[M1] 10 Categories of Characteristics:

(L1) ● Sense of self & space

Culture - integrated patterns of learned ● Communication & language
beliefs and behaviors that are shared ● Dress & appearance
among groups. “A total way of life”.”We are ● Food & feeding habits
all culturally different”.”We all are part of and ● Time & time consciousness
influenced by multiple cultures”. Complex ● Relationships
and Multifaceted, Pervasive and embedded ● Values & norms
in many aspects of life and living. ● Beliefs & attitudes
National Identity - personal tastes to ● Mental process & learning
manners, beliefs, values, world views, and ● Work habits & practices
actions.
Social Difference - Race, Ethnicity, Jandt:
Gender, Social Class, Sexuality, Religion, ● Subculture - dominant cultures
Disability. which people identify.
Beliefs/Behavior - Communication Style, ● Co-culture - conveys the idea that
Thoughts, Ways of Interacting, Views of no one cultural group is superior.
roles/relationships, Values, Practices, ● Subgroups - membership groups
Customs. within cultures.
Berry’s 6 Aspects of Culture:
● Descriptive - different activities & Cristina De Rossi - anthropologist at
behaviors of a culture. Barnet & Southgate College in London.
● Historical Aspects - heritage & “Culture encompasses religion, food, what
traditions associated with a we wear, how we wear it, our language,
particular cultural group. marriage, music, what we believe is right or
● Normative - rules & norms of a wrong, how we sit at the table, how we
culture greet visitors, how we behave with loved
● Psychological - behavioral aspects ones, and a million other things”. “Culture is
of culture. fluid & constantly in motion”.
● Structure - social & organizational
aspects of culture. Ethnic Group - any distinguishable people
● Genetic - origins of a culture. whose members share a culture.

9 Characteristics of Culture: Ethnocentrism - the assumptions that

● Housing & Technology everyone else views the world in the same
● General Characteristics way as we do, are the reasons for
● Food & Clothing cross-cultural misunderstanding.
● Economy & Transportation
● Individual & Family Activities Dimensions of Culture (Brown and
● Community & Government Landrum-Brown):
● Welfare ● Psychobehavioral Modality - mode
● Religion & Science of activity most preferred within a
● Sex & Life Cycle culture.
 ● Axiology - involves the modern-day conception of culture and
interpersonal values that a culture national identity. / behavior and
teaches. development were thought to occur at a
● Ethos - widely held beliefs within a supra-individual or social/community/cultural
cultural group that guide social level in contrast to the inner individual level.
interactions. Franz Boas - a German-American
● Epistemology - the preferred ways anthropologist, played an important role in
of gaining knowledge & learning. the study of human cultures and societies
● Logic - the kind of reasoning using the scientific method, and his work
process that group members adopt. became the foundation for the development
● Ontology - how a culture views the of modern anthropology as a discipline in
nature of reality. the United States. / He argued that human
● Concept of Time - how time is behavior is due primarily to cultural
experienced within a culture. differences developed through social
● Concept of Self - whether group learning versus biological traits and the no
members experience themselves as one culture is more advanced than another.
separate beings. Lev Vygotsky - the founder of sociocultural
theory which posits that human learning,
4 Functions of Culture: intelligence, and cognition are social
● Evolutionary - our need for processes developed though interaction
collective support in order to survive with parents, etc. / theorized that each
& reproduce. culture provides “tools of intellectual
● Buffer - (Terror management adaptation”.
Theory) culture serves as a
productive factor/buffer against (APPROACHES TO CULTURE &
existential anxiety about our own PSYCHOLOGY)
mortality. 2 Primary Approaches that combine
● Epistemic - need to validate our Culture & Psychology. - both are
perceptions of the world around us. interdisciplinary in nature and have
● Resulting from Interpersonal considerable overlap. / The primary
Interactions - people mutually differences between these two perspective
influence one another toward shared have to do with “emphasis”.
beliefs…which results in culture. Cultural Psychology - focuses more on
“Unintended byproduct/emergence context and culture that is “inside” the
of culture” person.
Cross-Cultural Psychology - emphasizes
Symbolic Immortality - naming a baby content and culture “outside” of the person. /
after oneself so that the name lives on. more of a “macro” level approach to culture
and psychology.
(L2)
(HISTORY & FOUNDATIONS OF (CULTURE & DIVERSITY)
CULTURE & PSYCHOLOGY) Diversity - is an overused “buzzword” to
German “Vőlkerpsychologie” (or folk of accentuate difference and fails to consider
psychology) - is largely responsible for the similarities between cultural groups.
Race - a distinction of a group of people Sensitivity - (knowledge plus “heart”)
either based on self- identification or based Competency - (behavior, attitude, &
on similar, heritable physical characteristic policies)
(e.g., skin color, facial features, hair texture,
etc.) [L3]
Parda - mixed ancestry (THEORETICAL & RESEARCH
Ethnicity - common ancestral origin, PARADIGMS)
language, traditions, and often religion and Absolutism - sees cultural phenomena as
geographic territory. essentially the same. / culture plays a
Social Class - one’s economic position in limited role in human differences.
society based on a combination of income. Relativism - human variation as a result of
Nationality - a person’s country of origin. cultural factors. / people should be
Gender - the norms and expectations that understood relative to the sociocultural
are culturally defined for men & woman. context from the perspective of the people
Disability - physical impairment & is involved.
regarded as a cultural difference. Universalism - basic psychological
processes are the same across cultures. /
(CULTURAL CONCEPTS) different expression and variations of
Ethnocentrism - your own ethnic or cultural behavior.
group is better in comparison with others.
Stereotypes - overgeneralized beliefs (4 PARADIGMS)
about people from social groups. (“Cognitive Positivism - presumes - that true
Misers” - who think in simplistic & knowledge is obtainable & verifiable.
overgeneralizing ways). Post-positivism - most accepted in
Prejudice - negative & generally unjustified modern-day psychology. / knowledge of
judgment of another person. reality is imperfect.
Racism - existing in the advantages & Critical Theory - knowledge is subjective &
disadvantages imprinted in cultural artifacts. bound by values.
Discrimination - enacted unjust behavior Constructivism - knowledge is relative &
resulting from prejudice. reality is socially constructed.
Multiculturalism - notion that all cultural
groups are unique with its own. Transformative Research - social justice
Etics - universal principles across cultures. framework well suited for the study of
Emics - culture-specific principles. psychology & culture.
Cultural Competence - used Quantitative Research - measure human
synonymously with cultural diversity, cultural behavior comparatively through empirical
sensitivity. means.
Cultural Diversity - people are diverse Qualitative Research - conducted in a
culturally. natural setting & emphasizes enquiry &
Cultural Sensitivity - cultural similarities & exploration.
differences exist.
Cultural Awareness - conscious of cultural Cultural System - the behavior occur & the
similarities & differences. interplay of individuals & the environment
Awareness - Knowledge relative to the cultural context.
 Research - trustworthiness refers to
(TYPES OF RESEARCH) whether the research findings are credible,
Cross Cultural Comparison Study - transferable, confirmable, dependable.)
variable is compared across 2 or more Reliability - a finding or measurement is
cultures. consistent.
Unpacking Studies - explores why cultural
differences occur by exploring other (TRUSTWORTHINESS IN QUALITATIVE
variables. RESEARCH STUDIES)
Ecological-level Studies - countries & Credibility - accurately represent the
cultures vs. individuals are the unit of participant data.
analysis. Transferability - use of thick descriptions to
Psychobiography Research - transfer findings to other settings.
psychological study of a person’s life. Confirmability - confirmed by the original
Cross-cultural validation Studies - participant data.
explores whether a variable of interest in Dependability - clearly documented
one culture is applicable to & equivalent in research process that is supported by
other cultures. participant data.
Ethnographies - a culture is observed in its
natural environment: “field study”. (Matsumoto & Juang)
(5 TYPES OF BIAS IN CROSS-CULTURAL
WEIRDOS - Western, Educated, RESEARCH)
Industrialized, Rich, & Democratic Cultures. Conceptual Bias - equivalent meaning &
relevance of theory, cultures being
(5 STEPS IN PLANNING A compared.
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY IN Method Bias
PSYCHOLOGY) ● Sampling - equivalent &
● Define the process of interest representative of their culture.
(consider outcome variables and ● Linguistic - tools used have the
applicability to individuals, groups or same meaning.
countries). ● Procedural - data collection efforts
● Identify the composition of the mean the same.
research team with both local and Measurement Bias - measures &
research expertise. instruments demonstrate reliability &
● Define the theory and underlying validity.
principles for the target variables Interpretational Bias - interpretations &
and/or process. results of a study have practical meaning.
● Specify relevant context variables
and relationship to the psychological [L4]
variables. (CONCEPTS OF SELF)
● Rule out alternative explanations Self-Concept - how we think about or view
and any confounding variables. ourselves.
Independent Self-Concept - desires,
Validity/Trustworthiness - a finding or preferences, attributes and abilities are
measurement is accurate. (In Qualitative viewed as distinct and separate from others.
Triandis - suggests that early exposure to ● Immersion-emersion
differing values and beliefs within a cultural ● Internalization
context influences the development of the ● Internalization-commitment
self-concept.
Interdependent Self - represents the Jean Phinney - developed the Multigroup
collectivist self and relies heavily on family, Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM). / ethnic
friends, neighbors, and co-workers in identity as a “general phenomenon that is
determining self-concept. relevant across groups”.
Independent Self - associated with
individualistic characteristics whereby the (STAGES OF MINORITY DEVELOPMENT
self is not defined by interrelationships with MODEL)
others. Conformity (Stage 1)
Self-Esteem - how we feel about ourselves. ● ATS (Attitudes Toward Self) -
Self-Enhancement - is the process by Self-depreciation
which we maintain or boost our self-esteem. ● ATOSM (Attitude Toward Others of
Self-Continuity - is a person’s perception the Same Minority) -
of the interconnections among their past, Group-depreciating
present, and future and involves ● ATODM (Attitude Toward Others of
contextualized (linked to one’s family, place, Different Minority)- Discriminatory
or origin, social status) or decontextualized ● ATDG (Attitude Toward Dominant
beliefs. Group) - Group-appreciating
Dissonance (Stage 2)
(IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT MODELS) ● ATS - Conflicts between self-
Cultural Identity - refers to “individuals’ depreciation and self-appreciation.
psychological membership in a distinct ● ATOSM - Conflict between group-
culture. depreciating and group appreciating.
Ethnic Identity - part of the self-concept ● ATODM - Conflict between
that comes from knowledge of membership dominant-held views of minority
in a social group together with the value and hierarchy and feelings of shared
emotional significance attached to that experience.
membership. ● ATDG - Conflict between group-
Noteworthy - are the identity development appreciating and group-
models that explain identity development depreciating).
models that explain identity development for Resistance & Immersion (Stage 3)
various cultural categories. ● Self-appreciating
Cross Model of psychological ● Group- appreciating
nigrescence - the process of black identity ● Conflict between feelings of empathy
transformation in the US. for other minority experiences and
feelings of culturocentrism.
(5 STAGE PROCESS OF AFRICAN ● Group- depreciating
AMERICAN FROM WHITE TO BLACK Introspection (Stage 4)
FRAME) ● Concern with basis of self-
● Pre-counter appreciating
● Encounter
 ● Concern with nature of unequivocal 1. Non-acceptance - continuing to act
appreciation according to traditional norms,
● Concern with ethnocentric basis for ignoring, cultural differences.
judging others 2. Substitution - behaving in the most
● Concern with the basis of group- acceptable manner by substituting
depreciation norms from the “new: culture for
Synergetic Articulations & Awareness traditional norms”.
(Stage 5) 3. Addition - evaluating the situation
● Self-appreciating and depending on judgment either
● Group- appreciating non-acceptance or substitution.
● Group- appreciating 4. Synthesis - combining elements of
● Selective- appreciating different cultures
5. Resynthesis - integrating ideas
Social Identity - signifies our sense of from various cultures in an original
belonging to a larger social group (ex: way, which Brislin notes, is the most
gender, race) which ultimately affects our culturally competent example of
self-esteem and intergroup relations. non-ethnocentric attitudes because
Racial-Ethnic-Cultural Identity - a no one culture is relied upon as the
multidimensional, psychological construct of standard.
“the beliefs and attitudes that individuals
have about their ethnic-racial group Dominant Identities - held by those who
memberships, as well as the processes by have more power, prestige, status, and
which these beliefs and attitudes develop resources than others; which in most
over time”. cultures means white, wealthy, able-bodied,
male, heterosexual, and well-educated.
(Promotes Understanding of Social Identity)
● Hybridity - multiple, fluid, and Five-Factor Model of Personality
contextually dependent identities. ● Extroversion, Neuroticism,
● Hyphenated Identities - multiple Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
relationships with different places, Openness.
cultures, and nationalities including ● FFM - the evolutionary approach
place of origin and current home. that suggests that these particular
● Intersectionality - interaction traits are naturally selected in order
among various categories of to serve and adaptive function
difference within sociocultural necessary for survival.
systems.
Indigenous Personality - personality traits
Cultural Reaffirmation - is the and characteristics found and understood
“crystallization” and endorsement of only within the context of a particular
traditional/native cultural values in a culture.
multicultural society. ● Berry & frens - describe the African
(5 COPING SKILLS) model of personality which consists
of three layers or aspects of a
person housed by the body.
 - The first layer located at the core of situations without showing strong emotional
the person is based upon a spiritual reactions in such circumstances.
principle. Social Initiative - is the tendency to actively
- The second layer involves a approach social situations and take
psychological vitality principle. initiative.
- The third layer contains a Flexibility - is the ability to embrace new
physiological vitality principle. and unknown situations and view them as a
Amae - a fundamental and distinct feature challenge and not as a threat.
of the Japanese personality. / refers to the
passive, “childlike” dependence of one Gender - refers to the patterns of behavior,
person on another. roles, and responsibilities that a culture
Simpatia - Mexican concept “the avoidance ascribes to and deems appropriate for men
of conflict” and women.
Chong - Korean Concept “signifies human Sex - refers to the biological and
affection”. physiological differences between males
and females (i.e., genitalia, chromosome).
Multicultural Personality - the capacity to
be effective across cultural setting. Gender Stereotypes - males are expected
Intercultural Adjustment - a phenomenon to be independent, strong, self-reliant,
that affects not just people dealing with new emotionally detached and women are
and different people in their everyday lives. taught that they should be nurturing,
Psychological Engine of Adjustment - dependent, gentle, and emotional.
multicultural interactions: cultural empathy, Williams and Best - asked respondents to
open- mindedness, emotional stability, indicate how indicative the adjective was for
action orientation, males and females in the specific culture.
adventurousness/curiosity, flexibility, and
extraversion. (Matsumoto & frens) Gender Differences - globally as compared
Van der Zee & Van Oudenhoven - to girls, boys tend to be underachievers in
designed the multicultural personality math, reading, and science classes; are
questionnaire to measure multicultural less likely to do homework; and a more
personality using scales for cultural likely to fail. (that males are more
empathy, open-mindedness, emotional aggressive and dominant and females are
stability, social initiative, and flexibility. more nurturing and passive, males exhibit
Cultural Empathy - refers to the ability to more violent behavior and physical
empathize with the feelings, thoughts, and aggression as compared to females across
behaviors of members from different cultural the globe).
groups. Sunana Bojo Ne (My Name is Bojo) -
Open-mindedness - refers to open and (Yauri, Nigeria), involves singing and
unprejudiced attitudes toward members dancing with girls taking turns at being song
belonging to other cultural groups and their leader.
different values and norms.
Emotional Stability - is defined as the Other Concepts Related to Gender -
tendency to remain calm in stressful expression of different gender roles, gender
identity and third genders, gender inequality Gender Nonconforming - whose gender
and gender bias. identity or gender expression does not
Macho - (Latino Culture) males are glorified conform to that typically
and dominant within the cultural system. associated with the sex to which they were
Machismo - regard to masculine ability. / assigned at birth.
has had a negative connotation. (positive Cisgender/Cissexual/CIS - signifies an
aspect - refer to Latinos who support and individual whose gender identity
protect their families, provide structure to corresponds to the sex assigned at birth.
family relationships, and are responsible to Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) -
their family, friends, and community). clitordiction and infibulations sometimes
Marianismo - sanctification of referred to as female circumcision.
women/reverence of the Virgin Mary.
Androgyny - the possession and [L5]
expression of both masculine and feminine (THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS)
characteristics historically was thought to be Urie Brofenbrenner - renowned
more psychologically healthy and contribute developmental psychologist, developed an
to greater functioning and well-being. ecological systems approach in which he
Sandra Bem - noted gender and sex role posited that changes or conflicts in one
researcher, believe that masculinity and layer will affect all other layers.
femininity can be combined in various ways (BROFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL
according to preferences, needs, and THEORY)
nature. “dismantling of gender polarization”. Chronosystem - the largest and most
Transgender - a person who is neither man remote level of influence on an individual. /
or woman or who is a combination of man sociohistorical and environmental patterns
and woman- today. and events throughout life.
Turnim-man - signifies an alternative Macrosystem - Societal and cultural
sexual category for ambiguous sexuality to influences, values, and traditions. / and
describe an intersex person. include peer, family, cultural, economic, and
Hijras - (India & Pakistan) the sworn virgins societal influences such as poverty and
of the Balkan, intersex people in the ethnicity.
Dominican Republic and others. Exosystem - includes environments that
The term “Third” - usually understood to the child does not experience directly, such
mean “other” in terms of an intermediate as parent’s workplace, but that nonetheless
gender/sex between men and women, have an indirect effect on the child’s
being both gender/sexes (such as feeling development.
like a man in the body of a woman), being Mesosystem - includes the connections
neither, crossing or swapping genders, or between immediate environments.
another category altogether independent of Microsystem - an individual’s immediate
male and female. environment including relationships and
Two-spirit People or Bedarche - display interactions.
mixed gender roles. / wearing clothing and
doing work of both male and female Erikson’s Life Stage (1994) - offers a
genders. psychosocial developmental theory
encompassing the whole lifespan.
Bandura Social Learning Theory (1977) - - Development of abstract, formal
that highlights the importance of role models operational thinking.
and observational learning in the - Culture-specific
socialization process. ● Social
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development - Identity-formation begins
(1978) - Culture-specific
Gilligan’s challenge to Kohlberg’s theory
regarding gender bias (1982). Adulthood - expected to be a stage of
maturity, responsibility, and accountability.
Prenatal Period - the time between Persistence - attitudes and behaviors
conception and birth is 38 weeks. learned early in life will be maintained and
Infancy - environmental and social unchanged throughout adulthood.
conditions for newborn children affect the Openness - posits the opposite and is
care they receive, the child’s health and characterized by flexibility and
development of personality. transformation in which people have to
Temperament - a biologically based way of change attitudes and behaviors due to
being in the world and interacting with the changing situations though adulthood.
environment.
Childrearing & Parenting - A child’s
(ATTACHMENT PATTERNS OF BABIES) socialization and development depends on
● Avoidant - do not pay much interactions with others within a
attention to their parent. sociocultural context, culture provides a
● Ambivalent - uncertain in response “developmental niche: in which children
to caregivers and oscillate between grow and change.
staying very close to parents and The Social & Cultural Environment for
then shunning them. Parents & Children - the physical and
● Secure - sensitive, warm, and social settings of daily life in which a child
responsive, not threatened by a and his/her parents live.
stranger in the parents’ presence. The Culturally Based Childrearing
Practices - emphasize the customs of child
Childhood - a time of discovery when care and childrearing practices that are
growth, learning and development continues regulated by culture.
to accelerate at a rapid peace. (BARRY & FRENS) 6 Central Dimensions:
Adolescence - discreet period, in general, 1. Obedience training - degree to
most cultures concur that adolescence is a which children are trained to obey
time between childhood and adulthood in adults.
which biological, cognitive, and social 2. Responsibility training - degree to
transitions occur. which children are trained to take
(CHANGES DURING ADOLESCENCE) responsibility for subsistence or
● Biological household tasks.
- Change - Rapid physical changes in 3. Nurturance training - degree to
weight and height. which children are trained to care for
- Context - Universal. younger siblings and other
● Cognitive dependent people.
 4. Achievement training - degree to
which children are trained to strive
toward standards of excellence in
performance.
5. Self-reliance - degree to which
children are trained to take care of
themselves and to be independent
of assistance from others in
supplying their own needs or wants.
6. General independence training -
degree to which children are trained
toward freedom from control,
domination, and supervision.

The Characteristics Valued and Expected

in Caregivers - includes the cultural
parenting styles, value systems,
developmental expectations, and parental
belief systems.
Independent Model - parents facilitate
children to become self-sustaining,
productive adults who enter relationships
with other adults by choice., the child
receives nurturance in order to develop
autonomy, competence, and a freely chosen
identity, which they carry into adulthood.
Interdependent Model - emphasizes
parents who help their children grow into
socially responsible adults who take their
place in a strong network of social
relationships, often with a larger extended
family, which places certain obligations and
expectations on the adult.