagne, R.M. (1977). The condition of learning, 3rd edition new youk: Holt
Rienfant and Winston.

 Gupta V. K. (1995). Teaching and Learning of Science and Technology. Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.

 Joyce, B.R. and Weil, M. (1992). Models of Teaching (4th ed.): New Delhi:
Prentice Hall.

 Piaget, J. (1969). The theory of stages in cognitive Development. New York:

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Unit–6
Unit–6

USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Shah
Arshad Mehmood Qamar

173
 CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 175

Objectives......................................................................................................... 175
6.1 Use of Instructional Aids: Need and Importance ............................... 176
6.2 Types of Instructional Aids ................................................................ 182
6.2.1 Textbook as an Instructional Aid ........................................ 183
6.3 Using Writing Board Effectively ....................................................... 186
6.4 Science Laboratory ............................................................................ 188
6.4.1 Types of Laboratory Activities ........................................... 188
6.4.2 Organization of Practical Work .......................................... 189
6.5 Use of Indigenous Material ................................................................ 193
6.6 ICTs as Instructional Aids ................................................................. 195
6.6.1 Use of Computer as an Instructional Aid ............................ 195
6.6.2 Use of Internet as an Instructional Learning Aid ................ 196

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Introduction
Instructional Aids should not be confused with training media. Educators generally
describe training media as physical means that communicate an instructional message to
students. For example, the instructor's voice, printed text, video cassettes, interactive
computer programs, flight training devices or flight simulators, and numerous other types
of training devices are considered training media. Instructional Aids, on the other hand,
are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional Aids
are not self-supporting; they are supplementary training devices. The key factor is that
Instructional Aids support, supplement, or reinforce the learning. In general, the coverage
of Instructional Aids in the first part of this unit applies to their uses in the classroom
setting and their types. The discussion about types of Instructional Aids begins with the
most basic Aids and progresses to the more complex and expensive aids that is from
textbooks, writing boards to computers.

Sometimes instructors may become involved in the selection and preparation of

Instructional Aids, and sometimes these are already in place. Instructors simply need to
learn how to effectively use such aids.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 recognize the importance of Instructional Aids in the teaching-learning process;
 identify the classification of Instructional Aids used in instructional process;
 apply ICTs to improve quality of education in the institution;
 develop a mechanism for the effective use of textbooks and writing boards;
 find the effective use of science laboratory in the teaching of science;
 use ICTs effectively in the instructional process to improve teaching-learning process.
 use internet as a learning Aid to solve educational problems.

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6.1 Use of Instructional Aids: Need and Importance
For many years, educators have presented theories about how the human brain and the
memory perform function during the communication process. There is general agreement
about certain theoretical factors that are important for understanding the use of
Instructional Aids.

According to Oxford Dictionary ‘communication’ means the activity or process of

expressing ideas and feeling or of giving people information. It is a method of sending
information, especially telephones, radio, computers, etc. or roads and railways.

Actually communication refers to the process by which information is exchanged within

organization. The human beings send and receive messages in such a way that a close
approximation is achieved between the sender and the receiver.

Teaching-learning process is basically a communication process that is how

knowledge/information is presented in the learning situation and how it is understood by
the learner. The information processing view divides learning into three phases: (i)
attending to new information (ii) acquiring and retaining information, and (iii) retrieving
information from memory and transferring it to new situation. The way that information
is processed in learning has been summarized in the model presented by Johnstone, A.H.
(1993). It represents the flow of the information through the memory system and the
processing of such information. Such a model makes predictions about how input
information is dealt within the human mind so that meaningful learning can take place.

Figure 1 Information Processing Model of Johnstone

Feedback loop

Source: Johnstone, A. H. (1993, p.702).

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This model is very useful in the teaching and learning of science. There are three part of
this model that is: perception, working/short term memory and long term memory.

Human mind is not a dustbin that we put each and everything in it. During the
communication process (teaching-learning) all the information after passing through the
perception filter enter into the short term/working memory.

Perception is an active process which uses previous knowledge to interpret the sensory
information. The environmental inputs, such as events, observation and instructions first
come through the perception. Perception is proposed as sensory register which received
the input information in a relatively un-interpreted form for a very short period of time
about one to five millisecond and it is lost at the end of this time. The information
selected through the perception filter is then transferred to the working memory.

Working memory is that part of the brain where we hold information, work upon it,
organize it, and shape or reshape it before storing it in the long term memory.

Long term memory is the memory where the information is stored. It is most important
from retrieval point of view. The long term memory has its link with perception filter and
working memory. It is a large store where facts are kept and concepts develop.

During the communication process, the sensory register/perception filter of the memory
acts as a filter. As stimuli are received, the individual's sensory register works to sort out
the important bits of information from the routine or less significant bits. Within seconds,
the perceived information is passed to the working or short-term memory where it is
processed for possible storage in the long-term memory. This complex process is
enhanced by the use of appropriate Instructional Aids that highlight and emphasize the
main points or concepts.

The functions of working or short-term memory are limited by both time and capacity.
Therefore, it is essential that the information be arranged in useful bits. The effectiveness
of the Instructional Aids is critical for this process. Carefully selected charts, graphs,
pictures, or other well-organized visual aids are examples of items that help the student
understand, as well as retain, essential information.

Ideally, instructional Aids should be designed to cover the key points and concepts. In
addition, the coverage should be straightforward and factual so it is easy for students to
remember and recall. Generally, Instructional Aids that are relatively simple are best
suited for this purpose.

In addition to helping students remember important information, Instructional Aids have

other advantages. When properly used, these can help in gaining and holding the
attention of students. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a topic, and
the combination of both audio and visual stimuli are particularly effective since the two
most important senses are involved. Instructors should keep in mind that they often are

177
salesmen of ideas, and many of the best sales techniques that attract the attention of
potential clients are well worth considering. One caution-the instructional aid should keep
student attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting device.

Clearly, a major goal of instruction is to enable the student to retain as much knowledge
of the subject as possible, especially the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to
determine how well Instructional Aids serve this purpose. Indications from the studies
vary greatly-from modest results, which show a 10 to 15 percent increase in retention, to
more optimistic results in which retention is increased by as much as 80 percent.

Good Instructional Aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider
the continued expansion of technical terminology in everyday usage. This is coupled with
culturally diverse backgrounds of today's students, makes it necessary for instructors to
be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid
should be carefully selected to convey the same meaning for the student as they do for the
instructor. They should provide an accurate visual image and make learning easier for the
student.

Another use for Instructional Aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects
and concepts. When relationships are presented visually, these often are much easier to
understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to
relate to each other through the use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and
diagrams can also show relationships of location, size, time, frequency, and value. By
symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract relationships.

Instructors are frequently asked to teach more and more in a smaller time frame.
Instructional Aids can help them do this. For example, instead of using many words to
describe a sound, object, or function, the instructor plays a recording of the sound, shows
a picture of the object, or presents a diagram of the function. Consequently, the student
learns faster and more accurately, and the instructor saves time in the process.

Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids

The use of any Instructional Aids must be planned, based on its ability to support a
specific point in a lesson. A simple process can be used to determine if and where
instructional-aids are necessary.
 Clearly establish the lesson objective. Be certain of what is to be communicated.
 Gather the necessary data by researching for support material.
 Organize the material into an outline or a lesson plan. The plan should include all
key points that need to be covered. This may include important safety
considerations.
 Select the ideas to be supported with instructional Aids.
 The aids should be concentrated on the key points. Aids are often appropriate when
long segments of technical description are necessary, when a point is complex and

178
 difficult to put into words, when instructors find themselves forming visual images,
or when students are puzzled by an explanation or description.

Aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved.
Obviously, the use of complex equipment may require detailed representation but less
complex equipment may lend itself to only basic shapes or figures. Since aids are
normally used in conjunction with a verbal presentation, words on the aid should be kept
to a minimum. In many cases, visual symbols and slogans can replace extended use of
verbiage (use of too many words, or more difficult words to express an idea). The
instructor should avoid unnecessary use of aids. The tendency of using unnecessarily
distracting artwork should also be avoided.

Instructional Aids should appeal to the student and be based on sound principles of
instructional design. The teachers must encourage student’s participation. Instructional
Aids should be meaningful to the student, lead to the desired behavioural or learning
outcomes, and provide appropriate reinforcement. Aids that involve learning a physical
skill should guide students toward mastery of the skill or task specified in the lesson
objective.

The usefulness of aids can be improved by proper sequencing to build on previous

learning. Frequently, good organization and natural patterns of logic dictate the sequence.
However, use of standardized materials, including a syllabus, is recommended.
Sequencing also can be enhanced simply by using overlays on transparencies, stripping
techniques on charts and chalk or marker boards, and by imaginative use of magnetic
boards. Sequencing can be emphasized and made clearer by the use of contrasting
colours.

The effectiveness of aids and the ease of their preparation can be increased by initially
planning these in rough draft form. Revisions and alterations are easier to make at that
time than after its completion. The rough draft should be carefully checked for technical
accuracy, proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basic balance, clarity, and simplicity.
Instructional Aids should also be reviewed to determine whether their use is feasible in
the training environment and whether these are appropriate for the students.

In practice, the choice of instructional Aids depends on several factors. Availability,

feasibility, or cost may impose realistic limitations. The number of students in a class and
the existing facilities are other considerations. In some school situations, the designers of
the curriculum determine the use of Instructional Aids. In this case, the instructor may
have little control over their use. On the other hand, an independent instructor may have
considerable latitude, but limited resources. Often, instructors must manage and adapt to
the existing circumstances in order to incorporate quality Instructional Aids.

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Key Points
1. Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear, taste and
smell properly.
2. Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
3. The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.
4. Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.
5. Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to
retain more concepts permanently.
6. Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different
teaching aids.
7. Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
8. The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.
9. It should be determined prior that when and where the Instructional Aids will be
used.
10. Aids should be compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved.
11. Aids should appeal to students and should be based on some instructional principle.
12. Aids can be useful if sequencing on the previous knowledge.
13. The designs of the curriculum determine the use of Instructional Aids.
14. The choice of the aids depends on these factors: Availability, Feasibility, Cost
Effectiveness, Number of students in the class.

6.1 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1. Answer the following questions
i. How can the Instructional Aids help to improve the teaching-learning process
in the classroom?
ii. Do you think that Instructional Aids are necessary for the teaching of science
at elementary level?
iii. What are the factors which affect the selection of Instructional Aids?

Q.2 Choose the best:

1. Teaching aids:
(a) Provide direct experience
(b) Develop conceptual thinking
(c) Create interest among students
(d) a, b, c all

2. The choice of the aids depends on these factors:

(a) Availability
(b) Feasibility
(c) Cost effectiveness
(d) a, b, c all

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3. Aids should:
(a) Be compatible with the learning outcomes
(b) Appeal to students
(c) Cost effective
(d) a, b, c all

4. Aids should:
(a) Appeal to students
(b) Be based on some instructional principle
(c) Create the environment of interest for the students
(d) a, b, c all

5. Aids should be used to:

(a) Motivate the students
(b) Facilitate the teaching-learning process
(c) Create the environment of interest for the students
(d) a, b, c all

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6.2 Types of Instructional Aids
Dear students, you may have an experience when your science teacher used charts,
models and some other material in the science classroom and laboratory to facilitate the
teaching-learning process or to make the lesson more meaningful to you. All these things
are called Instructional Aids. You are also familiar of another important Instructional Aid
called textbook. You know the teacher daily checked out your textbooks and sometime
punished you if you did not have these. Therefore, see the importance of textbook and try
to understand the material given in the textbook which is in your hand.

We classify the instructional aids in many ways but the more common types/
classifications are given below:

(1) Software verses Hardware; the programme recorded on the CD/ Cassette/ Hard
disk, or the words printed on the books/charts etc. are the software. But the CD
itself / hard disk / book /charts etc., are the hardware.
(2) Audio aids (radio, tape recorder,);
(3) Visual aids (charts, models, chalk board, photographs, illustrations, Graphs, Maps,
globes, posters, museum, realia, etc.);
(4) Audio-Visual (television, computer programs, motion pictures, videotapes);
(5) Printed material (textbook, reference books, teacher’s notes, workbooks,
newspapers, magazines, research articles, encyclopedias etc.);
(6) Field trips (Educational tours to factories/institution/museum, etc.

Basic Guidelines for Using Instructional Aids

Audio-visual aids cannot teach by themselves, they need skilful teaching to make them
effective. There are certain guidelines for you as the beginners to use these Instructional
Aids to make your teaching more effective and skilful.

1. Selecting the Materials

 The instructional material should be appropriate and effective to achieve the
instructional objective.
 It should be available in the market or no-cost/low cost.
 It should appeal to the clientele
 Technical quality
 It should be Cost-effective.
 Teacher must try it before using to ensure that it is workable and,
 There is nothing against society because there may be some cross cultural
effects (negative) of that aids.

2. Preparing the Class for the Audio-visual Experience

 Must provide readiness to students and motivation to learn the material
efficiently and effectively;

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  Teacher spends time to discuss the purpose(s) of the lesson and effectively
use the aids where necessary.
 Suggesting points that will direct attention to key ideas during the activity
 Instructional Aids must be in working order.

3. Guiding the Pupils through the Audio-visual Experiences

 During the presentation ask questions to the students or explain to them what
they are experiencing.
 Is this aid helps to clarify the concepts/ improve the students’ understanding
about something /somebody /phenomena?

4. Following-up the Audio-visual Experiences after its Completion (ask certain

questions at the end of the teaching)
 Are these Instructional Aids helping the students to clarify misunderstanding
of certain portions of the experience /lesson?
 Evaluates worth of the material
 Is there any improvement required to use these aids (Basis for improving)

6.2.1 Textbook as an Instructional Aid

Dear students, look at the book which is in your hand. Why do you choose this book for
reading at this moment? What’s in it? Is this book fulfilling the objectives written in the
curriculum? Is it accomplishing your examination needs? If the answers are in ‘yes’ then
it is a textbook.

A textbook is a collection of the knowledge, concepts, and principles of a selected topic

or course. It's usually written by one or more teachers, college professors, or education
experts who are authorities in a specific field. Most textbooks are accompanied by
teacher guides, which provide you with supplemental teaching materials, ideas, and
activities to use throughout the academic year. It also contains a number of exercises to
assess the performance of the individual after the end of each unit/chapter/lesson.

As you visit different classrooms of same grade, you probably notice that most, if not all,
of those classrooms use a standard textbook series. The reasons for this are many,
depending on the design and focus of the curriculum, the directive of the administration,
and/or the level of expertise on the part of classroom teachers.

The textbook is considered as the most important instructional aid for the learner as well
as for the teacher. Through this aid the teacher and pupil may be able to achieve the
objectives of the curriculum. Textbook provides many advantages in the classroom:
 Textbooks are especially helpful for beginning teachers. The material to be covered
and the design of each lesson are carefully spelled out in detail.
 Textbooks provide organized units of work. A textbook gives you all the plans and
lessons you need to cover a topic in some detail.
 A textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological presentation of
information.

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 Textbooks are a detailed sequence of teaching procedures that tell you; why to do,
what to do, when to do it, how to do it and who is to do it. There are no surprises—
everything is carefully spelled out.
 Textbooks provide administrators and teachers with a complete program for
learning.
 Most of the textbooks are written in series and typically based on the latest research
and teaching strategies.
 Good textbooks are excellent teaching aids. They are a big resource for both
teachers and students.

A textbook is only as good as the teacher who uses it. It is important to remember that a
textbook is a very important tool, in your teaching arsenal. Sometimes, teachers over-rely
on textbooks and don't consider other aids or other materials for the classroom. Some
teachers reject a textbook approach to learning because the textbook is outdated or
insufficiently covers a topic or subject area.

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Key Points
1. Instructional Aids may be classified as audio, video, and audio-video.
2. Other classifications are hardware vs. software, and projected vs. non-projected.
3. Textbook is the source of knowledge having facts, concepts, theories, principles,
etc. of a particular discipline.
4. Teacher’s guide is also important in teaching-learning process.
5. Textbook is comparatively more important Instructional Aids.
6. The teachers in Pakistan, mostly rely on textbooks, this is not a good practice.
7. Textbook series provides you with a balanced, chronological presentation of
information. No textbook is perfect, and no textbook is complete. It is but one
resource at your disposal. Use it as a blueprint, a guidebook, or an outline.

6.2 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following Questions:
i. Write down the classification of Instructional Aids by flow sheet diagram.
ii. What principles you will keep in mind while using Instructional Aids?
iii. In Pakistani scenario teachers rarely use Instructional Aids. Do you think that
use of Instructional Aids is the wastage of time?
iv. Do you think that textbook of science is the best instructional tool than any
other?

Q.2 Choose the best:

i. What type of aid Computer is:
(a) audio (b) video (c) audio-video (d) non of a, b, c

ii. Overhead projector is an

(a) audio (b) video (c) audio-video (d) non of a, b, c

iii. Textbook is:

(a) audio (b) video (c) audio-video (d) non of a, b, c

iv. Flip charts, models, graphs are:

(a) audio (b) video (c) audio-video (d) non of a, b, c

v. Basic guidelines for using Aids are:

(a) selecting the instructional material
(b) preparing the instructional material
(c) Follow up the use of instructional material (d) a, b, c all

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6.3 Using Writing Board Effectively
Dear students, you are familiar with the writing boards (blackboard/ whiteboard). The
chalk or marker board is one of the most widely used tools for instruction. Its flexibility,
usefulness and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of instruction.
First, the material presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and
again; and second, the boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student- instructor
activity in the classroom. The following practices are fundamental in the use of the chalk
or marker board:

 Keep the chalk or marker board clean.

 Erase all irrelevant material.
 Keep chalk, markers, erasers, cleaning cloths, rulers, and related items readily
available to avoid interruption of the presentation.
 Organize and practice the chalk or marker board presentation in advance.
 Write or draw large enough for everyone in the group to see.
 Leave a margin around the material and sufficient space between lines of copy so
the board is not overcrowded.
 Present material simply and briefly.
 Make only one point at a time. A complete outline tends to distract students and
makes a logical presentation difficult. If writing has been previously prepared, it
should be covered and then revealed one step at a time.
 If necessary, use the ruler, compass, or other devices in making drawings.
 Use coloured chalk or marker for emphasis or for diagrams specifically in biology.
 Underline statements for emphasis.
 Use the upper part of the board. In many classrooms, students may not be able to
see the lower half.
 Stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information.
 Use a pointer when appropriate.
 Adjust lighting as necessary.

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Key Points
1. Writing board is effective, useful and flexible tool than any other instructional tool.
2. It is cost effective than other instructional tools.
3. The material presented on the board can be erased, allowing the surface to be used
again and again.
4. The boards serve as an excellent medium for joint student- instructor activity in the
classroom.

6.3 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions.
i. Suppose you are a science teacher. What things do you keep in mind while
teaching science lesson?
ii. Write seven advantages of writing board over any other instructional aids.

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6.4 Science Laboratory
Laboratory is a spacious place where the students in groups carry out their experimental
work. It provides many opportunities for students to talk and write about science. With a
little thought and planning on the part of the students, its activities can be the basis for
building communication and problem solving skills.

The process of practical work has five stages which form a valid and satisfactory
framework within which practical skills are to be developed and assessed.

(a) “Recognition and formulation of the problem.

(b) Planning and designing of an investigation in which the student predicts the results
(Formulates hypotheses and designs procedures).
(c) Carrying out the experiments in which the students makes decisions about
investigative techniques and manipulates materials and equipment.
(d) Observational and measuring skills.
(e) Analysis, application and explanation in which the student processes data,
discusses results, explores relationships, and formulates new questions / problems.

Practical activities in a controlled environment (laboratory) have been traditionally an

important feature of science. No course in science can be considered as complete without
including some practical work in it. The practical work is to be carried out by individuals
in a physical science laboratory. At school stage practical work is more important
because of the fact that we “Learn by doing” scientific principles and applications are
thus rendered more meaningful. It is well-known fact that an object handled impresses
itself more firmly on the mind than an object merely seen from a distance.

There is a Chinese proverb:

I hear and I forget;
I see and I remember;
I do and I understand.

This proverb shows that when we hear something, we can forgot it easily, when we see
something, we can remember it but when we do something we understand it. So from this
proverb we can very well realize the importance of something “doing”. When a learner is
engaged doing something, he/she understands different phenomena/processes/
technicalities/functions etc.

6.4.1 Types of Laboratory Activities

According to V.K. Gupta, (1995), following are the various laboratory activities which
can be grouped as follows:
a. Verification Activities
These activities are used to verify major concepts. Students are provided
opportunities to witness events that have previously been discussed or described in
reading assignments.

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b. Exploratory Activities
Students are encouraged to probe and investigate new information through open-
ended problems. Exploratory activities help students to develop interest in science.
They are motivated to study the subject in depth. The information gathered through
exploratory activities is utilized to process new information and to find scientific
relationships.
c. Inductive Activities
Questions are posed to students and they are guided to discover a relationship or a
concept on their own. Students are required to organize facts through inductive
activities and to derive meaningful generalizations and principles.
d. Deductive Activities
These activities are based upon the maxim-from the general to the specific.
Students are encouraged to apply the previously learned principles in explaining,
predicting or describing an event. These activities contribute to reinforce major
concepts.
e. Psycho-Motor Skill Development Activities
Students are provided opportunities to practice relevant psycho–motor skills. The
acquisition of these skills is required to conduct experimental work.
f. Problem-Solving Activities
Students are required to solve scientific problems and formulate answers.
Assistance must be provided in the designed problematic situations with the aim to
impart training in science processes or problem-solving skills.

Theory and practice are inseparable. Theory attempts to explain observable phenomena,
whilst experimental work is design to sustain his conclusions from his experimental
results and function of the teacher is to exercise quiet vigilance in the background and to
be available if the pupil gets into difficulties.

6.4.2 Organization of Practical Work

Dear students, it is not an easy job to organize any activity in the science laboratory but
the following guidelines will help the physical science teacher to make his practical work
effective.

(i) If teacher is following the demonstration method to teach theory, he should

remember the most important principle that practical work should go hand in hand
with the theoretical work.
(ii) To arrange the practical work in such a way that each student is able to do his
practical individually. Thus, for practical work individual working be preferred in
comparison to work in groups.
(iii) In case of a large class, it is convenient to divide that class in a suitable number of
smaller groups, for practical work.
(iv) To save time on delivering a lecture about do’s and don’ts in laboratory, card
system be used. This card contains certain amount of guidance printed on it is

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 given to each pupil. Student can complete his practical work according to
instructions given in the card.
(v) The apparatus provided should be good so that students get an accurate result.
(vi) A true faithful record of each and every experiment be kept by pupils.
(vii) Teacher should see that students enter all their observations directly in their
practical note–book.
(viii) While working with large class and with limited apparatus teacher may allow
students to work in groups.
(ix) During a practical, class teacher would observe all children in such a way that his
power of control over the class should be such that students continue their work
satisfactorily.

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Key Points
1. The black or white board is the most important instructional aid used in the
teaching-learning process.
2. Laboratory is a place where learners perform experiments by applying skills and
knowledge in seeking to gain understanding.
3. Laboratory work is regarded as an essential and integrated part of the courses.
4. Different types of laboratory activities are:
 Verification activities
 Exploratory activities
 Deductive activities
 Psycho-motor activities
 Problem-solving activities

6.4 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. What things do you keep in mind while using writing board?
ii. Do you think that the Laboratory put the theory into practice? Discuss.
iii. Science labs help to improve the conceptual understanding level of the
students. Do you agree?
iv. How the teacher can organize the laboratory work?
v. Why laboratory work is important for science course?
vi. Discuss the different laboratory activities with examples.

Q.2 Choose the best:

i. What types of activities are performed in the science laboratories?
(a) verification
(b) (b) problem-solving
(c) (c) exploratory
(d) (d) a, b, c all

ii. What things do you keep in mind while using writing board?
(a) proper light
(b) underline statements for emphasis
(c) stand to one side of the board to avoid hiding the essential information
(d) a, b, c all

iii. While working with large class and with limited apparatus teacher may
allow students to work:
(a) individually
(b) in groups
(c) leave the practical work
(d) non of a, b, c

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iv. The first step in problem solving approach is:
(a) formulation of hypothesis
(b) defining the problem
(c) data collection and analysis
(d) theory building

v. Hypothesis is:
(a) an intelligence guess about the solution of the problem
(b) a tentative solution
(c) explanation of something that is based on few facts not yet been proved
(d) a, b, c all

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6.5 Use of Indigenous Material
When you think of indigenous materials, what comes to your mind?

Indigenous, by definition in the Webster’s dictionary, is an adjective meaning

‘originating in and characteristic of a particular region or country’. Indigenous materials,
therefore, are materials that are naturally and locally found in a specific place or area
rather than coming to it from somewhere else.

Naturally, some areas are less God Gifted than others, so indigenous materials vary
depending on the geographic features and location and climate condition of a region.
These materials in effect become a large influence on the lifestyle and culture of a
region’s people overtime with the skills and crafts handed down through generations.

How do you know if it is indigenous?

Something is indigenous if you can easily find it within your locality. It is something you
do not need to spend any money or have trouble fetching; in other words, you do not need
to use major and improved transport systems. Indigenous materials also do not require
costly processing, which consume energy and other resources, and can be used even in
their raw, untreated forms.

What are the indigenous materials found in the Pakistan?

From a large variety of plants in our local environment, we can make meter rod. We can
also resource many different kinds of natural fibers, like cotton, jute. These fibers when
spun into threads and woven together create very fine clothing and textiles.

We can use plastic bottles of cold drinks as beaker, rack, etc. in the laboratory. Other
indigenous materials in the Pakistan that are commonly known and used creatively in
crafts and decoration are pearls, and seashells naturally abundant in beaches and marine
resources.

Straws, disposable syringe can also be used for putting /taking a small amount of liquid
(chemicals) from one pot to another.

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Key Points
1. Materials that are naturally and locally found in a specific place or area rather than
coming to it from somewhere else is called indigenous material.
2. Indigenous materials very depending on the geographic features and location and
climate condition of a region.
3. Indigenous materials do not require costly processing.
4. From a large variety of plants in our local environment, we can make meter rod.
5. Indigenous materials in Pakistan that are commonly known and used are pearls,
and seashells naturally abundant in beaches.

6.5 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions.
i. What is an indigenous material?
ii. What type of material found in Pakistan which can be used as indigenous
material?

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6.6 ICTs as Instructional Aids
In most of the third world countries like Pakistan, science teaching at School as well as
Higher Education, mostly, concentrates on giving information which is not the sole objective
of teaching. Along with giving information to the students, the other objectives are:
 developing understanding and application of the concepts
 developing expression power
 developing reasoning and thinking power
 development of judgment and decision making ability
 improving comprehension, speed and vocabulary
 developing self-concept and value clarification
 developing proper study habits
 Developing tolerance and ambiguity, risk taking capacity, scientific temper, etc.

With the present infrastructure, class size, availability of teachers, quality of teachers,
training of teachers, etc., it is difficult to achieve all the objectives. Further, most of the
teachers use Lecture Method which does not have potentiality of achieving majority of
above mentioned objectives. The objectives are multi-dimensional in nature, so for their
achievement multiple methods should be used in an integrated fashion. At present ICT
may be of some use. It is a well known fact that not a single teacher is capable of giving
up to date and complete information in his own subject. The ICT can fill this gap because
it can provide access to different sources of information. It will provide correct
information as comprehensive as possible in different formats with different examples.
ICT provides online interaction facility. Students and teachers can exchange their ideas
and views, and get clarification on any topic from different experts, practitioners, etc. It
helps learners to broaden the information base. ICT provides variety in the presentation
of content which helps learners in concentration, better understanding, and long retention
of information which is not possible otherwise. The learners can get opportunity to work
on any live project with learners and experts from other countries. The super highway
and cyber space also help in qualitative improvement of Teaching – Learning Process.
ICTs provide flexibility to learners which are denied by the traditional process and
method. Flexibility is a must for mastery learning and quality learning.

6.6.1 Use of Computer as an Instructional Aid

Tutorials are one of the most common types of computer-assisted instruction. Tutorials
are “page-turners” similar to textbooks, interspersed with predetermined questions and
responses. The one-to-one tutoring and feedback provided by a tutorial can make it an
excellent tool for improving student knowledge (cognitive domain).

Drill-and-practice programs work well in increasing student knowledge through

repetition, usually through cues. Students can take as much time as they need or repeat
sections, helping to individualize instruction. Drill-and-practice programs provide
automatic feedback to learners.

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Computer allows students to direct their own learning. The student learns facts, concepts,
and procedures through the process of discovery, or guided discovery.

‘Knowing computers is considered as 4th basic skill. Computer is revolutionizing the way
we think, work, and play. It enables teachers to provide multiple representations of
content (images, graphs, diagrams, tables) and multiple options for expression
(multimedia, power point). Computer technology changes traditional classroom
instructional techniques. Computers enable students to process the information via
multiple intelligences. Computer technology integration helps to achieve 21st Century
Skills in students that is, planning, critical thinking , reasoning, creativity and
communication skills , both for interpersonal and presentation needs.

You know that computer cannot teach but only the teacher. Computer only facilitates and
enhances the teaching- learning process. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an
interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional
material and monitor the learning that takes place. It uses a combination of text, graphics,
sound and video in the learning process. It is especially useful in distance learning
situations. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to
help a student in all areas of the curriculum. CAI refers to the use of the computer as a
tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice,
simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's
understanding. These programs let students progress at their own pace, assisting them in
learning the material. The subject matter taught through CAI can range from basic math
facts to more complex concepts in math, history, science, social studies and language arts
(Sharp, 1996).

6.6.2 Use of Internet as an Instructional Learning Aid

On INTERNET many websites are available freely/on payment which may be utilized by
teachers and students for understanding different concepts, improving vocabulary,
developing Reasoning & Thinking, etc. ICT can help in preparing students for SAT,
GRE, TOEFL, etc.

The Internet consists of a vast collection of independent computers linked by national and
international telecommunication networks. Each Internet site contains information (text,
images, audio, video, links etc.) which are accessible to the individual working from their
home computer. Internet provides information in text, graphics, audio and video. New
programming allows a greater degree of interactivity through real time audiovisual
transfers and chat. Coloured and animated graphics are of much greater educational value
than photocopied images.

A computer simulation attempts to reproduce real-life situations Simulations feature a

combination of text and graphics, using dialogue and inquiry to guide the student through
a situation. Simulations can also bring about higher-order synthesis and analysis skills.

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Use of Internet for different instructional and learning experiences
i. Allowing students to interact with each other;
ii. On - line lecturing allowing faculty to interact with students;
iii. On - line counseling helps students in decision- making;
iv. On - line libraries and resource center providing text, documents, articles for
reference;
v. E-mail enables students and faculty to communicate with each other and with
people all over the world.
vi. Students send questions to the instructor and instructor can transmit the answer
instantaneously to all students;
vii. Faculty can hold “electronic office hours” so that students can ask questions and
receive answers almost immediately. Faculty can create “electronic suggestion
boxes” where students can post their comments about the course;
viii. We can enhance pedagogical practices, and promote active and autonomous
learning in students;
ix. Provide students with competencies and technological skills that allow them to
search for, organize, and analyze information, and communicate their ideas in a
variety of media forms;
x. We can also engage students in collaborative, project-based learning in which
students work with classmates on complex, real-world problems or projects;
xi. Provide students with individualized or differentiated instruction to meet the needs
of students with different achievement levels, interests, or learning styles

Technology integration is the use of technology resources – computers,

Internet, e-mail, digital cameras, CD-ROMs, software applications,
electronic publications, etc. – in daily classroom practices, and in the
management of an institution.

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Key Points
1. Indigenous materials are those materials that are naturally occurring and locally
formed in a specific place or area.
2. ICTs provide a variety of ways in the presentation of content, and help the
individual in understanding that content.
3. Tutorials are one of the most common types of computer assisted instruction.
4. Inter-net enables teachers, students, and their parents to communicate and share
information on-line.
5. Inter-net allows students to interact with their teachers, with one other, and with
other resources available either at national or international levels.

6.6 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. Explain the indigenous materials and its importance in the teaching-learning
process.
ii. Explain the role of ICTs in teaching-learning process.
iii. How computer helps the science teacher in the classroom and laboratory?
iv. What might you keep in mind while using internet in the classroom?

Q.2 Choose the best:

i. Indigenous material means:
(a) local material
(b) imports
(c) exports
(d) non of a, b, c

ii. Which one is not the objective of science teaching?

(a) developing understanding
(b) developing superstitions
(c) developing reasoning
(d) developing curiosity
iii. Which one is the objective of science teaching?
(a) improving self respect
(b) improving rote learning
(c) improving comprehension
(d) improving cramming

iv. Internet is used for:

(a) On – line lecturing
(b) On – line counseling
(c) On – line libraries
(d) a, b, c, all

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v. ‘4Rs’ the basic skills are:
(a) reading, writing, arithmetic, computer
(b) reading, reasoning, reproducing, remembering
(c) receiving, responding, remembering, reproducing
(d) reading, receiving, responding, reflex movement

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Suggested Answers
6.1 Self Assessment Exercise
Q.1 For the answers, See the 6.1 and 6.1.1 section of the unit.

Q.2 i. d ii. d iii. d iv. d vi. d.

6.2 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 See the 6.2, 6.2.1, 6.2.2 sections of the unit

Q.2 i. c ii. a iii. B iv. b v. d

6.3 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 See the 6.3parts of the unit

6.4 Self Assessment Exercise

See the 6.4 parts of the unit
Q.1 See the 6.3, 6.4, 6.4.1, 6.4.2 sections of the unit.

Q.2 i. d ii. d iii. B iv. b v. d

6.5 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 See the 6.5 section of the unit

6.6 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 See the 6.5, 6.6, 6.6.1, 6.6.2 sections of the unit.
Q.2
i. a
ii. b
iii. a
iv. d
v. a

200
Bibliography
 http://www.col-ed.org/resource_page.html

 Michael L. Matson, Jeffrey P. Fitzgerald, Shirley Lin "Creating Customized,

Relevant, and Engaging Laboratory Safety Videos" Journal of Chemical Education
2007 84 (10), 1727 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed084p1727

 Safdar, M. (2010). A comparative study of Ausubelian and Traditional methods of

Teaching Physics at secondary school level in Pakistan. Unpublished Ph.D Level
Thesis. National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad.

 Sansanwal, D.N. (2009). Use of ICT in teaching, learning and evaluation. Central
Institute of Educational Technology, NCERT, New Delhi

 www.tpub.com

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202
Unit–7
Unit–7

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS’
LEARNING IN SCIENCE TEACHING

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Arshad Mehmood Qamar

203
 CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 205

Objectives......................................................................................................... 205
7.1 Purposes of Assessment ..................................................................... 206
7.2 Modes of Assessment ........................................................................ 209
7.2.1 Oral ..................................................................................... 210
7.2.2 Written ................................................................................ 211
7.2.3 Practical............................................................................... 212
7.3 Developing, Scoring and Using Tests ................................................ 214
7.4 Characteristics of Good Test .............................................................. 218

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Introduction
Assessment is an integral and vital part of teaching and learning, providing feedback on
progress through the assessment period to both learners and teachers.

Recent decades have witnessed significant developments in the field of educational

assessment. New approaches to the assessment of student achievement have been
complemented by the increasing prominence of educational assessment as a policy issue.
In particular, there has been a growth of interest in modes of assessment in science
particularly that promote, as well as measure, standards and quality. These have profound
implications for individual learners, institutions and the educational system itself.

In this unit the major focus is to provide you the opportunity to learn about why and how
we assess the performance of the individuals in the science classroom and laboratory. In
the last section of this unit the focus is on how to develop a valid and reliable test to make
the assessment more valuable for the stake holders.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:

 Define the terms: assessment, measurement, evaluation and testing.

 Explain the difference between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
assessment.
 Know the purposes of assessment. (Why we assess students’ learning in school?)
 Explain different modes of assessment.
 Apply different (assessment) procedures to assess the performance of the students
in science classroom and laboratory.
 Define and give examples of performance based assessment.
 Know about the qualities of a good test.
 Develop the test specification.
 Design different assessment procedures (test, post-lab).

7.1 SAQ
1. Before going to start this unit, have a look at some definitions/concepts you have
already studied in the previous courses. Just food for thought, what you have in
your mind about these concepts; TESTING, MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT
and EVALUATION.

205
7.1 Purposes of Assessment
Assessment may take several forms such as standardized tests, class discussions,
independent reports or group projects. Assessments may be classified as pre-assessment
(placement), formative or summative, each serving a different purpose and measuring
various aspects of student knowledge and learning. Assessments are tightly related to
curriculum and instruction, so that a modification of one requires modifications of the
others. Assessments provide information for adjusting lessons according to student
outcomes.

7.1.1 Why Assessment? (Assessment in the School Program)

Following are the main reasons that why we assess the school program.
 Preparation of instructional objectives (have a look on SOLO/ Blooms taxonomy of
educational objectives, unit 2);
 Selection decision (selection of students in medical colleges, engineering
universities etc.);
 Classification decision (classify classes into arts/sciences/humanities etc.);
 Pre assess learners’ needs; (either we place a child in science class or not);
 Monitor learners’ progress (day to day, weekly, monthly etc.);
 Diagnose learning difficulties of the students;
 Improvement in science teaching;
 Improvement in learning process;
 Guidance and counseling;
 Decision making;
 Comparing groups;
 Reporting to parents/administration;
 Evaluation of curricula;

Assessment is a process of collecting evidence of what students know and can

do. Administering a paper and pencil test at the end of a lesson to evaluate students
provides one measure of student achievement. However, this approach does not capture
the full potential that a comprehensive assessment process can provide teachers and
students. A comprehensive assessment process can be used by teachers to assess student
readiness for new content, measure student progress during a lesson, evaluate student
learning and provide students self-evaluative strategies.

A comprehensive assessment process includes three types of assessments. They are

implemented at different points in a lesson. Pre-assessment is used at the beginning of a
lesson or unit to determine student needs and/or baseline levels of knowledge. Formative
assessment is performed over the course of a lesson to determine student progress so that
teachers can adjust instruction and students can reflect on their learning. Summative
assessment is conducted at the end of a lesson to evaluate student learning and to promote
teacher reflection on the effectiveness of the curriculum and instruction.

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Traditional assessment is a form of summative assessment usually involving multiple-
choice, true-false, short-answer or essay questions. Non-traditional assessments use
additional approaches such as portfolios, performance-based evaluations, time-series
design assessments, predict-and-explain assignments and concept mapping. These
approaches provide more comprehensive measures of students’ cognitive abilities and are
often more successful in measuring the student’s ability to integrate concepts and perform
specific skills.

 The primary purpose of assessment is for the student to receive multiple attempts to
practice and to demonstrate understanding of content and to develop skills by
receiving specific and timely feedback by the teacher in order to improve
achievement.
 The primary purpose of assessment is for the teacher to analyze student progress
for the purpose of modifying and refining the teaching/learning cycle to better meet
student needs.
 An important role for assessment is to help students understand how they learn so
they may improve their own learning and thinking skills.
 Student learning improves when assessments occur during the learning experience
and when teachers provide a variety of opportunities for students to communicate
their developing knowledge and understanding.
 The goal of science education is to develop capable problem-solvers who can view
the world critically with an understanding of the processes of science. Simply
assessing student knowledge through memorization tasks does not improve student
learning. Students who are good at recalling facts but lack a clear understanding of
concepts may still earn high grades on recall examinations. For improvement in
science education, higher order questions must be included in the assessment
procedure adopted.
 Real-world experiences and opportunities to perform science as a scientist enhance
student learning in science. Teachers’ use of performance-based assessment to
measure student skills, attitudes, problem-solving abilities and understanding of the
nature of science may promote students’ positive feelings and interest toward the
study of science and the laboratory.
 Joan Boykoff Baron (1991) collected feedback from teachers who had used
performance assessment in their classrooms in a two-year experiment. The teachers
reported that the assessment had given them useful information for modifying their
instruction. As a result of the increased feedback, the teachers focused more on the
objectives of their lessons, learned more about the skills and interests of their
students and increased the number of laboratory activities they presented to the
students.

Different kind of assessment is used to serve different purposes such as:

 Portfolio assessments may include reflective journals, collections of laboratory
reports or reviews of student investigations. These assessments may help illustrate
student progress during an instructional unit or over a longer period of time.

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 Performance-based assessments are considered to be more appropriate for use
with inquiry-based scientific learning than are paper and pencil tests (Doran et al.).
These assessments require the student to approach problems as a scientist while
handling equipment and materials. Performance assessments require that students
construct, rather than select, responses. Performance items allow teachers to
observe student behavior on tasks. Scoring can reveal patterns in student learning
and thinking. Whether used as a pre-assessment, formative or summative
assessment, performance-based assessment can measure students’ scientific inquiry
skills and content knowledge.
 Time series assessments help teachers track the development of student
understanding throughout the duration of a lesson or unit. Students are asked the
same question, individually or as a group, several times throughout a lesson. This
design assists both students and teachers in identifying misconceptions and
incomplete understandings. An advantage of this approach is that the teacher has
several opportunities to analyze student learning, offering avenues for lesson
modification and remediation prior to completion of the lesson or unit. This type of
assessment offers data for evaluating both student learning and teaching
effectiveness. This approach also fosters self-assessment, as students consider
changes in their conceptions over time.
 Predict-and-explain assessments ask students to apply scientific principles and
evidence. Students are given information, asked to predict potential outcomes and
evaluate their predictions. The evaluative process may include student-designed
experiments. This assessment provides opportunities for students to practice being
scientists by analyzing and solving real-world problems. Predict-and-explain
assessments often require students to repeat investigations to test hypotheses that
were modified after initial experimentation (Liew & Treagust, 1998; Wright).
 Concept mapping is an illustrated representation of a student’s cognitive
understanding, with labeled nodes indicating concepts and labeled lines between
nodes indicating relationships among concepts. Concept maps are particularly
useful as assessments because they can measure both factual knowledge and
conceptual understanding (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Concept mapping can be used
as a pre-assessment, formative or summative assessment.

High quality assessment is based on the following principles:

1. The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student learning.
2. Assessment practices must be fair and equitable for all students.
3. Communication about assessment is ongoing, clear and meaningful.
4. Professional development and collaboration support assessment.
5. Students and parents are involved in the assessment process.
6. Assessment practices are regularly reviewed and refined.
The UK Assessment Reform Group (1999) identifies 'the big 5 principles of
assessment for learning
1. The provision of effective feedback to students.
2. The active involvement of students in their own learning.

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 3. Adjusting teaching to take account of the results of assessment.
4. Recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self
esteem of pupils, both of which are critical influences on learning.
5. The need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to
improve.

7.2 Modes of Assessment

The use of non-traditional assessments including class discussions, production of
booklets, and written responses to questions are particularly useful to help students reflect
on their own learning. Students can focus and crystallize their ideas when assessment
occurs as part of instruction. Researchers found that student learning improves when
assessments occur during the learning experience and when teachers provide a variety of
opportunities for students to communicate their developing knowledge and
understanding. They conclude that students learn better when teachers regularly assess
understanding (formative) and adjust lessons in accordance with results. Moreover,
teacher questioning can bring out more of the students’ knowledge (or misconceptions)
and be of great benefit in modifying later instruction (diagnostic). Emphasizing the
importance of questioning in science, Krueger and Sutton (2001) concur that through
thoughtful questioning to facilitate classroom discussion, teachers can immediately
determine a student’s line of thinking, and can provide feedback and adjust instruction
accordingly.

Real-world experiences and opportunities to perform science as a scientist enhance

student learning in science. Teachers’ use of performance-based assessment to measure
student skills, attitudes, problem-solving abilities and understanding of the nature of
science may promote students’ positive feelings and interest toward the study of science
and the laboratory. Assessments in which students are asked to make predictions based
on information can be used to evaluate scientific inquiry skills. Once the student makes a
prediction, new information can be presented, leading students to reevaluate and modify
their predictions. Joan Boykoff Baron (1991) collected feedback from teachers who had
used performance assessment in their classrooms in a two-year experiment. The teachers
reported that the assessment had given them useful information for modifying their
instruction. As a result of the increased feedback, the teachers focused more on the
objectives of their lessons, learned more about the skills and interests of their students
and increased the number of laboratory activities they presented to the students.

There are a variety of strategies and opportunities for teachers to choose from in the
measuring the progress of different aspects of the science learning of individual pupils,
some of which are more appropriate than others, depending on the area of science that is
being covered and the age range of the pupils (Hollins&Whitby, 1998). The assessment
strategies that are available to assess the science learning of primary pupils include
performance-based assessment in science projects and investigations, science journal
writing, concept maps, portfolios, and questions and answers. Hughes and Wade (1996)
suggest that it is important that a variety of methods should be used, because pupils may

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demonstrate their abilities differently with different approaches. For example, some
pupils may perform better in “public” tasks such as oral discussion, and others may do
better in "private" tasks, such as writing.

There are many others modes of assessment which are used to assess the students’
learning in science but in this section we will discuss only three modes that is:
1. Oral
2. Written
3. Practical.

7.2.1 Oral
Dear students, you have ever appeared in the viva-voce/oral assessment in your science
practical examination conducted by Educational Board or University. This is one way of
measuring the performance of the students. And you also know that the important role for
assessment is to help students understand how they learn so they may improve their own
learning and thinking skills.

Oral assessment might take the form of a presentation of the work you have done in the
laboratory or viva voce examination at the end of experimental work. Some students find
oral assessment an easier way of demonstrating learning outcomes than written
assessment. However, oral assessment may present significant difficulties for students
who are shy or not good orator/some speech impairment.

Oral assessments are tasks designed to provide students with opportunities to develop and
demonstrate their command of spoken presentation content (Heywood, 2000 p. 316)

Why oral assessment?

Oral communication skills are now a key part of what any school program aims to
develop in its students. Particularly, in science subjects where teacher wants to verify that
the students have actually done the practical work and understood the concepts involved
in this process. “Effective communication” is therefore one of attributes of science
students and research scholars. In most of the universities, the research scholars present
their research work orally and answer the questions asked by the viva voce committee.
As well as being essential in many personal and professional contexts, the capacity to
express, justify and defend ideas and opinions, to engage in discussion with peers and to
learn from the ideas of others are some of the most significant aspects of the university
experience. However, unless oral communication skills are explicitly addressed through
course and program assessment there is a strong possibility that their development will be
assumed rather than systematically addressed. As assessment is generally believed to
define the curriculum for students, when oral communication skills are omitted from the
formal assessment program it is unlikely that students will invest time or effort in their
acquisition.

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Benefits of oral assessment
(i) Allowing students to research, prepare and present findings in a context similar to
that of their future work
(ii) Lending itself readily to group presentations, thereby making it well suited to those
group-base assessment tasks that reflect ‘real life’ teamwork.
(iii) providing an assessment experience that is more personal, more challenging, and
more engaging than other forms of assessment
(iv) Allowing academics to probe understanding through follow-up questions which
encourages deep approaches to learning.
(v) Balancing and developing student strengths. Some students will perform better in
oral than in written formats. For other students, oral assessment provides an
opportunity to develop important oral skills.
(vi) Countering plagiarism. The questioning component of oral assessment discourages
plagiarism and allows a quick check on who has contributed appropriately to group
work or individual work; while a short oral component attached to written work
can confirm student authorship.

In addition Joughin (1999) found that the particular qualities of oral assessment have the
potential to exert a positive influence on student learning, those students:
 perceive a greater need to understand the material they are studying when preparing
for oral rather than written forms of assessment when they expect their
understanding to be probed through questioning either by peers or other assessors
 are less inclined to present ideas they do not understand
 report oral assessment as a more personal experience which makes them feel more
ownership of the material presented and more accountable to the assessor.
 Orals also have great feedback potential and marking can be fast.

Effective oral assessment, like all other modes of assessment must adhere to the criterion-
referenced approach: In particular:
 Assessment tasks must be congruent with course learning objectives
 Two different forms of assessment must be used
 Students must be provided in advance with the criteria and standards to be used as
the basis of assessment judgments
 Feedback must be provided on all pieces of assessment; feedback must be timely
and offer students constructive advice on how to work towards intended course
learning outcomes.

7.2.2 Written
Right from class one; we have been taking written examinations. Written tests, either
achievement or aptitude, objective or subjective, norm referenced or criterion referenced,
personality or intelligence, all play very specific role to assess the performance of the
individuals. Therefore, the most frequently used mode of assessment is
“written.”Although the science students perform experiments in the laboratory yet they
have to write the experimental procedure, observations, and inferences drawn from the

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experiments. The theoretical part of the science subject is mostly assessed through
written mode.

Laboratory is a spacious room where the students in groups carry out their experimental
work. It provides many opportunities for students to talk and write about science. With a
little thought and planning on the part of the students, its activities can be the basis for
building communication and problem solving skills. Zaman (1996), citing the views of
Kempa (1986) that the process of practical work has five stages which are widely known
as forming a valid and satisfactory framework within which practical skills are to be
developed and assessed. (a) Recognition and formulation of the problem. (b) Planning
and designing of an investigation in which the student predicts the results. Formulate
hypotheses and designs procedures. (c) Carrying out the experiments in which the student
makes decisions about investigative techniques and manipulates materials and equipment.
(d) Observational and measuring skills. (e) Analysis, application and explanation in
which the student processes data, discusses results, explores relationships, and formulates
new questions and problems.

Post-labs give students the opportunity to plan and design their own strategy and draw
conclusions from experimental results, think independently and develop skills in solving
problems presented in the post-lab sheets. Post-laboratory work is usually interpreted at
the secondary / college level as the preparation and submission of a written report. This is
marked by someone associated with the laboratory (science teacher, demonstrator etc.)
and then returned to the student with a grade and some written comment.

According to Bond, David Jeffery and Elizabeth, (1986), Post-laboratory work provides
the students an opportunity to demonstrate various skills of calculation, communication
and application. Researches show that other forms of post-laboratory activities,
particularly interviews and discussions, enhance student learning.

Pre-Labs are the activities, which are provided to the students prior to the actual
laboratory-work, highlighting the essential ideas of the work to be done. It may be in
the form of a lecture, work sheets, written assignment, videos, CAL, simulation etc.
Post-Labs are the activities, which are provided to the student at the end of the actual
laboratory work. It may be in the form of written report, viva voce, quiz, post-lab
interviews, discussion, or a practical activity.

7.2 SAQ
1. Which mode of assessment would you use to assess the performance of your
science students? What are the limitations and advantages of this mode of
assessment? Give suggestions to improve this mode of assessment.

7.2.3 Practical
No course in science can be considered as complete without including some practical
work. Most of the achievements of modern science are due to the application of the
experimental method which is done in the science laboratory under a controlled situation.

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At school level practical work is even more important because of the fact that we ‘learn
by doing’ scientific facts, principles, generalization, laws and applications are rendered
more meaningful. It is a well-known fact that an object handled impresses itself more
firmly on the mind than an object merely seen from a distance or in a picture.

Practical work forms a prominent feature in any science course. Kumar, (1995), states
that class room experiments help in broadening pupil’s experience and develop initiative,
resourcefulness and cooperation. Gupta, (1995), pointed out the main objectives of
laboratory work, these are:
a. Create interest in science;
b. Verify facts taught in theory classes;
c. Develop the habit of doing independent work among students;
d. Prepare students for higher studies and science careers;
e. Develop skills in handling specific science apparatus and equipments.
f. Improve observation and critical thinking;
g. Develop the habit of reasoning;
h. Have a clear understanding of science concepts;
i. Develop the habit of doing systematic work: and
j. Create interest for research.

The School-based Science Practical Assessment is a component in the Pakistani school

sat the elementary and secondary Level Examination in the subjects of physics,
chemistry, biology, etc. It assesses candidates' competence in science practical skills over
an appropriate period of time. The students must qualify in both modes of assessments
that is theory (written) and practical. In Pakistan, the traditional Practical Examination
system is still being used at all levels which was normally conducted at the end of the 2-
year course. In the advanced countries, Instead of a one-time practical examination, the
students are assessed on their practical skills in a series of practical sessions throughout
the 2-year course.

In Singapore, instead of one-time practical examination, pupils are assessed on their

practical skills in a series of practical session throughout the two years course. The
assessment is grouped into three skill sets:
Skill set 1 – Performing and Observing
Skill set 2 – Analyzing
Skill set 3 – Planning

Each candidate is assessed twice for each of skill sets 1 and 2 and once for skill set 3.

For skill sets 1 and 2, the assessment is in the form of a practical task which requires
candidates to perform an experiment, make relevant observations and draw conclusions;
for skill set 3, candidates are required to analyse a practical problem and produce an
appropriate procedure based on the aim of the investigation.

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In addition, candidates are required to maintain a portfolio containing completed and
marked assessments and daily tasks. It is to provide evidence of the learning of practical
skills and evidence that the prescribed range of competencies and topics have been
covered. The portfolio will be inspected by ministry of education (MOE) officers; if it is
found to be unable to comply with the assessment requirements, the candidate's results
may be nullified.

7.3 Developing, Scoring and Using Tests

Tests play a central role in the assessment of students’ learning. They provide relevant
measures of many important learning outcomes and indirect evidence concerning others.
The validity of the information they provide, however, depends on the care goes into the
planning and preparation of the tests.

Developing a good test requires a lot of expertise. Developing valid, reliable and useful
tests is greatly enhanced if a series of steps is followed:

1. Determining the purposes of testing

2. Developing the test specifications
3. Selecting the appropriate item types
4. Preparing relevant test items
5. Assembling the test
6. Administering the test
7. Appraising the test
8. Using the test scores
GOAL: Improved learning and instruction

In the view of Safdar (2010) Teacher made test should pass through the following four
phases: (1) Planning Phase (2) Preparation Phase (3) Try-out Phase, and (4)
Administration/evaluation Phase. (PPTA)

Planning Phase
The tests, in this phase, are planned keeping in view the concepts of validity, reliability
and usability by answering the questions:

What objectives are to be measured?

What and how much content area (theoretical and practical) is covered?
How much weightage in the test is given to each objective of the Blooms Taxonomy?
How many types of test-items/problems/questions are to be included?
How long my test will be?

To answer these questions a two way chart /table of specification should be prepared.
While planning the test, all the cognitive aspects (levels) of the educational objectives
(Bloom’s 1956) should be taken into consideration.

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Preparation Phase
At this stage, write the objectives at the top of the two-way chart (table of specification)
while the contents on the left column of the two way chart. Keeping in view the
weightage given in the specification table, develop the test-items/problems/questions
(objective & subjective). Try to take the items/problems from the content of the course
and from everyday life. While writing the test items, keep in mind the level of the
students, subject and the language used. The language of the items/problems should be
clear, unbiased and unambiguous. The language should be so clear that there should not
be any difference in the understanding of the examiner, the teacher, and the examinee.

After the preparation of each test item, discussed with the experts in the field of science
education to know their opinion about the validity of the test, format, language and their
distracters. On the basis of their opinion and suggestions, improve the test items.

Try-out Phase
After the discussion with the experts, the tests should be pilot tested on the very small
group. After getting feedback, the tests should be improved through the selection,
substitution and revision of test items/problems and by using the item analysis procedure.

Administration Phase
After the improvement of the test, now it is ready for administration. After the
completion of administration, the test is ready for evaluation as per criteria mentioned in
marking scheme. After the completion of marking (of answer sheets), the marks achieved
by the students should be kept in the record file of each student for reporting/further
(statistical) procedures.

In the development and use of classroom assessment tools, certain issues must be
addressed in relation to the following important criteria.

A. Purpose and Impact: How will the assessment be used and how will it impact
instruction and the selection of curriculum?
B. Validity and Fairness: Does it measure what it intends to measure? Does it allow
students to demonstrate both what they know and are able to do?
C. Reliability: Is the data that is collected reliable across applications within the
classroom, school, and district?
D. Significance: Does it address content and skills that are valued by and reflect
current thinking in the field?
E. Efficiency: Is the method of assessment consistent with the time available in the
classroom setting?

There is a wide range of assessments that are available for use in restructuring science
assessment in the classroom. These types of assessments include strategies that are both
traditional and alternative. The various types of alternative assessments can be used with
a range of science content and process skills, including the following general targets.

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Declarative Knowledge — the "what" knowledge
Conditional Knowledge — the "why" knowledge
Procedural Knowledge — the "how" knowledge
Application Knowledge — the use of knowledge in both similar settings and in
different contexts
Problem Solving — a process of using knowledge or skills to resolve an
issue or problem
Critical Thinking — evaluation of concepts associated with inquiry
Documentation — a process of communicating understanding
Understanding — synthesis by the learner of concepts, processes, and
skills

Assessment can be divided into three stages: baseline assessment, formative assessment,
and summative assessment. Baseline assessment establishes the "starting point" of the
student's understanding. Formative assessment provides information to help guide the
instruction throughout the unit, and summative assessment informs both the student and
the teacher about the level of conceptual understanding and performance capabilities that
the student has achieved. The wide range of targets and skills that can be addressed in
classroom assessment requires the use of a variety of assessment formats. Some formats,
and the stages of assessment in which they most likely would occur, are shown in the

TABLE 7.1

ASSESSMENT FORMATS
Format Nature/Purpose Stage
Oral and written responses based on individual experience
Baseline
Baseline
Assessments
Assess prior knowledge
Multiple choice, short answer, essay, constructed response, written
Paper and Pencil reports
Formative
Tests
Assess students acquisition of knowledge and concepts
Embedded Assess an aspect of student learning in the context of the learning
Formative
Assessments experience
Require communication by the student that demonstrates scientific
Oral Reports Formative
understanding
Assess individual and group performance before, during, and after a
Interviews Formative
science experience
Require students to create or take an action related to a problem, Formative and
Performance Tasks
issue, or scientific concept Summative
Formative and
Checklists Monitor and record anecdotal information
Summative
Investigative Require students to explore a problem or concern stated either by the
Summative
Projects teacher or the students

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 Extended or Unit Require the application of knowledge and skills in an open-ended
Summative
Projects setting
Assist students in the process of developing and reflecting on a Formative and
Portfolios
purposeful collection of student-generated data Summative

It is clear that different kinds of information must be gathered about students by using
different types of assessments. The types of assessments that are used will measure a
variety of aspects of student learning, conceptual development, and skill acquisition and
application. The use of a diverse set of data-collection formats will yield a deeper and
more meaningful understanding of what children know and are able to do, which is, after
all, the primary purpose of assessment.

7.3.1 Marking/Scoring and Reporting/Using Test Scores

Assigning marks and reporting on pupils progress is a frustrating process but necessary
aspect of classroom instruction which help the teacher to improve his instruction on one
hand and guide the administration on other hand to improve the curricula, teaching-
learning environment.

You are familiar with your progress reports which were given to you at the end of every
term. Your progress report reflects your achievement in the particular subjects which you
have studied in the previous academic session/semester/term. School marks and other
reports of pupils’ progress serve a variety of functions in the school which can best be
described in relation to the reports’ users, including (1) pupils and parents, (2) teachers
and students’ counselor, and (3) administrators.

Reports to Pupils and Parents

The main reason for reporting to pupils and the parents is to facilitate the pupils’ learning
and development. Consequently, the functions to be served are some-what the same as
those of the general evaluation program. The report should:
1. Clarify the school program’s objectives,
2. Indicate the pupil’s strengths and weaknesses in learning,
3. Promote greater understanding of the pupil’s personal-social development, and
4. Contribute to the pupil’s motivation.

From the viewpoint of pupil learning, most of the functions are best served by formative
assessment (day-to-day evaluation and feedback during instruction). However, there also
seems to be a need for a periodic summary of progress. The periodic summary report can
be used to tell about the success or failure in the attainment of school objectives. In
addition, it tells us the general picture of how the students are doing. It also provides
them a basis for checking the adequacy of their own self-estimates of learning progress.

The desirability of using school marks and progress reports for motivational purposes is
often questioned. It depends largely on how they are used to motivate the individuals. For
example, if a child gets bad marks in the examination, it may be a threat to stimulate
child to work harder, the consequences are apt to be undesirable.

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Reports to parents should inform them of the school’s objectives and the progress their
children are making towards those objectives. This is important from many viewpoints:
1. By knowing what the school is attempting to do, parents are better able to
cooperate with school personnel in promoting their children’s development
(educational, social, moral, intellectual, physical).
2. Information about their success/failures, and problems their children are
experiencing in schools enable parents to give them needed emotional/moral
support and encouragement.
3. Progress reports of students’ learning give their parents a basis for helping their
children for making sound educational plans.

Use of tests Results/Reports by Teachers/Counselor

Marks and progress reports contribute to the school’s instructional and guidance
programs by providing more information about pupils. If pupils’ past achievements are
known to the teacher, he can better understand their present strengths and weaknesses and
can better predict the area in which they are likely to be successful. The increased
information supplied by progress reports is especially useful for teachers when they are
planning instruction, diagnosing learning difficulties, and coping with special problems
of personal-social development. The school’s instructional and guidance functions seem
to be best served by a reporting system that is both comprehensive and diagnostic.

Use of Tests Results/Reports by Administrators

Marks and progress reports serve a number of administrative functions. They are used for
promotion, awarding honours, reporting to other schools and prospective employers. For
most administrative purpose a single letter grade is preferable because such marks are
compact and can be easily recorded.

7.4 Characteristics of a Good Test

A good test should possess the following qualities (characteristics)
1. Objectivity
2. Objective Basedness
3. Comprehensiveness
4. Validity
5. Reliability
6. Practicability
7. Comparability
8. Utility
9. Simplicity
10. Scorability

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1. Objectivity
 A test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting
its scope as well as in scoring the responses.
 Objectivity of a test can be increased by using more objective type test items
and the answers are scored according to model answers provided.

2. Objective Basedness
 The test should be based on pre-determined objectives.
 The test setter should have definite idea about the objective behind each item.

3. Comprehensiveness
 The test should cover the whole syllabus.
 Due importance should be given to all the relevant learning materials.
 Test should be covering all the anticipated objectives.

4. Validity
 A test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends/suppose to measure.
 There are different types of validity: – Operational validity – Predictive
validity – Content validity – Construct validity
 Operational Validity
A test will have operational validity if the tasks required by the test are
sufficient to evaluate the definite activities or qualities.
 Predictive Validity
A test has predictive validity if scores on it predict future performance
 Content Validity
If the items in the test constitute a representative sample of the total course
content to be tested, the test can be said to have content validity.
 Construct Validity
Construct validity involves explaining the test scores psychologically. A test
is interpreted in terms of numerous research findings.

5. Reliability
 Reliability of a test refers to the degree of consistency with which it measures
what it intended to measure.
 A test may be reliable but need not be valid. This is because it may yield
consistent scores, but these scores need not be representing what exactly we
want to measure.
 A test with high validity has to be reliable also. (The scores will be consistent
in both cases)
 Valid test is also a reliable test, but a reliable test may not be a valid one.

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Different method for determining Reliability

Test-retest method
 A test is administrated to the same group with short interval. The scores are
tabulated and correlation is calculated. The higher the correlation, the more the
reliability.
Split-half method
 The scores of the odd and even items are taken and the correlation between the two
sets of scores determined.
Parallel form method
 Reliability is determined using two equivalent forms of the same test content.
 These prepared tests are administrated to the same group one after the other.
 The test forms should be identical with respect to the number of items, content,
difficult level etc.
 Determining the correlation between the two sets of scores obtained by the group in
the two tests.
 If higher the correlation, the more the reliability.

Discriminating Power
 Discriminating power of the test is its power to discriminate between the upper and
lower groups who took the test.
 The test should contain different difficulty level of questions.

6. Practicability
 Practicability of the test depends up on…
 Administrative ease
 Scoring ease
 Interpretative ease
 Economy

7. Comparability
 A test possesses comparability when scores resulting from its use can be
interpreted in terms of a common base that has a natural or accepted
meanings
 There are two method for establishing comparability
Availability of equivalent (parallel) form of test
Availability of adequate norms

8. Utility
A test has utility if it provides the test condition that would facilitate realization of
the purpose for which it is mean.

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9. Simplicity
Simplicity means that the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple
language, it is important to keep the method of testing as simple as possible while
still testing the skill you intend to test (Avoid ambiguous questions and ambiguous
instructions).

10. Scorability
Scorability means that each item in the test has its own mark related to the
distribution of marks given by the Educational Boards/Ministry of Education.

7.3 SAQ
1. If you are a paper setter of Educational Board what things you consider while
developing a good test?
2. Take any topic of your interest of General Science and develop a test of 75
marks by keeping in view the procedure given in this unit.

Key Points
 In order to determine the extent to which instructional objectives in science have
been achieved, the performance of students must be assessed. Assessment involves
ascertaining the extent of student learning and judging the merit of the student
score.
 Assessment is necessary to provide students with ongoing feedback during
instruction in the science classroom and laboratory, about the effectiveness of the
instructional programme.
 In classrooms where assessment for learning is practiced, students know at the
outset of a unit of study what they are expected to learn.
 At the beginning of the unit, the teacher will work with the student to understand
what she or he already knows about the topic (initial/placement assessment) as well
as to identify any gaps or misconceptions (diagnostic assessment).
 As the unit progresses, the teacher and student work together to assess the student’s
knowledge, what she or he needs to learn to improve and extend this knowledge,
and how the student can best get to that point (formative assessment).
 As the unit /academic session came to an end the teacher/management wants to
know that who will be promoted/ranking/certification/pass-fail or to what extent
the students have achieved the predetermined objectives. Assessment for learning
occurs at all stages of the learning process.
 Assessment is an on-going process aimed at understanding and improving student
learning. It involves making our expectations clear to students and setting
appropriate outcomes for learning. It helps determine how well student
performance matches those outcomes.

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 Assessment uses the resulting information to improve student learning. The
assessment process helps to support academic culture dedicated to assuring and
improving student learning.
 Assessment of student learning occurs at various academic levels. The goals at
each level are different. We, in science, asses the performance of the individuals;
(1) orally that is in the form of viva voce, (2) written that is in the form of
assignments/achievement test either objective or subjective, and (3) practical skills
that is in the form of performance /post-labs.
 Teacher’s main goal in classroom testing is to obtained valid, reliable, and useful
information concerning pupil achievement. This means determining what is to be
measured and then defining it so precisely that test items can be constructed that
evoke the desired performance.
 In developing a test the science teacher must consider the following areas: (1)
determining the purposes of the test, (2) developing the test specifications, (3)
select appropriate item types, and (4) preparing relevant test items. After
developing, administering and scoring the test, results can be interpreted in terms
of (1) the types of tasks that can be performed (criterion referenced) (2) the relative
position held (norm referenced).
 Both types CRT and NRT of interpretation are useful.

Answers of the Self-Assessment Questions

7.1 SAQ
For answers to question, read the relevant sections of the unit

7.2 SAQ
For answers to question, read the relevant sections of the unit

7.3 SAQ
For answers to question, read the relevant sections of the unit

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Unit–8
Unit–8

PLANNING FOR
SCIENCE TEACHING

Written by: Arshad Mehmood Qamar

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar
Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

223
 CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 225

Objectives......................................................................................................... 225
8.1 Planning Ahead: Importance.............................................................. 226
8.1.1 Basic Components of Planning of Science Teaching ......... 226
8.1.1.1 Overall Planning of the Course ......................... 226
8.1.1.2 Organization of the Course ............................... 227
8.1.1.3 Implementation of the Course Tasks ................ 228
8.1.1.4 Evaluation of the Course Tasks ........................ 229
8.2 Unit Planning ..................................................................................... 232
8.3 Lesson Planning ................................................................................. 235
8.4 Lesson Structure................................................................................. 238

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Introduction
The aim of the present unit is to give you detailed information regarding systematic
planning for science teaching which is useful for managing and organizing a science
class. As you know, every teacher varies from others due to his/her interests and teaching
styles. Teachers may differ from one another due to planning their teaching units or
planning of their lesson plans. This unit is focused on planning of science teaching that
will be helpful for your science teaching. It also includes the instructional mechanism for
the situation of a classroom as well as for the laboratory. It also imparts real need and
interest of the students that would enhance learning according to their level by
considering the available resources and time.

Planning tasks are always designed in advance. Consequently all sub-units of the chapter
with theoretical and practical knowledge are required for unit planning, lesson planning,
formation of lesson structure and selecting tips for managing science lab for elementary
classes before implementation. Here you will learn how to develop work plan of science
course based on scheme of studies that you will be able to carry out within the time
period. In addition to that science lesson plans and its activities will provide an idea how
to encourage the pupils to think scientifically, predict and draw their conclusion at their
own.

The activities and self assessment exercises will provide you some practice regarding
planning of the unit. You will also be able to apply this theoretical concept practically in
your science teaching.

Objectives
After this unit, it is hoped that you will be able to:
1. explain the importance of planning in science teaching.
2. design the scheme of unit planning for elementary science course.
3. construct the feasible lesson plan to manage the class.
4. design the scheme of study for managing the science lab for activities.

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8.1 Planning Ahead: Importance
Planning is a process of organizing, creating and designing a plan in advance. It is based
on psychological process of thinking to achieve the desire goals in a given time. It
requires skills of pre-planning and planning which leads:
 to define objectives
 to deal with future situations in a successful way
 to design the strategy of implementation of designed task
 to accomplish the tasks in fixed time period and
 to draw conclusions

To follow the planning process, the immediate task for you as a science teacher is to be
familiar with educational policy and with the science curriculum in the country. The policy
and curriculum usually refers to the educational aim for instance; the new General Science
Curriculum 2006 has a goal to provide “Scientific Literacy” among students of all levels.

To achieve this goal, planning should start by designing some realistic, applicable, simple
objectives based on outline of the course. By these learning objectives, you can assess the
work plan qualitatively and quantitatively.

8.1.1 Basic Components of Planning of Science Teaching

The basic components of planning of science teaching are collectively called work plan
and you will decide and design it with the consultation of head or senior science teachers.
By doing this, each member teacher will own the task and work for its betterment. The
main basic components are;
 Overall planning of the course
 Organization of course
 Implementation of the course tasks
 Evaluation of the course tasks

As a teacher when you will plan for teaching, your main responsibility is to work on
these given components in detail. In the next subsections of this unit, there are some
examples which will be helpful for you for making course plan for daily as well as annual
academic activity.

8.1.1.1 Overall planning of the Course

For effective planning of the course, you may focus on the following areas and discuss
them with your colleagues or peers before starting or designing of overall annual
planning. The main areas are:
 Government policy: The government policies provide guideless for educational
programs. These policies have great influence on the curriculum. Presently 2006
curriculum is going to be implemented. However education policy 2009 is the
latest one. This new education policy is also providing guidelines for teachers.

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 Evaluation of science academic record: The previous records and progress of
elementary science classes are to be evaluated and judged to identify the strengths
and weaknesses of previous academic planning of the year. Many suggestions can
be made to control the weak areas.
 The available school resources in terms of number of science teachers, annual
budget for science and time required for each curricular or extra-curricular
activities of the academic year. The critical analysis and discussion on above
mentioned points will help you in designing the plan for new academic year. If you
want to improve the progress of elementary science students as compared to
previous year, the propose plan may include:
 Extra science classes in summer vacations
 Allot time for students’ presentations
 Design some activities related to daily-life applications and
 Provide them some information to work with low and no cost material.

8.1.1.2 Organization of Course

After setting a target and objectives for new academic year, you will narrow down the
objectives into varied tasks to form a work plan. The tasks should be integrated and
linked with each other and you will make blue print and a road map having pre-defined
destiny of each task according to the time period i.e., work plan for a week, month or a
year. Here you will also estimate the required resources and its allocation at different
levels of work plan. Such association between tasks will keep you targeted, reduce the
tension and mistakes committed by chance. Not only this, sometimes it will help you to
recognize the hidden opportunities and difficulties that would rise during implementation.

These efforts will improve your confidence to communicate the landmark of achievement
with reference to defined tasks and time. The following example will support you in
organization of tasks.

Proposed Remarks
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
240 Working days to complete the course
First Term Complete 1/3rd course
Summer Course Planning

Select some new topics for advance

Summer vacations
preparation
Second Term Complete 1/3rd course
Examinations After each term
Third Term Complete 1/3rd course
Examinations Summative assessment
Sports/non curricular
Once/twice in a year
activities
Meetings After each term
Result preparations After each exams
Meetings with Parents After each term tests
Science Labs Weekly

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 Activity 1

Study the annual work plan of a school based on all subjects of a class.

Teaching Revision Assessment Activity

Semester Semester Test Holidays Total
Days Days Days Days
Revision Test
Days Days
First 28 10 06 05 06 05 08 76
Second 38 08 09 08 06 02 10 81
Third 41 08 07 05 06 02 08 77
Revision 08 10 02 04 24
Total 141 22 46 11 30 250

Note: Discuss the activity 1 with colleagues, teachers and solve Q.1 and Q.2

Q.1 Convert the work plan giving below according to your science classes?
Q.2 Discuss your Plan with your colleagues or peers and give suggestions for
improvement.
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................

Q.3 Add library periods, Play /game periods and Laboratory periods in the work plan
given above.

8.1.1.3 Implementation of the Course Tasks

Planning is result oriented process based on selected objectives to reach a destination by
choosing designed path and or by evaluating alternatives path. For planning of
implementation phase, the three areas should be focused:
i. Academic competency of the teacher
ii. Technical skill
iii. Relation with other colleague’s teachers, students and staff.

The progress of science students can be enhanced when you have proper knowledge of
the science content, you can handle the science equipments and apparatus according to
the requirement and arrange or design low cost/no cost material for simple science
activities. It is necessary because sometimes technical assistant is not available. The last
but most important thing is good relation with seniors and juniors. Implementation time is
a time to show your abilities and competency in implementing tasks so you can take
benefit from seniors by sharing their experience and skills. They can also be good guider
and helper in unseen situation or in the time of difficulties. While you can also utilize the
energy of your juniors (young teachers/staff/students) in different activities like
arrangement of lab, making science charts or models etc.

228
 Activity 2

Checklist of responsibilities for a class for the Month of March

Teacher/s Proposed Assigned Time Responsibility

1 March 1-10, 2017 To make timetable for classes, having meeting with colleagues and
finalization
2 March 5-15, 2017 Making arrangements for registers
3 March 5-15, 2017 Planning for syllabus breakdown for Science courses on weekly basis.
4 March 5-15, 2017 Arrange materials for science work
5 March 10-20, 2017 Plan for arrangements for new admissions and materials.

Q.1 Study the checklist of activity 2, revise according to your school and complete the
blank table? (Add more rows if required)
Q.2 Study the checklist of activity 2, and make checklists for other teachers and Months

8.1.1.4 Evaluation of the Course Tasks

After implementation the course, the teacher has another task to judge critically the
internal and external impact of each objective with reference to each task. This judgment
reveals the realistic view of your expectation that help you to draw recommendations for
future plan with the help of your colleagues, in order to decide whether to:
 Accept the plan and continuously work for next year or;
 Modify some objectives or add new objectives or;
 Reject the plan because it is not applicable in your situation.

In addition to it, evaluation of the course plan will help the teachers to focus on effective
domain of educational objectives such as scientific attitudes, understanding socio-
scientific issues.

Key Points
 Planning is tasks which always design in advance according to the need and time of
the situation.
 Planning of science teaching based on desired aim and objectives of educational
policy and science curriculum.
 It is also gives an idea of systematic planning i.e, designing a work plan,
organization, implementation, and evaluation of work plan, which is useful for
managing and organizing a science class in a given time.
 Work plan is a blue print and or a road map having pre-defined destiny of each task
according to the time period i.e, weekly, monthly or yearly.
 Work plan should design with consultation of teachers.
 Work plan objectives should be realistic, applicable and simple based on outline of
the course.

229
 The teacher or group of teachers formulates the objectives by considering the
curriculum, previous school record/progress of science course and available
resources.
 Work plan tasks should be integrated and linked with each other to keep you
targeted and also estimate the required resources and its allocation at different
levels of work plan.
 Implementation time is a time to take action on work plan by day to day
monitoring. It required teacher’s academic competency, technical skill and good
relation with other colleague’s teachers, students and staff.
 Evaluation of work plan critically judges the internal and external impact of each
objective both qualitatively and quantitatively.
 The evaluation judgment provides a realistic view of expectation helps the teachers
to draw recommendations for future plan i.e accept the plan, modify or add some
new objectives and reject the plan.

8.1 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions:

i. What measures you will recommend to the head/senior teachers if there is
storage of science teachers?
ii. What measures you will recommend to the head/senior teachers if there is
shortage of funds for activities in your school?
iii. Do you think it is workable for school progress if you circulate your
academic work plan to parents and students at start of the session?
iv. Planning predicts what the future should look like. Explain with examples.
v. What are the advantages of communicating the plan to colleagues?

Q.2 Select Correct Answer

I. Which one of the following shows the definition of planning?
A. A list of items for activities.
B. Designed activities to work in future
C. Some activities to guide students
D. Some tasks to assign students
ii. Which one point has LEAST importance in educational planning?
A. Government policy
B. Available resources
C. Record of educational progress
D. Record of neighboring countries
iii. Why a good planner set some provision of time and material for unseen
situation?
A. To control difficult condition during implementation phase.
B. To report the higher authorities
C. To deal with other working group.
D. To evaluate the situation and design new plan

230
i. The first step is planning is
A. To define objectives
B. To implement the task
C. Formulate hypothesis
D. Draw conclusion
ii. How many steps a work plan (i.e planning of Science Teaching) has?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8

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8.2 Unit Planning
In previous section do have information about session activities planning. The science
curriculum is divided into Units. The content weightage and number of periods are given
at the end of each subject curriculum document. To develop a Unit Plan, keep the
following points in mind:’
1. Enlist the major concepts and learning outcomes .(see activity 3)
2. Sort out the learning outcomes into most important and less important.
3. Specify teaching strategy for each Unit.
4. Specify assessment technique for major concepts.
5. Develop conceptual linkages of these concepts with other levels.(See activity 7)
6. Make concept map for each major concept.

Activity 3
Major concepts and Learning Outcomes for Unit” Nutrition”

Number Teaching
S.N Major concepts SLOs
of periods Methods
1 Mineral Nutrients Define mineral nutrition’s in Plants. 03 Inquiry and
in plants Categorize nutrients into Macro and micro questioning
nutrients.
State the importance of Nitrogen and
magnesium for chlorophyll formation.
Describe the importance of fertilizers
Discuss environmental hazards related to
chemical fertilizers use.
2 Components of Distinguish among carbohydrate, proteins and 09 Inquiry /Activity
Human Food fats in terms of their sources, energy values
and metabolic functions.
Specify the food sources and metabolic
functions of Vitamins A, C and D etc.
……
3 Balanced Diet Describe the concept and need for balanced 02 Discussions
diet concept
Explain the components of balanced diet attainment Model
Explain why diet, especially energy intake,
should be related to age, sex and activity of
an individual.

Source: National Curriculum of Biology for IX-X, 2006

232
Activity 4 A
Take subject of Chemistry from Curriculum of SSC classes, and prepare a Unit plan for
each.

Number
S.N Major concepts SLOs Teaching Method
of periods

Activity 4 B
Take subject of Physics from Curriculum of SSC classes, and prepare a Unit plan for
each.

Number
S.N Major concepts SLOs Teaching Method
of periods

Activity 4 C
Take subject of Mathematics from Curriculum of SSC classes, and prepare a Unit plan
for each.

Number
S.N Major concepts SLOs Teaching Method
of periods

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8.2 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions:

i. Make concept map about the topic Photosynthesis.
ii. Why is necessary to develop linkage of chapter with other chapters of the
same grade or other grades?

Q.2 Select correct answer.

i. The unit plan is based on
a. Whole book
b. Only a single chapter
c. Only a single topic of the chapter
d. Only a single concept of the topic.
ii. SLO stands for
a. Student learning outcomes
b. Student learning options
c. Self learning outcome
d. Self learning orientation
iii. While planning for unit the step is to….
a. Arrange objectives
b. Develop linkage
c. Present concept map
d. Enlist subtopics
iv. The concept map provides…..
a. Related topics of the chapter and shows the relationship among topics
b. It is a graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge
c. Concepts usually represented in the form of boxes or circles
d. All above
v. Advance organizers help the students to:
a. Memories facts
b. Revise the learned material
c. Connect the old and new ideas
d. None of a, b, c

234
8.3 Lesson Planning
Lesson planning is a fundamental process to construct a lesson by using student’s
material and time efficiently and economically. It shows an example of the scenario of
one-period lesson of 30 to 40 minutes. By considering the indiv9idulal differences of the
class, teacher designs a lesson in such a way that is appropriate to enhance the learning
abilities, readiness to learn and learning skills of the students.

Before writing a lesson you should work-out on the following factors while the example
of the lesson will be in the next section 8.4
i. Select the topic of the lesson
ii. Establish the purpose/objectives of the lesson
iii. Consider the logistics of the lesson
iv. Use multiple methods
v. Prepare a set of lesson notes

After selecting topic and objectives of the lesson, teacher will work on the following
points:
 Lesson Logistics:
a. It includes length of lesson. Teacher has to designate an approximate time for
each step of the lesson.
b. Number of students: Prepare worksheet, chats, and/or model according to
groups.
c. Size and shape of the classroom/lab: If class is big, the size of labeled chart
should be big and visible to all.
 Enlisting Teaching materials/ equipments and arrange then according to the
number of students. It is also suggested that teacher should use multiple methods
during delivering a lesson and involve students by giving them a chance to think,
discuss and communicate in class.
 Lesson note: Scrutinize all set objectives of the lesson into two categories: Teacher
activity and Students activities.

Now you will prepare notes on set induction, methodology, assessment and summary.
a. Set Induction
 The learning level of the students and their previous knowledge about the
topic to be assessed.
 The link between their previous knowledge to be imparted.
 An activity or some questions based on previous knowledge to be
constructed to access the students.
b. Methodology
A. Planned sequences of text contents and knowledge should be introduced by
way of implicit or explicit inquires.
B. Multiple teaching methods should be used for explaining the content to the
students of different teaching abilities.

235
 C. Topic example should be interdisciplinary which enhances the observation of
the students.
D. Learning tendencies of the students be kept in mind while giving explanation
to them.
E. Teaching aids should be suited to the prosper topic in order to attract
attention, increase interest and bring change by introducing variety of
visuals.
F. Questions should be introduced for diagnostic purposes.
c. Assessment/ Assignment
While planning for assessments and assignments, it should be ensured that:
1. The purpose and directions for their completion have been clearly
communicated.
2. The tasks are of reasonable length.

These guidelines and directions will help the students to do their tasks. These are also
useful in promoting high levels of involvement and producing higher order thinking skills
(such as planning, problem analysis and organization).

d. Lesson Summary
A. Review of the lesson in brief and concise way. It may design in bullet form
or in the form of concept map.
This preparation of lesson plans will not only enhance the competency of the
teachers but it will also reduce the chance of mistake and forget, keep you on
task by maintaining the sequence or order of content information from simple
into complex.

Key Points
 Lesson planning is fundamental process to construct a lesson by using students,
material and time efficiently and economically.
 Science lesson plans and its activities provide an idea how to encourage the pupils
to link scientifically, predict and draw their conclusion on their own in given time
and shows an example of scenario of a one-period lesson of 30 to 40 minutes.
 Lesson should be suitable for all students having different learning abilities,
readiness to learn and learning skills. Here science class teacher works as a
facilitator, give more chance to students to predict, discover./observe and draw
their own conclusions.
 Lesson planning considers the topic of the lesson, objectives, logistics, multiple
methods, possible questions and assignments.

236
8.3 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Write advantages of the following:

A. Scanning of the lesson topic ..............................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
B. Preparing key points ..........................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
C. Recording time ..................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
D. Preparing the most difficult part of the lesson first ...........................................
...........................................................................................................................
E. Answering the questions ...................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
F. Practicing the activities .....................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
G. Planning alternate lessons .................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

Q.2 Select correct answer.

i. The lesson plan is based on
A. The whole chapter
B. Single topic of the chapter
C. C. Single concept of the topic
D. None of the above
ii. Lesson logistics also includes--------
A. Length of lesson
B. Number of teachers
C. Qualification of teacher
D. Nature of subject
iii. During set induction, teachers-----
A. Give assignment for home work
B. Assess students learning
C. Try to make students busy
D. Mark the attendance
iv. For the completion of assignments/ assessments------ must be considered
A. The tasks of the reasonable length
B. These must be easy
C. Answers must be provided
D. None of above
v. Lesson summary is necessary because -------------------
A. It provides review of the lesson in brief and concise way.
B. It gives less important points of the lesson
C. Students pay attention only to the lesson summary
D. Exams are based on it

237
8.4 Lesson Structure
This section is the continuation of previous section 8.3. An example of lesson plan on
science topic “photosynthesis” is given below to elaborate the structure of a science
lesson. For reference please see figure 2; The Main Factor of Lesson Planning.

As you will notice this lesson has various steps or stages e.g. “objectives”. Carefully read
the description given below each stage and think of its purpose.

DRAFT OF SIMPLE LESSON

Topic: Photosynthesis Date: ---------------- Class: -------------- Time: ----------------

Objectives of the Topic

After completing this lesson the students should be able to:

 Define the term “photosynthesis”
 Describe the importance of “photosynthesis”
 Explain the process of “photosynthesis”

Set Induction
It is an introductory part of a lesson structure and here teacher constructs some questions
or designs a simple activity to check the previous knowledge of the students. It should be
the attractive part of a lesson so that students pay attention on science topic and feel
energetic by taking consecutive classes of different subjects. This part also helps the
teacher to link lesson with previous knowledge and the knowledge to be imparted.

Example: Teacher will invite few students one by one, given them marker to fill the
chart.

Student Activity: Identify the functions and write the name of plant cell components on
chart.

Cell Function Cell Component Answers for teacher

It gives regular shape. Cell wall
It is partially permeable membrane. Cell membrane
It is a jelly-like substance. Cytoplasm
It controls all chemical reactions in the cells. Nucleus
It has Chlorophyll. Chloroplast
It has chemical fuel for cell functions. Mitochondria

Teacher’s Activity: Teacher should correct the incorrect responses if any.

Students Activity: Listen and Observe Corrections.

238
Methodology
This is a development part of the lesson and here teacher will use notes of main points of
photosynthesis, its reactions and ask some relevant questions.

Teachers Activity: Teacher will announce the topic and make figure of chloroplast on
board. And ask the student to describe.

Students Activity: Describe the Chloroplast

Teachers Activity: Explanation of the process

Photosynthesis (Overall equation)

6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Light Reaction (only oxygen is formed by break down of water)

Light Pass energy to chlorophyll molecules H2O 2H + ½ O2

Dark Reaction (only sugar is formed by entering of carbon dioxide in stroma)
Stroma CO2 + Stored energy Sugar

Assessment
Teachers Activity: Teacher also prepares some questions which he/she requires during
explanation. For example;
Q. What is the role of chlorophyll?
Answer: Store energy and also convert light energy into chemical energy.
Q. Is Food formed first?
Answer: No, it is oxygen is formed first in light reaction and after that it is released
from stomata.

Home Assignment
Teachers Activity: Teacher also prepares some questions which he/she will give as
home assignment.
Q. When green plants photosynthesize, they convert---------
A. Chemical energy Light energy
B. Light energy Chemical energy
C. Light energy Heat energy
D. Heat energy Chemical energy

Answer: B

Q. Define the role of photosynthesis in carbon cycle.

Summary
Teachers Activity: At the end of the lesson the summary point will help the students to
store/accumulate some knowledge in short. This example shows photosynthesis and its
advantages.

239
Key Points
 Lesson should start to access the learning level and previous knowledge of the
students and the knowledge to be imparted.
 Lesson deliver with planned sequences of text contents and example should be
interdisciplinary which enhance the observation of the students.
 Lesson explanation focus learning tendencies of the students and use suitable
teaching aids to attract attention and interest of the students.
 Lesson questions should solve the lesson problem and enhance curiosity of the students.
 Lesson questions and assignment should have clear purpose and directions for
completion and reasonable length. Lesson questions and assignments should
promote high levels thinking skills of the students.
 Lesson summary should provide review of the lesson in brief and concise way.
 Lesson plans will enhance the competency of the teachers, reduces the chance of
mistake and help to keep on track.

8.4 Self Assessment Exercise

Q.1 Answer the following questions:
i. What points you will recommend for home work so that the students can
concentrate on subjects?
ii. Discuss the simple lesson on photosynthesis and write five points to improve
the lesson?
Q.2 Select appropriate answer.
i. Which one component of lesson plan tests the previous knowledge of the
students?
A. Set induction
B. Methodology
C. Assessment
D. Summary
ii. Which one component of lesson plan reflects the conclusion of the lesson?
A. Set induction
B. Methodology
C. Assessment
D. Summary
iii. In the beginning of a lesson, teachers--------
A. Attract attention of students
B. Explain topic benefits to students
C. Draw attention to the learning outcomes
D. All of above
iv. Lesson planning---------
A. Increase competency of teachers
B. Increases errors in instruction
C. Increases workload of teachers
D. None of above

240
Unit–9
Unit–9

TEACHING OF
SCIENCE CONCEPTS

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Safdar

Reviewed by: Dr. Iqbal Shah
Arshad Mehmood Qamar

241
 CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 243

Objectives......................................................................................................... 243
9.1 Teaching of Science .............................................................................. 244
9.2 Concept and Concept Attainment ......................................................... 249
9.3 Teaching of Bio Science ....................................................................... 253
9.4 Teaching of Chemistry.......................................................................... 258
9.5 Teaching of Physics .............................................................................. 262

242
Introduction
Teaching is a social process involving interaction between people, a process by which
one person helps other to achieve knowledge, skills and attitudes. Teaching is not just to
know an object, an event, or simply not to look at it and make a mental copy or image of
it or force the learner to absorb the concepts rather to modify, to transform the object, and
to understand the process of the transformation.

In this age of rapid progress and development an improvement in science education is

highly desirable. Keeping in view the dictum, “how to teach is more important than what
to teach”. An effort has been made to provide practical guide lines and suggestions for
making the teaching of physical sciences more relevant to the needs of the curriculum
2006. It is earnestly hoped that this unit will prove beneficial to those who are engaged in
the task of providing science education to younger generation.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
 Define teaching;
 Differentiate between concept and science concept;
 Know different methods of Teaching science;
 Understand different teaching methods used in the teaching of science;
 Apply different methods in the teaching of Physics, Chemistry and Biology.

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9.1 Teaching of Science
The task of teachers is central to education. Teachers must transfer to new generation the
cultural heritage of the society-the knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired over the
years. They also try to help the students to understand themselves and his world, and also
develop the ability to adjust themselves in this rapidly changing world. Much teaching is
done informally, but in the course of history, teaching has achieved the status of a
professional specialty.

According to the World Book Encyclopedia (1970, p-55) “teaching is a process by which
one person helps other to achieve knowledge, skills and attitudes. At least two persons
are involved in teaching, the teacher and the learner. A good teacher provides guidance
for the learner. The guidance encourages the learner. Teaching creates conditions that
will encourage and stimulate learning.”

Our modern life depends on the teaching provided by schools /colleges /universities that
is through formal system of education. But to cope with the challenges of 21st century,
non-formal system of education is also playing its role effectively. More persons in the
world belong to the teaching profession than to any other.

Teaching is mean of equipping people for happy and satisfactory lives. It is lifelong
process that begins when mothers teach their children to walk and to speak. In school,
teachers have great influence on children by encouraging interest, by developing talent,
and by providing useful factual information about the world.

Effective classroom teaching in science requires advance thinking and proper planning.
Certain points like objectives, content, methods, teaching aids, evaluation techniques are
required to be attended to properly in advance for achieving desired outcomes. According
to the World Book Encyclopedia (1970) the teaching is a process by which one person
helps other to achieve knowledge, skills and attitudes. A good teacher provides guidance
for the learner. The guidance encourages the learner to do things that result in desired
learning. Hence, it is said that teaching creates conditions, which encourage and stimulate
learning.

Many teaching methods have their importance in the field of teaching. Numerous
curriculum writers, psychologists, educationists take up the need for variety of teaching
methods and suggest that three arguments support this position; (1) not all students learn
equally well when the same teaching methods are applied, (2) certain teaching methods
are more applicable to particular situation, and (3) not a single method is superior
particularly in terms of students’ performance.

Arends (2004), states that the task of teaching the young is simply too important and
complex to be handled entirely by parents or through the informal structures of earlier
eras. Modern society needs schools staffed with expert teachers highly skillful in

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methodology to provide instruction. As expert and professional, they are expected to use
best practice to help students learn essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Some teaching methods are very old. Socrates (the Greek philosopher) used his own
teaching method of question–answer. In ancient India, teachers developed their own
teaching method/teaching models to produce desirable changes in the behaviour of the
learner. Chohan (1989), states that a teaching method describes the process of specifying
and producing particular environmental situation, which cause the students to interact in
such a way that a specific change occurs in their behaviour. The concept of teaching
method is meaningful for teaching because it helps to overcome the obstacles facing the
teacher and the learner. In the view of Arends (2004), teaching method is a plan, or
pattern, for helping students to learn specific kinds of knowledge, attitudes, or skills. It
encompasses specific teaching steps design to accomplish desired educational outcomes.

Teaching methods may be classified as: (a) Traditional (lecture/presentation, direct

instruction, programmed instruction, memorization / rote learning), (2) Expository
(Ausubelian teaching method), (3) Enabling (simulation games, brainstorming,
sociodrama, inquiry). Sing (2004), expresses that traditional methods are content
centered, teacher remains more active, more cognitive and less affective. In the view of
Rao (2001), traditional methods are concerned with the recall of factual knowledge and
largely ignore higher levels of cognitive outcomes.

In Pakistan, much teaching (which can be described as traditional) is based on teacher-

centered, lecture presentations to students where the role of the learners is the recording
of what the teacher says and its accurate memorization. Credit is given of the correct
recall of as much as possible in formal tests and examinations. This approach does not
occur in all countries and education systems but is a particular feature of much Pakistani
education and in many other countries.

Right from birth, the child develops beliefs about the things that happen in its
surroundings. Initially, these beliefs and concepts are isolated and independent of one
another. But when the child grows, all his experiences stimulate the development of more
generalized sets of expectations. According to cognitive psychologists, teaching and
learning in the classroom depends on what the students have already in their minds’, as
well as on the learning context in which they find themselves.

Why do we teach sciences at school level? Here are some suggested answers quoted by
Safdar (2010).
(i) Piaget (1962) showed that learners are seeking to make sense of the world around;
physical and biological. The sciences are consistent with that.
(ii) The sciences are part of culture. They involve human endeavour. Young people
need to know something of this simply to become a full member of their own
culture and the wider culture of the world.
(iii) If the sciences are taught in the right way (and I have almost never seen this at any
level in Pakistan), they can introduce the learners to one powerful way of knowing:

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 the contribution of science education is to enable young learners to see that
experimental evidence is one powerful tool in making sense of the world around.
For a few, this may lead on to more complete scientific thinking.

It is essential that all school learners have some understanding of the sciences in that they
will all be members of society. Society as a whole needs to see how the sciences can
make a contribution for the benefit of all. Reid (1980), summarises the above discussion
in the figure 2.1 presented below:

Figure 9.1 Scientific Literacy: Knowing What, Knowing How & Knowing Why

Science is more than merely a body of knowledge. It is also ways of investigating. If we

do not teach our students about science inquiry, then we must create a classroom
environment that encourages and guides them to use scientific processes every day.

Carin and Sund (1989), presented some guides to involve children in “doing science”.

a. Involve students in science-based process activities.

Include activities such as observing, measuring, experimenting, communicating,
inducting, deducting, forming hypotheses, analyzing and synthesizing, evaluating,
estimating, speculating, extrapolating, creating theories. Students must engage in
scientists’ work at their own maturation level.
b. Teacher must acquire knowledge of science and the ways science and society
are interdependent.
To assist students in understanding how people impact upon each other and their
environment, and help them to understand the attitude and values of society, so
they can make informed decisions.
c. Engage students in activities involving seeking answers to problems in our
scientific and technological society.

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d. Students must learn by doing and then reflecting.
Actively involve students in scientific activities so they investigate and discover
scientific concepts, theories, and processes; help them learn how to think what they
have done.
e. Utilize as many different approaches to science teaching/learning as teacher can.
Expose the students to science through telling, showing, guiding, listening, reading,
drawing, handling, and visiting.
f. Actively involve your students in inquiry or guided discovery approach to
teaching or learning.
An understanding level of teaching and learning seeks to acquaint a learner with
relationships between principles and facts. Safdar (2010) quotes Herbart in Kumar
(1995), that the teacher should follow these steps when teaching physical sciences
particularly.

1. Preparation
A teacher should begin with experiences that pupils already have had. This will
help to prepare students to receive new information. This step involves:
 Reviewing previous knowledge of students;
 Providing enough opportunity to motivate students; and
 Introducing the new information.

2. Presentation
A teacher should announce the topic to be dealt with before dealing with the related
contents. Teaching methods, which can be used, are lecturing with examples,
demonstrations, discussions and teacher’s explanations in relation to facts, concepts
and principles. A teacher should try to involve students as regards their
participation. A questioning technique should be employed for this purpose.
Teaching aids must be used for developing conceptual understanding.

3. Comparison and Abstraction

This step comprises finding out the similarities and differences among the old and
the new ideas and then welding them together.

4. Generalization
This step deals with the identification of some common elements of the two sets of
facts as a principle or generalization.

5. Application
This step deals with the use of the newly acquired principle to explain further facts.

6. Recapitulation
An understanding of contents is tested through questions. Test items of different
types are used for this purpose.

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Activity

1. Teachers must transfer to new generation the:

(a) knowledge, (b) skills (c) attitudes (d) a, b, c all
2. A teacher should begin with experiences that pupils already have had. It help the
teacher to prepare students:
(a) to receive new information (b) Reviewing previous knowledge of students
(c) Providing enough opportunity to motivate students (d) a, b, c, all

SAQ:
1) In Pakistan, much teaching in science (which can be described as traditional) is
based on teacher-centered, lecture presentations to students where the role of the
learners is passive. Write at least five suggestions to shift the science teaching
paradigm from teacher centered to student centered.
2) What steps do you follow to teach the students (science subjects) effectively?

Key Points
 Teaching methods may be classified as: (a) Traditional (lecture/presentation, direct
instruction, programmed instruction, memorization / rote learning), (2) Expository
(Ausubelian teaching method), (3) Enabling (simulation games, brainstorming,
sociodrama, inquiry).
 Traditional methods are content centered; teacher remains more active, more
cognitive and less affective. Traditional methods are concerned with the recall of
factual knowledge and largely ignore higher levels of cognitive outcomes.
 Teacher should follow these steps when teaching physical sciences particularly.
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and Abstraction
4. Generalization
5. Application
6. Recapitulation

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9.2 Concept and Concept Attainment
One of the most important issues in cognitive psychology is the development or
formation of concepts. Safdar (2010) quotes Huitt (2003), that a concept is the set of rules
used to define the categories by which we group similar events, ideas or objects. Carroll
(1964) defines that a concept is an abstraction of a series of experiences that defines a
class of objects or events. It is instructive to remember that abstraction is the process of
focusing one’s attention on a particular situation and extracting certain elements while
ignoring many other elements.

Classifying, or categorizing, is a skill that has been studied by psychologists because it is

basic to thinking. Bruner, Goodnow, and Austen (1956) have pointed out that
categorizing reduces the complexity of our environment and make sense out of it. They
emphasize that individuals invent categories and form concepts as a way of adapting to
the environment.

Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1956), in Collette and chiappetta (1989) state that a
concept has five important elements: (1) name, (2) definition, (3) attributes, (4) values,
and (5) examples. They believe that all these elements are necessary for understanding
concepts and that these elements can be the focus of instruction for concept attainment.

Each one is now discussed briefly.

1. Naming/ Labeling
It identifies what is being studied and recalls to the learner’s mind a given concept that
he/she has attained. During the process of attaining a concept (that has been invented by
someone else,) the learner determines the criteria by which attributes are associated with
a category of objects or events. The learner may have a preconceived idea or notion of
the concept through past experiences when concept was formed. Further concept
attainment occurs as the learner more precisely defines the critical attributes of the
concept. This is usually done by exposing students to examples and non-examples of the
concept (As Ausubel suggested). Once the concept is fully attained, the naming of the
concept permits the recall of the precisely defined concept. For example, the word screw
gauge will probably evoke the idea of an instrument that measures the length/diameter
(of a wire, small ball) accurately up to 0.001cm.

2. Definition
The definition of a concept provides a statement of the relationship among the essential
characteristics, or attributes, that constitute the concept. The definition includes both the
relevant attributes and the rule for combining or using these attributes. Collette and
Chiappetta (1989), state that there are numerous classification schemes for concept, each
of which utilizes a different type of definition. They further elaborate the views of
Bruner, who says that the three types of concept of definition are conjunctive, disjunctive,
and relational concepts.

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According to Collette and Chiappetta (1986), definitions of conjunctive concepts
combine a given set of attributes and values together. This definition states, which
characteristics add together to specify a concept. For example, both the attributes of
weight and volume must be considered together in formulating the concept of matter, if
matter is defined as that which has weight and occupy space (volume). So the rule in this
example involves the use of the conjunction between two attributes, weight and volume.

Definitions of disjunctive concepts combine sets of attributes in an “or” fashion. This

type of definition identifies the combination of attributes that form a given concept. For
example, an ion is an atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Another
example is: “Equilibrium is that state of a body in which the body may be at rest or in the
state of uniform motion.”

Disjunctive definitions are more complex than conjunctive definitions, and consequently
their respective concepts are more difficult to learn. With a conjunctive concept, all
relevant attributes and values must be displayed in each positive instance. However, with
a disjunctive concept the positive instances need not have the same stimulus
characteristics. A sodium atom that has lost an electron and a chlorine atom that has
gained an electron are both ions even though their stimulus characteristics are not the
same. Similarly in the second example, a body at rest and a body in the state of uniform
velocity are both in the state of equilibrium even though their stimulus characteristics are
not the same.

Relational definitions specify a relationship between the relevant attributes. An example

of a relational conception is: “An acidic solution is one that has a higher concentration of
H+ ions than OH- ions.” The concept of acidic does not depend on the exact concentration
of the H+ ions and OH- ions, nor does it depend singly on the volume of the solution. It
depends only on the relationship between the concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions.

Other examples are: (1) Resonance in an electric circuits “Resonance is the condition in
an AC circuit in which the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are equal and
cancel each other.” In this definition of resonance the two essential components
(inductive reactance and capacitive reactance) can exist in any amount, but their
relationship must be such that they are equal and cancel each other’s effect.

(2) Resistance in an electric circuit (the physical property of a conductor) “Resistance is

that property of a conductor in which the conductor prevents the flow of electrons in the
conductor.” According to Ohm’s law, “the current passing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends provided that the
temperature and the other physical conditions of the conductor are kept constant (i.e.
V=IR Where R is the resistance of the conductor.) If the value of voltage is altered then
the value of current is also found to change. Hence the “resistance” of the conductor can
be calculated by finding out the relationship (V/I) between voltage and current.

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Like disjunctive concepts, relational concepts are generally more difficult to form and
attain than conjunctive concepts. In the attainment process, the students must not only
learn how to identify the critical attributes but also learn the relationship among these
attributes.

3. Attributes and Values

Attributes and values are the characteristics that define concepts, and they are the
discriminable features of an object or event. Attributes are the broad characteristics which
vary in quality or quantity, which represents their value. Let us consider classifying
motion of different bodies. There is at least one attribute that one can use to categorize
the motion of a body.

Translatory motion is that motion of a body in which every particle of the body is being
displaced by the same amount, e.g. a car moving on the road, falling bodies.

Rotational motion is that motion of a body in which a body spins or rotates about a fixed
point or axis, e.g. the motion of earth about its own axis, the motion of electrons around
the nucleus.

Vibratory/Oscillatory motion is that motion of a body in which a body executed to and

fro motion in regular intervals of time, e.g. the motion of a simple pendulum.

In teaching science concepts, Ausubel’s idea of progressive differentiation is illustrated in

the attribute/value relation. Attributes represent the more inclusive and abstract level of
this hierarchical relationship, and values represent the more concrete and specific level of
the relationship. If one desires to teach a body of information from a concept learning
approach, he/she could begin by distinguishing and labeling the attributes of the concept
first, followed by a careful study of the values of these attributes, thus progressively
moving from the general to the specific ideas.

Herron et.al. (1977), have attempted to characterize the abstract nature of concepts: (a)
concepts with perceptible instances and perceptible attributes, (b) concepts with
perceptible instances, but with no perceptible attributes, and (c) concepts with no
perceptible instances, and no perceptible attributes. Perceptible entities can be observed
and tend to be more concrete than imperceptible entities.

Some science concepts are concrete in nature, with perceptible instances and perceptible
attributes (e.g. Meter rod, Vernier Callipers, and Spectrum). These concepts present very
little difficulty when they are given to students.

In the views of Collette and Chiappetta (1986), some concepts have perceptible instances
but have attributes that are imperceptible. Herron and others (1977), cite element and
compound as an example of this type of concept. An element can be perceived; iron,
gold, sodium and carbon can be observed directly. However, the fact that each element is

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composed of only one kind of atoms is not possible to perceive, so that the attribute of the
constituency of the atom is imperceptible.

Collette and Chiappetta (1986), further describe that many concepts in science have no
perceptible instance. For example, atoms, ions, molecules, nuclei, angstroms, and light
year, cannot be perceived because of their size. Such entities may be difficult to
understand for some learners because they cannot be perceived directly. These concepts
can be taught by illustrating them through models and diagrams, where their attributes are
made evident through visual means i.e. show me and I might remember (Alavi, 1994).

4. Examples and non-examples

Examples and non-examples should be used in teaching concepts. Researches show that
provision of examples (positive instances) and non-examples (negative instances) is a
major condition of learning. With regard to the number of examples, Gagne (1970),
suggests that enough examples should be presented to ensure a good representation of the
concept being taught.

Ausubel (1960) describes that to present the content in terms of basic similarities and
differences, specific examples should be used. To learn new material, students must
comprehend the similarities between the material presented and what they already know.
They must also see the differences so that confusion can be avoided. Along with the
comparisons, specific examples must come into play. The best way to point out
similarities and differences is with examples.

SAQ:
1) Define concept.
2) What are the five main elements of a concept?
3) Give one example of conjunctive, disjunctive and relational concepts other than
given in the text.

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9.3 Teaching of Bio Science
An explicit confrontation between pre-knowledge and new-knowledge is the critical
element in teaching toward understanding (Posner et al., 1982. theory of conceptual
change). Learning that accompanies conceptual change stands in contrast to learning that
is associated with the increase of new ideas put forward by others. Such accumulative
learning is generally not well integrated into students' frameworks for understanding and
is thus not embraced by students in explaining the natural world on a daily basis.
Teaching toward conceptual change, however, requires that students consider new
information in the context of their prior knowledge and their own worldviews, and often
a confrontation between these existing and new ideas must occur and be resolved for
understanding to be achieved.

Conceptual change theory

A learning process in which an existing conception (idea or belief about how the world
works) held by a student is shifted and restructured, often away from an alternative or
misconception and toward the dominant conception held by experts in a field. (Posner
et al., 1982 )

LESSON PLAN

Topic: Structure and Function of Brain

Grade: VIII
Date: February 28, 2012
Time: 35 minutes + 35 minutes
Competency: Life Science
Standard: Students will be able to understand between the structure,
characteristics and basic needs of living things, the process of
life, and will also investigate the diversity of life and how living
things interact with each other and their environment.
Benchmark: Explain the components of the human nervous system; describe
the structure and functioning of brain.
Concepts: 1. Structure of human brain
2. Function of different parts of brain
Prior Knowledge: 1. Parts of human body
2. Stimuli and response
3. Structure and function of neuron
4. Five senses
Students Learning After this session you will be able to:
Outcomes: 1. Label different parts of brain.
2. Explain the functions of these parts of brain.
Motivation: Close your eyes and visualize: (1) The colour of food you took
as your breakfast; (2) The smell, the taste, and the sound and
voices you experienced while taking food.

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 Q. Which part of your body store/ register information that
you learn during your breakfast? (Mind or Brain)
Q. What is the difference between mind and the brain?
Q. Do you know an electronic device which works like brain?

Presentation: Nervous System

You know that making a call on a mobile phone is easy. The
mobile telephone system enables you to communicate the
information. Same is the case with our two sub system of our
body which is performing this function. One system operates by
passing messages along nerve called nervous system. The other
system works by producing messages (e.g. Hormones). The
nervous system is divided into two parts. (1) The central
nervous system; which include brain and spinal cord (2)
peripheral nervous system; the nerves that connect the brain
and the spinal cord with rest of body parts.
Neurons
The Brain, Spinal cord, and nerves are made of special cells
(nerve cells) called neurons. The main work of neurons is to pass
nerve messages that are they work like a medium (wire in the
telephone, air for mobile phone). There are three kinds of
neurons:
 Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses messages from
sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.
 Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and spinal
cord to muscles and glands.
 Association neurons connect the sensory neurons with
motor neurons.
Brain
The brain is enclosed in a strong bony box called cranium. The
brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human
body. It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that
communicate in trillions of connections called synapses.
There brain is divided into three different regions that control
specific functions:

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Fore brain consists of cerebrum and is the largest part of the
brain. Its surface is wrinkled and folded. It performs many
functions.
1. Abstract thought processes
2. Problem solving
3. Attention
4. Creative thought
5. Intellect
6. Judgment
7. Coordination of movements
8. Sense of smell
9. Muscle movements
10. Skilled movements
11. Libido (sexual urges)
12. Vision
13. Reading
Right Hemisphere (the representational hemisphere)
 The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body
 Temporal and spatial relationships
 Analyzing nonverbal information
 Communicating emotion
Left Hemisphere (the categorical hemisphere)
 The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body
 Produce and understand language

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Mid brain is hidden under the cerebrum and control functions
e.g. eyes and ear.
Hind brain consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The
cerebellum is situated behind the mid-brain. It controls the posture
of the body and balances. It coordinates movement of different
body parts. The medulla oblongata connects the brain with spinal
cord. It controls the respiration, digestion, heartbeat rate, etc.
The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work
together:
 The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking
and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
 The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of
the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are
controlled here.
The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain.
The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and
balance.
The brain is also divided into several lobes:
 The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and
judgment and motor function.
 The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and
body position.
 The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing.
 The occipital lobes contain the brain's visual processing
system.
The skull (cranium) helps protect the brain from injury.

Activity
Students will prepare a model of brain showing different areas
of brain using different colour of play-dough.

Evaluation:
1. The central nervous system consists of -----------and--------
-------.
2. Cranium means -------------.
3. The sensory neuron brings the message from the sense
organ to the-----------------------.
4. The part of the brain that helps maintain balance and
coordinates muscle movement.
(a) Cerebrum (b) cerebellum (c) medulla oblongata (d)
spinal cord
5. How many parts a human brain has? Write in detail the
major functions controlled and coordinate by the human
brain.

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 Do you know?

Before the 20th century, there was only one way to see the brain: Open up the skull.
Of course, with the assistance of a talented medical artist or, later, a good photograph,
this provides us with a particularly good view. For the most part, however, it required
a dead patient! Fortunately, we now have a number of imaging techniques that allow
us to see what is going on inside the brain of a living human being.

X-rays were the first things used to look at a living brain. While some details are
visible, the nature of the brain is such that it is not a particularly good subject for the
X-ray.

The CT scan (computer tomography) or CAT scan involves taking a large series of x-
rays from various angles, and then combining them into a three-dimensional record on
a computer. The image can be displayed and manipulated on a computer screen.

In PET scan (positron emission tomography) the doctor injects radioactive glucose
("sugar water") into the patient’s bloodstream. The device then detects the relative
activity level - that is, the use of glucose - of different areas of the brain. The computer
generates an image that allows the researcher to tell which parts of the brain are most
active when we perform various mental operations, whether it’s looking at something,
counting out-loud, imagining something, or listening to music.

In MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) the expert (e.g. doctor) creates a very strong
magnetic field which runs through the person from head to toe. This causes the
spinning hydrogen atoms in the person’s body to line up with the magnetic field. Then
you send a radio pulse at a special frequency that causes the hydrogen protons to spin
in a different direction. When you turn off the radio pulse, the protons will return to
their alignment with the magnetic field, and release the extra energy they took in from
the radio pulse. This energy is picked up by the same coil and produced the energy
which acts like a three dimensional antenna. Since different tissues have different
relative amounts of hydrogen in them, they give a different density of energy signals,
which the computer organizes into a detailed three dimensional antenna.

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9.4 Teaching of Chemistry
Chemistry is basically related to the study of material objects and the changes these
undergo. In broader sense, chemistry is a physical science. Chemistry not only deals with
matter but also all distinguishes matter in to subcategories based on composition and
properties. Reid and Mbajiorgu (2006) pointed that chemistry is an important tool that
helps us to develop our basic understandings and continuously add to these in all spheres
of life. Chemistry is called the central science because it has responsive nature and tries
to fulfill our basic requirements and aspiration of our society. It has been serving the
mankind before the birth of humanity.

The prime objective of any society is to improve the standard of living. Chemistry having
responsive and contributory nature helps to conceive the crucial and important needs of
society. It also attends those needs that are indicators of the standard, quality and
economic strength of life. Quality of life is directly or indirectly related to the
advancement, development, application, and overall of chemical knowledge.

Science education is core area of our education system and chemistry is a compulsory
subject of our science curriculum at secondary level. Chemistry provides us an
opportunity to think critically, and unify the concepts of man’s natural environment and
apply these concepts to the control of the environment for man’s benefit. Furthermore, it
is a human enterprise which requires man’s best efforts to sustain it at an optimum level
of productivity.

At secondary level, Chemistry provides the students with opportunities to think critically,
practice different teaching methods and develop scientific concepts, which facilitate the
understanding of the physical environment. It also develops attitude, which is useful in a
sense that it gives people a simplified and practical guide for appropriate behaviour.
Positive attitude towards learning, subject area, and teaching method are all-important
because they affect student’s motivation to learn, and continuing motivation not only to
apply and utilize what has been learnt, but also to seek out further related opportunities.

Tsaparlis (2000) noted that the school chemistry should aim at two main targets, namely
to provide students with:
 Chemical literacy i.e. teaches facts, concepts and principles that are essential for living.
 Chemical culture i.e. the deeper understanding of how nature functions chemically.

Modern life depends on the teaching-learning skills and attitudes developed among
students in the educational institutions. In schools, teachers have great influence on
children by encouraging interest, by developing talent, and by providing useful factual,
conceptual, procedural and meta-cognitive knowledge about the world. Effective
classroom teaching in science requires advance thinking and proper planning. Certain
points like objectives, content, methods, teaching aids, evaluation techniques are required
to be attended to properly in advance for achieving desired outcomes.

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 What is Water?

1. Gain Attention Do you know which compound is most widely used in your home? What do you
feel in summer? When you do strenuous exercise in summer what you feel and
which thing comes out from your body? Do you know what clouds bring? Which
compound is used for washing, drinking and cleaning clothes? Do you know what
happens to plants in extreme summer?
Pose question: what is water?
2. Identify objective What do you need when you feel thirst? Which thing is given to us by taps, wells,
hand pumps, pond, stream, lakes, fountains, clouds etc? Do you know the things
3. Recall prior learning wanted by farmers on a large scale for agricultural purpose? What things come out
when we cut or press the water melon pulp?
Water is a compound (inorganic) containing hydrogen and oxygen. It is the most
abundant of all the compounds on earth. It is vital for life on earth. It plays a major
role in industry, at home, and in laboratory. Human body contains 65-75% by
Presenting the stimulus weight of water and many fruits and vegetables contain an excess of water (as
4. shown in the table). It has been estimated that the total amount of water present
on earth is about 1.33 billion cubic kilometers which covers nearly 71 % of the
earth’s surface. The oceans contain more than 97% of the world’s water. The rest
of water is in the form of glaciers, ice caps, ground water and inland water.
Besides, the atmosphere also contains considerable quantity of water in the form
of vapors. Sea water contains a large number of dissolved salts. The salty taste of
sea water is mainly due to sodium chloride which is present up to 3-4 percent
along with other slats. High salt concentrations make the ocean water unfit for
human use.

Lettuce 96
Tomato 95
Mushroom 92
Milk 87
Orange 86
Apple 84
Fish 92
Potato 76
Egg 75
Beef 64

Show the world map which indicates the water land ratio. Show / present different
charts showing contents in different fruits and vegetables, diagram showing inland
water. Show the pictures of glaciers ice caps and ground water. Water cycle will
also help in indicating the presence of water in sea and land also.
Ask students to name the fruits and vegetables and the percentage of water they
contain. Ask the students to name the places which contain water.
Guide learning How much part of our planet is covered by water?
71 %
5 Correct

What is the percentage of water in human body?

65-75% by weight
Correct
Elicit Performance What is the total amount of water on the earth?
1.33 billion cubic kilometers.
06 Provide feed back Correct
Q.
07 A. Why the sea water has salty taste?

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 Due to excess of Sodium Chloride (some other salts also)
Correct
Q.
How of the total world does water contain ocean?
A The oceans contain 97% of world’s water.
Correct
Q.
A. Do you know that water organic or inorganic in nature?
Water is an inorganic compound.

Q. Which compound is abundant on the earth?

A. Water
Do you know the different roles played by water in daily life?
Q. Drinking, washing, cleaning, and rinsing preparation of chemical, agriculture.
A. By weight how much water is present in human body?
65-75% by weight
Assess What is the total amount of water present in the earth?
Performance A. About 1.33 billion cubic kilometers
08
Q. How much water is contained in oceans?
A. Oceans contain more than 97% of world’s water.

. Q. How much water land has except oceans?

A. The land has only 3% of total water.

Q. In which form water is present in the atmosphere?

A. The atmosphere contains water in the form of water vapors.

Q. The salty taste of sea water is due to ____________

A. (a) Sodium Chloride (b) MgCl2
(c) Calcium chloride (d) AlCl3
Q. NaCl
A.
The lettuce contains ______________ water.
Q. 96%
A.
The percentage of water in milk is
Q. (a) 87 (b) 90 (c) 95 (d) 80
A. 87
The percentage of water in beef is
A (a) 64 (b) 70 (c) 72 (d) 68
64
Q
A. Why sea water is unfit for human use?
The sea water is unfit for human use due to high concentration of salts.
Q. What do you think about the nature of water?
A Water is an inorganic compound.
Among the lettuce, tomato and mushroom which has the highest percentage of
water?
Q. Lettuce.
If you see the world globe can you estimate the water coverage?
A More than or nearly 71% of earth’s surface is covered by water.
Which water is more pure?
(a) Hand pump water (b) pond
A. (c) Stream (d) sea water

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 Hand pump water
Q. Can a marine fish live in fresh water?
A A marine fish cannot live in fresh water.
Q
Which salt has highest concentration in sea water?
A. Sodium chloride comprises 3-4% of sea water.
Q
Do you think that ground water and inland water is same everywhere?
A In some areas water table is low and in some is high, some is the case with inland
Enhance retention and water.
transfer
Q. How you ever known the news of drought hit areas?
In draught areas plants and animals die due to shortage of water.

9. Have you ever known the flood news?

Flood is the result of heavy rains which result in heavy economic losses.

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9.5 Teaching of Physics
Developmental psychology of Piaget is being used today to identify objectives and learning
experiences in terms of developmental stages. Gupta (1995), quotes Piaget’s view that rote-
memorization does not produce new mental structure, because it does not involve comparing,
correlating or inter-relating new information with existing mental structures.

Teachers must understand that Piaget is primarily concerned with a level of knowing and
functioning that goes beyond memorized facts or skills. Gupta (1995), states; “To engage
students in activities, requiring logical thinking, teacher must devote class time to
investigations which are not prescribed and in which the end point is not pre-determined.
Investigations should be true experiments, which allow students to control variables,
collect data and draw conclusions. Obtaining an answer from a text book or an expert is
not allowed.” He further goes on to say that teacher should try to let a child develop and
do investigation by himself. Too often, the help of a well-intentioned teacher causes a
child to miss most of the learning opportunities in the experiment. Let students commit
errors and rectify them themselves. A vital role is to provide encouragement, overcome
frustrations and develop confidence in students.

Physics has succeeded in getting an important place not only in science education but it
also played a crucial role in the service of mankind. Physics contributed in all aspects of
life perhaps more than any other field of science, to the economic growth and
development, and regarded as the backbone of a country for its progress and prosperity.
Thus physics has a utilitarian value in life. The discoveries of telephone, fax, telex,
computer, e-mail and internet services have decreased the distance between nations and
thus they have provided the basis for a corporate living, coexistence and better human
relations. All these lead to development of social standard both in personal and
professional life. World book Encyclopedia, (1968), states that “Physics, today, is one of
the most active and most important of all sciences”.

Physics teaching–learning process provides more possibilities of involving children in such

activities as liked by the students. Tanveer-uz-zaman, (1996), citing the saying of Nagy,
(1972), “the importance of Physics has been realized in its teaching and learning processes,
because the current college /university population explosion, the exponential growth of
information and the usually inadequate pedagogical background of instructors accentuate the
need for higher accuracy and precision in……….physics teaching and learning.

Physics has provided us with a large number of devices such as television, radio, cinema,
computer etc., which are a source of entertainment to all of us. These are also a source of
knowledge and are used for spread of mass education and making the community aware
of dangers of various ills. The teaching of physics in china; (1) the purpose of physics
teaching in secondary schools is to enable students to grasp systematically the basic
knowledge of physics needed for further study of modern science and technology and to
understand its applications. (2) It helps them to acquire experiment skills, develop the
ability to think and use mathematics to solve physical problems, cultivate a dialectical

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materialistic view point and make them aware of the need to study hard and struggle for
modernization.” Physics teaching provides more opportunities of carrying out practical
work in comparison to social sciences, which are less practical in nature.

Bruner is well known for his essay on “discovery learning” and believed that science
should not be taught factually but as a “tool” subject. He does not suggest a recipe for
teaching but the way the children learn “how to learn”. Johnson (1979), states that Bruner
influenced educational practice in four ways: through his emphasis on the process of
learning, through his notion on the formation of learning structure, through the
importance he places on intuition, and through his emphasis intrinsic motivation.

According to Bruner (1996), what is important is not the memorization of facts, but the
process of acquiring knowledge. He further goes on to say that learning is a matter of
rearranging or transforming evidence. It is a type of thinking in which the student goes
beyond the information given to gain new insights and generalizations. The teacher does
not tell students the principle, generalization, or rule they are supposed to learn; rather, he
or she involves students in a process of induction to discover it.

According to Shah (2004), similar to inquiry, the discovery approach is inductive but
differs with respect to the outcome of the instruction and to the procedure followed. In
inquiry, the outcome is known to both the teacher and the learner, whereas, in the
discovery learning the teacher guides learners towards discovering a desired outcome.

Bruner’s conception of discovery learning (1967) is not that students are to discover
every bit of information by themselves but that they are to discover the inter-relatedness
between ideas and concepts by using what they already know. Teacher should try to
instill within their students a sense of confidence, and the ability to learn “how to learn”.

The inductive process of learning mastered by students as they participate in discovery

learning situations are aimed at the formation of learning structures, which consist of
concepts and coding systems.

Bruner (1966) lists four advantages of emphasizing structure in teaching:

(1). Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible-
we understand material better if it is logically organized. (2) A structure permits the
students to narrow the gap between elementary and advanced knowledge-if given the
appropriate learning experiences, even very young children can understand some of the
basic concepts in a subject area. (3) Unless detail is organized into a structured pattern, it
is rapidly forgotten-we remember material better, can actually remember more material
and are better able to retrieve material from our memory when it is logically organized.
(4) An understanding of fundamental principles and ideas facilitates adequate transfer.

Bruner assumes that a student’s interaction with the world always involves categorization
or conceptualization. By categorizing, the student reduces the complexity of the
environment and by conceptualizing; he or she organizes the concepts into coding

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system. (A coding system is a structure of concepts that ranges from the very specific to
the generic. Generic concepts include more specific concepts).

Bruner (1960), stresses the importance of intuition in learning: He says that memorization
of verbal or mathematical information is not an appropriate goal for education.
Educational goal should emphasize intuitive understanding of an area, which allows the
student to use the ideas in ways that reveal a deep grasp of the area.

An intrinsic motive is one whose reward lies in the activity itself or in the successful
termination of the activity. Bruner (1960), states that there are four major intrinsic motives.
The teacher can encourage: (1) the will to learn, (2) the inherent drive to cooperate with
others, (3) curiosity and the search for clarity, and (4) the drive for competence.

According to Bruner (1967), any domain of knowledge (Physics, Chemistry, Biology) or

any problem or concept within that domain (atomic structure, law of gravitation,
viscosity) can be represented in three ways: (1) by a set of actions, (2) by a set of images
or graphics that stand for the concept, and (3) by a set of symbolic or logical statements.

Bruner’s theory refers to the structure of knowledge, he explained that any idea or
problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so that any
particular learner can understand it in a recognizable form.

Bruner ran his own experimental school for investigating the cognitive growth of
children. He believes that even abstract concepts can be taught to young children. That is
each and every concept can be taught at each and every level but it is fault of the teacher
that he/she cannot simplify the concept at that particular level.

Figure 2.10 Three stages of mental growth as visualized by Bruner

First Stage

Second Stage

Third Stage
Enactive Iconic
Representation: Representation:
Symbolic
Used primarily to information is represented Representation:
ideas are represented
represent motor skill in visual images
through languages &
other methods

Source: Vadidya, (1996, p. 171)

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Stages of Mental Growth

Like Piaget, Bruner put forth three kinds of internal representatives, which form a
sequence in the growing child. This sequence comprises: (1) Enactive representation, (2)
Iconic representation, (3) and, Symbolic representation.

Figure 2.11 Bruner’s Modes of Representation

Source: Vadidya, (1996, p. 175)

Bruner believes that discovery learning allows students to move through these three
stages as they encounter new information: the enactive, iconic and, symbolic. This can be
thought of as knowing what action to perform, knowing how to represent through internal
visual imagery, knowing how to represent by means of a symbol system as in
mathematics and language. For an individual to make progress a concept should pass
through each mode in turn, using all three modes together then increased Knowledge and
understanding.
How to Apply Bruner’s Model in the Classroom
 Present examples and non-examples of the concept you are teaching. For example in
teaching about mammals, include people, kangaroo, whales, cats as examples and
hen, parrot as non-examples.
 Help students see connections among concepts, e.g. Use diagram or matching test
items to point out the connection.
 Pose questions and let students try to find the answer, (They start thinking to solve
the problem.)
 Encourage students to make intuitive guesses.

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To implement this strategy (i.e. discovery learning) the teacher uses a cooperative goal
structure, utilizes conflict for a focal point, skillfully questions students, gives students
the freedom to inquire, observes, provides a responsive environment for learning, and
extends students’ thinking and level of analysis.
Ausubelian Teaching Method
In Ausubel’s (1960), view, to learn meaningfully, students must relate new knowledge
(concepts, proposition, rule, principles) to what they already know. He proposes the
notion of an advance organizer as a way to help students link their ideas with new
material or concepts. Ausubel’s theory claims that new concepts to be learned can be
incorporated into more inclusive concepts or ideas. These more inclusive concepts or
ideas are advance organizers. Advance organizers can be verbal phrases, a graphic, a
model, or a question. In any case, the advance organizer is designed to provide, what
cognitive psychologists called “mental scaffolding” to learn new information.
Advance organizers are concepts given to students prior to the material actually to be
learned to provide a stable cognitive structure in which the new learning can be
subsumed. These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also
presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the
substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of
its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this
strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for
enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure.
Ausubel (1960) emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of
abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Advance organizers serve three
purposes: (1) They direct attention to what is important in the coming material;(2) They
highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented;(3) They remind the students of
relevant information already in memory. After presenting an advance organizer, the next
step in Meaningful Learning is to present content in terms of basic similarities and
differences by using specific examples. To learn new material, students must comprehend
the similarities between the material presented and what they already know. They must
also see the differences so that confusion can be avoided. Along with the comparisons,
specific examples must come into play. The best way to point out similarities and
differences is with examples.
Ausubel (1963), believed that learning proceeds from top-down, or deductive manner.
His method consists of three phases; presentation of an advance organizers, presentation
of learning task or material, and strengthening of the cognitive organization. The main
elements of Ausubel’s model are shown below in the table.

Model Lesson Plan (Ausubelian Teaching Method)

Topic: Pressure and atmospheric pressure Class X
Time: 1 hour 10 min.
Concepts: matter and its properties, stress, force, area, Newton’s third law of motion.

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General objectives: To develop the sense of reasoning and logical thinking and scientific
attitude among the students.
Specific Objective: After the end of this session, the students will be able to:
 Define matter and name some of its properties.
 Define the concepts of force, area, and pressure.
 Find the relationship between force and pressure.
 Find the relationship between area and pressure.
 Find the relationship between temperature and pressure.
 Apply the concept of pressure in daily life.
Dear students I hope you all will be fine.
O.K. like previous lessons we will study this lesson too in the same manner. In the
beginning I will ask you some questions about the concepts, of which you are already
familiar just to refresh your previous knowledge and to develop the linkage between the
learnt material and the material to be learnt.

 Teacher: (just food for thought)

 Students do you ever think why athletes / player use spikes?
 Why is it easy to cut with a sharp knife than a blunt one although the applied force
is same?
Lesson Plan (Phases of Ausubelian Teaching Method)
Phase One Phase Two Phase Three
Advance Organizer Presentation of Learning Strengthening Cognitive
Task or Material Organization
 Define matter.  Pressure  Keeping in view of concept of
 Name and recall some  P= F/A pressure justify how horse is
properties of matter; weight,  Pressure depends upon Force faster than camel.
volume, force, area etc. and Area  Why athletes use spikes?
 Air and all other material things  Unit of Pressure (N/m2 or  How you differentiate
exert pressure, and have Pascal) between stress and pressure?
weight. Examples (Blunt nail vs. sharp nail, Are these scalars or vector
 What is force? Flat Shoes / Sandal with heel. quantities?
 Weight is a force.  Difference between stress and
 Unit of force. pressure.
 Area and its units.
 Volume A B

 Which Triangle has greater

pressure A or B?

Key Points
 Bruner believed that science should not be taught factually but as a “tool” subject. He
does not suggest a recipe for teaching but the way the children learn “how to learn”.
 Bruner influenced instructional practice in four ways: (1) through his emphasis on the
process of learning; (2) through his notion on the formation of learning structure; (3)
through the importance he places on intuition, and (4) through his emphasis on intrinsic
motivation.

267
 Bruner states that any domain of knowledge can be represented in three ways: (1) by a set
of actions, (2) by a set of images or graphics that stand for the concept, and (3) by a set of
symbolic or logical statements.
 Ausubel believed that learning proceeds from top-down, or deductive manner. His
method consists of three phases; presentation of an advance organizers, presentation of
learning task or material, and strengthening of the cognitive organization.
 Ausubel states if someone ask me to explain all educational psychology in one sentence, I
would like to say, “What the learner already knows, ascertain him and teach him
accordingly”.
 Advance organizers serve three purposes: (1) They direct attention to what is important in
the coming material;(2) They highlight relationships among ideas that will be
presented;(3) They remind the students of relevant information already in memory.

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

FOR THE TEACHING OF SCIENCES (Physics, Chemistry, Biology)
Principle Example
Gain the students’ attention. Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. Move around
the room and use voice inflections.
Bring to mind relevant prior learning. Review previous day’s lesson.
Have a discussion about previously covered content.
Point out important organized manner. Provide handouts.
Write on the board or use transparencies.
Present information in an organized Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
manner. Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
Show students how to categorize Present information in categories.
related information. Teaching inductive reasoning.
Provide opportunities for students to Connect new information to something already known.
elaborate on new information. Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
when memorizing lists. Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
Provide for repetition of learning. State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
Have items on each day’s lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and
skills (LTM).
Provide opportunities for over learning Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
of fundamental concepts and skills. Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class.
Source: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsy/infoproc.html

Bibliography
 Bybee, W., Taylor, Joseph A., Gardener, April, Pamela Van
 Killen, Roy.(2005) Effective Teaching Strategies. Australia. Thomson/Social
Science Press.
 Lesson plan Format: 5E Instructional Model, Retrieved from
http://www.energy 4 me .org/classroom- resource/download-lesson-plans/lesson
plan format-5E-instructional Model.

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