HANDOUT 1 EDFLCT/EDFACI 2023
What is cognition?
Cognition is the scientific term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and
comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem solving.
What is metacognition?
Metacognition is knowledge and understanding of our own cognitive processes and abilities and
those of others, as well as regulation of these processes. It is the ability to make your thinking
visible.
Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge that we hold about our own thinking, and the thinking of
other people. We are usually able to report metacognitive knowledge if we are asked about our own
thinking and it includes things like:
Understanding that having a strategy might help you to solve a problem more efficiently, or
that having an essay plan may help to keep your argument on track.
Knowing that it is more difficult to concentrate in a room that is noisy than one which is
quiet. Knowing that you are good at remembering people’s faces but not their names, while your
friend is good with names, not faces.
There are three types of metacognitive knowledge that each play a role in learning and
problem-solving:
Declarative knowledge: “knowing what” – knowledge of one’s own learning processes, and
about strategies for learning.
Procedural knowledge: “knowing how” – knowing what skills and strategies to use.
Conditional knowledge: “knowing when” – knowledge about why and when various learning
strategies should be used.
Self-regulation on the other hand, refers to a set of activities that help learners to control their
learning. Research has shown that metacognitive regulation supports performance in a number of
ways, including understanding where to direct attention, using strategies more reliably and
efficiently, and developing awareness of difficulties with comprehension.
At the heart of self-regulation are three essential skills:
Planning involves working out how a task might be approached before you do it. For example you
might make predictions before reading, select a strategy before tackling a problem, or allocate time
or other resources before commencing work.
Monitoring refers to the pupil’s on-task awareness of progress, comprehension and overall
performance. Stopping every so often to self-test and check for understanding is a good example
of monitoring. Monitoring ability is slow to develop and even adults find it difficult but it can be
improved with training and practice.
Evaluation requires the student to review the outcomes and efficiency of the learning experience. It
includes revisiting goals and conclusions, deciding how to improve next time, and examining
learning from another person’s perspective to diagnose problems.
There are the 14 (A-N) Learner Centered Principles influence the teaching and learning process.
Each are categorized under different factors.
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
A. Nature of the learning process
Teachers play a significant role in guiding learners to become active, goal
directed and self-regulating and to assume responsibility for their learning. The
learning activities and opportunities are very important situations for learners can
integrate knowledge and concepts to their experiences. An intentional learning
environment fosters activity and feedback, and creates a culture that promotes
metacognition (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1989).
B. Goals of the learning process
Meaningful learning takes place when what is presented to learners is very
much related to their needs and interests. Indeed, it is challenging to motivate
learners to succeed.
C. Construction of knowledge
The integration of prior experiences to a new concept to be learned is a way
of making connections between what is new and what is already known. The new
knowledge created from old knowledge is the very heart of constructivism. Teachers
should initiate more opportunities for learners to share ideas, experiences, observations
and readings as the need arises.
D. Strategic thinking
Strategic thinking is the person’s ability to use knowledge in different ways to
solve problems, address concerns and issues, decrease difficulties in certain situations
and make sound decisions and judgments in varied conditions. Strategic thinkers do not give up
easily in difficult situations, are more challenged to find ways to solve a problem in spite of
failures, and are not afraid to commit mistakes as these are perceived as meaningful learning
experiences.
E. Thinking about thinking
One of the most challenging roles of teachers is to develop among learners
the higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). Aside from mastering information,
discovery, problem-solving, creation and evaluation should be integrated to
learners’ experiences. Students can make inferences, sound judgments and
relevant conclusions and use their learned knowledge to varied situations.
Assessment tools should be authentic.
F. Context of learning
Learning does not only take place in the classroom. Much of what learners
learn here with teachers can only have meaning once they see these concretely
in their everyday life. Examples given in the classroom should be a reflection of
their life experiences.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
G. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. It plays a very important
role in learning. No matter how new, challenging or technical the topic is, if the
level of motivation is high, students would always find the interest to participate and
get themselves engaged. However, if there were no efforts to motivate
learners, there would also be no engagement to learning.
H. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is manifested when an individual engages in an activity or
task that is personally gratifying. It is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and
control.
Extrinsic motivation is shown when an individual engages in a task or activity
to earn external rewards or to avoid punishments in some situations. The most
important way to motivate students to learn is to present the value of that
knowledge or concept in life.
I. Effects of motivation on effort
Without learner’s motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion. The learners’ motivation to learn is also partnered by
their extended efforts. It is through teachers’ encouragement that they will have to do
tasks with quality and not just for compliance’s sake.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
J. Developmental influences on learning
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for
learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domain is taken into account. Knowledge on these
domains is an excellent springboard for planning learning activities, materials and
assessment. Often, some are not learning well because there is a mismatch between the
learning activity and the developmental stage.
K. Social influences on learning
When learners work with their peers and classmates, they learn to appreciate
diversity. They practice their listening skills and consider each other’s perspectives and
contributions on the task to be completed. When adequately facilitated by the teacher, this
skill contributes to a positive and healthy learning such as respect for each other’s
opinions, give and take responsibility and taking responsibility for assigned tasks.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS
L. Individual differences in learning
Diversity is a natural part of life. The learning environment is the best example
where this is manifested between and among learners. Each has his or her learning style,
intelligence, potential, skills, talents, preferences or cognitive abilities which are the effects
of both experience and heredity.
M. Learning and diversity
Multicultural teaching encourages teachers to consider their learners’ linguistic,
cultural and social backgrounds. Language can be a barrier in learning when learners cannot
express themselves properly and when the learning material is not also related to their
social context. Cases and situations should be contextualized and localized so that they
can appreciate learning.
N. Standards and assessment
Assessment and evaluation are essential parts of the teaching-learning process.
The results are used to gauge the learners’ strengths and weaknesses, limitations and areas
of difficulties. Teachers can determine the kind of support and scaffold the learners need
and which instructional material would best assist a learner for better school performance.
