Chapter 3 wines

A. Definitions of Wines & History

B. Classification with examples
C. Production of each classification
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A . DEFINITIONS OF WINES & HISTORY
Wine is the alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermentation of the juice of freshly gathered grapes. The
fermentation takes place in the district of origin, according to local tradition and practice.

Definition of wine
• Wine is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermented juice of freshly harvested grapes. It is
prepared from both white & black grapes.
Or
• an alcoholic drink made from fermented grape juice.

History
The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (c. 6000 BC), Iran (Persia) (c. 5000 BC), and Sicily
(c. 4000 BC) although there is evidence of a similar alcoholic drink being consumed earlier
in China (c. 7000 BC). Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in
ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects.
The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–
5800 BC was found on the territory of modern Georgia. Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest
that the earliest production of wine elsewhere was relatively later, likely having taken place in the Southern
Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region between Eastern
Turkey, and northern Iran.
The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a
base of city-states along the Mediterranean coast of what are today Lebanon, Israel, Syria, and Palestine. The
wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean.
Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of
wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it
from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina.
Although the Nuragic culture in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the
Phoenicians.
The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BC include carvings depicting
soldiers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among
them Armenians bringing their famous wine.
Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BC, but possibly relating earlier
compositions), Alkman (7th century BC), and others. In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found
in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of these amphoras
were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal
house of Aten.[39] Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China,
dating from the second and first millennia BC.

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The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC writings of Chanakya,
the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol
while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as madhu.
The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than
shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production. The Romans
discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar
smell. In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for
the Mass. Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves. An old English recipe that survived in
various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine.
Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to
modern viticulture in French wine, Italian wine, Spanish wine, and these wine grape traditions were brought
into New World wine. For example, Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in
1628 beginning the New Mexico wine heritage, these grapes were also brought to California which started
the California wine industry. Both of these regions eventually evolved into American wine's oldest and
largest wine producers respectively. Earlier Viking expeditions of Vinland recorded the first grape vines
found in the New World, and prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in
California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines
in Florida and Virginia respectively.

B. CLASSIFICATION WITH EXAMPLES

Wine Classification

Colour Taste Nature

White wine Dry wine Still wine

Red wine Sparkling wine

Sweet wine

Rose wine Fortified wine

Aromatized wine

ON BASIS OF COLOUR
White Wine:
White wine colour ranges from pale straw with a green tinge to dark gold. usually produced from white
grapes, but the grape juice (must) is usually fermented away from the skins. Produced If produced from black
grape the skin of grape is removed before fermentation to avoid extracting colour from the skin. Normally
dry to very sweet.

Red Wine :

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Colour ranges from purpole when young & to brick red as it ages. It produced from red grapes only. As the
colour pigment “Tannin” which gives the colour to wine is present in skin of black grape. The skin of grape
allowed remaining with fermenting must throughout the fermentation process. Normally dry wines.

Rose Wine
Rose Wine is light pink in color. can be made in three ways: from black grapes fermented on the skins for up
to 48 hours; by mixing red and white wines together; or by pressing grapes so that some colour is extracted.
Rose wine may be dry or semi-sweet. Rose wines are called ‘blush’ wines in the USA when made wholly
from red grapes.

ON BASIS OF TASTE
Dry Wine
It is produced when all the sugar is converted to alcohol. These wines are those, which are produced when
the sugar content is fully converted into alcohol thus producing a dry taste.
These wine consist of no sugar. Hence, are no Sweet in nature.

Sweet Wine :
It is obtained when there is some sugar left after fermentation, stopped naturally or intentionally by the
manufacturer .A Sweet wine is one that contains residual Sugar (unfermented Sugar).
Most of the sweet wines of the world are white. The sweet wine that are made by adding extra sweetening
agent after fermentation are generally inexpensive. Sweet wines whose sugar content is from natural grapes
sugar are the authentic sweet wines.

The principal strategies for sweet wine production are:

• Controlled Fermentation: fermentation stopped at level to reach sugar content in wine .
• Addition of reserved juice: before fermentation the reserved juice is added to increase the sweetness
in wine.
• Use of late-harvest grapes: late harvest grapes are overly ripened grapes which has high amount of
sugar, results in sweet wine.
• Raisins : addition of raisins in must results in sweet wine
• Botrytis-affected grapes or frozen grapes: The fungus punctures the grape skin, the water content
evaporates and the grape shrivels, thus concentrating the sugar inside.

ON BASIS OF NATURE
Still Wine
It is kind of wine obtained by the natural fermentation process without adding anything else. also termed as
table wine. The carbon dioxide produced during fermentation is allowed to escape. Alcoholic content is 10-
14 % abv. Still wines are further can be subcategories in red, white and rose E.g. Cabernet sauvignon

Sparkling Wine
These are the wines bottled with the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation. It gives the effervescence
or sparkle to the wine. The Co2 is prevented from escaping. Alcoholic percentage is between 10-13% abv.
The trapped gas is the result of secondary fermentation either in the bottle or in the sealed tank. Some
manufacturer impregnates the wine with the gas.
Eg . France (Champagne) , Spain (Cava), Italy (Prosecco), Germany (Sekt), and many other countries.

Fortified wine
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The alcoholic strength of the wine is increased with the addition of brandy or other spirit either during or at
the end of the fermentation. Alcohol strength ranges from 16 to 22 % abv. Examples are:
• Sherry (from Spain) 15–18% ABV – Fino (dry), Amontillado (medium), Oloroso (sweet).
• Port (from Portugal) 18–22% ABV– ruby, tawny, vintage character, late bottled vintage, vintage.
• Madeira (made on the Portuguese island of Madeira) 18% ABV – Sercial (dry), Verdelho
(medium), Bual (sweet), Malmsey (very sweet).
• Marsala (dark sweet wine from Marsala in Sicily) 18%.ABV
• Málaga (from Malaga, Andalusia, Spain) 18–20%.ABV

Aromatized Wine
These wines are fortified & aromatized with herbs, bark, spices, roots etc Alcohol content is 14-20% abv. Eg
Vermouths , Chamberyzette, Punt-e-mes, Dubonnet, St Raphael, Lillet, Pineau des Charentes:

C. PRODUCTION OF EACH CLASSIFICATION

Production of wine is get divided in two phases Viticulture and vilification.

Viticulture : Viticulture denotes how the vine is cultivated . It involves: vine selection, keeping the vineyard
healthy, ploughing to aerate the soil, weeding, fertilizing, pruning to regulate quality, training the vines,
spraying to combat diseases, harvesting.
Viticulture (from the Latin word for vine) is the science, production, and study of grapes. It deals with the
series of events that occur in the vineyard. It is a branch of the science of horticulture. It is the care and
maintenance of the vine so as to obtain a best possible fruit and further a best possible Wine.

GUIDED READING : Handout

Viticulture methods :
Training can be defined as “the arrangement of plant parts spatially”. This is done to develop a structure
that:
• Optimizes the utilization of sunlight and promotes productivity.
• Adapts to the characteristics of the grape cultivar.
• Promotes efficient & sustainable vineyard management practices.
• Is economical to establish and maintain.
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Why trellising systems?
If a ‘Vine’ is left untrained it will grow in an abundant but very random manner. The practice of training
the vines on a trellis provides a support for the weight of the leaves and fruit and makes it easier for the
vines to be tended throughout the year. This process is called as ‘Trellising’ which is an important part of
Viticulture.
Most of the trellis systems used are the variations of the three main types:

The Vertical Trellis System : Stationary wires or annual canes are

used as a support to the vine trunk. The new shoots are trained
upward vertically within the wire.

The Geneva Double Curtain System : This system is typified by a

horizontal set of wires on which the vine trunk is trained. A
secondary wire is located above this and when the shoots reach this
higher wire, they can be turned outward and downward.

The Lyre System : In this system the vine is trained from the trunk
onto two separate, small trellis system with the new shoots growing
upward.

• In all of the trellising systems, the vines are trained to grow onto a network of wires that are
supported by posts along the vine rows. No single trellising system is right for any one place or
any one type of grape, and grape growers must experiment with many different system before they
find the best combination.

The vine cycle

Following description is applicable to the northern hemisphere & add six months for southern
hemisphere.The harvest is completed by the end of September or the beginning of October & once the
fruit has been picked, the plant goes into a dormant stage ( ie alive but not growing ) as the leaves turn
colour & drop.

At the same time, as the sap ( the liquid that circulate in plants carrying food to all parts ) falls back
toward the trunk & the root systems, where it is protected from cold temprature. Two major task
accomplished in the vineyard during this winter periods is
• Protecting the vine from severe cold
• To prune the vine in readiness for the fruit production the following spring & summer.

Pruning : is done during the two or three months following harvest. Pruning can be defined as “the
removal of plant parts to obtain horticultural objectives”.
These objectives include:
• Controlling the size & form of the grapevine.

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 • Optimize the production potential of the grapevine. - Maintain a balance between vegetative
growth and fruiting.
Why pruning ?
It is the buds at the end of the cane that break open first, so if the cane are left unpruned in cold
climates, the bud at the very tip of the previous year’s long canes will develop first & be hit by any
damaging frost, while the buds left after pruning will remain undamaged.
Pruning is a controlling process, since it dictates how many buds will open next spring & therefore
how many flowers & grapes will develop. Many grape grower tend to follow the that “ lower quantity
brings higher quality”. So pruning is a balancing act between producing a small number of high
quality bunches & producing enough grapes to be profitable.

Type of pruning
• Head spur pruning :
• This system leaves the vine in a small bush shape.
• Used in Beaujolais & Rhone valley in France.
• Leads to the growth of grape bunches closer to ground.

• Advantage : get the benefit of heat reflected from soil during day & from radiated heat given
off by earth in the evening as the air temperature cools
• Disadvantage : grape develop close to ground can be more easily hit by late spring frosts. ( so
generally not used in areas with cool climates )

• Cane pruning : Predermined number of canes, one , two or four canes will be left after pruning.
Each cane will have predermined number of buds as decided by grape grower, each bud will
produce new shoot.

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 Throughout the world the most common type of pruning has been the two cane systems.

• Cordon- spur pruning : This is combination of above two methods. With established canes
extended along the support system, pruned to short spurs, usually having two buds to each along
the cordon. Suitable for mechanical pruning & harvesting therefore becoming popular.

Spring growth & flowering

After pruning a vineyard looks it’s tidiest, with the neatly trimmed vines standing in orderly array against
the stark winter earth. With the warm temp of spring, the sap rises & the buds left by the pruners break
open to produce leaves & new cane growth. This generally happens in April or may, depending on the
climate, and by the beginning of the June the vine flowers are visible. Plants need to be protected during
this period from sudden late frost, battering winds & even hailstorms.

Fruit development
After the flower petals drop, the grape berries are visible. At this stage the grapes looks like tiny green
ball bearing, regardless of whether the vine is red or white grape type, the grapes stay green until they
have reached full size, around the middle of august. at this point the grape go through veraison, or colour
change, so that the grower begins to see the more familiar yellow green of white grapes or deep purple
of red grapes.

From June to august the vineyard manager will continues to monitor the new cane growth, adjusting the
trellis wires to support the shoots removing excess leaves if deemed necessary at veraison many grape
growers also makes qualitative decision about the upcoming harvest, dropping smaller & less developed
bunches of grapes onto the ground & leaving the vine to put all of its resources into fewer grapes, thereby
producing more concentrated flavors.

Harvesting
In English speaking countries around the world, the harvesting of grapes is called the vintage, from the
French word vendange, meaning “wine harvest”. 2000 vintage wine means grapes used to make wine
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were harvested in the year 2000, “ a good vintage” is used to describe a wine, refers to the climate
condition that prevailed that year were such that the grapes were harvested in excellent condition & the
resulting wine should be very good .

Vintage wine /single vintage wine: wine is produced from grapes of single year’s harvest, vintage date
appears on label.

Nonvintage wine: wines are usually blends of several wines from different vintage. Do not have any
vintage date on label.

To predict the harvest date, the grape grower begins taking readings of sugar levels acidity levels in the
grapes as well as pH. ( these needs close monitoring as they change rapidly by change in whether )
• Sugar level: dictate the alcohol content &/or the sweetness of finished wine, sugar level in grape is
measured by hydrometer, Brix scale (balling scale)( North America), Baume scale ( France) &
ochsle scale ( Germany) .
• acidity level: for balance in the final flavor profile of the wine
• pH : indication of concentration of hydrogen ions, greater concentration higher the acidic nature of
solution.

The ideal weather is warm weather during the September, allowing the sugar to build & acidity level
drop, on contrary, cold temp will have opposite effect. High temp will damage the growth, resulting in
either low acid level in grape ( lead to flat & dull character into wine ) or elevated sugar level ( will give
the wine too much alcohol or sweetness ) Prolonged hot temp also “bake out” or weaken some of the
flavor component, leaving the less complex flavor & aroma.

Apart from the sugar & acidity level the grapes vertical characteristic ( Merlot grape test like merlot
fruit, Riesling grape test like Riesling ) & tannin content (in red grapes ) also matters to decide the
harvesting period of grape. Grapes have the optimal proportion of sugar to water &, more than any other
fruit, develop a whitish powdery coating called bloom, on the skin at harvest time. Bloom is largely
composed of millions of microorganisms, many of which are “wild” or “natural” yeast cell ( usually
include the high portion of sacchromyces cerevisiae).

The grape structure

The grape consists of a number of elements:
• Skin – which provide tannins and colour
• Stalk – which provides tannins
• Pips – provide bitter oils
• Pulp – contains sugar, fruit acids, water and pectins.
The yeast required for the fermentation process is found on
the outside of the grape skin in the form of a whitish bloom.
The colour in wine comes mainly from the skin of the grape
and is extracted during the fermentation process. Red wine
can only be made from red grapes. However, white wine
can be made from white or red grapes, provided that, in the
case of red grapes, the grape skins are removed before
fermentation begins.
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 VINIFICATION OF STILL WINE
Vinification is process of conversion of grape juice into wine. The process central to vinification
(wine making) is fermentation – the conversion of sugar by yeast to alcohol and carbon dioxide. This
process is also necessary to the making of all alcoholic beverages – not only for still, sparkling and
fortified wines, but also spirits, liqueurs and beers (although some variations and further processes
will be applied for different types of beverages).

Steps in still wine production : Vinification process of still wine

PLUCKING Plucking:
The grapes are picked mechanically or by hand. Handpicked method is costly &
CRUSHING time consuming as it select the best quality grapes, often used for preparation of
costly wines. The traditional method of picking is to send pickers out in to the
FERMENTATION field with special cutting scissor called “Secateur”. Mechanical method is more
efficient, cost effective, and is well suited for large vineyards
FINING
Crushing:
RACKING Also called as de-stemming. The harvested grapes are washed & dumped into a
large hopper called crusher/ destemmer, which cracks the berries, allowing the
FILTRATION sugar rich juice known as free run / Must to flow freely. Crushing methods:
hydraulic, revolving, cylinders, & pneumatic bar press, foot pressing
AGING/ MATURING The secondary part of this operation removes steams from grapes by centrifugal
force with the use of a large auger. The steam exit at one side of the machine,
BOTTLING while the berries & juice usually exit at the bottom. The steam which is a good
source of nitrogen are loaded into trucks & dumped between the vineyard rows.
CORKING The must obtained from crushed grapes is stored into vats. Where they are lightly
spread with sulphur dioxide to kill unwanted microorganism.

Fermentation :
It is a process of transferring grape juice into wine. It is a biological process where yeast works on
sugar & produces alcohol & carbon di oxide as by product. Ideal temp is 15 to 18o C, to bring down
the temp, the vats are cooled by cold water running through metal coils inside the vats they are known
as attemporators.

The chemical formula for the fermentation

C6H12O6 YEAST 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Sugar YEAST Alcohol + Carbon Dioxide

Eg saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Red wine fermentation takes five to seven days , temperature should be below 70oC( usually 22-25oC,
higher temp is needed to extract more colour & tannin from the skin). White wine & rose wine
fermentation temp are lesser than red wine.
If the must does not contain enough natural sugar to produce require amount of alcohol, a small
amount of sugar may be added which is termed as Chaptalization (subject to local regulation). Each
gram of sugar in the must is converted to about half a gram of ethyl alcohol during fermentation. To
achieve a 12 % alcohol concentration the must should contain about 24% sugar. The sugar % in must
is measured with the help of a saccharometer. Similarly acids can also be added to the must, if the
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acidity is low, called as acidification. Wild yeast are killed when the wine reaches 4% alcohol& wine
yeast are killed when the alcohol reaches around15%.

Pressing : By the end of the fermentation, the new wine lies in the bottom of the vat & the solid
matter floats on the top. The new wine called Vin De Goutte is racked into another vat for filtering &
ageing. The solid matter is pressed to obtain Vin De Presse. The first batch of vin de presse obtained
from the subsequent presses decline progressively in quality. It may be used for local consumption,
blending, or in making spirits.

Fining
is a process that removes certain microscopic solids still remaining in the fermented must. Fining
gives the wine more clarity & brilliance some fining agents work by carrying undesirable suspended
particles to sink to the bottom. Egg white, colloidal silica, bentonite, gelatin, isinglass are some of the
products used for fining. These materials have clinging power, they attract the particles in the wine,
which then settle at the bottom, after which the clear wine is siphoned off.

Racking
After fermentation the young wine is full of impurities & sediments that are called as “lees”, which
are removed by racking. The suspended particles usually are dead yeast cells, grape solids &
solidified dead matters. The wine is allowed to stand in the cask/vat. Once the lees have settle down,
a tap is inserted, just above the bottom, in the cask & clear wine is drained off thus accumulating the
particles at the bottom of the vat/cask. In modern Vinification, this operation is usually conducted
several times throughout the maturation period in vat/ Cask.

Filtration
The wine is passed through cellulose /asbestos to remove sediments, which may cause cloudiness, or
to save wine getting contaminated with yeast cells, which may cause secondary fermentation.

Aging / Maturing
Aging of wines is the storage of wines that takes place after fermentation, but before bottling (often in
oak wood barrels). The oak may be French or American air-dried or kiln dried, toasted or charred. Its
purpose is to allow further chemical reactions with a small amount of air, with suspended particles in
the wine & sometimes, with the storage medium itself. During ageing, the wines absorb the vanilla
flavor from the oak & interact with oxygen that invades through the fine pores. The oxygen eases out
tannin & mellows the wine.
The wines are often aged in cold area. Aging develops the quality of the wine up to a certain point.

Malolactic Fermentation
During the ageing process, a secondary non alcoholic bacterial fermentation called malolactic
fermentation takes place. In this type of fermentation, the bacteria convert the harsh malic acids in the
juice into softer lactic acid. This impart a softer mouth feel & overall a more inviting palate. Most red
wine go through malolactic fermentation to reduce their acidity. It is avoided mostly in the case of
white wine because acidity is one of the typical characteristic of white wine .

Blending wine
Blending is the process of mixing wine of different years, age, grapes & regions to make either a new
wine with a unique flavor or to maintain consistency in quality. Wine makers may blend wines for
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 variety of reasons, such as to adjust acidity, alcohol levels, tannin content or to improve the colour
aroma or flavor. Blended wine are then rested & fined again.

Bottling
The wine bottle is slowly filled & topped with either nitrogen or CO2 to displace any oxygen. The
bottle is then capped with either a cork or a screw cap. White & rose wines are generally bottled in
transparent bottles or they may also be bottled in light green bottles. Champagne & red wines in
particular are bottled in dark bottles to prevent any changes in colour. Sparkling wine bottles have a
Punt End, which stabilizes pressure & is also used for holding the bottle while pouring wine during
the service. The champagne & sparkling wine bottles are also thick & strong so as to withstand the
pressure of carbon dioxide.

Corking
Corks used for wine bottles are mainly made up of oak tree. The world famous corks “Quercus
Suber” are mainly found in Spain & Protugal. After the corks are shaped, they are steeped first in
warm water for few hours & then in wine, which they are to be bottled. The smooth end of the cork
should always be towards the wine. A high quality cork can last about 50 or more years.

Comparative chart of difference in vinification process of White, Red and Rose Wine.
White wine Red wine Rose wine
Plucking Plucking Plucking
Crushing Crushing Crushing
Red grape : skin of the grape are Red grape : skin of grape Red grape : skin of grape remain in
removed before fermentation . remain in must must for few period ( 48 hours )
White grape
Fermentation : Fermentation : Fermentation :
Temperate is 15-18 c Temperate is 22-25 c Same as red wine
Lees may be stirred in to yield Lees may be stirred in to
more flavours. avoid formation of cap or hat.
Pressing
Red grape : skin of grape is
removed after the
fermentation is over
Fining & filtration Fining & filtration Fining & filtration
Racking Racking Racking
Aging/maturing Aging/maturing Aging/maturing
Cold stabilization is implemented
by dropping the temperature below
freezing, at this temp, the cream of
tartar forms crystals( also called as
white diamonds) & falls out.
Malolactic fermentation
Blending
Bottling & Corking Bottling & Corking Bottling & Corking

Vinification of Sparkling Wine

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 The most famous sparkling wine is Champagne, which is made in an area of north-eastern France.
The French district of champagne has delimited, which means that sparkling wines made from the
grapes of this district alone can be called Champagne. It is created by the secondary fermentation in
the bottle (known in Champagne as méthode champenoise and elsewhere as méthode traditionelle).
Effervescent wines made outside this area are called vins mousseux or sparkling wines. Sparkling
wines have CO2 which gives the wine the effervescence or sparkle. Dom Pérignon first created
champagne. White wine from white grapes is called Blanc de Blanc. White wine from black grapes
is called as Blanc de noir.

Méthode Champenoise: followed in the champagne region of France.Made according to Comité

Interprofessionnel du Vin de Champagne ( CIVC) regulations.
Grapes used : Pinot Noir & Pinot Meunier ( black grape provide a fruity flavor & body) &
Chardonnay ( white grape contributes fineness & elegance).Champagne are expensive as it takes
three to seven years to produce a bottle of champagne.
There are four main methods of making sparkling wine.
• Méthode Champenoise
• Cuveé close / charmat / tank
• Transfer
• Direct impregnation / Carbonation

Steps In Vinification of Champagne:

PLUCKING Same as still wine
CRUSHING first pressing is known as Vin de cuvees. second pressing is called Premiere Taille.
Third pressing is Deuxième Taille. Wine from last two pressing is known as Vins
de suite use for less fine Champagne & marked as Buyers own Brand or Bayers
own Blend ( BOB)
PRIMARY the first fermentation occurs in a wooden vat. up to racking & fining the method
FERMENTATION followed is similar to that involved in white wine making
FERMENTATION : Temprature : 18 to 20 C, CO2Gas produced is allow to escape
FINING & FILTRATION
RACKING : After the fermentation racking separate the deposits.

BLENDING The clear wine is blended with wine from different vineyards of the Champagne
Region, in varying proportions, to achieve the desirable balance of flavour &
acidity.
Wine of different districts are blended to produce a standard called
Assemblage.Then these blended wine are again blended to bring out the standard
wine called Coupage.

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SECONDARY The secondary fermentation is induced in the bottle for wine to acquire its sparkle.
FERMENTATION Before the fermentation begins a small amount of cane sugar & yeast in old wine,
• LIQUEUR DE termed as Liqueur De Tirage /Dosage De Tirage is added to wine to induce
TIRAGE / secondary fermentation.Wine is bottled & sealed with cork.
DOSAGE DE Secondary fermentation starts in bottle about 6 weeks after bottling, will take
TIRAGE about 3 to 6 months to complete. The wine is bottle in specially designed bottles to
• REMUAGE with stand pressurYeast turns the sugar into alcohol & gives off Co2 which
• DEGORGEMENT dissolves into the wine. Which produces stream of bubbles known as Mousse.The
• LIQUEUR first cork is put in the bottle & it is fastened with a metal clip called Agrafè. The
second fermentation is also called as Prise de Mousse, which means making the
D’EXPEDITION
sparkle.
The bottle are taken to underground cellar, where temp is maintained at 50 F. the
bottles are placed in racks with oval holes with their necks, tilted slightly
downwards, these racks are termed as Pupitre. The specialist worker, called
‘Remueur’ twist the bottles kept in horizontal position time to time & turned
slightly higher angle. This happens to each bottle every three days for about six
weeks, til;l the bottle stands vertically with thye neck downwards, called Sur Le
Pointe. This process is called as Remuage & purpose is to collect the sediments in
the cork.
The process of removing the sediments from the bottle which have collected on the
cork is called Dégorgement .The bottle neck is dipped in a freezing brine solution,
which freezes a small amount of wine in the cork containing the sediments. The
pressure inside the bottle expels the ice with the sediment's when the cap is
removed.
The champagne which was lost during dégorgement is replaced with more similar
wine & cane sugar solution called Liqueur d’expedition. The amount of sugar
added determines the degree of sweetness in the final product.

BOTTLING/ CORKING After the addition of dosage the permanent cork is forced in & secured with agrafè.
The bottle are given a final shake up ( shaking), either manually of mechanically to
ensure even distribution of dosage. Wine is rested for 4 t0 6 months to allow it to
settle finally the wine bottles are cleaned, labelled & dispatched.

Size of champagne bottles

Magnum 2 Bottles/1.5 lit
Jeroboam 4 Bottles/3 lit
Rehoboam 6 Bottles /4.5 lit
Methuselah 8 Bottles /6 lit
Salmanazar 12 Bottles/9 lit
Balthazar 16 Bottles /12 lit
Nebuchednezzar 20 Bottles /15 lit

BHM202 - FOOD & BEVERAGE SERVICE OPERATIONS – THEORY, Chapter 3, Wines 13

 Terms denoting the sweetness of
Champagne
Term Meaning
Brut very dry
Sec Dry
Demi sec Semi dry
Demi doux Semi sweet
Doux Sweet

Méthode Cuvee close / charmat/ tank method

• This method was introduced in France by M. Charmat & involve secondary
fermentation in large sealed tank & takes only 10 days to complete.
• The wine is drawn off through filters under pressure at -3o C ( 26o F ) , and is then
bottled.
• The resulting wine is cheaper than champagne.

Méthode transvasement / Transfer method

• This method is almost similar to method champenoise except the process is shortened
by using filtration & fining instead of the lengthy remuage process.

Méthode gazifié / Direct impregnation / carbonation

• This is the cheapest method of making sparkling wine.
• Co2 gas is directly impregnated into the wine from a cylinder in the same way as in
the making of aerated waters.

BHM202 - FOOD & BEVERAGE SERVICE OPERATIONS – THEORY, Chapter 3, Wines 14

 Fortified Wines

Sherry Port Madeira Marsala Malaga

Comes from’Jerez’ district Comes from the Bore district of Comes from island of Comes from Comes from Malaga on the
in the south of Spain Portugal Madeira in Atlantic north west sicily Mediterranean coast of
ocean. spain
Grapes used : palomino, Grapes used : are many Grapes used : Grapes used : Grapes used : prdro
pedro Ximenex ( PX)( used Red grapes are Bastardo Sercial, malmsey, Grillo, catarratto ximenez
for making sweet sherries Donzelinho Tinto, Tinta Roriz, Verdelho, Bual & tinta & inzolia
& for sewwtening & Tinta Francisca, Touriga Francesa, Negramole ( for a
colouring the wine before Tinta Cao & Mourisco. cheaper quality of
bottling) & Moscatel ( White Ports use Gouveio, Malvasia madeira)
sweetning & colouring Fina, Malvasia rei, Donzelinho &
sherries) Rabigato.
Type Of Sherry Type Of Port Type Of Madeira Type Of Marsala Type of Malaga
• Fino • Vintage Port • Sercial • Marsala Fine • Malaga
• Oloroso • Ruby • Verdelho • Marsala • Malaga noble
• Manzanilla • Tawny Port • Bual Superiore • Malaga anejo
• Amontillado • Crusted Port • Malmsey • Marsa;a • Malaga trasanejo
• Amorosos • White Port • Rain Water Special • Dorado or golden
• Palo Cortado • Marsala • Rojo dorado or rot gold
• Cream Vergine • Oscuro or brown
• Vergine • Colour
Stravecchio • Negrio o dunkle
Or Vergine • Dulce crema or cream
Riserva • Dry pale or pale dry
• Pale cream
• Sweet
Shippers Shippers Shippers Shippers Shippers
• Croft, Duff Gordon, • Calem, Churchill, Cockburn, • Blandy, Cossart • Florio, Ballor, • Scholtz Hermanos,
Garvey, Gonzales Byas, Croft, Delaforce, Dow, Ferreira, Gordon, Leacock, Pellegrino, larios, manischewitz,
Harveys, La Riva, Fonseca, Graham, Quinta Do Lomelino, Rutherford Taylor, Jorge Ordonez
Osborne, Pedro Noval, Sandeman, Taylor & & Miles Ingham
Domecq, Sandeman, Warre.
Williams & Humbert

BHM202 - FOOD & BEVERAGE SERVICE OPERATIONS – THEORY, Chapter 3, Wines 15

 Vinification of Fortified Wine : Sherry
Harvesting & are done in early September in huge wooden containers called lagars, where people with
pressing boots studded with nails( Zapato de Pisar) are used. Abour 85% of the first pressing is used
to make sherry & the remaining is used to make cheap brandy for for fortifying the wine
later
Fermentation Must is then transferred to casks in the Bodega. The cask are bunged with about 80% liquid
so that oxygen react with the wine. The wine is fortified wit brandy to 15.5 %. The high
alcoholic content favours the formation of yeast like substance, the flor( if a thick film
forms,then fine sherry is made, a thin film creates Amontillado & no film gives rise to
oloroso)
Ageing Is done in Nurseries or criaderas, where it is allowed to age for 18-24 months with the flor
undisturbed.
Blending Blending process is carried out in ‘Solera System’ which leads in the uniform quality &
Solera system standard of different variations of sherry produced right through the year.Solera is series of
casks / barrels ( butts) , all containing a similar type of wine. The cask are arranged in
similar group one above the other. Each group is older than its predecessor. the solera
system has several rows of identical barrels( butts(), each holding 130 gallons. Each row is
termed as scale or criadera. The bottom row of barrels, termed as solera, contain the oldest
sherry & the topmost cridera is topped with new wine anada.

Fining & The sherry drawn from the bottom is fined with albumen in white of egg.
bottling After filtering the sherry is bottled & further addition of brandy makes it 17% to 22%. It is
refrigerated to further stabilize it & to remove cloudiness.
Vinification of Fortified Wine: Port
• The grapes are collected by hand as the slopes are steep.
• they are taken to centrifugal crusher & fermentation is done in an autovinificator ( this is a
container that is sealed & the built up CO2 during fermentation is used to push the must
through the skin cap & sprayed over the skin result in maximum extraction of colour &
flavor) and is continued till the right sugar content is reached ( 6 baume) .
• The fermented must ( alcoholic strength is 6to 8%) is added with local brandy ( aguardiente in
the ratio of 4:1 to reach the an alcoholic % of 16%. The wine is left over winter to attain
clarity.
• It is further fortified to 21% alcoholic strength before being classified & transferred to pipes .

Vinification of Fortified Wine: Madeira

• After pressing the juice is quickly transferred for fermentation.
• The wine obtained is known as vinho claro which is then fortified with local brandy.
• This wine is then stored in Pipes ( casks ) & then placed in Estufa, a large centrally heated
store.
BHM202 - FOOD & BEVERAGE SERVICE OPERATIONS – THEORY, Chapter 3, Wines 16
 • The cask containing wine are gradually heated to 50o C held at this temp for about 3 months
& then slowly cool down to normal temperature.
• This result in caramel like flavor of wine. It stabilized the wine & increase the quality, the
wine now is indifferent to heat & cold & can withstand the exposure to air.

Vinification of Fortified Wine: Marsala

• Method of preparation is similar to sherry up to a certain level
• it is made from the blend of white wine brandy & heated must, which is then matured in the
solera system.
• Marasala is mainly used in culinary preparations. It is an important ingredient in many egg &
ceffee based dishesh, pastries & desserts. Zabaglion a sweet dish is flavoured with Marsala.

Vinification of Fortified Wine: Malga

• Method of preparation is similar to sherry up to a certain level
• it is produced from the grapes dried on the straw mats in the sun. it is blended with
concentrated grape juice after the fermentation & is then fortified. Matured in the solera
system.

Vinification of Aromatized Wine

Vermouths
Vermouth is an aromatized & fortified wine, deriving its name from a German word Wermut,
meaning ‘ wormwood’.Vermouth was first marketed as a medicine for its therapeutic & digestive
properties. It is served as aperitif & also used in the preparation of cocktail. Of all the aromatized
wines, vermouth is very popular.
Marseille in France & Turin in Italy are well known for vermouth production. In general, Italian
vermouth refers to sweet & red vermouth & French vermouth refers to dry & white
vermouth.Vermouth is flavoured with 50 different ingredients which include wormwood, quinine,
citrus peel, roots, flowers & herbs. These ingredients are chosen for their aroma & medicinal values.
The four main types of vermouth are:
• Dry vermouth: often called French vermouth or simply French (as in Gin and French). It is
made from dry white wine that is flavoured and fortified.
• Sweet vermouth/bianco: made from dry white wine, flavoured, fortified and sweetened with
sugar or mistelle.
• Rosé vermouth: made in a similar way to Bianco, but it is less sweet and is coloured with
caramel.
• Red vermouth: often called Italian vermouth, Italian or more often ‘It’ (as in Gin and It). It
is made from white wine and is flavoured, sweetened and coloured with a generous addition of
caramel.
Other aromatised wines
• Chamberyzette: made in the Savoy Alps of France. It is flavoured with the juice of wild
strawberries.
• Punt-e-mes: from Carpano of Turin. This is heavily flavoured with quinine and has wild
contrasts of bitterness and sweetness.
• Dubonnet: made in France and is available in two varieties: blonde (white) and rouge (red) and
is flavoured with quinine and herbs.
• St Raphael: red or white, bittersweet drink from France flavoured with herbs and quinine.

BHM202 - FOOD & BEVERAGE SERVICE OPERATIONS – THEORY, Chapter 3, Wines 17

 • Lillet: popular French aperitif made from white Bordeaux wine and flavoured with herbs, fruit
peel and fortified with Armagnac brandy. It is aged in oak casks.
• Pineau des Charentes: although not strictly an aromatised or fortified wine, Pineau des Charentes
has gained popularity as an alternative aperitif or digestif. It is available in white, rose or red and is
made with grape must from the Cognac region and fortified with young Cognac to about 17% alcohol
by volume.

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