1.

The Noun and its grammatical categories

The noun is the central lexical unit of language. The noun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning
of "substance or thingness". It is the main nominative unit of speech. The number category is realized only
within subclass of countable nouns. The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the
notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one object while the plural form may
be used to denote one object consisting of several parts. The singular form may denote:
1. oneness (individual separate object - a cat);
2. generalization (the meaning of the whole class - The cat is a domestic animal)',
3. indiscreteness (нерасчлененность or uncountableness ) - money, milk, cheese.
The plural form may denote:
1. the existence of several objects (cats);
2. the inner discreteness (внутренняя расчлененность), pluralia tantum Jeans.
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of
the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the
suffix -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz ] as presented in the forms: dog — dogs, clock — clocks, box — boxes. If the noun
has the ending in letter f-fe, in plural form it is changed into - ves. For example, leaf - leaves, wolf - wolves,
wife - wives. There are some exceptions: chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs, safes.
The productive formal mark correlates with the absence of the number suffix in the singular form of the
noun. The semantic content of the unmarked form, as has been shown above, enables the grammarians to
speak of the zero-suffix of the singular in English.
The other, non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are:
• vowel interchange in several relict forms, e.g. man — men, woman — women, tooth — teeth, etc.;
• the archaic suffix -(e)n supported by phonemic interchange in a couple of other relict forms, e.g. ox -
oxen, child - children, cow - kine, brother- brethren;
• the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns, e.g.
formula - formulae, phenomenon - phenomena, alumnus - alumni, basis - bases, crisis - crises etc.;
• in some cases the plural form of the noun is homonymous with the singular form, e.g. sheep, deer,
fish, swine, code, species, craft etc.
Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister's coat).
The category of case correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is
realized through the opposition: The Common Case: The Possessive Case (sister: sister's). However, in
modern linguistics the term "genitive case" is used instead of the "possessive case" because the meanings
rendered by the '"s" sign are not only those of possession.
The inflexion - "s" is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants, e.g. boy's, girl's; [s] after voiceless
consonants, e.g. student's, wife's; [iz] after sibilants, e.g. price's, judge's. The inflexion "s" is added to
singular nouns and also to irregular plural nouns, e.g. men's, children's, women's, people's.
A noun in the genitive case generally precedes another noun which is its head¬word. This may be called
the dependent genitive. The relation between the noun in the genitive and its headword may be of two
kinds:
The noun in the genitive case may denote a particular person or thing, as my mother's room, the man's
voice. This kind of genitive case is called the specifying genitive which may indicate the owner of a thing,
the doer of action, the bearer of a state, e.g. my uncle's car, the minister's speech, my sister's illness. The
specifying genitive may be replaced if necessary by an of-phrase, e.g. the father of the boys.
The noun in the genitive case may refer to a whole class of similar objects. This kind of the genitive case is
called the classifying genitive, e.g. sheep's eyes (which means eyes of a certain kind but not the eyes of a
particular sheep), a doctor's degree, a soldier's uniform, a doll's face, an hour's walk, summer's day, etc.
Sometimes we find the use of elements "s" and "of" together. This is called a double genitive, e.g. He was
an old business client of Grandfather's (one of Grandfather's clients). She is the sister of my friend's
husband.
A noun in the genitive case may be used without a head-word. This is called the independent genitive
which is used with nouns denoting trade and relationship or with proper names. It is mainly found in
prepositional phrases, e.g. I was in the grocer's and I heard some women say it.
He asked her how she liked living at her daughter's.
I bought some sausages at the butcher's.
2. The structural classification of phraseological units
Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech they exist in the
language as ready-made units. They are stable word-groups characterized by a completely or partially
transferred meaning and compiled in special dictionaries. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural
classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he
compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top
units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root
morphemes.
Among one-top units he points out three structural types;
-units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out,
to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;
-units of the type «to be tired». Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they
have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or
«with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.
-prepositional - nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words:
prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the
nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, on
time, in time, on the point of etc.
Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:
- attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one's neck and many
others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic
units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second
component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind
alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.
-verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to sweep under the carpet etc. The
grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component,
e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the
ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one's boats, to vote with one's feet, to
take to the cleaners' etc.
-phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel, country and western etc. Such units can
be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration,
e.g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee.
3. Types of variation. British and American pronunciation models
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English which has distinctive
features of its own. Sometimes these varieties are called Americanisms and may be defined as words or
set expressions peculiar to the English Language. The American variant of the English Language differs
from British English in pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.
English gives a broad sound [a:] to words like bath, dance the Americans pronounce these words softly as
[a ] like the word flat, The diphthong [ou] exists in both languages, but in English pronunciation the sound is
much narrower.
Differences in pronunciation of individual words are quite numerous. See the table.

4. Homonyms
Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.
E.g.: bank, n. - a shore; bank, n. - an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging money. Ball, n. - a
sphere, any spherical body; ball, n. - a large dancing party.
The term "homonym" is derived from Greek homos - "similar" and onoma - and thus expresses the
sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. Homonyms can appear in the language not
only as the result of the split of polysemy, but also as the result of leveling of grammar inflexions, when
different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. «саrе» from «саrи» and «care» from
«carian». They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g. «to slim» from slim», «to water» from
«water». They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. «reader»/a person
who reads and a book for reading/.
Homonyms are distinguished into three types:
1. Homonyms proper.
2. Homophones.
3. Homographs
Homonyms are the same in sound and spelling are traditionally termed homonyms proper. E.g.: match, (n.)
- a game, match, (n.) - thing is used for producing fire.
Homonyms are the same in sound but different in spelling can be defined as homophones. E.g.: a piece
(n.) - peace (п.); cent (n.) - sent (v.); write (v.) - right (adj.). The examples here show that homophones may
be belong both to the same and to different categories of parts of speech.
Homographs are words with the same spelling but pronounced differently. E.g. bow -[bau]- (v.) - to incline
the head or body in salutation; bow - [Ьэи]- (п.) - a flexible strip of wood for propelling arrows; to lead [li:d ]-
(v.) - to conduct on the way, go before to show the way, lead [led ]- (n.) - a heavy, rather soft metal.
A more detailed classification was given by I.V. Arnold. She classified only perfect homonyms and
suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and
paradigms.
According to these criteria I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups:
• homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms (a typical example
or model of a word) and different in their lexical meanings, e.g. a board in the meanings a council and "a
thin flat piece of wood";
• homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their lexical
meanings and paradigms, e.g. to lie - lied - lied, and to lie - lay - lain;
• homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in
their basic forms, e.g. light - lights, light - lighter - lightest;
• homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms, but
coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms, e.g. a bit and bit (from "to bite").
5. Euphemisms
The word euphemism comes from the Greek wordeuphemo, meaning "auspicious/good/fortunate
speech/kind" which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu (eu), "good/well" + pheme
"speech/speaking". Theeuphemewas originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase
that should not be spoken aloud; etymologically, theeupheme is the opposite of the blaspheme (evil-
speaking). Euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that
may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener or in the case of doublespeak, to make it less
troublesome for the speaker. When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose
literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when
the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public relations and
politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is equated to
politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea
that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word "cancer") instead of
this the descriptive way is used - a mortal disease. The doctors use technical terminology when discussing
cancer in front of patients, e.g. c.a. or neopsia, neoplastic process, carcinoma. The word lavatory has
naturally produced many euphemisms. Here some of them: powder room, washroom, restroom, ladies'
room, gentlemen's room
The keys to understanding euphemisms are the concepts of avoidance and etiquette. We euphemize when
we are avoiding giving offence. As it has been noticed the numbers of euphemisms in the sphere of alcohol
are over 2000. Such as cod, fap, sponge, tightwa, fresh etc.
Above all euphemisms are used in polite company to avoid the typical speech of power levels of society.
This term refers to the substitution of a milder expression for a harsh or unacceptable one. This includes
classical euphemisms such as "pass on "for "die".
6. Composite sentence. Compound and Complex sentences.
According to the structure the sentences can be divided into: Simple and Composite.
Simple sentences are subdivided into:unextended and extended sentences.
Composite sentences consist of two or several simple sentences and may be divided into: Compound
Sentences and Complex Sentences. The Compound sentence consists of clauses joined together by
coordinating conjunctions or without it. These are very few: and, but, or, for, yet, so etc. e.g. He knew there
were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. The number of clauses in a compound sentence may
of course be greater than two, and in case the conjunctions uniting the clauses may be different: thus the
second clause may be joined to the first by one conjunction, while the third is joined to the second by
another, and so forth.
e.g. Gerald was disappointed, for he had wanted a son, but he nevertheless was pleased enough over his
small black-haired daughter.
The Complex Sentence is a poly predicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The
complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which can be linked
by two ways: Asyndetically without a conjunctions connective, e.g. I wish you had come earlier.
Synthetically by means of variety conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until; a number of phrases: as
soon as, so long as, in order that etc . Complex sentences with a subordinate clause can be classified into
two groups: Attributive Clauses (Определительныепридаточныепредложения) and Adverbial Clauses
(Обстоятельственныепридаточныепредложения). Adverbial Clauses of Cause are introduced in the
sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because, as, since, for, now that.
E.g. I went away because there was no one there.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: so
that, so, in order that.
E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that
he might learn his lessons.
Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if as
though, that.
E.g.You answer as if you didn't know this rule. You ought to write as he does.
Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while,
whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as, since.
E.g.When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were discussing the
important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Astana. I shall
stay here until you return.
Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: where, from
where, whenever.
E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate. Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where
my brother lives.
Attributive Clauses function in complex sentence as an attribute and they are presented by conjunctions, as
the relative pronouns and the relative adverbs: (who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, why).
E.g.The man who was here yesterday is a painter. I know the man whom you mean. I have found the book
that I was looking for. We remember the day when we first came to London. The vessels which arrived at
the port yesterdayis very important.
7. Classify English consonants.
8. Characterize adverbial clauses of cause and purpose. Give examples.
The Complex Sentence is a poly predicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The
complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which can be linked
by two ways: Asyndetically without a conjunctions connective, e.g. I wish you had come earlier.
Synthetically by means of variety conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until; a number of phrases: as
soon as, so long as, in order that etc . Complex sentences with a subordinate clause can be classified into
two groups: Attributive Clauses (Определительныепридаточныепредложения) and Adverbial Clauses
(Обстоятельственныепридаточныепредложения). Adverbial Clauses of Cause are introduced in the
sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because, as, since, for, now that.
E.g. I went away because there was no one there.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: so
that, so, in order that.
E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that
he might learn his lessons.
Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if as
though, that.
E.g.You answer as if you didn't know this rule. You ought to write as he does.
Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while,
whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as, since.
E.g.When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were discussing the
important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Astana. I shall
stay here until you return.
Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: where, from
where, whenever.
E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate. Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where
my brother lives.
9. Semantic Structure of English Words.
Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner form (its meaning) presents a
structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. It is known that most words convey several
concepts and possess the corresponding number of meanings. One and the same word in different
syntactical relations can develop different meanings, e.g. the verb treat in sentences:
• He treated my words as a joke.
• The book treats of poetry.
• They treated me to sweets.
• He treats his son cruelly.
In all these sentences the verb «treat» has different meanings and we can speak about polysemy.
A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and the words having one meaning are called
monosemantic these words are few in number. These are scientific terms. The bulk of English words are
polysemantic. The ability of "to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy.
The semantic structure of a polysemantic word can be distinguished between two levels of analysis:
On the first level the semantic structure is presented by different meaning as the main or primary meaning
stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can
be traced to the primary meaning.
E.g. in the word face the primary meaning denotes "the front part of the human head”. Connected with the
front position the meanings were formed: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part
of a playing card. Connected with front «face» itself the meanings: expression of the face, outward
appearance are formed.
The second level of analysis is determined as the semantic components within separate meaning, where
some semantic structures are arranged on different principles. In the following list of meanings of the
adjective dull one can hardly find a generalized meaning covering and holding together the rest of the
semantic structure. E.g.. Dull, adj.
a dull book, a dull film, - uninteresting, boring;
a dull pupil - stupid;
a dull weather, a dull day, a dull colour - not clear or bright;
a dull sound - not loud or distinct;
a dull knife - not sharp;
dull eyes - seeing badly;
dull ears - hearing badly.
10. Communicative types of English sentences.
Sentences can be classified according to the purpose of the utterance/sentence. It shows whether the
sentence is presented as a statement or a question. They are:
Declarative sentence. It states a fact in the affirmative or negative form, e.g. She was waiting for her
husband.
I still couldn 't think why I didn 't see her.
Interrogative sentence. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion.
11. Structural types of Adjectives and degrees of comparison.
12. The functional-semantic types of subordinate clauses.
12Semantic: Adverbial Clauses are subdivided into the following groups:
Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while,
whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as, since.
E.g. When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were discussing the
important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Astana. I shall
stay here until you return.
Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: where, from
where, whenever.
E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate. Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where
my brother lives.
Adverbial Clauses of Cause are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because,
as, since, for, now that.
E.g. I went away because there was no one there.
As there were no porters, we had to carry the luggage ourselves. He walked quickly for he was in a great
hurry.
Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if as
though, that.
E.g. You answer as if you didn't know this rule. You ought to write as he does.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions:
so that, so, in order that.
E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that
he might learn his lessons.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of conjunctions: if,
unless, in case, on condition (that), supposing/supposing (that), providing/provided (that) - (если, при
наличии, при условии), as long as. E.g. If I see him tomorrow, 1 shall ask him about it.
He won't go there unless he is invited.
He will agree to this year's budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future. 1 've made
provisions in case anything happens to me.
We '11 sign the agreement providing that vou guarantee the high quality of the goods.
12Clauses in a complex sentence may be connected with one another more closely and less closely,
similar to the parts of a simple sentence. The intensity of connection between the clauses directly reflects
the degree of their self-dependence and is therefore an essential characteristic of the complex sentence as
a whole.
13. Define the expression "Theoretical Phonetics". Aspects and units of phonetics. Branches of phonetics
14. Pronouns and their classification. Types of pronouns
15. Define the expression "Consonants" and "Vowels". Classification of English Consonants and Vowels
16. The aims and significance of Lexicology, The Research Methods. Links with other Branches of
Linguistics.
17. Semantic Structure of Compounds
18. The structural-semantic types of composite sentences.
1,43,56
The noun is the central lexical unit of language. The noun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning
of "substance or thingness". As any other part of speech, the noun can be characterized by three criteria:
semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical categories) and syntactical
(functions, distribution).
Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness,
substantiality. According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses:
according to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;
according to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate where animate nouns in their
turn fall into human and non-human.
• according to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable which are divided
into concrete and abstract.
In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into: simple,
derived (stem + affix, affix + stem - thingness)-, compound ( stem+ stem - armchair ) and composite (the
Hague).
Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntactic functions but
predicate.

The Category of Number

The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity.
The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form, the singular
form. The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit
grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness.
The number category is realized only within subclass of countable nouns. The grammatical meaning of
number may not coincide with the notional quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote
one object while the plural form may be used to denote one object consisting of several parts.
The singular form may denote:
1. oneness (individual separate object - a cat);
2. generalization (the meaning of the whole class - The cat is a domestic animal)',
3. indiscreteness (нерасчлененность or uncountableness ) - money, milk, cheese.
The plural form may denote:
1. the existence of several objects (cats);
2. the inner discreteness (внутренняя расчлененность), pluralia tantum Jeans.

According to the discreteness/indiscreteness There are two groups here:

Singularia tantum (the Latin term). Nouns are used only in the singular form. They cover different groups
of nouns: proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns, collective nouns, e.g. sand, oil, wine, wool,
curiosity, progress, knowledge, friendship, happiness.
Pluralia tantum. It covers the names of objects consisting of several parts: names of things, tools or
clothes (trousers, scales, shorts, scissors)-, names of sciences (mathematics, economics, physics); names
of diseases (diabetes, measles, rabies); sports and games (billiards, athletics, gymnastics, draughts), etc.
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of
the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the
suffix -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz ] as presented in the forms: dog — dogs, clock — clocks, box — boxes. If the noun
has the ending in letter f-fe, in plural form it is changed into - ves. For example, leaf - leaves, wolf - wolves,
wife - wives. There are some exceptions: chiefs, handkerchiefs, roofs, safes.

The other, non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are:

• vowel interchange in several relict forms, e.g. man — men, woman — women, tooth — teeth, etc.;
• the archaic suffix -(e)n supported by phonemic interchange in a couple of other relict forms, e.g. ox - oxen,
child - children, cow - kine, brother- brethren;
• the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns, e.g.
formula - formulae, phenomenon - phenomena, alumnus - alumni, basis - bases, crisis - crises etc.;
• in some cases the plural form of the noun is homonymous with the singular form, e.g. sheep, deer, fish,
swine, code, species, craft etc.

3. The Category of Case

Case expresses the relation of a word to another word in the word-group or sentence (my sister's coat).
The category of case correlates with the objective category of possession. The case category in English is
realized through the opposition:
The Common Case:
The Possessive Case (sister: sister's).
However, in modern linguistics the term "genitive case" is used instead of the "possessive case" because
the meanings rendered by the '"s" sign are not only those of possession.
The inflexion - "s" is pronounced [z] after vowels and voiced consonants, e.g. boy's, girl's;
[s] after voiceless consonants, e.g. student's, wife's; [iz] after sibilants, e.g. price's, judge's.
The inflexion "s" is added to singular nouns and also to irregular plural nouns, e.g. men's, children's,
women's, people's.
A noun in the genitive case generally precedes another noun which is its headword. This may be called the
dependent genitive. The relation between the noun in the genitive and its headword may be of two kinds:
The noun in the genitive case may denote a particular person or thing, as my mother's room, the man's
voice. This kind of genitive case is called the specifying genitive which may indicate the owner of a thing,
the doer of action, the bearer of a state, e.g. my uncle's car, the minister's speech, my sister's illness. The
specifying genitive may be replaced if necessary by an of-phrase, e.g. the father of the boys.
The noun in the genitive case may refer to a whole class of similar objects. This kind of the genitive case is
called the classifying genitive, e.g. sheep's eyes (which means eyes of a certain kind but not the eyes of
a particular sheep), a doctor's degree, a soldier's uniform, a doll's face, an hour's walk, summer's day, etc.
Sometimes we find the use of elements "s" and "of" together. This is called a double genitive, e.g. He was
an old business client of Grandfather's (one of Grandfather's clients). She is the sister of my friend's
husband.
A noun in the genitive case may be used without a head-word. This is called the independent genitive
which is used with nouns denoting trade and relationship or with proper names. It is mainly found in
prepositional phrases, e.g. I was in the grocer's and I heard some women say it.
He asked her how she liked living at her daughter's.
I bought some sausages at the butcher's

6,8,10,12,18,22,29,30,31,36,38,40,44,48,60
31The Sentence and its Classification
The sentence is a communication unit made up of words in conformity with their combinability and
structurally united by intonation and predicativity.
There are different types of sentences. According to the structure the sentences can be divided into:
Simple and Composite.
Simple sentences are subdivided into: unextended and extended sentences.
The unextended sentence can be one-member sentence, e.g. Fire! Come on! or two-member sentence
which consists of main parts: subject and predicate, e.g. A month passed. The car stopped.
The extended sentence consists of more than two parts including the subject, the predicate, the object, the
attribute, adverbial modifiers.
e.g. The blue car stopped at the gate (blue - the attribute, at the gate - adverbial modifier).
6
Composite sentences consist of two or several simple sentences and may be divided into: Compound
Sentences and Complex Sentences
The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines and expresses a complicated act of
thought.
18 40 Syntactical: The clauses of composite sentence are joined together either by means of special
words designed for this function or without the help of such words. In the first case, the method of joining
the clauses is synthetic, i.e. conjunctional, and the composite sentence itself may be called synthetic. In the
second case the method of joining the clauses is asyndetic, i.e. non-conjunctional and so is the composite
sentence itself
Structural: There are two types of composite sentences: the compound sentence and the complex
sentence. The basic difference between these types of sentences would appear to be clear enough:
in compound sentences, the clauses of which they consist have as it were equal rights, that is none of
them is below the other in rank, they are coordinated.
in complex sentences, on the hand, the clauses are not on equal footing, the complex sentence
consisting of two clauses only, one of these is the main clause, and the other is a subordinate clause, that
is, it stands beneath the main clause in rank. There may be more than one clause and more than one
subordinate clause in a complex sentence.
The Compound sentence consists of clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions or without it.
These are very few: and, but, or, for, yet, so etc. e.g. fanboys He knew there were excuses for his
father, yet he felt sick at heart.
The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
The Complex Sentence is a poly predicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The
complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses which can be linked
by two ways:
Synthetically by means of variety conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until; a number of phrases:
as soon as, so long as, in order that etc. Besides, a certain number of conjunctive words are used: the
relative pronouns and the relative adverbs, e.g. She became convinced that some misfortune had
overtaken him.
As soon as he saw me, he asked whether the manager had returned from London.
Asyndetically without a conjunctions connective, e.g. I wish you had come earlier.
I should like him to call me up.
Complex sentences with a subordinate clause can be classified into two groups:
Attributive Clauses (Определительные придаточные предложения) and Adverbial Clauses
(Обстоятельственные придаточные предложения).
Attributive Clauses function in complex sentence as an attribute and they are presented by conjunctions,
as the relative pronouns and the relative adverbs: (who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, why).
E.g. The man who was here yesterday is a painter. I know the man whom you mean. I have found the book
that I was looking for. We remember the day when we first came to London. The vessels which arrived at
the port yesterday is very important.
8, 60,22
12Semantic: Adverbial Clauses are subdivided into the following groups:
Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while,
whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as, since.
E.g. When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were discussing the
important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Astana. I shall
stay here until you return.
Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: where, from
where, whenever.
E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate. Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where
my brother lives.
Adverbial Clauses of Cause are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because,
as, since, for, now that.
E.g. I went away because there was no one there.
As there were no porters, we had to carry the luggage ourselves. He walked quickly for he was in a great
hurry.
Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if as
though, that.
E.g. You answer as if you didn't know this rule. You ought to write as he does.
Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions:
so that, so, in order that.
E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that
he might learn his lessons.
Adverbial Clauses of Condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of conjunctions: if,
unless, in case, on condition (that), supposing/supposing (that), providing/provided (that) - (если, при
наличии, при условии), as long as. E.g. If I see him tomorrow, 1 shall ask him about it.
He won't go there unless he is invited.
He will agree to this year's budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future. 1 've made
provisions in case anything happens to me.
We '11 sign the agreement providing that vou guarantee the high quality of the goods.
12Clauses in a complex sentence may be connected with one another more closely and less closely,
similar to the parts of a simple sentence. The intensity of connection between the clauses directly reflects
the degree of their self-dependence and is therefore an essential characteristic of the complex sentence as
a whole.
10
Sentences can be classified according to the purpose of the utterance/sentence. It shows whether the
sentence is presented as a statement or a question. They are:
Declarative sentence. It states a fact in the affirmative or negative form, e.g. She was waiting for her
husband.
I still couldn 't think why I didn 't see her.
Interrogative sentence. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion.
44There are four kinds of questions:
• General questions requiring the answer "yes" or "no" and spoken with a rising intonation. (Do you like
art?)
• Special questions beginning with an interrogative word spoken with a falling intonation. (Where do you
live?)
• Alternative questions indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling
intonation in the second part. (Do you live in town or in the country?)
• Disjunctive questions requiring the answer "yes" or "no" and consisting of an affirmative statement
followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part
is spoken with falling intonation, the second - with rising. (You speak English, don'tyou?)
The imperative sentence serves to introduce a person to do something, or it expresses a command, an
order, a request or an invitation (Come to the blackboard, please).
The exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with what, how and
is spoken with a falling intonation (What a lovely day!).

38, 48 The Principal Parts of the Sentence

The subject is the principal part of the sentence, it is grammatically independent on the other parts of the
sentence and the predicate is usually dependent on it and agrees with the subject in number, person. The
subject denotes a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea.
Ways of expressing the subject: a noun in the common case; a pronoun (personal, demonstrative,
interrogative, negative); substantivized adjective or participle, e.g. The wounded were taken to the hospital;
a numeral - cardinal or ordinal, e.g. The two were my sisters. The first and the fourth stood beside him in
the water; an infinitive, e.g. To live is to work; a gerund, e.g. Her being French might upset him\ a
syntactically indivisible group of words, e.g. There is a lot of truth in that.
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It expresses an action, state, quality of person or
thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent on the subject. It usually contains a finite verb
which may express tense, mood, aspect and sometimes person and number.
There are two types of predicates according to the structure and meaning: the simple and the compound
predicate.
The simple predicate is expressed by a finite form of the verb. It generally denotes an action and
sometimes a state, e.g. I have been looking for you.
He gave Mary the local anaesthesia, when she was brought to the hospital.
The compound predicate consists of two types: a finite verb and some other part of speech - a noun, an
adjective, a pronoun, a verbal.
The first component expresses the verbal categories of number, person, tense, aspect, voice, aspect. The
compound predicate may be nominal and verbal.
The compound nominal predicate (CNP). It denotes the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by
the subject or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs, e.g. He is tired. He is a
student.
The CNP consists of a link verb and a predicative (the nominal part).
The link verb expresses grammatical categories and partly lost its original concrete meanings. The most
commonly used link verb is to be.
Besides we can name such verbs as to appear, get, turn, remain, stand, go, hold, grow, continue, feel,
look, prove, run, seem, keep. E.g. He remained silent. He got nervous.
The predicative or nominal part is expressed by:
• a noun in the common case, sometimes in the possessive case. E.g. She is a pretty child. The book is my
sister's.
• adjective - He is very unselfish.
• pronoun - It was he (him).
• a word of the category of state -I'm afraid I can't keep this man.
• numeral - I'm 45. He is the first to come.
• prepositional phrase - The things were outside his experience.
• gerund - Her favourite sport is swimming.
• infinitive - Her first thought was to go away.
• participle II, seldom PI. - She was struck by his appearance. It is distressing to tell him the truth.
• adverb - It was enough the way he said it.
The compound verbal predicate. It may be of two types according to the meaning of the finite verb: the
compound verbal modal predicate CVMP; the compound verbal aspect predicate CVAP E.g. I used to write
poetry myself when I was his age.
Mixed types of predicate.
Besides the CNP, CVAP and the CVMP, there is a type of predicate in which we have elements of 2 types
of predicates. Such predicates contain 3 components:
1. The compound modal nominal predicate: Don't think 1 mean to be unkind.
2. The compound aspect nominal predicate: I was glad that the doctor had been Chinese, and not
American. I continued to be glad for that.
3. The compound modal aspect predicate: I had to begin living all over again.
30 The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The object is the secondary part of the speech which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or
sometimes an adjective, a word denoting a noun.
There are three kinds of objects in English:
1. The direct object.
2. The indirect object.
3. The prepositional object.
The direct object is used after transitive verbs with which it is closely connected as it denotes a person or
thing directly affected by the action of the verb.
The direct object may be expressed by: the noun, the pronoun, the numeral, the gerund and the infinitive,
e.g. I have bought a book - (noun).
She met him yesterday - (pronoun).
I have read both books. I like the first better than the second - (numeral).
I remember reading about it before - (gerund).
He asked me to do it - (infinitive).
The indirect object denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. There are also cases
when it denotes a thing, e.g. He gave the boy a book.
1 showed him the letter.
The prepositional object is used with a preposition after verbs and adjectives, e.g. We spoke about our
work. He lives with the parents.
I agree with you. They listened to her sister.
He insists on doing it himself.
The attribute qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other parts of speech that have nominal characteristics.
The attribute can be either in pre-position or in post-position to the word it modifies. It can be expressed in
the sentence by: the noun, the adjective, the participle, the numeral, the pronoun, the infinitive and the
gerund, e.g. The town library is closed on Sunday - (noun).
He wrote an important article yesterday - (adjective).
She bought some illustrated magazines - (participle).
Two thousand tons of sugar were loaded on their company - (numeral).
Some books are lying on the table - (pronoun).
He had a great desire to travel - (infinitive).
They discussed different methods of teaching foreign languages - (gerund).
The Adverbial modifier is the secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an
adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifier of:
time - We shall come tomorrow.
frequency - Though they had never bothered them.
place and direction -1 found him in the garden.
manner - He spoke slowly.
degree - He has greatly changed.
cause -1 came back because of the rain.
consequence - She is fond of the child to leave it.
purpose - They opened the way for her to come to him
29
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action or state.
The categories of person and number.
There are two numbers in the verb: singular & plural and three persons: first, second and third. The second
person singular is not used in Modern English, it has been replaced by the second person plural (you
speak). Survivals of that form are found only in poetry and high prose:
The only personal inflexion of the verb in Modern English is the inflexion - s (-es) of the third person
singular in the present tense of the indicative mood.
The verb "to be" has three forms for person and number in the present indefinite: am/is/are; and two forms
of the past indefinite; singular "was" and plural "were".
In all other cases only the combination of the verb with the personal pronoun indicates the person and
number of the verb.
The categories of Tense and Aspect.
The categories of tense and aspect characterize an action from different points of view. The tense of a verb
shows the time of the action, while the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the action.
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The main divisions of time - present,
past and future, are represented in English by the three primary tenses: present, past and future. These
three tenses are expressed in two aspect forms: the common and the continuous.
The category of aspect shows whether the action is taken in its progress or development ("continuous"
aspect) or it is simply stated ("non-continuous" or "common" aspect). The common aspect: She speaks
English fluently. He came an hour ago. I will call on you tomorrow. The continuous aspect: He is working at
his English. She was writing when I came in. I will be preparing my lessons if you come at seven.
But besides these three primary tenses, the English tense system comprises three secondary tenses: the
present perfect, the past perfect and the future perfect. All these perfect tenses are also expressed in two
aspect forms: the common and the continuous. Thus, there are 16 tense-forms active and 10 tense-forms
passive in Modern English.
The category of Voice.
Voice is the grammatical category of the verb that shows the relation between the subject and the predicate
verb in the sentence. There are two voices in English: the Active and the Passive.
The Active voice indicates that the subject of the sentence acts, that it is the doer (agent) of an action: He is
writing a letter. She gives English lessons.
The Passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is acted upon, that it is the recipient of an
action: The letter is being written. English lessons are given by her sister.
The category of Mood.
Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the action denoted by the verb to
reality from the speaker's point of view. Thus the category of mood expresses modality.
There are the following moods in English:
• Direct moods: Indicative. Imperative.
• Oblique moods (косвенные): Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II, Suppositional, Conditional
If the speaker considers the fulfillment of the action or state denoted by the predicate as something real, if
he makes a statement of an existing fact, the verb is in the indicative mood: He speaks English.
If the speaker considers the fulfillment of the action only as something desirable, possible, doubtful,
depending on certain circumstances, but not as a matter of fact, the verb is in one of the oblique moods.
If he were here he would help us (conditional mood).
I suggest that we should go (suppositional mood).
The imperative mood expresses commands or request; it urges the person addressed to fulfill an action:
Open the window, please!
9
Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner form (its meaning) presents a
structure which is called the semantic structure of the word. It is known that most words convey several
concepts and possess the corresponding number of meanings. One and the same word in different
syntactical relations can develop different meanings, e.g. the verb treat in sentences:
• He treated my words as a joke.
• The book treats of poetry.
• They treated me to sweets.
• He treats his son cruelly.
In all these sentences the verb «treat» has different meanings and we can speak about polysemy.
A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and the words having one meaning are called
monosemantic these words are few in number. These are scientific terms. The bulk of English words are
polysemantic. The ability of "to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy.
Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an exceptional importance for the description of a language system
and for the solution of practical tasks connected an adequate understanding of the meaning of a word and
its use.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the proximity of notions which they
express. For example, the word blanket has the -g meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering
for keeping a horse a covering of any kind (a blanket of snow), covering all or most cases used attributively,
e.g. we can say (a blanket insurance policy).
The semantic structure of a polysemantic word can be distinguished between two levels of analysis:
On the first level the semantic structure is presented by different meaning as the main or primary meaning
stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can
be traced to the primary meaning.
E.g. in the word face the primary meaning denotes "the front part of the human head”. Connected with the
front position the meanings were formed: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part
of a playing card. Connected with front «face» itself the meanings: expression of the face, outward
appearance are formed.
The second level of analysis is determined as the semantic components within separate meaning, where
some semantic structures are arranged on different principles. In the following list of meanings of the
adjective dull one can hardly find a generalized meaning covering and holding together the rest of the
semantic structure. E.g.. Dull, adj.
a dull book, a dull film, - uninteresting, boring;
a dull pupil - stupid;
a dull weather, a dull day, a dull colour - not clear or bright;
a dull sound - not loud or distinct;
a dull knife - not sharp;
dull eyes - seeing badly;
dull ears - hearing badly.
As you see from this structure the adjective dull with the different nouns forming new word-groups like a
chain which are distinguished into separate meanings.
In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic development are combined.
18
Borrowings in the English Language

Borrowings are taken over from another language and modified in sounding, spelling, and paradigm or
meaning according to the standards of the English language. According to many linguists, the percentage
of borrowings in English is up to 70 %, and 30 % of the words are native. However, according to I.V.
Arnold, “although the mixed character of the English vocabulary belongs to word-formation and semantic
changes patterned according to the specific features of the English language system. This system
absorbed and remodelled the vast majority of loan jjgKds according to its own standards, so that it is
sometimes difficult to tell an old growing from a native word" [25, 96].
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech (through
books, newspapers, etc.). Oral borrowings took place in the early periods of history, whereas in recent
times written borrowings have gained importance.
Borrowings may be direct or indirect, i.e. through another language. For example, Latin through which
many Greek words came into the English language and French by means of which many Latin words were
borrowed.
In the first century B.C. most of the territory now known to us as Europe was occupied by the Roman
Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes, called 'barbarians' by arrogant
Romans. Theirs was really a rather primitive stage of development, compared with the high civilization of
Rome. They were primitive cattle-breeders and knew nothing about land cultivation. Their language
contains only Indo-European and Germanic elements.
After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans, these two opposing peoples came
into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new things. They
learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are no words for these products in their tribal
languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them. They also borrow the names of some fruits and
vegetables such as cherry, pear, plum, pea, beet, and pepper. The word plant is also a Latin borrowing of
this period. There were numerous scientific and artistic terms like datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy,
method, music, of which the words philosophy, phenomenon, method, music were borrowed into English
from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek.
From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian invasions
which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early Scandinavian
borrowings: call, take, cost, die, law, husband, window, ill, loose, low, and weak. Some of the words of this
group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination, e.g. sky, skill, ski,
skirt etc.
England became a bilingual country, and the impact of the French language on jhe English vocabulary is
huge. French words penetrated every aspect of social life. There is a very brief list of examples of Norman
French borrowings:
• Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power, empire.
• Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
• Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
• Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
• Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate, saucer,
diner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.
The Renaissance Period in England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by significant
developments in science, art, and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient civilizations of
Greece and Rome and their languages. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of French and are
known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, ballet, matinee, scene, bourgeois, etc.
However, they are different from Norman French borrowings in that the former have for a long time been
fully adapted to the phonetic system of the English language; the words, as table, plate, courage, chivalry,
bear no phonetic traces of their French origin.
Contemporary English is a unique mixture of many languages and this mixing has resulted in the
international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.
English has proven accommodating to words from many languages, in 17-19 centuries due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
German and other languages. Especially Italian borrowings are famous by its influence in music in all Indo-
European languages: libretto, violin, opera, operetta, alarm, piano, tenor, solo, duet, trio, basso.
Today the English language contains words from different sources. They have developed naturally over the
course of centuries from ancestral languages and they are also borrowed from other languages:
Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco, chocolate.
Portuguese: albino, palaver, verandah and coconut.
German: yacht, dog, landscape.
Irish: whiskey, phoney, trousers
Japanese: honcho, sushi, kimono and tsunami
Russian: taiga, kaftan, sable and sputnik
Arabic: mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa and zero.
Hindi: karma, khaki.
Classification of Borrowings
The borrowed words can be classified into the following groups:
• phonetic borrowings,
• translation loans,
• semantic borrowings,
• morphemic borrowings.
Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are
borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then as L.V. Adams describes: "they undergo an
assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing
language" [22, 77]. The structure and the spelling in some cases can be changed. The position of the
stress is very often influenced by the phonemic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the
word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel,
table, chair, people are phonemic borrowings from French; apparatchik, sputnik are phonemic borrowings
from Russian; bank, soprano, duet, are phonemic borrowings from Italian etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word or morpheme-for morpheme translations of some foreign words or
expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from foreign language but it is expressed by native
lexical units, "to take the bull by the horns" n), "fair sex" (French), "living space" (German) etc. There are
some translation from the languages of Indians, such as: "pipe of peace", "pale-faced"; from t
"masterpiece", "homesickness", "superman".
Semantic borrowings are units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the age is borrowed. It can
happen when we have two relative languages which common words with different meanings, e.g. there are
semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning "to live" for the word "to
dwell” which in Old English had the meaning "to wander". Let's consider another word the adjective gay
was borrowed from French in several meanings at once: “noble of birth", "bright, shining". Rather soon it
shifted its ground developing the meaning "joyful, high-spirited" in which sense it became a synonym of the
native merry and in some time left it far behind in frequency and range of meaning.
Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with
identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed
words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language. For example, we can find a lot of
Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words-hybrids in English
where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. goddess, beautiful etc.
A person who does not know English but knows French, Italian, Latin or Spanish is certain to recognize a
great number of familiar-looking and sounding when looking through an English book or listening to an
English-speaking. It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive among the world's
languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin.
Seminar Questions:
1. What is meant by the native origin of a word?
2. What are the main native elements in English?
3. What conditions stimulate the borrowing process?
4. What are the characteristic features of Scandinavian borrowings?
5. What is the influence of the French language on the English vocabulary?
6. Classification of Borrowings: Phonetic borrowings.
7. Translation loans.
8. Semantic borrowings.
9. Morphemic borrowings.

Lecture 10. Semasiology

1. The Causes of Semantic Changes.
2. Semantic Structure of English Words.
3. Semantic Structure of Compounds.
The Causes of Semantic Changes
Semasiology is the branch of Linguistics which studies the meaning of words, called semantics. The
meaning of a word can change in the course of the historical development of
language. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of
the meaning is called a lexico-semantic word- building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not
change.
The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic. By extra- linguistic causes we mean
various changes in the life of the speech community, changes in economic and social structure, scientific
concepts and other spheres of human activities as reflected in word meaning. For example, the change of
the lexical meaning of the noun «реп» was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily «реп» comes back to
the Latin word «реппа» (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to
steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called «a pen». On
the other hand causes can be linguistic it means factors acting within the language system.
The main form of linguistic cause is discrimination/differentiation of synonyms which can be illustrated by
the semantic development of a number of words. The conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a
native word is borrowed from some other languages one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.g. the
noun «tide» in Old English was polysemantic and denoted «time», «season», «hour». When the French
words «time», «season», «hour» were borrowed into English they ousted the word «tide» in these
meanings. It was specialized and now means "regular movement of sea towards and away from the
land".Semantic Structure of Compounds

The main interest semantic aspect of compound words is the question of correlation of the separate
meanings of the constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compounds. The semantic structure of
compounds can be divided into two groups: a) non-idiomatic compounds; b) idiomatic compounds.
The first groups of compounds represent meanings which can be described as the sum of their constituent
meanings. (It means that these compounds haven't changes in their meanings, it is easily to guess.). E.g.:
classroom, bedroom, raincoat, nightdress, dancing-hall, changing-room (room in a shop).
The compounds which meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent (main)
parts are called idiomatic compounds.
Idiomatic compounds can be divided into two types: a) partial (non complete) changed meaning; b) total
(complete) changed meaning. In the first type of compounds one of the components has changed its
meaning. In this type of compound words we see the process of change of meaning.
E.g.: a blackboard, a blackbird, lady-killer, chatter-box, blackberries. For example, the compound a
blackbird conveys only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features of any compound
word.
The second type of compounds it is a process of complete change of meaning or the key semantic aspect
has been lost. E.g.: a ladybird, tallboy, bluestocking, bluebottle, butter-fingers.
A ladybird is not a bird, but insect; tallboy is not a boy, but a piece of furniture; bluestocking is a person who
dedicates his life to science, bluebottle - it is not a bottle, it is an insect; butter-fingers is a clumsy person
often has accidents, because they are not careful.
So, we have regarded three groups of compounds based on different semantic meanings.
19. Definition of the phoneme and its functions. Types of allophones and main features of the phoneme.
The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds
opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
# 1 The phoneme is a functional unit. In phonetics function is usually understood as a role of the various
units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme from another, one word from another or one
utterance from another.
# 2 The phoneme is material, real and objective. In the theory of the phoneme, the phoneme is abstract,
and what you hear is the realization of the phoneme - its physical form. Phonemes can have several
different physical forms, or allophones.
# 3 The phoneme performs the recognitive function the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units
facilitates normal recognition.
The allophones which do not undergo any distinguishable changes in speech are called principal.
Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called
subsidiary, e.g.:
a. deal, did – it is slightly palatalized before front vowels
b. bad pain, bedtime – it is pronounced without any plosion
c. sudden, admit – it is pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m]
d. dry – it becomes post-alveolar followed by [r].
The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant.
Native speakers do not observe the difference between the allophones of the same phoneme. At the same
time they realize that allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of distinctive features that makes this
phoneme functionally different from all other phonemes of the language.
If an occlusive articulation is changed for a constrictive one [d] will be replaced by [z]:
e. g. breed – breeze, deal – zeal.
To extract relevant feature of the phoneme we have to oppose it to some other phoneme in the same
phonetic context.
If the opposed sounds differ in one articulatory feature and this difference brings about changes in the
meaning this feature is called relevant:
for example, port – court, [p] and [k] are consonants, occlusive, fortis;
the only difference being that [p] is labial and [t] is lingual.
2. Types of allophones and the main features of the phoneme
Let us consider the classification of phonological oppositions worked out by N.S. Trubetskoy. It is based on
the number of distinctive articulatory features underlying the opposition.
1. If the opposition is based on a single difference in the articulation of two speech sounds, it is a single
phonological opposition, e.g. [p]–[t], as in [pen]–[ten]; bilabial vs. forelingual, all the other features are the
same.
2. If the sounds in distinctive opposition have two differences in their articulation, the opposition is double
one, or a sum of two single oppositions, e.g. [p]-[d], as in [pen]-[den], 1) bilabial vs. forelingual 2) voiceless-
fortis vs. voiced-lenis
3. If there are three articulatory differences, the opposition is triple one, or a sum of three single
oppositions, e.g. [p]-[ð], as in [peɪ]-[ðeɪ]: 1) bilabial vs. forelingual, 2) occlusive vs. constrictive, 3) voiceless-
fortis vs. voiced-lenis.
N.S. Trubetskoy has also suggested the oppositions based on the relations between their members. He
distinguished:
1. Privative oppositions, one member of them is characterized by the presence and the – by the absence of
the feature, e.g. voiced – voiceless, rounded – unrounded. The member of the opposition which is
characterized by the presence of the feature is called “marked” and the member of the opposition which is
characterized by the absence of the feature is called “unmarked”. This type of oppositions is extremely
important in phonology.
2. Graded oppositions are the oppositions the members of them are characterized by the different degree
or gradation of one and the same feature, e.g. vowels – sonorants – voiced consonants. These oppositions
are comparatively rare and less important in phonology.
3. Equipollent oppositions are the oppositions both members of which are equal from the point of view of
logic, i.e. they are not the grades of a feature or they do not state or negate a feature, p – t, f – k etc.
Equipollent oppositions are the most frequent in any language.
The distributional method means to group all the sounds pronounced by native speakers into phoneme
according to the rules of phonemic and allophonic distribution.
1 Allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic context. Big-pig
2 Allophones of the same phoneme(s) never occur in the same phonetic context. down – deal – dry –
sudden.
3 The sounds both occur in a language but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them:
калоши-галоши
20. Words of native origin. Borrowings in the English Language.
Words of native origin
Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their form and meaning have changed over
time.
"Etymological theory recognizes that words originate through a limited number basic mechanisms, the
most important of which are borrowings" [4, 110].
The borrowing process is closely connected with historical events and the history of the nation
speaking the language.
Etymologically, the English vocabulary consists of native words and borrowed or loan words.
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, as known from the earliest
available manuscripts of the old English period.
The term native is used to denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to British Isles from the
continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes and the native
words represent the original stock of this particular language. All words of Anglo-Saxon origin belong to
very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, should,
would, must, can, may, pronouns: I, you, he, my, his, who, whose; prepositions: in, out, on, under etc.
The native words are further subdivided into Indo-European stock and those of common Germanic
origin.
By the Indo-European element we mean words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-
European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human
communication would be possible. The following classification was given by V.D. Arakin.
1. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter.
2. Parts of human body: foot, nose, lip, heart.
3. Animals: cow, swine, goose.
4. Plants: tree, corn.
5. Time of day: day, night.
6. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star.
7. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad.
8. The numerals from one to a hundred.
 9. Pronouns - personal, demonstrative.
The Germanic element represents words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages. Some
of the main groups of Germanic words are the same as in the Indo-European element.
1. Parts of the human body, head, back, hand, arm, finger, bone.
2. Animals: bear, fox, calf.
3. Plants: oak, fir, grass.
4. Natural phenomena: rain, frost.
5. Seasons of the year: winter, spring, summer.
6. Human dwellings and furniture: house, room, bench.
7. Adjectives: green, blue, grey, white, high, good, old.
8. Verbs: see, hear, speak, tell, say, answer, drink, give, make.

Borrowings in the English Language

Borrowings are taken over from another language and modified in sounding, spelling, and paradigm
or meaning according to the standards of the English language. According to many linguists, the
percentage of borrowings in English is up to 70 %, and 30 % of the words are native. However, according
to I.V. Arnold, “although the mixed character of the English vocabulary belongs to word-formation and
semantic changes patterned according to the specific features of the English language system. This system
absorbed and remodelled the vast majority of loan jjgKds according to its own standards, so that it is
sometimes difficult to tell an old growing from a native word" [25, 96].
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech (through
books, newspapers, etc.). Oral borrowings took place in the early periods of history, whereas in recent
times written borrowings have gained importance.
Borrowings may be direct or indirect, i.e. through another language. For example, Latin through which
many Greek words came into the English language and French by means of which many Latin words were
borrowed.
In the first century B.C. most of the territory now known to us as Europe was occupied by the Roman
Empire. Among the inhabitants of the continent were Germanic tribes, called 'barbarians' by arrogant
Romans. Theirs was really a rather primitive stage of development, compared with the high civilization of
Rome. They were primitive cattle-breeders and knew nothing about land cultivation. Their language
contains only Indo-European and Germanic elements.
After a number of wars between the Germanic tribes and the Romans, these two opposing peoples
came into peaceful contact. Trade is carried on, and the Germanic people gain knowledge of new things.
They learn how to make butter and cheese and, as there are no words for these products in their tribal
languages, they are to use the Latin words to name them. They also borrow the names of some fruits and
vegetables such as cherry, pear, plum, pea, beet, and pepper. The word plant is also a Latin borrowing of
this period. There were numerous scientific and artistic terms like datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy,
method, music, of which the words philosophy, phenomenon, method, music were borrowed into English
from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek.
From the end of the 8th c. to the middle of the 11th c. England underwent several Scandinavian
invasions which inevitably left their trace on English vocabulary. Here are some examples of early
Scandinavian borrowings: call, take, cost, die, law, husband, window, ill, loose, low, and weak. Some of the
words of this group are easily recognizable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination, e.g.
sky, skill, ski, skirt etc.
England became a bilingual country, and the impact of the French language on jhe English
vocabulary is huge. French words penetrated every aspect of social life. There is a very brief list of
examples of Norman French borrowings:
• Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power, empire.
 Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison.
 Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy.
 Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil.
 Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate,
saucer, diner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.
The Renaissance Period in England, as in all European countries, this period was marked by
significant developments in science, art, and culture and, also, by a revival of interest in the ancient
civilizations of Greece and Rome and their languages. This time they came from the Parisian dialect of
French and are known as Parisian borrowings. Examples: regime, routine, police, ballet, matinee, scene,
bourgeois, etc. However, they are different from Norman French borrowings in that the former have for a
long time been fully adapted to the phonetic system of the English language; the words, as table, plate,
courage, chivalry, bear no phonetic traces of their French origin.
Contemporary English is a unique mixture of many languages and this mixing has resulted in the
international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.
English has proven accommodating to words from many languages, in 17-19 centuries due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
German and other languages. Especially Italian borrowings are famous by its influence in music in all Indo-
European languages: libretto, violin, opera, operetta, alarm, piano, tenor, solo, duet, trio, basso.
Today the English language contains words from different sources. They have developed naturally
over the course of centuries from ancestral languages and they are also borrowed from other languages:
Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco, chocolate.
Portuguese: albino, palaver, verandah and coconut.
German: yacht, dog, landscape.
Irish: whiskey, phoney, trousers
Japanese: honcho, sushi, kimono and tsunami
Russian: taiga, kaftan, sable and sputnik
Arabic: mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa and zero.
Hindi: karma, khaki.

Classification of Borrowings
The borrowed words can be classified into the following groups:
 phonetic borrowings,
 translation loans,
 semantic borrowings,
 morphemic borrowings.
Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper.
Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning. Then as L.V. Adams describes: "they
undergo an assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the
borrowing language" [22, 77]. The structure and the spelling in some cases can be changed. The position
of the stress is very often influenced by the phonemic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of
the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour,
travel, table, chair, people are phonemic borrowings from French; apparatchik, sputnik are phonemic
borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet, are phonemic borrowings from Italian etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word or morpheme-for morpheme translations of some foreign words
or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from foreign language but it is expressed by native
lexical units, "to take the bull by the horns" n), "fair sex" (French), "living space" (German) etc. There are
some translation from the languages of Indians, such as: "pipe of peace", "pale-faced"; from t
"masterpiece", "homesickness", "superman".
Semantic borrowings are units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the age is borrowed. It can
happen when we have two relative languages which common words with different meanings, e.g. there are
semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning "to live" for the word "to
dwell” which in Old English had the meaning "to wander". Let's consider another word the adjective gay
was borrowed from French in several meanings at once: “noble of birth", "bright, shining". Rather soon it
shifted its ground developing the meaning "joyful, high-spirited" in which sense it became a synonym of the
native merry and in some time left it far behind in frequency and range of meaning.
Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with
identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed
words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language. For example, we can find a lot of
Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words-hybrids in English
where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. goddess, beautiful etc.
A person who does not know English but knows French, Italian, Latin or Spanish is certain to
recognize a great number of familiar-looking and sounding when looking through an English book or
listening to an English-speaking. It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive
among the world's languages, contains an immense number of words of foreign origin.

21. Name and characterize the principal Productive Ways of Word-building.

Affixation
 Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It
consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and
prefixation.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. The main function of suffixes in Modern
English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning
of the same part of speech, (e.g. educate is a verb, education is a noun and music is a noun, musician is
also a noun, musical is an adjective). There are different classifications of suffixes:
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech fall into several
groups:
 noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism {ageism),
 adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able {breathable), less {symptomless), -ous (prestigious);
 verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize {computerize), -fy (satisfy)',
 adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (eastward)-,
 numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into
groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
 the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student) -,
 nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English)-,
 collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom, kingdom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership, membership), -ati
(literati);
 diminutiveness, e.g. -ette (kitchenette), -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling);
 quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of
stems are subdivided into:
 suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -ment
(involvement), -ation (<computerization);
 suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), fill (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -
ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish);
 suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness
(clannishness).
4. Origin of suffixes. From the point of view of their etymology suffixes can be subdivided into two
main classes: native and borrowed suffixes:
 native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly (worker, careful, sleepless, lonely).
 Romanic, such as: -tion, -ent, -able, -eer (relation, absent, comfortable, career).
 Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize. (specialist, socialism, criticize).
 French, such as: -ance, -ence, -ment, -ess, -ous (arrogance, experiment, village, actress,
curious).
5. Productivity of derivational suffixes. It means the ability of being used to form new, occasional
or potential words. They can be the following groups: a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, -ly, -ness (teacher,
realize, ugly, coldness). c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length), -hood (childhood).
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English prefixes are
more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they
are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional
words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional
words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) -
(over the table), over- (overcome) - (over the door).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
Semantic classification. Semantically prefixes can be divided into monosemantic i.e. the prefix has
only one meaning, e.g. ex-boxer, ex-boyfriend and polysemantic i.e. the prefix -dis has several meanings:
(not) in (disadvantage); reversal or absence of an action or state in words (diseconomy, disaffirm); removal
in the word (to disbranch).
According to their denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
 prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree), dis-
(disconnect), mis- (misname), il- (illegal)-,
 prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation, rewrite)
etc.;
 prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter- (interplanetary), hyper- (hypertension),
ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging).
 Origin of prefixes:
 native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- (undressed, overcome, underwear)-,
 Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re- (inhumane, decentralize, exchange, reappear)-,
 Greek, such as: hyper- (hyperactive, hypertension) etc.
When we analyze such words as: adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb,
company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in
English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them
as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words.
Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain, detain and conceive,
receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con- act as prefixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as
roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-
morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones. There are some
prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after- in the word afternoon.
American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British
lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.

Word-Composition
Word-Composition or compounding is one of the productive ways of word- building when a new word
is formed by joining two or more stems. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units that are
structurally and semantically based on the relationship between their components through which they are
motivated. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon:
 The unity of stress where compounds have three stress patterns: a) a high or uniting stress on
the first component, e.g. hard-cover, best-seller, catnap, doorway, b) a double stress with the main stress
on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel, washing-
machine, c) the third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white, sky-blue, arm-chair.
• Solid or hyphenated spelling, most compounds have two types of spelling written either solidly or
with a hyphen, e.g. heartbreak, keyhole, highway, bookshop, father-in-law, part-time, baby-sitter, bank-
manager.
 The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic
compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to
ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such
cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its
components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain. In non idiomatic compounds semantic unity is not
strong, e.g., airbus, to download, astrodynamics etc.
 Unity of morphological and syntactical functioning are used in a sentence as one part of it and
only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a
predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.
There are two characteristic features of English compounds:
 both components in English compounds are free stems, that is they can be used as words
with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. a
green-house and a green house.
 English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which
have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road (adj.) off-the-record, up-and-doing, up-and-
coming (adj.), down-and-out (n.) etc. The two- stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German
ones.

Classifications of English Compounds

1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

 nouns, such as: baby-moon, table-lamp, table-spoon, bookshop, reading-room;
 adjectives, such as: first-class, power-happy, down-market; dark-blue, red-hot,
 verbs, such as: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck; to broadcast',
 adverbs, such as: downdeep, somewhere, everywhere, nowhere, headfirst;
 prepositions, such as: into, within;
 numerals, such as: fifty-five, twenty-six;
 pronouns, such as: everyone, somebody, someone, nobody, nothing.
According to the way of components joined together compounds are divided into:
 morphological compounds where components are joined by linking element: vowels «о» or «г» or
the consonant <«», e.g. astrospace, handicraft, sportsman;
  syntactical compounds where the components are joined by means of form-word stems with the
help of linking elements represented by prepositions or conjunctions, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, hide-
and-seek; do-or-die .
According to the structure compounds are subdivided into:
 neutral or compounds proper which are formed by combining together two stems without any joining
morpheme, e.g. ball-point, bedroom, sunflower, girlfriend;
 derivational compounds have affixes in their structure, e.g. ear-minded, newcomer, story-teller,
long-legged, blue-eyed;
 compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower-blue, eggshell- thin, marry-go-
round, singer-songwriter;
 compound-shortened words have a shortened stem in their structure, e.g. Eurodollar, tourmobile,
motocross. There are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation
with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, compare the letter U standing for
upper classes in such combinations as U-pronunciation, U-language and other examples, V-day (victory
day), E-Day (entrance day), H-way, (high way) etc.

CONVERSION
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. The term "conversion" first
appeared in the book by Henry Sweet "New English Grammar" in 1891. Conversion is treated differently
by different scientists.
Professor A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when "one part
of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm" [15, 58], e.g. to form the verb to
dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb
(I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing). Prof. H. Marchand in his book "The Categories and Types of Present-day
English" treats conversion as "a morphological-syntactical word- building" [37, 124 ] because we have not
only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good
paper for my room. (The noun paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb
paper is the predicate in the sentence).
Conversion is highly productive way in the English word-stock. Conversion consists in making a new
word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the
original word remaining unchanged, e.g. nurse - to nurse, hand - to hand, face - to face. The new word
made from conversion has a different meaning from that of the word from which it was produced though
the two meanings can be associated.
The converted word acquires also a new paradigm and a new syntactic function, which are peculiar to
its new category as a part of speech, e.g. paper - to paper, work - to work.
The main varieties of conversion can be presented as:
 Verbalization (the formation of verbs), e.g. to ape (from ape n.);
 Substantivization (the formation of nouns), e.g. a private (from private adj.);
 Adjectivation (the formation of adjectives), e.g. down adj. (from down adv.);
 Adverbalization (the formation of adverbs), e.g. home adv. (from home n.).
The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. In the
group of verbs made from nouns there are some regular semantic associations. Verbs can be formed from
nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings. They are indicated in the following list:
 verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body,
e.g. to eye (разглядвать), to finger (трогать), to elbow (толкать локтем), to shoulder
(взвалить на плечо) etc.
 verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines,
instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail
 verbs can denote an action characteristic of the animal denoted by the noun from which they have
been converted, e.g. to dog, to wolf, to ape, to monkey.
 verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation (лишение) if they are formed from nouns
denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,
 verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket,
 verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted e.g. to winter, to week-end.
 verbs can denote the process of taking a meal denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted e.g. to lunch, to dinner, to supper.
The suggested groups do not include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion.
 Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g.
to pale, to cool, to clean, to slim etc.
Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:
 instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move,
 process or state e.g. sleep, walk,
 agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a
help, a flirt, a scold,
 object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted,
e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase,
 place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a
drive, a stop, a walk.
Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the singular form and denote momentary
actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as:
to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim.

Shortening (Abbreviation)
In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening
can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In
Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is
increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time.
There are also linguistic causes of shortening words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm,
which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated
in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin
borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.
Shortening of words consists in substituting a part for a whole.
An abbreviation came from Latin word "brevis", meaning "short" it is a shortened form of a word or
phrase. Usually the word "abbreviation" can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr. or abbrev.
Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more
common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly hsiag
used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, die reduction of words to
single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. The standardization of English in the 15th through
17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation.
Generally the three subgroups of abbreviation are regarded: Graphical, Initial and Lexical.
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written
speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and
effort in writing.
The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In these abbreviations Latin
words are shortened in the spelling, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in
the full form, for example, Latin - a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No - number (numero), p.a. - a
year (per annum), d- penny (dinarius), lb - pound (libra), i. e. - that is (id est) etc.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts,
e.g. p.m. can be pronounced "in the afternoon" (post meridiem) and "after death" (post mortem).
There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of
words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. The graphical
abbreviations are words which are shortened into two, three or four letters. We have several semantic
groups of them:
 days of the week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue - Tuesday, Sat - Saturday;
 names of months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug - August;
 names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks - Berkshire;
 names of states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, CO - Colorado, Alas - Alaska;
 names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.;
 military ranks, e.g. capt. - captain, col. - colonel, etc.
Abbreviation is also achieved by omission of letters from one or more parts of the whole, for example,
cdr for commander, doz or dz for dozen, ltd for limited. Scientific degrees: B.A. - Bachelor of Arts, D.M. -
Doctor of Medicine.
There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, "kilometer" is
abbreviated as km and not as (k.m). However, "miles per hour" can be shortened by the acronym m.p.h. or,
increasingly common, mph.
Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they
appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations
because orally full forms are used, e.g. J. V. (Joint Venture). When they are used for some duration of time
they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC
(British Broadcast Corporation) is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.
Initialisms are the way of making the new words from the initial letters of the word-group,- e.g. www
(world wide web).
Initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called
acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System), CD-ROM (compact
disc read-only memory).
Acronymy is the formation of a word from initial letters of a word combination. There are two basic
types of acronyms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, NHS (The National Health Service), FDA (The
Food and Drug Administration) etc.
b) initialisms which are read as ordinary English words, e.g. UNESCO (the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), SOS, NATO.
Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where
either the lexical meaning or the style is different from the full form of the word. In such cases as fantasy
and fancy, fence and defence we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we
have different styles.
Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the
end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the
lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of
words, such as disco (discotheque), expo (exposition), exam (examination) com (computer) and many
others. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have aphaeresis, e.g. chute
(parachute), phone (telephone), copter (helicopter), net (internet) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is
clipped, e.g. mart (market), maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope.
Abbreviation does not change the parts-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion
or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same parts of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof, is a
noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation
of verbs, such as to rev. from to revolve, to tab. from to tabulate etc.

22. Characterize conditional adverbial clauses. Give examples.

Adverb clauses of condition are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions if, whether, provided
that, so long as and unless.

 If I like it, I will buy it.

 If you heat ice, it melts.
 If it rains, we will stay at home.
 You may come, if you want to.
 You won’t pass unless you work hard.
 You will be shot unless you give me the keys of the locker.
 There will be no problem provided that you keep your mouth shut.
 You will have to take the medicine whether you like it or not.

You may have noticed that the adverb clause of condition gives the circumstances under which the action
in the main clause will take place.

Omission of if

Sometimes the conjunction if is omitted.

 Were the child mine, I would have taken it to a doctor. (= If the child were mine, I would have taken
it to a doctor.)
 Should you meet my brother, tell him that I have gone to the railway station. (= If you meet my
brother, tell him that I have gone to the railway station.)

Clauses of condition are sometimes introduced by a relative pronoun, or adjective or adverb.

  Whatever happens keep calm.
 However cleverly you may cheat, you will ultimately get caught.

Adverbial Clauses of Condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of conjunctions: if,
unless, in case, on condition (that), supposing/supposing (that), providing/provided (that) - (если, при
наличии, при условии), as long as. E.g. If I see him tomorrow, 1 shall ask him about it.

He won't go there unless he is invited.

He will agree to this year's budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future. 1 've made
provisions in case anything happens to me.

23. Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units

Syntactical Classification of Phraseological Units

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold.
Here we have the following groups:

-noun-phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g., a dog's life, a big shot, redbrick
university, Green Beret;

-verb-phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log¬jam, to rain cats and
dogs, to be on the beam, to nose out, to make headlines;

-adjective-phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, safe and sound, as thin as a rail, high
and mighty;

-adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream, like a dog with two tails;

-preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of,

-inteijection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me!, Well, I never! Take it easy, etc.

In I.V.Arnold's classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quotations, e.g.
The sky is the limit, What makes him tick, I am easy.

The classification system of phraseological units suggested by professor A.V. Koonin is the latest
outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. This classification is based on the
combined structural-semantic principle and subdivided into four classes.

-Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful
word: wear and tear, well and good.

-Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of the type: to break the ice - the ice
is broken, that is, verbal word-groups are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive
Voice.

Phraseological units include interjectional word-groups.

Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings. These four classes are
divided into sub-groups according to the type of structure of the phraseological units.

The classification system includes a considerable number of subtypes and gradations and objectively
reflects the wealth of types of phraseological units existing in the language. It is based on scientific and
modern criteria and represents an earnest attempt to take into account all the relevant aspects of
phraseological units and combine them within the borders of one classification system.
24. Differentiate the complete classification of the following words

25. Characterize Relative and Qualitative adjectives

Relative and Qualitative adjectives

All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative.
Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation
of the substance to some other substance. E.g.: wood— a wooden hut; mathematics — mathematical
precision; history — a historical event; table — tabular presentation; colour — coloured postcards; surgery
— surgical treatment; the Middle Ages — mediaeval rites.
The nature of this "relationship" in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations. Cf.; a
wooden hut — a hut made of wood; a historical event — an event referring to a certain period of history;
surgical treatment — treatment consisting in the implementation of surgery; etc.
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which
admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative measure. The measure of
a quality can be estimated as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or
excessive. Cf.: an awkward situation — a very awkward situation; a difficult task — too difficult a task; an
enthusiastic reception — rather an enthusiastic reception; a hearty welcome — not a very hearty welcome;
etc.

26. Types and cases of Conversion

CONVERSION
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. The term "conversion" first
appeared in the book by Henry Sweet "New English Grammar" in 1891. Conversion is treated differently
by different scientists.
Professor A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when "one part
of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm" [15, 58], e.g. to form the verb to
dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb
(I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing). Prof. H. Marchand in his book "The Categories and Types of Present-day
English" treats conversion as "a morphological-syntactical word- building" [37, 124 ] because we have not
only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good
paper for my room. (The noun paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb
paper is the predicate in the sentence).
Conversion is highly productive way in the English word-stock. Conversion consists in making a new
word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the
original word remaining unchanged, e.g. nurse - to nurse, hand - to hand, face - to face. The new word
made from conversion has a different meaning from that of the word from which it was produced though
the two meanings can be associated.
The converted word acquires also a new paradigm and a new syntactic function, which are peculiar to
its new category as a part of speech, e.g. paper - to paper, work - to work.
The main varieties of conversion can be presented as:
 Verbalization (the formation of verbs), e.g. to ape (from ape n.);
 Substantivization (the formation of nouns), e.g. a private (from private adj.);
 Adjectivation (the formation of adjectives), e.g. down adj. (from down adv.);
 Adverbalization (the formation of adverbs), e.g. home adv. (from home n.).
The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. In the
group of verbs made from nouns there are some regular semantic associations. Verbs can be formed from
nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings. They are indicated in the following list:
 verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body,
e.g. to eye (разглядвать), to finger (трогать), to elbow (толкать локтем), to shoulder
(взвалить на плечо) etc.
 verbs have an instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines,
instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail
 verbs can denote an action characteristic of the animal denoted by the noun from which they have
been converted, e.g. to dog, to wolf, to ape, to monkey.
 verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation (лишение) if they are formed from nouns
denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,
  verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket,
 verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted e.g. to winter, to week-end.
 verbs can denote the process of taking a meal denoted by the noun from which they have been
converted e.g. to lunch, to dinner, to supper.
The suggested groups do not include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion.
Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g.
to pale, to cool, to clean, to slim etc.
Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote:
 instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move,
 process or state e.g. sleep, walk,
 agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a
help, a flirt, a scold,
 object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted,
e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase,
 place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a
drive, a stop, a walk.
Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the singular form and denote momentary
actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as:
to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim.

27. Principal Non-productive ways of Word-building

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form new words
which are differentiated due to alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. This process is not
active in Modern English but it was productive in Old English.
In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. By means of vowel interchange we
distinguish different parts of speech: full-to fill, food- to feed, blood - to bleed. In some cases vowel
interchange is combined with affixation: long - length, strong - strength, nature — natural.
In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants
because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the
intervocal position which made it voiced. It has made the distinctive feature of a noun and a verb. There is
a long series of verbs and nouns and also some adjectives differing in this way. Observe for example, the
opposition of voiced and unvoiced consonants in the following: to advise - advice, to bathe - bath, to live -
life, to breathe - breath, to prove-proof etc.
There are some particular cases of consonant interchange: [k] - [tj] - to speak - speech, to break -
breach; [s ]-[d] - defence - to defend, offence - to offend; [s ]-[t] - evidence - evident, importance -
important.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns. Many English verbs of Latin, French
origin are distinguished from the corresponding nouns by the position of stress: nouns have the stress on
the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. "accent - to ac 'cent, 'conflict - to con 'flict, 'export - to
ex 'port, 'extract - to ex tract, present - to pre 'sent etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also
vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed
positions.
In Reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any changes as in bye-bye
or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping- pong, tip-top, chit-chat. Most words made by
reduplication represent informal groups: slang and colloquialisms, e.g. walkie-talkie (a portable radio), riff-
raff (the worthless or disreputable element of society).
Sound imitation or onomatopoeia |ˌɒnə(ʊ)mætəˈpiːə| is the naming of an action or thing by more or
less reproduction of sounds. It is a way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different
sounds. Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words fall into a few definite
groups:
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to
whistle;
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, e.g. dogs - bark, cows - moo, frogs - croak, cats - mew
or miaow, ducks - quack, bee - buzz;
c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-
dong, to tinkle etc. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell),
chatter (of children) etc.
 Blendings are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-
building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first
component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (aphaeresis). As a result we have a
compound- shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word «smog» from two synonyms:
smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from
the second one the end, «о» is common for both of them. Another example of combining two words:
brunch is a meal you eat in the late morning that combines brealtfast and lunch. Mostly blends are formed
from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel,
canal), dramedy (drama comedy), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information
commercial), magalog (magazine catalogue), sociolite (social elite), fanzine (fan magazine).
The new edition of the Macmillan English Dictionary gives the new words building by means of
blends: chicklit is combined from two words (chicken and literature) which is used in informal speech with
the meaning - (novels written for, about, or by young educated women); the new word uptalk means the
tendency to make voice rise at the end of sentences so that statements sound like questions this blend is
formed from two words (upper talking).
Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme
to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in
the language as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains this
mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English
to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So
when the French word «beggar» was borrowed into English the final syllable «аг» was pronounced in the
same way as the gjjgjjsh -er and Englishmen formed the verb «to beg» by dropping the end of the noun.
Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to hock (from bachelor), to
collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), compute (from computer), to emote (from
emotion) to reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television) etc.
As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is
changed, verbs are formed from nouns.
28.Classification of morphemes.

Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They can be divided into two groups:
 lexical or root morphemes
 grammatical or functional morphemes.

Lexical or root morphemes are those that carry the main meaning of a word. They can be either free or
bound.
 Free lexical morphemes are independent words that can stand alone and have meaning by themselves,
such as "dog," "book," "room," "house," and "ball."
 Bound lexical morphemes are affixes that are attached to a root to create a new word or change its
meaning, such as prefixes (dis- in "disabled," un- in "unnatural"), suffixes (-ish in "girlish," -ship in
"friendship"), and blocked root morphemes (Fri- in "Friday," cran- in "cranberry").

Semi-bound or semi-free morphemes are those that can function both as affixes and as free morphemes.
Examples of semi-bound morphemes include "well" (as in "sleep well" and "well-known") and "half" (as in
"half an hour" and "half-done").

Grammatical or functional morphemes, on the other hand, do not carry the main meaning of a word, but
they serve a grammatical function in a sentence. They can also be either free or bound.
 Free grammatical morphemes include function words such as articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (but,
and), and prepositions (under, on, in).
 Bound grammatical morphemes are inflections or endings that are added to a word to indicate its
grammatical function or to show tense, number, or comparative degree. Examples of bound
grammatical morphemes include -s (for plural nouns), -ed (for the past tense of regular verbs), -ing (for
the present participle), and -er (for the comparative degree of adjectives).

29.The Grammatical Categories of the Verbs

Verbs are an essential part of language and are used to express actions, events, or states. They are
typically defined by their ability to inflect for person and number, tense and aspect, mood, voice

Person and number:

 The verb has two numbers: singular and plural, and three persons: first, second, and third. The second
person singular is not used in Modern English, while the third person singular in the present tense of the
indicative mood is inflected with -s or -es. The verb "to be" has three forms for person and number in
the present indefinite and two forms in the past indefinite. In all other cases, the combination of the verb
with the personal pronoun indicates the person and number of the verb.

Tense and action:

Tense indicates the time of the action, while aspect deals with the development of the action. The three
primary tenses in English are present, past, and future, and these are expressed in two aspect forms:
common and continuous. There are also three secondary tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect, each with a common and continuous aspect. English has 16 active tense-forms and 10
passive tense-forms.

Voice:
Voice is the grammatical category that shows the relation between the subject and the predicate verb in
the sentence. English has two voices: active and passive. The active voice indicates that the subject of
the sentence acts, while the passive voice indicates that the subject of the sentence is acted upon. The
passive voice is built up by means of the auxiliary verb "to be" in the required tense-aspect form and the
particle of the notional verb. The interrogative form is built up by placing the auxiliary verb before the
subject, and the negative form is built up by placing the particle "not" after the auxiliary verb.

Mood:
Mood is a grammatical category of verbs in English that expresses modality and reflects the speaker's
relation to the action. There are two types of moods: direct (indicative and imperative) and oblique
(subjunctive I, subjunctive II, suppositional, and conditional). The indicative mood is used to express
real facts, while the oblique moods are used to indicate desirable or possible actions, depending on the
circumstances. The imperative mood is used to express commands or requests. The scholar M. Blokh
believes that the imperative is a variety of the subjunctive mood, which expresses attitudes. Some
linguists disagree on the number of moods in English, with some recognizing six moods and others only
three.

30. The Secondary Parts of the Sentence

The object is a secondary part of speech that completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or noun.
There are three types of objects in English:
direct, indirect, and prepositional.
The direct object is used after transitive verbs to denote a person or thing directly affected by the action
of the verb. It can be expressed by a noun, pronoun, numeral, gerund, or infinitive.
 e.g. I have bought a book – (noun). She met him yesterday – (pronoun).
 I have read both books. I like the first better than the second – (numeral).
 I remember reading about it before – (gerund).
 He asked me to do it – (infinitive).

The indirect object denotes a living being to whom the action of the verb is directed. There are also
cases when it denotes a thing.
e.g. He gave the boy a book. I showed him the letter.

The prepositional object is used with a preposition after verbs and adjectives. e.g. We spoke about our
work. He lives with the parents.

The attribute qualifies a noun, pronoun, or any other parts of speech that have nominal characteristics.
It can be expressed in pre-position or post-position by a noun, adjective, participle, numeral, pronoun,
infinitive, or gerund.
 The town library is closed on Sunday – (noun).
 He wrote an important article yesterday – (adjective).
 She bought some illustrated magazines – (participle).
 Two thousand tons of sugar were loaded on their company – (numeral).
 Some books are lying on the table – (pronoun).
 He had a great desire to travel – (infinitive).
 They discussed different methods of teaching foreign languages – (gerund)

The Adverbial modifier is the secondary part of the sentence which modifies a
verb, an adjective or an adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the
following kinds of adverbial modifier of:
  time – We shall come tomorrow.
  frequency – Though they had never bothered them.
  place and direction – I found him in the garden.
  manner – He spoke slowly.
  degree – He has greatly changed.
  cause – I came back because of the rain.
  consequence – She is fond of the child to leave it.
  purpose – They opened the way for her to come to him

31.The Sentence and its Classification

There are different types of sentences based on their structure, including simple and composite
sentences.
Simple sentences are subdivided into: unextended and extended sentences. Unextended sentence
consist of either one-member sentences such as "Fire!" or two-member sentences with a subject and a
predicate such as "The car stopped."

Extended sentences consist of more than two parts, including the subject, predicate, object, attribute,
and adverbial modifiers. For example, "The blue car stopped at the gate" has the attribute "blue" and
the adverbial modifier "at the gate."

Composite sentences consist of two or more simple sentences and can be further divided into
compound and complex sentences. Compound sentences consist of two or more independent
clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction such as "and," "but," or "or." Complex sentences, on the
other hand, contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, which are introduced
by subordinating conjunctions such as "because," "since," or "although."

Sentences can also be classified according to their purpose, which indicates whether the sentence is
presented as a statement or a question.

Declarative sentences state a fact in the affirmative or negative form,

Interrogative sentences ask a question and are formed by means of inversion. Interrogative
sentences can be divided into
 general questions, (Do you like art?)
 special questions, (Where do you live?)
 alternative questions, (Do you live in town or in the country?)
 and disjunctive questions. (You speak English, don’t you?)

Imperative sentences introduce a person to do something or express a command, an order, a request,

or an invitation,

Exclamatory sentences express some kind of emotion or feeling and often begin with "what" or "how"
and are spoken with a falling intonation.

32.Semasiology

Semasiology is a branch of Linguistics that studies the meaning of words, or semantics. The meaning of
a word can change over time, which is proven by comparing different contexts. These changes can be
caused by extra-linguistic factors, like changes in society or scientific concepts, or by linguistic factors,
like the differentiation of synonyms. For example, the word "pen" originally meant "feather of a bird" in
Latin. As people began to write with steel pens, the meaning of the word changed to include all writing
instruments. Similarly, the word "tide" used to have multiple meanings in Old English, but when French
 words for "time," "season," and "hour" were borrowed into English, they specialized the meaning of
"tide" to refer only to the movement of the sea.

33.The Classifications of Antonyms.

Antonyms can be classified into two main groups: absolute/root antonyms and derivational antonyms.

Absolute/root antonyms can be further subdivided into three categories:

 Proper antonyms: where the opposition is gradual, with several elements characterized by different
degrees of the same property. Examples include cold-cool-warm-hot or large-little-small.

 Complementarity antonyms: a binary opposition with only two members, where the denial of one
member implies the assertion of the other. Examples include dead-alive, single-married, and male-
female.

 Converses: denote one referent from different points of view. Examples include sell-buy and give-
receive.

Antonyms are classified into absolute and derivational types.

Absolute antonyms have different roots, while derivational antonyms have the same roots with different
affixes.
Late - Early
Old - Young
Cold - Hot

Derivational antonyms have the same roots as the original word but have different affixes. They are
typically formed using negative prefixes (e.g., im-, il-, in-, ir-, un-, dis-, non-) or suffixes (-ful and -less).
Examples include
experienced-inexperienced,
logical-illogical, and
convenient-inconvenient.

The difference between the two types of antonyms is not just in their structure, but also in their
semantics. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions, while absolute antonyms express
contrary notions and can be grouped into more than two members.

Lipka gives a type of antonyms called "directional opposition," which is based on opposite motion in
different directions. Examples include
come/go and up/down.

34. Analyze the following phraseological units according to their meanings, structure, syntactical
function and the way they are formed
to get into a jam: to encounter a difficult situation; to experience trouble or difficulty.
Structure: preposition + verb + preposition + noun
Syntactical function: verb phrase
Example: She got into a jam when she missed her flight.
Russian equivalent: попасть в беду

to stick your neck out: to take a risk; to do something that may cause problems or criticism.
Structure: verb phrase
Syntactical function: verb phrase
Example: He really stuck his neck out when he invested all his money in that company.
Russian equivalent: пойти на риск

to be behind the scenes: to work secretly or out of public view; to be involved in the background of an event
or situation.
Structure: preposition + noun
Syntactical function: adjective phrase
Example: The real decision makers are often behind the scenes, not in the public eye.
Russian equivalent: быть за кулисами

to be under someone’s thumb: to be controlled by someone else; to be submissive to another person’s

authority or influence.
Structure: preposition + noun
Syntactical function: adjective phrase
Example: He can never make a decision without asking his boss because he’s always under her thumb.

Russian equivalent: быть под контролем кого-то

to lend someone a hand: to help someone; to offer assistance to another person.
Structure: verb + noun + preposition + noun
Syntactical function: verb phrase
Example: Can you lend me a hand with these boxes?
Russian equivalent: помочь кому-то

to pay through the nose: to pay a lot of money for something; to pay more than something is worth.
Structure: verb + preposition + noun
Syntactical function: verb phrase
Example: I had to pay through the nose for that concert ticket.
Russian equivalent: переплачивать за что-то

to jump out of one’s skin: to be very frightened or surprised; to react with extreme shock or fear.
Structure: verb + preposition + possessive pronoun + noun
Syntactical function: verb phrase
Example: I nearly jumped out of my skin when I saw the spider on the wall.
Russian equivalent: испугаться до смерти

as smart as paint: very neat and tidy; well-dressed and stylish.

Structure: adjective phrase
Syntactical function: adjective phrase
Example: He always looks as smart as paint in his suit and tie.
Russian equivalent: очень аккуратный и стильный

it’s my cup of tea: something one enjoys or is interested in; a personal preference or taste.
Structure: pronoun + verb + possessive pronoun + noun
Syntactical function: noun phrase
Example: I’m not really into sports, but watching movies is definitely my cup of tea.
Russian equivalent: мое хобби

to be in the dog house: to be in trouble; to be in a situation where one is not liked or respected.
Structure: preposition + noun
Syntactical function: adjective phrase
Example: He’s been in the dog house ever since he forgot his wife’s birthday.
Russian equivalent: быть в немилости

the green power: environmentalism; the movement to protect the environment and conserve natural
resources.
Structure: adjective + noun
Syntactical function: noun phrase
Example: Many people are becoming more aware of the importance of the green power
Russian equivalent: экологическое движение

Green Berets - a US Army special forces unit that specializes in unconventional warfare and counter-
insurgency operations. The phrase is a proper noun and refers to a specific military unit.

To get off one's back - to stop bothering or annoying someone. The structure is a verb phrase consisting of
a preposition, a possessive pronoun, and a noun. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

A home bird - a person who prefers to stay at home instead of going out. The structure is a noun phrase,
consisting of an adjective and a noun. It functions as a subject, object or complement in a sentence.

A cat nap - a short sleep during the day. The structure is a noun phrase, consisting of an animal noun and a
verb that describes the action of the noun. It functions as a subject, object or complement in a sentence.

Bosom friends - close friends who share a deep and personal relationship. The structure is a noun phrase,
consisting of an adjective and a noun. It functions as a subject, object or complement in a sentence.

Bitter truth - a harsh or unpleasant truth. The structure is a noun phrase, consisting of an adjective and a
noun. It functions as a subject, object or complement in a sentence.

To ride the high horse - to behave arrogantly or haughtily. The structure is a verb phrase consisting of a
verb and a noun phrase. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

To live from hand to mouth - to live with only the bare necessities and not save any money for the future.
The structure is a verb phrase consisting of two prepositional phrases. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

Nuts and bolts - basic and essential details or practical aspects of something. The structure is a noun
phrase, consisting of two nouns connected by a conjunction. It functions as a subject, object or complement
in a sentence.

To leap into marriage - to get married quickly or without much thought. The structure is a verb phrase
consisting of a verb and a prepositional phrase. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

To nose out - to discover something through careful searching or investigation. The structure is a phrasal
verb consisting of a verb and a particle. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

Berlin wall - a barrier that divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. The phrase is a proper noun and refers to a
specific historical event.

To fill in something - to complete a form or provide missing information. The structure is a verb phrase
consisting of a verb and a preposition. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

A close mouth catches no flies - keeping silent can prevent trouble or difficulty. The structure is a proverb
consisting of a subject and a verb. It functions as a complete sentence.

Rain cats and dogs - to rain heavily. The structure is an idiom consisting of a verb and a noun phrase. It
functions as a complete sentence.

To take the bull by the horns - to deal with a difficult or dangerous situation in a direct and forceful way. The
structure is an idiom consisting of a verb phrase and a noun phrase. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

A big bug - an important or influential person. The structure is a noun phrase consisting of two adjectives
and a noun. It functions as a subject, object or complement in a sentence.

To be keen on - to be interested in or enthusiastic about something. The structure is a verb phrase

consisting of a verb and a preposition. It functions as a verb in a sentence.

A fish out of water - a person who feels uncomfortable or out of place in a particular situation. The structure
is a noun phrase consisting of two nouns connected by a preposition. It functions as a subject, object or
complement

35.Substantivization of Adjectives. Syntactic Functions of Adjectives

Substantivization of Adjectives.
Adjectives can become substantivized, acting as nouns in a sentence and always preceded by the definite
article. They can have two meanings.

First, they can indicate a class of people in a general sense, such as "the poor" or "the dead." These
adjectives are plural in meaning and take a verb in plural form. For example, "The old receive pensions." To
refer to a single person or a particular group, a noun must be added.

Second, substantivized adjectives can indicate an abstract notion and are singular in meaning, taking a
singular verb. For instance, "The good in him overweighs the bad." Some nationalities, such as "the
English" and "the Chinese," can also be used as substantivized adjectives.

Syntactic Functions of Adjectives

Adjectives serve as attributes in a sentence, modifying a noun. They usually come before the noun and are
called close attributes. However, if separated by a pause, they become loose attributes. For example,
"Clever and tactful, Michael listened to my story."

Adjectives can also act as predicative adjectives, modifying a noun as a predicate linked by a verb.
There are three types of predicative adjectives:

1. a predicative, e.g. Her smile was almost professional. He looked mature,

sober and calm.
2. an objective predicative, e.g. I thought him very intelligent. She wore her hair
short.
3. a subjunctive predicative, e.g. The door was closed tigh

Adjectives can also function as attributive adjectives, modifying a noun directly as part of the noun phrase.
Most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively, except for some, such as "afraid" and
"asleep," which can only be used as predicatives.

36.Syntactic structure of a simple sentence.

The syntactic structure of a simple sentence can be divided into two main parts: the subject and the
predicate.

The subject is typically a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that refers to the person, place, thing, or idea that
the sentence is about. For example, in the sentence "John is running," "John" is the subject.

The predicate, on the other hand, includes the verb and any objects, complements, or modifiers that follow
it. The predicate describes what the subject is doing or what is being said about the subject. For example,
in the sentence "John is running," "is running" is the predicate.

In general, the basic structure of a simple sentence is subject + verb + object. However, not all sentences
include an object. Some sentences, for example, might include only a subject and a verb (e.g. "John
runs."). In other cases, the predicate might include additional information, such as an adjective or adverb,
that modifies the verb or provides additional context (e.g. "John runs quickly in the park.").

37. Identify the principles of classification of the English consonants

Phonemes can be divided into consonants and vowels.(There are two major classes of sounds traditionally
distinguished in any language:consonants, vowels. )
Consonants are known to have voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice
only.
Consonants are produced with a narrow or complete closure in the vocal tract and can be voiced or
voiceless. This partial or complete closure blocks the air flow momentarily or restricts it so that noise is
produced as air flows past the constriction.

38. Principal parts of a sentence.

The subject is the principal part of the sentence, it is grammatically independent on the other parts of the
sentence and the predicate is usually dependent on it and agrees with the subject in number, person. The
subject denotes a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea.
Ways of expressing the subject: a noun in the common case; a pronoun (personal, demonstrative,
interrogative, negative); substantivized adjective or participle, e.g. The wounded were taken to the hospital;
a numeral - cardinal or ordinal, e.g. The two were my sisters. The first and the fourth stood beside him in
the water; an infinitive, e.g. To live is to work; a gerund, e.g. Her being French might upset him\ a
syntactically indivisible group of words, e.g. There is a lot of truth in that.

The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It expresses an action, state, quality of person or
thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent on the subject. It usually contains a finite verb
which may express tense, mood, aspect and sometimes person and number.

39. "Sound alternation". "allophone", "syllable","word accent", "grapheme"

1) Alternation of sounds is the mutual replacement of sounds in the same morpheme in various cases of its
use, acting as the main or additional morphological indicator . Change of sounds occupying the same place
in the same morpheme, but in different words or word forms ... Alternation is usually defined as the
interchange of sounds within a particular morpheme.

2)Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called
subsidiary, e.g.:
●a. deal, did – it is slightly palatalized before front vowels
●b. bad pain, bedtime – it is pronounced without any plosion
●c. sudden, admit – it is pronounced with nasal plosion before [n], [m]
●d. dry – it becomes post-alveolar followed by [r]
3) A syllable is a single, unbroken sound of a spoken (or written) word. Syllables usually contain a vowel
and accompanying consonants. Sometimes syllables are referred to as the ‘beats’ of spoken language.
Syllables differ from phonemes in that a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; the number of syllables in a
word is unrelated to the number of phonemes it contains. For example: /b/, /k/, /t/, /ch/, /sh/, /ee/, /ai/,
/igh/, /ear/ are all phonemes. The word ‘chat’ is made up of three phonemes (/ch/ /a/ /t/). The word ‘light’ is
made up of three phonemes (/l/ /igh/ /t/). However, both the words ‘chat’ and ‘light’ have only one syllable
each.
4) Word accent (also called word stress, or lexical stress) is part of the characteristic way in which a
language is pronounced. Given a particular language system, word accent may be fixed, or predictable
(e.g., in French, where it occurs regularly at the end of words, or in Czech, where it occurs initially), or it
may be movable, as in English, which then leaves accent free to function to distinguish one word from
another that is identical segmentally
5) A grapheme is a written symbol that represents a sound (phoneme). This can be a single letter, or could
be a sequence of letters, such as ai, sh, igh, tch etc. So when a child says the sound /t/ this is a phoneme,
but when they write the letter 't' this is a grapheme.

40. Structural-semantic types of composite sentences

The structural aspect of the sentence deals with the structural organization of the sentence, it reveals the
mechanisms of deriving sentences and structural types of sentences.
According to their structure sentences are classified into simple (monopredicative structures) and
composite (polypredicative structures) which are further subdivided into complex (based on subordination)
and compound (based on coordination). Clauses within the structure of a composite sentence may be
connected with the help of formal markers (conjunctions and connectives: relative pronouns and relative
adverbs - syndetically) and without any formal markers -asyndetically. Thus we should differentiate
between two structural varieties of composite sentences: syndetic and asyndetic types.
41. The Aims of the Theoretical Course of Grammar. Two parts of Grammar: Morphology & Syntax.
Grammatical Meaning. Grammatical Category.
1) The parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, in form and function. In modern linguistics, parts
of speech are described according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional.
• The semantic criterion regards the grammatical forms of the whole class of words (general grammatical
meaning).
• The formal criterion reveal, paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the
words, their specific inflectional and derivational features.
• The functional criterion concerns the syntactic function of words in the sentences and their combinability.
Thus, when we are characterizing any part of speech we have to describe: a) its semantics; b) its
morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities
2) Morphology- deals with the internal structure of Words peculiarities of their grammatical categories and
their semantics. The morphological system of a language reveals its properties through the morphemic
structure of words. It follows from this that morphology as part of grammatical theory faces the two
meaningful units: the morpheme and the word.
For instance, the form of the verbal past tense is built up by means of the grammatical suffix: train-ed,
publish-ed accept-ed etc.
3) Syntax deals with the structure, classification and combinabiiity of sentences. The sentence is the
immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and
distinguished by a relevant communicative purpose. Any coherent connection of words having an
informative destination is effected within the framework of the sentence. Therefore the sentence is the main
object of syntax as part of the grammatical theory.
4) Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word, including everything as a thing or object (e.g.
table, peace, boy). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. Grammatical
meanings are very abstract, very general. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its
individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of
thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun 'table' has the grammatical meaning
of a subclass - countableness.
5) Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same
form (e.g. singular - plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories
correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality.

42. Classification of Synonyms

Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects.

by V.V. Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types of
synonyms:
1. Ideographic (words conveying the same concept but differing in shades of meaning), e.g. stool - chair,
piece - lump - slice.
2. Stylistic (different in stylistic characteristics). Stylistic synonyms are similar in the denotational aspect of
meaning обозначение, название, смысл, указание,, but different in the connotational aspect
дополнительное значение, сопутствующее значение.
3. absolute (coinciding in all their shades of meaning), e.g.: big - large, homeland -motherland, small - little.

43. General Characteristics of the Noun

The noun is the central lexical unit of language. The noun as a part of speech has the categorial meaning
of "substance or thingness". It is the main nominative unit of speech. As any other part of speech, the noun
can be characterised by three criteria: semantic (the meaning), morphological (the form and grammatical
categories) and syntactical (functions, distribution).
Semantic features of the noun. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substantiality.
According to different principles of classification nouns fall into several subclasses:
according to the type of nomination they may be proper and common;
according to the form of existence they may be animate and inanimate where animate nouns in their turn
fall into human and non-human.
• according to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and uncountable which are divided into
concrete and abstract. (See the scheme).

44. The main types of questions in English

In English, there are four types of questions: general or yes/no questions,

special questions using wh-words,
alternative questions, and disjunctive or tag/tail questions

45. Affixation and classification of suffixes

Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists
in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and
prefixation.

Classification of suffixes

1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech fall into several
groups:
noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), -ism {ageism),
adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able {breathable), less{symptomless), -ous (prestigious);
verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize {computerize), -fy(satisfy)',
adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward(eastward)-,
numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty(seventy).
2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into
groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student) -,
nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish(English)-,
collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom, kingdom), -ry(peasantry, -ship (readership, membership), -ati (literati);
diminutiveness, e.g. -ette (kitchenette), -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling);
quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).
3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of
stems are subdivided into:
suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: -er (commuter), -ing (suffering), - able (flyable), -
ment (involvement), -ation (<computerization);
suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), fill (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster
(pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish);
suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly(pinkly), -ish (longish), -
ness (clannishness).
4. Origin of suffixes. From the point of view of their etymology suffixes can be subdivided into two
main classes: native and borrowed suffixes:
native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly (worker, careful, sleepless, lonely).
Romanic, such as: -tion, -ent, -able, -eer (relation, absent, comfortable, career).
Greek, such as: -ist, -ism, -ize. (specialist, socialism, criticize).
French, such as: -ance, -ence, -ment, -ess, -ous (arrogance, experiment, village, actress, curious).
5. Productivity of derivational suffixes. It means the ability of being used to form new, occasional or
potential words. They can be the following groups: a) productive, such as : -er, -ize, -ly, -ness (teacher,
realize, ugly, coldness). c) non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length), -hood (childhood).

46. Semantic classification of phraseological units

 Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning.
Vinogradov pointed out three types of phraseological units: phraseological combinations, phraseological
unities, phraseological fusions
Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. E.g.: to have a bite, to
be a good hand at smth, bitter truth, swan neck, dog's life, to skate on thin ice (to take risks) etc.
Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning i.e. meaning of the unit
does not correspond to meanings of its constituent parts. They are motivated units, where the meaning of
the whole unit can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or
metonymical). E.g.: to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), to stick to one's word (to
promise), old salt(experienced sailor), to lose one's heart to smb (to fall in love).
Phraseological fusions are word-groups with completely changed meanings, they are not motivated
units, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components. These phrases are
highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. E.g.: a white feather, to cut
somebody dead means (to rudely ignore somebody,)red tape (bureaucratic methods), to come a
cropper (to come to a disaster).

47, 51 .Borrowings in the english language. Classification of borrowings

Borrowings are taken over from another language and modified in sounding, spelling, and paradigm or
meaning according to the standards of the English language. According to many linguists, the percentage
of borrowings in English is up to 70 %, and 30 % of the words are native.

Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech and through written speech

Classification of borrowings
The borrowed words can be classified into the following groups:
phonetic borrowings,
translation loans,
semantic borrowings,
morphemic borrowings.
Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper. Words are
borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning.
Such words as:labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonemic borrowings from French; apparatchik,
sputnik are phonemic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet, are phonemic borrowings from Italian
etc.
Translation loans are word-for-word or morpheme-for morpheme translations of some foreign words or
expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from foreign language but it is expressed by native
lexical units, "to take the bull by the horns" n), "fair sex" (French), "living space" (German) etc.
Semantic borrowings are units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the age is borrowed.For ex:
adjective gay was borrowed from French in several meanings at once: “noble ofbirth", "bright, shining".
Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with
identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another,

48. The principle parts of the sentence

The subject is the principal part of the sentence, it is grammatically independent on the other parts of the
sentence and the predicate is usually dependent on it and agrees with the subject in number, person. a
numeral - cardinal or ordinal, e.g. The two were my sisters. The first and the fourth stood beside him in the
water;
 The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It expresses an action, state, quality of person
or thing denoted by the subject
The simple predicate is expressed by a finite form of the verb. It generally denotes an action and
sometimes a state, e.g. I have been looking for you.
The compound predicate consists of two types: a finite verb and some other part of speech - a noun,
an adjective, a pronoun, a verbal.
The first component expresses the verbal categories of number, person, tense, aspect, voice, aspect.
The compound predicate may be nominal and verbal.
The compound nominal predicate (CNP). It denotes the state or quality of the person or thing
expressed by the subject or the class of persons or things to which this person or thing belongs, e.g. He is
tired. He is a student.
The compound verbal predicate. It may be of two types according to the meaning of the finite verb:
the compound verbal modal predicate CVMP; the compound verbal aspect predicate CVAP E.g. I used to
write poetry myself when I was his age.

49.Classify the adverbs. Position of adverbs

Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.
By qualitative adverbs are meant such adverbs which express immediate, inherently non-graded
qualities of actions and other qualities
The adverbs interpreted as quantitative include words of degree.They may be subdivided into several
groups:
The first group is formed by adverbs of high degree.
These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers": very, quite, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly,
absolutely, strongly, pretty, much, etc.
3
The second group includes adverbs of excessive degree: too, awfully, dreadfully, terrifically.
The third group is formed by adverbs of moderate degree: comparatively, fairly, relatively, rather.
The fourth group is made up of adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, amazingly, etc.
The fifth group includes adverbs of low degree:slightly, a little, a bit.
The sixth group is constituted by adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly.
Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notionaland functional.
The functional adverbs are words of pronominal nature. Here belong such words as now, here, when,
so, thus, why how.
As for notional adverbs of more self-dependent nature, they include two basic groups: adverbs of time -
today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, recently, seldom, early, late; adverbs of place - homeward, far,
eastward, outside, ashore, etc.

Position of Adverbs
There are three main positions for adverbs which modify a verb:
Front position = before the subject. Most types of adverb can go in front position: connecting
adverbs - as a result, similarly, finally; adverbs of time and place -tomorrow, yesterday; comment and view
point adverbs -presumably, financially.
Mid position = between the subject and verb, or immediately after be as a main verb. The following
types of adverbs usually go in mid position: adverbs of indefinite frequency - always, never, hardly ever,
often, rarely, seldom, usually, degree adverbs - completely, quite, fairly, slightly, too, very much; focus
adverbs -just, even.
e.g. He always sings when he's having a shower.
I completely forgot her birthday, and I just don't know how to make it up to her.
It's too hot to stay in this room.
She has never been to London.
 50.Arrange the compounds into two groups: a) idiomatic b) non-idiomatic
52.Distinguish the types of non-productive ways of word-building

There are non-productive ways of word-building in the English language.Among them we can find:
1.Sound interchange
2. Stress interchange
3. Reduplication.
4. Sound imitation.
5. Blending.
6. Back formation.

Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form new words which
are differentiated due to alternation in the phonemic composition of the root.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns. Many English verbs of Latin, French origin are
distinguished from the corresponding nouns by the position of stress: nouns have the stress on the first
syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. "accent - to ac 'cent, 'conflict - to con 'flict,
In Reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any changes as in bye-bye or
with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping- pong, tip-top, chit-chat.
Blendings are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are
combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope)
and the beginning of the second component (aphaeresis).
From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end, «о» is common for both of
them. Another example of combining two words:brunch is a meal you eat in the late morning that
combinesbrealtfast and lunch.
Back formation is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form
a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. to accreditate (from
accreditation), to hock (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation),
53. Name the aims of the Theoretical course of Grammar
Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the
process of human intercourse. Language is social by nature; it is inseparably connected with the people
who are its creators and users; it grows and develops together with the development of society. Any
language cannot exist without words, which are necessary for any language. But words by themselves
don't complete the language. Words can be a language only in case when they are organized. It defines
their usage and allows a language to have a meaningful character. Language is a unity of its lexical, sound
and grammatical structures. The aims of the theoretical course of Grammar are to present a theoretical
description of its grammatical system, i.e. to scientifically analyze and define its grammatical categories and
study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of speech
making and to give an analysis of English Grammatical structure in the light of general principles of
linguistics. The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. In Modern
English there is following system of parts of speech: 1. The Noun. 2. The Adjective. 3. The Pronoun. 4. The
Adverb. 5. The Numeral. 6. The Verb. 7. The Preposition. 8. The Conjunction. 9. The Interjection. The parts
of speech differ from each other in meaning, in form and function. In modern linguistics, parts of speech are
described according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional.  The semantic criterion regards the
grammatical forms of the whole class of words (general grammatical meaning). 48  The formal criterion
reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the words, their specific
inflectional and derivational features.  The functional criterion concerns the syntactic function of words in
the sentences and their combinability. Thus, when we are characterizing any part of speech we have to
describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities. All the words of the
language can be divided into – notional words which denote things, objects, qualities, notions, etc. and
function or grammatical words having no references of their own in the objective reality, most of them are
used only as grammatical means to form up utterances. It is commonly recognized that the notional parts of
speech are nouns, pronouns, numeral, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. The functional parts of speech are
articles, particles, prepositions, conjunctions. The division of language units into notional and function
words reveals the interrelation of lexical and grammatical types of meaning. In notional words the lexical
meaning is predominant. In function words the grammatical meaning dominates over the lexical one.
However, in actual speech the border line between notional and function words is not always clear. For
example, some verbs can function both as notional and function words: the verb to have (I have a car) is a
notional verb; as a modal verb it is a function word: (I have to do it). The verb to look (He looked at me) –
notional verb, (He looked tired) it is a function word – link-verb.
54. Analyze the following phraseological units according to their meanings, structure, syntactical
function and the way they are formed. Give Kazakh equivalents.
55. Classification of Homonyms
Homonyms are distinguished into three types: 1. Homonyms proper. 2. Homophones. 28 3. Homographs
Homonyms are the same in sound and spelling are traditionally termed homonyms proper. E.g.: match, (n.)
– a game, match, (n.) – thing is used for producing fire. Homonyms are the same in sound but different in
spelling can be defined as homophones. E.g.: a piece (n.) – peace (n.); cent (n.) – sent (v.); write (v.) – right
(adj.). The examples here show that homophones may be belong both to the same and to different
categories of parts of speech. Homographs are words with the same spelling but pronounced differently.
E.g. bow –[bau]- (v.) – to incline the head or body in salutation; bow – [bəu]- (n.) – a flexible strip of wood
for propelling arrows; to lead [li:d ]-(v.) – to conduct on the way, go before to show the way, lead [led ]- (n.) –
a heavy, rather soft metal. A more detailed classification was given by I.V. Arnold. She classified only
perfect homonyms and suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning,
basic forms and paradigms. According to these criteria I.V. Arnold pointed out the following groups: 
homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms (a typical example or model
of a word) and different in their lexical meanings, e.g. a board in the meanings a council and “a thin flat
piece of wood”;  homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their
lexical meanings and paradigms, e.g. to lie - lied - lied, and to lie - lay - lain;  homonyms different in their
lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms, e.g. light – lights,
light – lighter – lightest;  homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their
basic forms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms, e.g. a bit and bit (from “to bite”).
56. Define countable and uncountable nouns. Write them in two columns
 according to their quantitative structure nouns can be countable and
uncountable which are divided into concrete and abstract. (See the scheme).
Mary Cattle
1. Proper 1. Common
2. Animate 2. Animate
3. Countable 3. Uncountable
This set of subclasses cannot be put together into one table because of the
different principles of classification.
The grammatical category of number is the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity.
The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form, the singular
form. The category of number in English is restricted in its realization because of the dependent implicit
grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness. The number category is realized only within
subclass of countable nouns. The grammatical meaning of number may not coincide with the notional
quantity: the noun in the singular does not necessarily denote one object while the plural form may be used
to denote one object consisting of several parts. The singular form may denote: a) oneness (individual
separate object – a cat); b) generalization (the meaning of the whole class – The cat is a domestic animal);
c) indiscreteness (нерасчлененность or uncountableness ) - money, milk, cheese. The plural form may
denote: a) the existence of several objects (cats); b) the inner discreteness (внутренняя расчлененность),
pluralia tantum, jeans. To sum it up, all nouns may be subdivided into the following groups: the nouns in
which the opposition of explicit discreteness/indiscreteness is expressed: cat – cats; the nouns in which this
opposition is not expressed explicitly but is revealed by syntactical and lexical correlation in the context.
There are two groups here: 53  Singularia tantum (the Latin term). Nouns are used only in the singular
form. They cover different groups of nouns: proper names, abstract nouns, material nouns, collective
nouns, e.g. sand, oil, wine, wool, curiosity, progress, knowledge, friendship, happiness.  Pluralia tantum. It
covers the names of objects consisting of several parts: names of things, tools or clothes (trousers, scales,
shorts, scissors); names of sciences (mathematics, economics, physics); names of diseases (diabetes,
57. Classify English vowels
58. Distinguish the types of abbreviations
Generally the three subgroups of abbreviation are regarded: Graphical, Initial and Lexical. Graphical
abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the
corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest
group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In these abbreviations Latin words are
shortened in the spelling, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full
form, for example, Latin – a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), p.a. – a year (per
annum), d – penny (dinarius), lb – pound (libra), i. e. – that is (id est) etc. Some graphical abbreviations of
Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced “in the
afternoon” (post meridiem) and “after death” (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of native
origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English
equivalents in the full form. The graphical abbreviations are words which are shortened into two, three or
four letters. We have several semantic groups of them: a) days of the week, e.g. Mon - Monday, Tue –
Tuesday, Sat – Saturday; b) names of months, e.g. Apr - April, Aug – August; c) names of counties in UK,
e.g. Yorks - Yorkshire, Berks – Berkshire; d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala - Alabama, CO – Colorado,
Alas – Alaska; e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.; f) military ranks, e.g. capt. – captain, col. –
colonel, etc. Abbreviation is also achieved by omission of letters from one or more parts of the whole, for
example, cdr for commander, doz or dz for dozen, ltd for limited. Scientific degrees: B.A. – Bachelor of Arts,
D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For
example, “kilometer” is abbreviated as km and not as (k.m). However, “miles per hour” can be shortened by
the acronym m.p.h. or, increasingly common, mph. Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between
graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new
offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. (Joint
Venture). When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing
and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC (British Broadcast Corporation) is as a rule
pronounced in the shortened form. Initialisms are the way of making the new words from the initial letters of
the word-group, e.g. www (world wide web). 16 Initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound
form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School
System), CD-ROM (compact disc read-only memory). Acronymy is the formation of a word from initial
letters of a word combination. There are two basic types of acronyms in English: a) initialisms with
alphabetical reading, such as UK, NHS (The National Health Service), FDA (The Food and Drug
Administration) etc. b) initialisms which are read as ordinary English words, e.g. UNESCO (the United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), SOS, NATO. Abbreviation of words consists in
clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style
is different from the full form of the word. In such cases as fantasy and fancy, fence and defence we have
different lexical meanings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we have different styles. Lexical
abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is
clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of
the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of words, such as
disco (discotheque), expo (exposition), exam (examination) com (computer) and many others. In other
cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have aphaeresis, e.g. chute (parachute),
phone (telephone), copter (helicopter), net (internet) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g.
mart (market), maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Abbreviation does not change
the parts-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words
belonging to the same parts of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof. is a noun and professor is also a
noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev. from
to revolve, to tab. from to tabulate etc.

59. Describe types of word accent, Give examples.

Types of English word stress according to its degree. • primary — the strongest• secondary — the second
strongest, partial, • weak — all the other degrees. The syllables bearing either primary or secondary stress
are termed stressed, while syllables with weak stress are called, somewhat inaccurately, unstressed.

Word stress in a language performs three functions.

Word stress constitutes a word, it organizes the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite
accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables; a word does not exist without the
word stress Thus the word stress performs the constitutive function.

2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a
word. This function of word stress is known as identificatoiy(у него так в лекции) (or recognitive).

3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its
distinctive function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of word stress and their positions form
oppositions, e.g. 'import — im'port, 'billow — below.

60. Characterize adverbial clauses of time and place. Give examples

Adverbial Clauses are subdivided into the following groups: • Adverbial Clauses of Time are connected in
the sentence with the help of conjunctions: when, while, whenever, after, before, till, until, as soon as,
since. E.g. When we arrived at the port, the steamer was being loaded with grain. While we were
discussing the important items he left the room. After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left
Astana. I shall stay here until you return. • Adverbial Clauses of Place are introduced in the sentence with
the help of conjunctions: where, from where, whenever. E.g. I like to spend my holidays where I can skate.
Whenever he went, he was welcome. I shall go where my brother lives. • Adverbial Clauses of Cause are
introduced in the sentence with the help of conjunctions: why, because, as, since, for, now that. E.g. I went
away because there was no one there. As there were no porters, we had to carry the luggage ourselves.
He walked quickly for he was in a great hurry. • Adverbial Clauses of Manner are introduced in the
sentence with the help of conjunctions: as, as if, as though, that. E.g. You answer as if you didn’t know this
rule. You ought to write as he does. 92 • Adverbial Clauses of Purpose and Result are introduced in the
sentence with the help of conjunctions: so that, so, in order that. E.g. The teacher speaks slowly so that his
pupils may understand him. I gave him the textbook in order that he might learn his lessons. • Adverbial
Clauses of Condition are usually joined to the principal clause by means of conjunctions: if, unless, in case,
on condition (that), supposing/supposing (that), providing/provided (that) – (если, при наличии, при
условии), as long as. E.g. If I see him tomorrow, I shall ask him about it. He won’t go there unless he is
invited. He will agree to this year’s budget on condition that we drop this foreign business in future. I’ve
made provisions in case anything happens to me. We’ll sign the agreement providing that you guarantee
the high quality of the goods