hemistr for the IB Diploma Second edition Steve Owen with Caroline Ahmed Chris Martin Roger Woodward Cambridge University Press's mission is to advance learning, knowledge and research worldwide. ur IB Diploma resources aim to: + encourage learners to explore concepts, ideas and topics that have local and global significance «help students develop a positive attitude to learning in preparation for higher education «assist students in approaching complex questions, applying | CAMBRIDGE «ttical-thinking sil and forming reasoned answer. UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS University Printing House, Cambridge cx2 88, United Kingdoms Cambridge Univesity Pes is part of the University of Cambridge Je frees the University’s mission by dixeinating knowledge in the pursicof| ‘education, lesing and research atthe highes international levels of excellence, Information om this ide: education cambridge. ons, © Cambridge University Press 2011,2014 ‘This publication cin copyright Subject to statory exeption and w the provisions of ekovant collective licensing agreements tno reproiuetion of any pare may take place without the written permision of Cambridge University Pres Fist published 2017 Second edition 2014 Reprinted 2014 (evice) Printed in the United Kingdoms by Latimer Teend A caaege reso for ths publican is vale fom the Beis Libary 188N. 978-1-107-62270-8 Paperback ‘Additonal resources for this publication at education, cambridge orpibaciences ‘Camisidge University Pres has no responsibility for the perience or accuracy ‘of URLs for exter dhits-party internet websites terres (inthis publition, and does not guarantee that any content on ach bites remain, accurate oF appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetable, and other {actual informacion given in this work correct at the time of se printing but Cambridge Univeniy Press does not guneantce the accuracy of seh information therester ‘The macerial ha been developed independently bythe publisher and the content isin no way connected with nor endorsed by the International Bacelaueate Orpiization 1c silegal t reproduce any pat of this book in material orm (inclting photocopying and electronic storage) except under the fellow ic unnancs: (@) where you are abiding by licence granted to your schoo or insiaton bythe Copyrgh Licensing Agency, (where no such cence exits or where you wish to exceed the terms of licence, and you have gained the written permision of Cambridge University Pres, Gi where you ae allowed to reproduce without permission under the provisions ‘of Chapter 3 ofthe Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, which covers, or ‘xanple the eprdiction of short pases within certain types of educational anthology and repecduction forthe purpose of etn examination question “The website accompany this book cones ctr resources support your IB Chemistry studies Viseedcation cambridgeonybacenees ad rept for acces. Separate website terms and conditions apply,Introduction 1 Stoichiometric relationships 4.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change 1.2. The mole concept 1.3. Reacting masses and volumes Exam-style questions 2 Atomic structure 2.4. The nuclear atomt 2.2 Electron configuration ~ 2.3. Electrons in atoms (HL) Bxam-style questions 3 The periodic table 3.1 The periodic table 3.2. Physical properties 3.3. First-row d-block elements (HL) 3.4. Coloured complexes (HL) Exam-style questions 88 104 110 115 4 Chemical bonding and structure 119 4.1. Tonic bonding and structure 4.2 Covalent bonding 4.3. Covalent structures 4.4 Intermolecular forces 4.5 Metallic bonding 4.6 Covalent bonding and electron domains and molecular geometries (HL) 4.7. Hybridisation (HL) Bxam-style questions 5 Energetics/thermochemistry 5.1 Measuring energy changes 5.2 Hess's aw 5.3 Bond enthalpies 5.4 Energy cycles (HL) 5.5. Entropy and spontaneity (HL) Exam-style questions 119 125 130 148 160 162 176 180, 185 185 196, 207 215 225 235 Contents 6 Chemical kinetics 6.1 Collision theory and rate of reaction 6.2. Rate expression and reaction ‘mechanism (HL) 6.3. Activation energy (HL) Exam-style questions 7 Equilibrium 7A. Equilibrium 7.2. The equilibrium law (HL) Exam-style questions ‘ids and bases Theories of acids and bases Lewis acids and bases (HL) $.3) Properties of acids and bases The pH seale 3) Strong and weak acids and bases 8.6) Acid deposition Calculations involving acids anid bases (HL) 8.8. pH curves (HL) Exam-style questions 9 Redox processes ‘9.41 Oxidation and reduction 9.2. Electrochemical cells 9.3 Electrochemical cells (HL) Exam-style questions 10 Organic chemistry 10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry 10.2 Functional group chemistry 10.3. Types of organic reactions (HL) 40.4 Synthetic routes (HL) 10.5. Stereoisomerism (HL) Exam-style questions 241 241 252, 268 272 278 278 293, 303 308 308 310 312, 314 319 325 328, 341 362, 368 386 393 416 422 422 447 484 489 50111 Measurement and data Processing 507 11.1 Uncertainties and errors in measurements and results 507 11.2 Graphical techniques 519 11.3. Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds 524 11.4. Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (HL) 536 Exam-style questions 548 CRUEL Cue The website accompanying this book contains further resources to support your IB Chemistry Appendix: the periodic table 557 Answers to test yourself questions 558 Glossary 576 Index 585 Acknowledgements 593 studies. Visit education.cambridge.org/ibsciences and register to access these resources: Options Self-test questions Option A Materials Assessment guidance Option B Biochemistry Model exam papers Option C Energy Nature of Science Option D Medicinal chemistry Answers to exam-style questions Answers to Options questionsIntroduction ‘This second edition of Chemistry forthe IB Diploma is fully updated to cover the content of the IB Chemistry Diploma syllabus that will be ‘examined in the years 2016-2022. ‘Chemistry may be studied at Standard Level (SL) or Higher Level HL). Both share a common core, and at HL the core is extended with additional HL material. In addition, at both levels, students then choose ‘one Option to complete their studies. Each Option consists of common core and additional HL material. All common cote and additional HE ‘material is covered in this print book. The Options are included in the free online material that is accessible via education.cambridge.org/ ibsciences ‘The content is arranged in topics that match the syllabus topics, with core and additional HL material on each topic combined in the book topics. The HL content is identified by HE included in relevant section titles, and by a yellow page border. Each section in the book begins with learning objectives as starting and reference points. Test yourselE questions appear throughout the text so students can check their progress and become familiar with the style and command terms used, and exam-style questions appear at the end of each topic. Many worked examples appear throughout the text to help students understand how to tackle different types of questions. ‘Theory of Knowledge (TOK) provides a cross-curricular link between different subjects. It stimulates thought about critical thinking and how awe can say we know what we claim to know. Throughout this book, TOK features highlight concepts in Chemistry that can be considered from a TOK perspective. These are indicated by the ‘TOK’ logo, shown here 3 Science is a truly international endeavour, being practised across all continents, frequently in international or even global partnerships. Many problems that science aims to solve are international, and will require globally implemented solutions. Throughout this book, International Mindedness features highlight international concerns in Chemistry. These are indicated by the ‘International-Mindedness' logo, shown here. [Nature of Science is an overarching theme of the Chemistry course. ‘The theme examines the processes and concepts that are central to scientific endeavour, and how science serves and connects with the wider community Throughout the book, there are ‘Nature of Science” paragraphs that discuss particular concepts or discoveries from the point of view of one or more aspects of Nature of Science. A chapter giving a general introduction to the Nature of Science theme is available in the fee online material TT -Free online material Additional material to support the IB Chemistry Diploma course is available online. Visit education.cambridge.org/ibsciences and register to access these resources using: Username: camib Password: wmahd8v Besides the Options and Nature of Science chapter, you will find a collection of resources to help with revision and exam preparation. This includes guidance on the assessments, interactive self-test questions and model exam papers. Additionally, answers to the exam-style questions in this book and 10 all the questions in the Options are available.Stoichiometric relationships 1 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature Learning objectives of matter and chemical change ee cic haeete matter 1.1.1 The particulate nature of matter Sea involved when there is a change ‘The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas and these differ tare in terms of the arrangement and movement of particles. The particles making up a substance may be individual atoms or molecules or ions. Simple diagrams of the three states of matter are shown in Figure 1.1 in which the individual particles are represented by spheres. ‘Sublimation is the change of state when a substance goes directly from the solid state to the gaseous state, without going through the liquid state, Both iodine and solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublime at atmospheric pressure. The reverse process (gas —> solid) is often called deposition (or sometimes desublimation, reverse sublimation or occasionally just sublimation). ‘The properties of the three states of matter are summarised in Table 1.1. heating - energy spied aries gan ey “bimaton deposition ° ‘evaporating | ed : Te mang ° “o) partles vibrating partes moving parties moving at high sboutmean petons around eachother "Speeds inal directions aoe partes lose ene'gy Figure 1.1 The arrangement of portclesin solids, iquids and gases andthe nares ofthe changes of ate. Note that evaporation can occur at any temperature — boiling occursata fired temperature, Solids Liquids Gases Distance between particles | close together | close but futher apar than in solids Particles fr apart ‘Arrangement regular random random shape ‘ixed shape [no fxed shape —take up the shape ofthe _ [no fixed shape —fillthe container container Volume fixed fixed not fixed Movement vibrate Tove around each other Tove around inall directions Speed of movement slowest faster fastest Energy lowest, higher highest Forces of attraction ‘strongest | weaker weakest Table 1.1. The properties ofthe three states of matterIfa pure substance is heated slowly, from below its melting point to above its boiling point, a graph of temperature against time can be obtained (Figure 1.2). i m a 90 a Time/minutes Figure 1.2 A heating curve showing changes of state. Asa solid is heated, its particles vibrate more violently ~ they gain Kinetic energy and the temperature of the solid rises. At 50°C, the solid in Figure 1.2 begins to melt ~ at this stage there is solid and liquid present together and the temperature remains constant until all the solid has melted. All the heat energy being supplied is used to partially overcome the forces of attraction between particles so that they can move around cach other, When all the solid has melted, the continued supply of heat energy causes the kinetic energy of the particles to increase so that the Patticles in the liquid move around each other more quickly. The kinetic energy of the particles increases until the boiling point of the liquid is reached. At this point (80°C) the continued supply of heat energy is used to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles completely and the temperature of the substance remains constant until all the liquid has been converted to gas. The continucd supply of heat energy increases the kinetic energy of the particles of the gas so they move around faster and faster as the temperature of the gas increases. Both reftigeration and air-conditioning involve changes of state of liquids and gases. In a reffigerator, heat energy is, absorbed from the inside of the refrigerator and is used to, convert a liquid coolant to a gas — the heat energy is given out to the surrounding as the gas is compressed back to a liquid. Refrigeration is essential in warm countries to preserve food and without it the food would go ‘off” much more quickly and be wasted — but how essential is air-conditioning? CFCs (which cause destruction of the ozone layer) have been used as a refrigerant and in making the insulation for refzigerators. In many countries the disposal of old refrigerators is controlled carefully. More environmentally friendly reftigerators are being manufactured using alternatives to CFCs — they also use less electricity.1.1.2. Chemical change Elements and compounds Chemistry is partly a study of how chemical elements combine to make the world and the Universe around ws, Gold is an element and all samples of pure gold contain only gold atoms. ‘An element is a pure substance that contains only one type of atom (but see isotopes in Topic 2). An atom is the smallest part of an element that can still be recognised as that element. ‘The physical and chemical properties of a compound are very different to those of the elements from which it is formed. Sodium and chlorine are elements ~ when they are mixed and heated they combine chemically to form a compound called sodium chloride. Sodium is a grey, reactive metal with a low melting point and chlorine is a yellow-green poisonous gas — but sodium chloride (common salt) is a non-toxic, colourless compound with a high melting point. Similarly, when iron (a magnetic metal) is heated with sulfur (a non- magnetic yellow solid) a grey, non-metallic solid called iron sulfide is formed (Figure 1.3). ‘Chemical properties dictate how something reacts in a chemical reaction. Physical properties are basically all the other properties of a substance ~ stich as melting point, density, hardness, electrical conductivity etc. The meaning of chemical equations When elements combine to form compounds, they always combine in fixed ratios depending on the numbers of atoms required. When sodium and chlorine combine, they do so in the mass ratio 22.99: 35.45 so that 22.99 of sodium reacts exactly with $5.45g of chlorine. Similarly, when hydrogen (an explosive gas) combines with oxygen (a highly reactive gas) to form water (liquid at room temperature), 1g of hydrogen combines wwith 8g of oxygen, or 2g of hydrogen reacts with 16g of oxygen (sing, rounded relative atomic masses) ~ that is, they always combine in a mass tatio of 1:8, Learning objectives ‘* Understand that compounds have different properties to the clements they are made from © Understand how to balance ‘chemical equations ‘© Understand how to use state symbols in chemical equations + Describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures © Understand the differences between homogeneous and heterogencous mixtures ‘A compound is a pure substance formed when two or more elements combine chemically. Figure 1.3 Iron (left) combines with sulfur (centre) to form iron sulfide (right).© @ 00 — eo —@ mesa postr tt ecto ‘oxygen molecule to form two molecules of carbon monoxide. Figure 1.5 Four carbon atoms react, with two oxygen molecules to form four ‘molecules of carbon monoxide. Figure 1.6 Eight carbon atoms react ‘with four oxygen molecules to form eight ‘molecules of carbon monoxide. ‘Mass is conserved in all chemical reactions. Elements always combine in the same mass ratios because their atoms always combine in the same ratios, and each type of atom has a fixed mass. Consider the reaction between carbon and oxygen to form carbon ‘monoxide. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 1.4, In this reaction, ‘two carbon atoms combine with one oxygen molecule to form two molecules of carbon monoxide. Now look at Figure 1.5. If we started with four carbon atoms, they will react with two oxygen molecules to form four molecules of carbon monoxide, ‘The ratio in which the species combine is fixed in these equations ‘The number of molecules of oxygen is always half the number of carbon atoms, and the number of carbon monoxide molecules produced is the same as the number of carbon atoms (see Figures 1.4-1.6). So, we can ‘construct the equation: 2C +O, > 2CO which tells us that two carbon atoms react with one oxygen molecule to form two carbon monoxide molecules, and that this ratio is constant however many carbon atoms react. Balancing equations Ifa reaction involves 5.00. of one substance reacting with 10.00g of another substance in a closed container (nothing can be added or can escape), then at the end of the reaction there will still be exactly 15.00 of substance present. This 15.00 may be made up of one or more products and some reactants that have not fully reacted, bue the key point is that there will no more and no less than 15.00 g present. A chemical reaction involves atoms joining together in different ways and clectrons redistributing themselves between the atoms, but itis not possible for the reaction to involve atoms or electrons being created or destroyed. ‘When a chemical reaction is represented by a chemical equation, there ‘must be exactly the same number and type of atoms on either side of the ‘equation, representing the same number of atoms before and after this reaction: CiHs+502 > =~: 3C0, +410 reactants products atoms C 3 c 3 H 8 H 8 ° 10 ° 10 So this equation is balanced. I is important to realise that only coefficients (large numbers in front of the substances) may be added to balance a chemical equation. The chemical formula for water is HO, and this, ‘cannot be changed in any way when balancing an equation. If, for instance, the formula is changed to H,O> then it represents a completely different chemical substance — hydrogen peroxide.