Unit - IV: Physical Education

Unit - IV: Physical Education

S. N. TOPIC PAGE NO.

Physical Education

1.
Sports psychology- its importance in the field 3-11
of physical education and sports

2.
Motivation in sports- types, theories and 12-23
dynamics.

3.
Psychological factors affecting sports 24-29
performance- Emotions, Anxiety aggression,
stress ,self confidence, concentration ,
mental practice and goal setting.
4.
Personality- Theories of personality, 30-43
measurement of personality.

5.
Group dynamics, Group cohesion and 44-54
leadership in sports.

6.
Cognitive process- memory and thinking. 55-70
Principles of Motor skill learning.

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7.
Transfer of training and its types with its 71-129
implication in sports. Long and short term
psychological preparation for performance/
competition, Psychological skill training for
activation and relaxation, Spectators and
sports performance.

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What is Sports psychology- its importance in the

field of physical education and sports?

Sports psychology- its importance in the field of physical

education and sports

Sports psychology is a relatively young discipline in psychology. In

1920, Carl Diem founded the world’s first sports psychology
laboratory at the Deutsche Sporthochschule in Berlin, Germany. In
1925, two more sports psychology labs were established—one by
A.Z. Puni at the Institute of Physical Culture in Leningrad and the
other by Coleman Griffith at the University of Illinois.
Griffith began offering the first course in sports psychology in 1923
and later published the first book on the subject titled The
Psychology of Coaching (1926). Unfortunately, Griffith’s lab was
closed in 1932 due to a lack of funds. After the lab was shut down,
there was very little research on sports psychology until the subject
experienced a revival of interest during the 1960s.
Ferruccio Antonelli established the International Society of Sport
Psychology (ISSP) in 1965 and by the 1970s sports psychology had
been introduced to university course offerings throughout North
America. The first academic journal, the International Journal of
Sport Psychology, was introduced in 1970, which was then followed
by the establishment of the Journal of Sport Psychology in 1979.
By the 1980s, sports psychology became the subject of a more
rigorous scientific focus as researchers began to explore how
psychology could be used to improve athletic performance, as well
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as how exercise could be utilized to improve mental well-being and

lower stress levels.

Applied Sports psychologists

Applied sport and exercise psychology involves extending theory

and research into the field to educate coaches, athletes, parents,
exercisers, fitness professionals, and athletic trainers about the
psychological aspects of their sport or activity. A primary goal of
professionals in applied sport and exercise psychology is to
facilitate optimal involvement, performance, and enjoyment in sport
and exercise.
Practice in the field of applied sport and exercise psychology usually
involves a combination of individual and group consulting or
counseling depending on the style of the professional conducting
the intervention and the needs of the client. Although there are
many specific concepts within applied sport and exercise
psychology (e.g., goal setting, concentration, motivation, relaxation,
imagery), the general goal is to teach mental skills necessary to
perform consistently in training and competition, increase
adherence to exercise programs, and to help individuals realize
their potential.
Major Topics of Sports Psychology
There are a number of different topics that are of special interest to
sports psychologists. Some professionals focus on a specific area,
while others study a wide range of techniques.

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 Attentional focus: Involves the ability to tune out distractions,

such as a crowd of screaming fans, and focus attention on the
task at hand.
 Imagery: Involves visualizing performing a task, such as
participating in an athletic event or successfully performing a
particular skill.
 Motivation: A major subject in sports psychology, the study
of motivation looks at both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.
Extrinsic motivators are external rewards, such as trophies,
money, medals, or social recognition. Intrinsic motivators arise
from within, such as a personal desire to win or the sense of
pride that comes from performing a skill.
Role of Sports Psychologist:
 Bachelors degree in Psychology/Kinesiology or related
(essential).
 Member of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology
(highly advantageous).
 Two years of experience as a Sports Psychologist.
 Thorough understanding of sports culture and the ability to
display sound judgment.
 Ability to communicate and interact closely with athletes,
coaching staff and administrative personnel.
 Tailor strategies that assist athletes in overcoming difficulties,
improving performance and preparing for competition.
 Work with a multidisciplinary team including other
psychologists, nutritionists, GPs, coaches and physiologists.

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Role of Sports Psychology

The specialized field of sports psychology has developed rapidly in
recent years. The importance of a sports psychologist as an integral
member of the coaching and health care teams is widely
recognized. Sports psychologists can teach skills to help athletes
enhance their learning process and motor skills, cope with
competitive pressures, fine-tune the level of awareness needed for
optimal performance, and stay focused amid the many distractions
of team travel and in the competitive environment.

Importance of Sports psychology

This is best accomplished by a collaborative effort among the

coach, the sport psychologist, and the athlete; however, a
knowledgeable and interested coach can learn basic psychological
skills and impart them to the athlete, especially during actual
practice.to help the parties’ air and resolve differences.
The following points the importance of sports psychology
1. Enhancement of Physiological Capacities
Sports psychology plays a very unique role in the enhancement of
physiological capacities such as strength, speed and flexibility etc.,
Motivation plays a major role in the enhancement of physical
capacity of sport persons. It is wellknown as well as an established
fact that psychological capacities or powers can increase
physiological capacities of individuals.
2. Learning the Motor Skills

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Sports psychology plays its major role in the learning of motor skills.
Motor skills learning depends on the individual's level of readiness,
i.e., physiological readiness and psychological readiness.
Physiological readiness in children is development of the necessary
strength, flexibility and endurance as well as the development of
various organ systems so that they may perform motor skills
required in the activity. Psychological readiness is related to the
learner's state of mind. It means the desire and willingness to learn
the particular skill. In psychological readiness, sports psychology
plays an important role. Sports psychology is also helpful in the
cognitive stage, the social-active stage and the autonomous stage
of motor skill learning.
3. Understanding the behavior
Sports psychology helps in understanding the behavior of athletes
or sportspersons engaged in competitive sports. Coaches also
come to know the interest, attitude towards physical activity,
instincts, drives and personality of sportspersons. It does not play its
role only in understanding of behavior but it also plays its role in
medication of behavior in various sports situations.
4. Controlling the emotions
Sports psychology plays a very important role in controlling the
emotions of sportspersons during practice as well as competition.
Generally, these emotions may bring spontaneous changes in the
behavior of sportspersons. These are anger, disgust, gear, negative
self-thinking and feeling of ownership, etc. If these emotions are not
controlled well in time, the performance may be decreased. Sports
psychology plays a vital role at such juncture. It helps in balancing
the arousal of emotions which further improves the performance.
5. Preparation of athletes psycho-logically for competitions
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Sports psychology also plays its role in preparation of athletes

psychologically for competitions. Intact, it has become a trend to
give psychological tips to athletes or team players before and after
the competitions. That is why, sports psychologists' services are
required with a national level and international level terms. They
create the will 'to win' in the players.
6. Role in the emotional problems of sports persons
Stress, tension and anxiety are natural during practice period and
competitions or tournaments. There may be some other emotional
problems such as depression, frustration. Anorexia and panic etc.
The knowledge of sports psychology may be helpful in such
situations. Techniques of relaxation and concentration for stress
management can be applied on sportspersons who are under such
problems. Conclusively, it can be said that sports psychology plays
a very vital role in enhancing the performance of sportspersons. It
deals with the various mental qualities such as concentration,
confidence, emotional control and commitment etc., which are
important for successful performance in sports and games.
Areas of study in sports psychology

Sports psychology graduate students are involved in a diverse

range of research topics, from the importance of personality factors
in athletic performance to the benefits of exercise for non-athletes.
Within each of these topic areas, researchers are generally
concerned with how to improve performance (both at an individual
and team level), improve health, or manage the impact of athletics
on other areas of life. The Association of Applied Sports Psychology
hosts an annual conference at which researchers share current
findings in the field[i].
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Youth Sports
Sports psychologists are interested in determining the benefits and
drawbacks of youth involvement in sports, and ask questions such
as, “Do youth who participate in sports show improved emotional
and social skills in other areas of their lives?” Other topics include
the impact of parental involvement, problems with burnout and over-
training, and perfectionism. For example, researchers have sought
to determine the effect of parental pressure on young athletes [ii].
Finally, some researchers are interested to examine whether it is
advantageous for student athletes to progress directly to
professional sports or attend college first.
Personality and Motivation
Sports psychology researchers seek to identify the ideal conditions
for optimal performance by examining topics such as mental
toughness, confidence, self-esteem, motivation, and perfectionism.
For example, do athletes who are motivated by a desire to improve
(intrinsic motivation) perform better than those who are motivated by
a desire to win (extrinsic motivation)[iii]? Other research has focused
on the use of visualization strategies to improve skills and reduce
performance anxiety. Finally, the ability to block out distractions
during competitions has been studied – such as how to maintain
attention on a golf swing when a crowd is watching.
Team Dynamics and Coaching
Sports psychology researchers examine not only individual factors
in athletic performance, but also what makes a team successful. At
a team level, researchers are interested to examine cohesion in
both a social and task-oriented sense, and the impact of those

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factors on performance. For example, does a team that meshes well

socially perform better in competition? Research has also focused
on identifying team-building strategies that lead to success[iv].
Elite Performance
Sports psychologists seek to understand what sets elite athletes
apart, as well as how they cope with the pressure and stress of a
competitive lifestyle. Specifically, researchers have studied how
elite athletes manage transitions (such as during the Olympics),
how they maintain balance between life and athletics, and what they
do to prepare for competitions[v]. Additional topics include the
importance of mental toughness and the right motivational climate
for teams[vi].
Non-Athletes
At the other end of the spectrum, sports psychology researchers
study exercise and health topics in relation to non-athletes. For
example, topics include the impact of exercise on mental health,
how to improve compliance to an exercise program, and the use of
music for motivation during exercise. Researchers have also
investigated the impact of specific exercise programs on health and
the management of specific conditions such as fibromyalgia.

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What is Motivation in sports- types, theories and

dynamics?

Motivation in sports- types, theories and dynamics

Motivation is the foundation of all athletic effort and

accomplishment. Without your desire and determination to improve
your sports performances, all of the other mental
factors, confidence, intensity, focus, and emotions, are
meaningless. To become the best athlete you can be, you must be
motivated to do what it takes to maximize your ability and achieve
your goals.
Motivation, simply defined, is the ability to initiate and persist at a
task. To perform your best, you must want to begin the process of
developing as an athlete and you must be willing to maintain your
efforts until you have achieved your goals. Motivation in sports is so
important because you must be willing to work hard in the face of
fatigue, boredom, pain, and the desire to do other things. Motivation
will impact everything that influences your sports performance:
physical conditioning, technical and tactical training, mental
preparation, and general lifestyle including sleep, diet, school or
work, and relationships.
Definitions of motivation
Berelson and Steiner:
“A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and
directs or channels behaviour goals.”

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Lillis:
“It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one’s
will and promoting or driving it to action.”
The Encyclopedia of Management:
“Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an organism to pursue
some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature
and locus of the forces, including the degree of readiness.”
Dubin:
“Motivation is the complex of forces starting and keeping a person
at work in an organization.”
Vance:
“Motivation implies any emotion or desire which so conditions one’s
will that the individual is properly led into action.”
Vitiles:
“Motivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of
tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to make in a goal-
directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfying
the need.”
Memoria:
“A willingness to expend energy to achieve a goal or reward. It is a
force that activates dormant energies and sets in motion the action
of the people. It is the function that kindles a burning passion for
action among the human beings of an organisation.”
1. Intrinsic Motivation

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Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in which an individual is

being motivated by internal desires.
For example, let’s say an individual named Bob has set himself a
goal to begin losing weight and becoming healthier.
Let’s also imagine that Bob’s reason to pursue this path of fitness
and wellness is to improve his health overall and feel more happier
with his appearance.
Since Bob’s desire to change comes from within, his motivation is
intrinsic.
2. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is a type of motivation in
which an individual is being motivated by external desires.
Rather than being motivated by the need to look better and feel
healthier, let’s say that Bob was feeling pressure from his wife to
slim down and improve his physique so that she would be more
attracted to him.
Since this pressure comes from the outside, this is an example of
extrinsic motivation.

Theories and Dynamics of Motivation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology
comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as
hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

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Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before

individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the
hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological, safety, love and
belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)

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Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events

and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. Heider (1958)
was the first to propose a psychological theory of attribution, but
Weiner and colleagues (e.g., Jones et al, 1972; Weiner, 1974,
1986) developed a theoretical framework that has become a major
research paradigm of social psychology. Attribution theory assumes
that people try to determine why people do what they do, i.e.,
attribute causes to behavior.
A person seeking to understand why another person did something
may attribute one or more causes to that behavior. A three-stage
process underlies an attribution:
(1) the person must perceive or observe the behavior,
(2) then the person must believe that the behavior was intentionally
performed, and
(3) then the person must determine if they believe the other person
was forced to perform the behavior (in which case the cause is
attributed to the situation) or not (in which case the cause is
attributed to the other person).
Weiner focused his attribution theory on achievement (Weiner,
1974). He identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck as the
most important factors affecting attributions for achievement.
Attributions are classified along three causal dimensions: locus of
control, stability, and controllability.
The locus of control dimension has two poles: internal versus
external locus of control. The stability dimension captures whether
causes change over time or not. For instance, ability can be
classified as a stable, internal cause, and effort classified as
unstable and internal. Controllability contrasts causes one can

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control, such as skill/efficacy, from causes one cannot control, such

as aptitude, mood, others’ actions, and luck.
Application
Weiner’s theory has been widely applied in education, law, clinical
psychology, and the mental health domain. There is a strong
relationship between self-concept and achievement. Weiner (1980)
states: “Causal attributions determine affective reactions to success
and failure. For example, one is not likely to experience pride in
success, or feelings of competence, when receiving an ‘A’ from a
teacher who gives only that grade, or when defeating a tennis
player who always loses…On the other hand, an ‘A’ from a teacher
who gives few high grades or a victory over a highly rated tennis
player following a great deal of practice generates great positive
affect.
Example
Attribution theory has been used to explain the difference in
motivation between high and low achievers. According to attribution
theory, high achievers will approach rather than avoid tasks related
to succeeding because they believe success is due to high ability
and effort which they are confident of. Failure is thought to be
caused by bad luck or a poor exam, i.e. not their fault. Thus, failure
doesn’t affect their self-esteem but success builds pride and
confidence. On the other hand, low achievers avoid success-related
chores because they tend to
(a) doubt their ability and/or
(b) assume success is related to luck or to “who you know” or to
other factors beyond their control.

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Thus, even when successful, it isn’t as rewarding to the low

achiever because he/she doesn’t feel responsible, i.e., it doesn’t
increase his/her pride and confidence.
Achievement Theory of Motivation
Achievement Motivation Theory is one of the famous works of
American psychologist David Clarence McClelland. This theory is
also widely recognized as Need Achievement Theory, Need Theory
and Three Needs Theory. McClelland being influenced by Henry
Murray’s initiatives developed this theory in the early 60s.
Achievement Theory of Motivation is all about how needs of an
individual change over a period of time with changes in his
experience. The theory also explains what effects an individual’s
need for achievement, power, and affiliation have on their behavior.
McClelland has stated that every individual’s motivation is driven by
the need of these factors, irrespective of age, gender, race or
culture one belongs to.
Psychological factors affecting physical performance and
sports
Components of Achievement Theory of Motivation
Different people are motivated by different factors. These factors
depend upon the nature or type of person he/she is. Based on the
fact, achievement theory of motivation was developed by
considering three major factors.

Achievement goal orientation theory

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Achievement goal orientation theory suggests there are 2 broad

thought processes and behaviors used to achieve competence in
either assigned or self-directed learning goals (performance and
mastery). Performance goal orientation is dominated by those who
seek to gain competence by performing as well as possible relative
to others.
These individuals look for challenging goals and competitive
environments with articulated achievement standards. Mastery goal
orientation is dominated by those who gain competence by learning
as much as possible about a particular topic through immersion.
They tend to seek challenging tasks and use adaptive behaviors to
gain knowledge apart from or in addition to articulated expectations.
These behaviors can be further divided into approach and
avoidance goals.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Represents a broad framework for the study of human motivation

and personality. SDT articulates a meta-theory for framing
motivational studies, a formal theory that defines intrinsic and varied
extrinsic sources of motivation, and a description of the respective
roles of intrinsic and types of extrinsic motivation in cognitive and
social development and in individual differences. Perhaps more
importantly, SDT propositions also focus on how social and cultural
factors facilitate or undermine people’s sense of volition and
initiative, in addition to their well-being and the quality of their
performance.

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Conditions supporting the individual’s experience of autonomy,

competence, and relatedness are argued to foster the most
volitional and high quality forms of motivation and engagement for
activities, including enhanced performance, persistence, and
creativity. In addition, SDT proposes that the degree to which any of
these three psychological needs is unsupported or thwarted within a
social context will have a robust detrimental impact on wellness in
that setting.

Competence Motivation Theory

Competence motivation theory is a conceptual framework

designed to explain individuals’ motivation to participate, persist,
and work hard in any particular achievement context. The
central thesis of the theory is that individuals are attracted to
participation in activities at which they feel competent or
capable. The theory can be used by researchers and practitioners in
sport and exercise psychology fields to identify why and how
children, adolescents, and adults can be encouraged to participate
and to exert effort in these achievement contexts.
In the following entry, the research and theory on competence
motivation within the physical domain are reviewed. This begins
with a brief historical overview of the theory and its constructs.
Following that, the results of the research on the following
segments are summarized:
(a) correlates of competence motivation,
(b) developmental trends in perceived competence, and

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(c) the impact of significant others on competence motivation.

Motives or Needs
Motivation is the process in which the learner’s internal energies or
needs are directed towards various goal objects in his environment.
In other words, motivation is the condition which increases the
desire to perform better. There are certain basic motives or needs
that every person, whether he is a child or an adult, tries to satisfy.
So long as one’s present behavior and knowledge are adequate to
satisfy all his needs, he will not try to change his behavior or acquire
new knowledge. We modify our attitudes, interest and personalities
and we acquire new knowledge only when our present behavior and
knowledge do not satisfy our motives.
To learn something new, firstly there must be a goal that attracts us
and secondly there must be some obstacle that keeps us away from
attaining that goal. The reason is simple, because if there is no
obstacle in our way, our present behavior and the knowledge that
we have already acquired would lead us directly to our goals, and in
such a situation there would be no need to learn. We modify our
behavior only when it is necessary to do so, enabling us to reach
the goals that our unsatisfied motives create. The most effective
learning will take place only when there is maximum of mental
activity, which is attained through strong motivation.
Methods Of Motivation
a. Reinforcement
Reinforcement is an important motivational tool. It refers to any type
of event that increases or decreases the likelihood of a similar
response occurring in the future. Positive reinforcements inform the
athlete when he is doing something right and encourage the

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continuation of the activity in the specific direction. Negative

reinforcement is generally, of little value because it merely indicates
that the behavior is incorrect without providing information with
respect to the correct response of behavior.
b. Length of practice
For motivating and initiating young athletes to any activity, the
length of practice must be in good planning according to the interest
of the participants.
c. Knowing your Athlete/ Student
It is very important to know that each athlete comes from a different
background with varied experiences and have different degree of
maturation. They have different attitudes and options towards sports
event and people in the sports environment. Each will have different
interest and desires.
Thus obviously what motivates one athlete may not motivate
another. Knowing all these individual differences will enable a
teacher or coach to motivate the athlete through suitable ways, and
in appropriate manner.
d. Teacher as a Motivator

A teacher or a coach is one of the most important personalities

which guides his students to a particular direction for the attainment
of desire result in a particular event, which he impart to the students
while training. For this a teacher should have a quality of good
motivator.
4. Facilities And Equipment It is one of the most important
motivational features which attracts /motivates players towards a
particular event which he wants to learn according to his choice. For

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this facilities and equipments plays an important role because

without these, a player is unable to motivate to his event.
a. Reward And Punishment Student endeavors to do the best in
order to get reward. He becomes pleased when he is given reward
and greater enthusiasm on the part of the student is shown.
Following things must be kept in mind while giving reward is always
fatal for the future progress of an individual.
Success And Failure
Success creates self confidence among individuals and possibility
of more successes increases. Teacher/coach creates such an
environment in the class in which all the barriers in the way of
success are removed. Failure can also work as a source of
motivation especially the talented students accept the failure as a
challenge for them.
In order to use this technique in the class rooms/ ground situation,
the teacher presents such problems in the class which students are
unable to perform the skill which his teacher/ coach given to them.
The bright students accept this challenge for future and thus they
are motivated for work.

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What is Psychological factors affecting sports

performance- Emotions, Anxiety aggression, stress
,self confidence, concentration , mental practice
and goal setting?

Psychological factors affecting sports performance- Emotions,

Anxiety aggression, stress ,self confidence, concentration ,
mental practice and goal setting

Performance in sports is no longer dependent on physiological well-

being of the athlete. It is clear now that there are numerous
psychological factors which affect and improve the physical
performance.
Emotions
Emotions are our feelings. Literally, we feel them in our bodies as
tingles, hot spots and muscular tension. Emotions are biologically
based adaptations that assist us in responding to particular external
stimuli. We win a soccer match, we jump with joy, we lose a dear
one, we feel sad, we see a beggar, we laugh, and so on. Almost
every situation evokes some feeling, and as the situation becomes
intense, it is expressed as emotion.
No aspect of our mental life is more important to the quality and
meaning of our existence than emotions, because emotions actually
express our true feelings. According to Young definition, emotions
are actually disturbed states or processes which originate in
psychological situations and which are revealed by marked bodily

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changes in the glands and smooth muscles. Emotions lies at the top
of the Prime Sport Pyramid, The Prime Sport Pyramid is ordered in
a purposeful and logical manner. Its order is based on the sequence
in which the factors impact sports performance .
Emotions are a response which is characterized by the generation
of energy within the body and psyche. They provide energy for us to
confront challenges. Emotions play a central role in sports
performance. Without being emotionally aroused an athlete’ s
“psyching up” procedure is not complete. All winning performance
are invariably a result of emotional upsurge in the athlete.
Stress and Anxiety
In psychology, stress is a feeling of strain and pressure. Small
amounts of stress may be desired, beneficial, and even healthy.
Positive stress helps improve athletic performance. It also plays a
factor in motivation, adaptation, and reaction to the environment.
Excessive amounts of stress, however, may lead to bodily harm.
Stress can increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers,
dwarfism, and mental illnesses such as depression.
Stress can be external and related to the environment, but may
also be created by internal perceptions that cause an individual to
experience anxiety or other negative emotions surrounding a
situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem
stressful. Not all stress is bad for your performance. Stress can
affect your performance in two different ways.
Aggression
Both animals and human beings have biologically inherited
aggression as an emotional expression. While aggression in
animals has limited biological motive, aggression in man has

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psychological and social orientation with chief motive being

possession (acquisition of wealth, property, territory, etc.),
expansion (making the self, community and society grow in
dimensions), and domination (showing oneself as stronger, more
important, and more effective than others).
Self-confidence:
Self-confidence: Is the belief that you can successfully perform a
desired behaviour.
Concentration
Concentration (or attention) is the mental quality to focus on the
task at hand while ignoring distractions. The capacity to concentrate
is widely regarded by athletes, coaches and sports psychologists as
one of the keys to successful performance in sport. Coaches have
long been concerned with how concentration or attention levels
among athletes can be improved and maintained and how
distractions can be avoided.
Common distractions appear to be anxiety, skill errors and
mistakes, fatigue, weather, public announcements, opposition
players, ‘sledging’ and negative thoughts. Research on
concentration and attention suggests that coaches can assist
athletes to improve their level of attention by:
• assessing the attentional strengths and weaknesses of their
athletes — coaches should encourage athletes to think about when
and where they displayed good concentration and under what
conditions or situations their concentration tends to wander
• assessing the attentional demands of a given sport — each sport
is different in terms of its attentional demands. The demand for
attention varies from sport to sport and even from skill to skill: —
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sustained attention: distance running, cycling, tennis, squash —

short bursts of attention: cricket, golf, shooting, athletic field events
— intense attention: sprinting events, bobsleigh, skiing.
Mental imagery
(visualisation) Mental imagery or visualisation is one of the simplest
and most tried-andtrue methods for psychologically preparing
athletes to perform. Mental imagery involves athletes visualising
themselves performing a skill or competition event flawlessly, such
as sinking a putt in golf or successfully throwing a free-throw goal in
basketball.
There are a variety of techniques that involve the use of mental
imagery:
• mental practice:
used for a specific movement or skill, such as a penalty kick in
soccer
• mental rehearsal:
used for a complete athletic performance. The athlete must create
as detailed an image as possible and visualise themselves
performing flawlessly in a game environment.
• mental review:
used to recount the occurrences of a past performance. It is
important to learn from any negative aspects, yet move past them to
focus on positive results.
• self-affirmation:
use imagery to improve self-confidence by imagining successful
performances.
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Goal setting
Goal setting is an extremely effective motivational technique.
Through goal setting athletes are able to work towards achieving
specific and beneficial objectives and results. However, to be a
successful tool, goals must meet the following criteria based on the
acronym SMARTER:
• Specific: athletes and coaches should make their goals as
specific and detailed as possible
• Measurable: goals should be measurable and assessed against a
standard or previous performance, otherwise there is no way of
determining whether or not they were achieved
• Accepted: all of the parties involved in the setting of the goals (the
athlete, the coach, the manager, family members etc.) should
accept them
• Realistic: goals need to be challenging, but also achievable. Goals
should be framed in a positive manner and should not be related
just to winning, but more importantly, to improvement.
• Time-framed: short-term and long-term goals should be set and
there should be a specific date for when they will be achieved
• Exciting: the goals set should challenge, excite and inspire the
athlete
• Recorded: the agreed goals should be recorded by the coach and
the athlete to provide a constant reminder and to act as a source of
motivation.

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What is Personality- Theories of personality,

measurement of personality?

Personality- Theories of personality, measurement of

personality

The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona,
which refers to a theatrical mask worn by performers in order to
either project different roles or disguise their identities.
At its most basic, personality is the characteristic patterns of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. It is
believed that personality arises from within the individual and
remains fairly consistent throughout life.
Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences,
ranging from genetic explanations for personality traits to the role of
the environment and experience in shaping an individual's
personality.
Freud discovered that mind is like an iceberg and we have limited
conscious Conscious level: The thoughts, feelings, and sensations
that one is aware of atthe presentawareness.Freud proposed that
psychological forces operate at three levels of awareness:
Unconscious level: It consists of thought, feelings, wishes, drives
etc. of whichwe are not

 Preconscious level: It contains information of which one is not

currently aware,however, they can easily enter conscious mind.

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moment. aware. It, however, influences our conscious level of

activity.
Personality Structure
Freud believed that human personality emerges due to a conflict
between ouraggressive and pleasure seeking biological impulses
and the internalized socialrestraints against them. Thus, personality
arises in the course of our effort to resolvethe conflicts.
To this end he proposed three structures which interact with
eachother: Id, Ego and Super Ego. Let us learn about these
structures:
Id: It is the unconscious, irrational part of personality . It is the
primitive part immuneto morality and demands of the external world.
It operates on the pleasure principle.It seeks immediate satisfaction.
Ego: It is involved with the workings of the real world. It operates on
the realityprinciple. It is the conscious, and rational part of
personality that regulates thoughtsand behaviors. It teaches the
person to balance demands of external world andneeds of the
person.
Super Ego: It is the internal representation of parental and societal
values. Itworks as the voice of conscience, that compels the ego to
consider not only thereal but also the ideal. It judges one’ s
behaviors as right or wrong, good or bad.Failing up to moral ideals
bring about the shame, guilt, inferiority and anxiety in theperson.
Characteristics of Personality
So what exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of
thought and emotion play important roles as well as the following
fundamental characteristics of personality:

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 Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and

regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same
ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Psychological and physiological: Personality is a
psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also
influenced by biological processes and needs.
 Behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how
we move and respond in our environment, but it
also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than
just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings,
close relationships, and other social interactions.
Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the
work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of
the unconscious mind on personality. Psychodynamic theories
include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

Marten's Schematic View of Personality

Marten's views personality as having three layers that a person

must process to find their personality.
Level 1 - Psychological Core is the deepest level of a person's
personality make up. This level is central to a person's personality
and takes in factors such as values, beliefs, self worth and attitudes
towards fundamental issues in life. This level is seen as "your true

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self". Marten's argued that this component is stable (not going to

change) and an internal (not seen by everyone).
Level 2 - Standard Response is the second stage in Marten's
personality table and identifies how people normally respond to
situations in life and adapt to the environment they are surrounded
in. The Standard Responses can help highlight a person's
psychological core (level 1), although this is only an indication as
the social environment can affect a person's response to situation.
An example of this would be a loud and aggressive boxer, can be
become reserved and shy when meeting new people.
Level 3 - Situation Related Behaviour is the most fickle level of a
person's personality. This level identifies how people change their
behaviour to fit in to specific situations, we as humans adapt our
personalities to suit a specific situation. An example of this would be
a professional football manager would not show the same behaviour
throughout the day they would have to be a manager, friend,
advisor, parent and partner during their day in different situations.
Martens identified this as a level that is changeable (unstable) and
can be seen by many (External).
Interactional Approach of Theories of Personality
The framework proposes an interactional approach: both the
characteristics of the person and of the work context are important
to the occurrence of procrastination and its effect on well-being at
work. The exact relation of person and context factors may differ
according to which factors are involved. Sometimes, the context
makes the occurrence of certain behaviors less likely, and
sometimes they enhance particular behaviors of the person.
Personality theories

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Trait theory
It is suggested by Trait theorists such as Eysenck and Cattell that
an individual has underlying personality characteristics which are
consistent over a variety of situations and are therefore more likely
to respond in a certain way. They believe that individuals are born
with their personality characteristics.
Example:
A snooker player, who is very calm and controlled during a game,
would also show they are calm and controlled when they are stuck
in a traffic jam for an hour.
Eysenck and the Trait theory
Eysenck suggests that personality lies on two dimensions which lie
along continuums:

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The two continuums are represented as a cross where personalities

can be plotted, as like on a graph. This identifies where athletes lie
along the extrovert/neurotic continuum.
Eysenck's Personality Inventory

As you can see in the example, Paula Radcliffe (PR) has been
identified as introvert/stable. Athletes may not easily fall in to one
category and may show characteristics from each, but maybe
slightly more one than the other, e.g. more introvert than extrovert
and stable than neurotic. Although Paula Radcliffe maybe classed
as introvert as she appears quite shy, she also demonstrates
confidence when running which is classed as an extrovert trait.
Similarly she often appears very level headed (stable) but she has
been known to breakdown when her race is not going to plan

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(neurotic). Therefore she would not be placed at the extremes of the

continuums.
Cattell's 16PF Trait Theory
Cattell (1965) disagreed with Eysenck’s view that personality can be
understood by looking at only two or three dimensions of behavior.
Instead, he argued that that is was necessary to look at a much
larger number of traits in order to get a complete picture of
someone’s personality.
Whereas Eysenck based his theory based on the responses of
hospitalized servicemen, Cattell collected data from a range of
people through three different sources of data.
 L-data - this is life record data such as school grades,
absence from work, etc.
 Q-data - this was a questionnaire designed to rate an
individual's personality (known as the 16PF) .
 T-data - this is data from objective tests designed to 'tap' into a
personality construct.
Cattell analyzed the T-data and Q-data using a mathematical
technique called factor analysis to look at which types of behavior
tended to be grouped together in the same people. He identified 16
personality traits / factors common to all people.
Big Five personality traits
Human resources professionals often use the Big Five personality
dimensions to help place employees. That is because these
dimensions are considered to be the underlying traits that make up
an individual’s overall personality.

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The Big Five personality traits are:

 Openness
 Conscientiousness
 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Neuroticism
or OCEAN:
 Openness -
 People who like to learn new things and enjoy new
experiences usually score high in openness. Openness
includes traits like being insightful and imaginative and having
a wide variety of interests.
 Conscientiousness –
 People that have a high degree of conscientiousness are
reliable and prompt. Traits include being organized, methodic,
and thorough.
 Extraversion –
 Extraverts get their energy from interacting with others, while
introverts get their energy from within themselves.
Extraversion includes the traits of energetic, talkative, and
assertive.
 Agreeableness –
 These individuals are friendly, cooperative, and
compassionate. People with low agreeableness may be more

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distant. Traits include being kind, affectionate, and

sympathetic.
 Neuroticism –
Neuroticism is also sometimes called Emotional Stability. This
dimension relates to one’s emotional stability and degree of
negative emotions. People that score high on neuroticism often
experience emotional instability and negative emotions. Traits
include being moody and tense.
Social Learning Theory
Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a
wide variety of factors. As most parents are probably very much
aware, observation can play a critical role in determining how and
what children learn.1 As the saying goes, kids are very much like
sponges, soaking up the experiences they have each and every
day.
Because learning is so complex, there are many different
psychological theories to explain how and why people learn. A
psychologist named Albert Bandura proposed a social learning
theory which suggests that observation and modeling play a primary
role in this process.

Situational Influences on Personality

Certain situations and circumstances can influence a person’s day

in a positive or negative way. Depending on the circumstance, a
normally positive person may become more negative. On the other
hand, a traditionally pessimistic person may appear to be more
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positive. So how is this possible? You have experienced both

triumphs and tribulations in your lifetime and whether or not you
realized it, they most likely impacted the way you acted and altered
your personality for that period of time. It is human nature for
emotions and personalities to differ depending on what is happening
in our lives.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Originating in the work of Sigmund Freud, the psychodynamic

perspective emphasizes unconscious psychological processes (for
example, wishes and fears of which we’re not fully aware), and
contends that childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult
personality.
The psychodynamic perspective has evolved considerably since
Freud’s time, and now includes innovative new approaches such as
object relations theory and neuropsychoanalysis. Some
psychodynamic concepts have held up well to empirical scrutiny
while others have not, and aspects of the theory remain
controversial, but the psychodynamic perspective continues to
influence many different areas of contemporary psychology.

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that

human behavior is the result of the interactions among three
component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This
theory, known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places
great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in
shaping behavior and personality. Dynamic interactions among
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these fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress

through five distinct psychosexual stages of development. Over the
last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with
criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the
main driver of human personality development.
Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind
According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions
among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the
human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these
three structures, and our efforts to find balance among what each of
them “desires,” determines how we behave and approach the world.
What balance we strike in any given situation determines how we
will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral
tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives
vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.

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Conflict within the mind: According to Freud, the job of the ego is
to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the
moral control of the superego.
The Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with
instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates
entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example,
if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most
likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is
rude to take something belonging to someone else; it would care
only that you wanted the ice cream.
The Superego
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to
what many people call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.”
It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and
wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not
take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude.
However, if both your id and your superego were involved, and your
id was strong enough to override your superego’s concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most
likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.
The Ego
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is
the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive
than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what
Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the
demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality.
So, if you walked past the stranger with ice cream one more time,

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your ego would mediate the conflict between your id (“I want that ice
cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone else’s
ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this
may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate
your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the
compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also
avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of
shame.
Effects on sports performance
Previous research suggests that there is no such thing as an
athletic personality. This means that when you look at athletes
versus non-athletes, there is little difference between personality
types. However, if you look closer, some differences start to appear.
There are different effects on sports performance in singles tennis
than in football team. E.g. a football player would be mainly
extroversion as the player works as a team with his other players.
E.g. the player may consist of being active, energetic, social little
concern for possible consequences, lacks concentration, likes
excitement and variety is the spice of life. Also the football player
would mainly be in Type B category, which consists of people who
are more relaxed; they are also tolerant towards others and have
low levels of personal anxiety.
Measurement of personality
This article throws light upon the top four methods used for
measuring the personality of an individual. The methods are:
(a) Observation:
Observation of behaviour of a person over a long period is one of
the techniques of assessing personality traits.
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(b) Case Study Method:

In this method the case history has to be re-organized and re-
written from infancy upto adulthood. Really speaking, on the basis
of this method, the reality of the personality is found out.
(c) Interview:
It is a process of communication or interaction in which the
interviewee gives the needed information verbally to the interviewer
in a face-to-face situation or one-to-one situation.
(d) Autobiography:
Autobiography method is also used to assess personality. The child
is asked to write his own autobiography and certain personality
characteristics can be studied from them.
(e) Cumulative Record Card:
The cumulative record is a useful and permanent record which
includes various information about the child.
Personality Inventories:
Ari individual’s written account of the past behaviour, feelings and
wishes can be a good source of information about his personality.
Self-ratings can be done through personality inventories and paper
and pencil test.
Some popular personality inventories are:
1. California Tests of Personality.
2. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).
3. Bell’s Adjustment Inventory.

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4. Woodworth Personal Data Sheet.

5. Edward Personal Preference Schedule.
6. Cornell Index.
7. Boyd’s Personality Questionnaire.
8. Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey.
9. Minnesota Counselling Inventory.
10. Thurstone Temperament Schedule.

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What is Group dynamics, Group cohesion and

leadership in sports?

Group dynamics, Group cohesion and leadership in sports

Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns of

a group. It can be used as a means for problem-solving, teamwork,
and to become more innovative and productive as an organization.
The concept of group dynamics will also provide you with the
strengths, success factors and measures along with other
professional tools.
The term ‘group dynamics’ means the study of forces within a
group. Since human beings have an innate desire for belonging to a
group, group dynamism is bound to occur. In an organization or in a
society, we can see groups, small or large, working for the well-
being.
The social process by which people interact with one another in
small groups can be called group dynamism. A group has certain
common objectives & goals. Because of which members are bound
together with certain values and culture.

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Importance of Group Dynamism

1. Firstly, a group can influence the way the members think. The
members are always influenced by the interactions of other
members in the group. A group with a good leader performs
better as compared to a group with a weak leader.

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2. The group can give the effect of synergy, that is, if the group
consists of positive thinkers then its output is more than double
every time.
3. Group dynamism can furthermore give job satisfaction to the
members.
4. The group can also infuse the team spirit among the members.
5. Even the attitude, insights & ideas of members depend on
group dynamism. For example, negative thinkers convert to
positive thinkers with the help of the facilitator.
6. Also, if the group works as a cohesive group, the cooperation
and convergence can result in maximization of productivity
7. Furthermore, group dynamism can reduce labor unrest. Lastly,
it reduces labor turnover due to emotional attachment among
the group members.
Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:
Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve?
There is a process of five stages through which groups pass
through. The process includes the five stages: forming, storming,
forming, performing, and adjourning.
Forming:
The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a
group. This stage is characterized by members seeking either a
work assignment (in a formal group) or other benefit, like status,
affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group). Members at this stage
either engage in busy type of activity or show apathy.
Storming:

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The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads

and triads. Members seek out familiar or similar individuals and
begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the subgroup
creates a differentiation in the group and tensions across the dyads
/ triads may appear. Pairing is a common phenomenon. There will
be conflict about controlling the group.
Norming:
The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious
concern about task performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up
and seek out other members in the group. Efforts are made to
establish various norms for task performance.
Types of Groups:
One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and
informal. While formal groups are established by an organization to
achieve its goals, informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal
groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and
functional groups.
1. Command Groups:
Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and
often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that
supervisor. An example of a command group is a market research
firm CEO and the research associates under him.
2. Task Groups:
Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a
common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a
narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups
are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization

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appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be

accomplished.
Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product,
the improvement of a production process, or designing the syllabus
under semester system.
Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups,
and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups
created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process are
normally disbanded after the group completes the assigned task.
3. Functional Groups:
A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish
specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups
remain in existence after achievement of current goals and
objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing
department, a customer service department, or an accounting
department.
Group cohesion
Group cohesion can be described as the strength of bounds
between group members, the unity of a group, the feeling of
attraction between group members, and the degree to which
members concentrate their efforts to achieve group goals.
Therefore, we believe this definition given fits best: group cohesion
is a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to
stick together and remain united in its pursuit of instrumental
objectives and/or for the satisfaction of members affective needs
(Carron et. Al., 1998).
Being a dynamic process, group cohesion has the characteristic
that group tends to remain together and united in the pursuit of its
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goal for the satisfaction of the affective needs of group members

(Paskevich et. Al., 2001). Having a high group cohesion is
considered to be important and would lead to a better performance.
The relation between cohesion and performance was studied by
many researchers; and most concluded that “the connection
between cohesion and performance is reciprocal”.
Hence, high cohesion increases the group’s performance while
successful performance increases cohesion. However, both task
and social cohesion are related to group performance (Carron et.
Al., 2002). Team cohesion exists where players are united with a
common purpose (Cashmore, 2002). Members of the group spend
time and share common interests outside the group activity, which
signifies that the group has a good social cohesion. Task cohesion
is referring to a group united to accomplish a specific task
(Williamson, 2007).

Sport Leadership

An athlete leader in sport is defined as an individual who holds

a formal or informal leadership role within a team and influences
other group members in the pursuit of common objectives.
Researchers suggest that approximately one quarter of athletes
occupy some form of leadership role within a team, and highlight the
potential importance of athlete leadership toward positive group
functioning as well as the need for a more thorough
understanding of the topic. The following entry briefly highlights
the characteristics, types, and functions of athlete leaders, as
well as other important variables associated with the presence
of these individuals on sport teams.
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Characteristics of an Athlete Leader

Research generally demonstrates that individuals possessing
athlete leadership roles within a group have similar
characteristics. Maureen Weiss and colleagues Molly Moran and
Melissa Price revealed that athlete leaders self-report greater
friendship quality and peer acceptance, while Joseph Bucci,
Gordon Bloom, Todd Loughead, and Jeffrey Caron found
that these individuals have a stronger work ethic, desire for
high performance, and respect from teammates.
The latter researchers also noted that possessing these
characteristics leads to positive relationships with both coaches and
teammates, helping foster effective levels of communication within
the overall group structure. However, despite the importance and
prevalence of the social psychological characteristics noted above,
the most consistent characteristic of athlete leaders found in
previous research pertains to sport-related competence; in other
words, athletic ability is positively associated with ratings of athlete
leadership.
Types of Athlete Leadership
To garner an understanding of how athlete leadership
manifests itself in the sport context, it is important to
understand the emergence of the leadership role, as well as the
extent to which leadership behaviors influence group members.
Formal and Informal Athlete Leadership

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The formal athlete leader represents a role that is prescribed by

another individual within the group or sport organization, usually a
member of the coaching staff. This type of leader is highly visible
within the group and is assigned specific responsibilities. A common
example of a formal athlete leader in sport is the team captain.
In many instances, the coach selects the captain of the team and,
within certain sports, the occupant of this role may even be

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formally designated by such things as a C on the uniform or an

armband to wear during competitive matches.
Conversely, an informal athlete leader emerges as a function
of
(a) group interaction,
(b) distinct group needs, and
(c) the personality traits of individual athletes.
This type of athlete leader acts in a way that often complements the
style of an established leader within the group (the formal
athlete leader). However, the informal leader emerges naturally,
without designation by another group member or the
organization. For example, an athlete may assume the role of an
emotional leader to help rally a team around its goals. This
potential informal athlete leader may exist on teams in which the
formal leader is more task driven (less expressive in nature);
however, in other teams this informal role may be redundant if
the formal leader possesses high interpersonal attraction and
engages in socially supportive behaviors.

Team and Peer-Level Athlete Leaders

In addition to the level of formality, athlete-to-athlete leadership is
categorized in terms of the scope of influence held by each
individual. Todd Loughead, James Hardy, and Mark Eys discussed
the presence of both team and peer-level leaders. First, a team-
level leader is more influential and is identified as an athlete
leader by the majority of the team (over 50% of the membership).
Examples include veteran players who provide valuable advice

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to all members of a group at different times or who are highly vocal

(in a productive manner) during team meetings. It is also worthwhile
to note that the team-level athlete leader likely emerges through
the formal leadership process discussed previously.
In contrast, peer-level leaders represent those who are
identified by a lower percentage of the team (less than 50%).
Equally important in a team setting, peer-level leaders exert
individualized influence on a small number of athletes. An example
of this type of leader is an individual within the team who
acts as a mentor to two or three less-experienced teammates.
Although other team members may never be influenced by this
specific individual, the inexperienced athletes may view the
mentor as a very important leader.
Functions of Athlete Leadership
Athlete leadership roles are often differentiated by their specific
functions within the group. These functions revolve around both
internal and external activities. Athlete leaders who attend to
the internal functions focus on the
(a) task or
(b) social related activities of the group.
Correlates of Athlete Leadership
Interesting insights have been yielded with respect to the presence
of athlete leadership in sport. The following sections briefly
highlight both individual (satisfaction) and team level (group
cohesion and collective efficacy) correlates of athlete leader
behavior.
Athlete Satisfaction

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Following research that linked leadership behaviors of the

coach with athlete satisfaction, Mark Eys, Todd Loughead, and
James Hardy demonstrated that athletes who perceived a
balanced dispersion of athlete leaders across the aforementioned
functions (approximately equal number of leaders focusing on
task, social, and external objectives) had higher satisfaction with
their sport experiences. Specifically, these athletes were more
satisfied with team performance and the degree of integration
of team members than those who perceived a relative imbalance
with respect to the focus of athlete leaders on their team, as
with a high number of task leaders but low numbers of social
and external leaders.
Collective Efficacy
Finally, athlete leadership is linked to members’ beliefs regarding
the group’s ability to carry out required tasks, as well as its
general ability to perform at a high level. Price and Weiss revealed
that the self-reported instrumental and prosocial leadership
behaviors of athletes were positively related to their indications
of efficacy related to the team’s ability, unity, effort,
preparation, and persistence.

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What is Cognitive process- memory and thinking.

Principles of Motor skill learning?

Cognitive process- memory and thinking. Principles of Motor

skill learning

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in

gaining knowledge and comprehension. These cognitive processes
include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-
solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning.
Types of Cognitive Processes
There are many different types of cognitive processes. These
include:
 Attention: Attention is a cognitive process that allows people
to focus on a specific stimulus in the environment.
 Language: Language and language development are
cognitive processes that involve the ability to understand and
express thoughts through spoken and written words. It allows
us to communicate with others and plays an important role in
thought.
 Learning: Learning requires cognitive processes involved in
taking in new things, synthesizing information, and integrating
it with prior knowledge.
 Memory: Memory is an important cognitive process that allows
people to encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a critical
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component in the learning process and allows people to retain

knowledge about the world and their personal histories.
 Perception: Perception is a cognitive process that allows
people to take in information through their senses (sensation)
and then utilize this information to respond and interact with
the world.
 Thought: Thought is an essential part of every cognitive
process. It allows people to engage in decision-making,
problem-solving, and higher reasoning.
The Role of Cognition in Sport
The role of cognition and neuroscience in understanding, predicting,
and potentially improving elite sports performance is an area that
has received increased interest in recent years This notion is
validated by studies showing that athletes perform faster and more
accurately on specific cognitive tasks Such findings have been
supplemented by studies showing that baseline cognitive ability is
able to predict future sporting achievement.
Given the above evidence, the aim of this paper is to introduce
some of the considerations in this potentially booming field of
practice, incorporating knowledge of cognitive training (CT) in other
cohorts. We highlight that further research is needed before we can
reliably inform coaches, athletes, and support staff of any potential
benefits from this technique. Well planned studies which incorporate
collaborative interdisciplinary knowledge are needed to progress
this field most rapidly.

Cognitive processes

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Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does

continuously. They are procedures in charge of processing all the
information we receive from the environment. Thanks to these
cognitive processes, cognition exists and it allows us to explore the
world.
Imagine you are sitting on your sofa while watching a movie. Even
though the movie is interesting, you start smelling something
burning. What do you do? Fortunately, your brain will center all of
its attention in the possible danger you are facing.
Suddenly, you remember that you had a pizza in the oven. You will
run to the kitchen as fast as you can and coordinate a series of
motor movements to take it out of the oven. Then you will decide
whether to eat the less burnt parts or go back to the living room.
Cognitive processes have guided this whole scenario and actions.
A harmonious interaction between cognitive processes is
fundamental so that we can analyze reality adequately and adapt to
it. Thanks to mental processes we can be flexible to changes and
demands of the situation. Our executive functions are in charge of
coordinating these processes.
Even though, the example we saw the cognitive processes acted
together, they can also act separately. For example, people with a
language disorder can still perceive stimuli perfectly and can solve
mathematical problems.
Cognitive processes are analyzed from different sciences including,
sociology, linguistics, neurology, anthropology, and philosophy. As
for psychology, cognitive psychology is the field in charge of
studying cognitive processes.

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In the 60’s, a new psychological perspective emerged that lead to

the cognitive revolution and the study of cognitive processes.
Mental processes in psychology are now thoroughly investigated.
They are now even applied not only to explain disorders but to
areas such as marketing and sales.
Neuroimaging or brain imaging has been of great help in how we
process information and what parts of the brain are related to what
cognitive processes. In this article, we will take a closer look at how
different cognitive processes influence your daily life.
Types of cognitive processes
Basic Cognitive Processes
Sensation and perception
Sensations are caused by different stimuli in our environment. The
stimuli first reach our senses and allow us to filter information from
the outside world. Once we receive this information, perception
takes over and we start interpreting these stimuli.
We are continuously using our perception without even noticing it.
We are conscious of other people’s movements, messages we
receive on our phone, food flavors, our posture, etc. Our past
experiences also play a part in the interpretation of different stimuli.
They believed that we are active human beings that process reality
as a whole comprised of different parts. They also explained how
different types of perception can happen including illusions.
Attention
Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are
capable of centering our attention on the stimuli that interest us.
Some actions such as walking and chewing require little attention.
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Nonetheless, other activities such as speaking and body language

require focus, especially when we are giving a lecture.
Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position
ourselves towards relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it.
There are different types of attention including arousal, focused
attention, sustained attention, selective attention, alternating
attention, and divided attention.
Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we
have to repeat several times a day, making it easier to focus on
other tasks. For example, at first learning to drive and focus on all
the things one must do is difficult but after a while, it is done
naturally and without thinking.
Memory
What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary
school? How do you play the guitar? Our memory has the answers
to these questions and much more. It allows us to encode the data
we receive from the environment, consolidate and retrieve it later.
We have different types of memory; sensory memory, short-term
memory, working memory, semantic memory, etc. All these types of
memories interact together but they don’t all depend on the
same brain areas. An example of this is people with amnesia still
remember how to walk but can’t remember their partner’s name.
Cognitive processes such as memory are essential for daily life.
Memory, as a cognitive process, includes encoding, storage, and
retrieval. Encoding refers to the mechanism where information is
changed from the moment it reaches us to a form that our brain can
store. Storage refers to how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of
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information is held. Finally, retrieval refers to getting information out

storage.
Intelligence
According to Gardner’s multiple bits of intelligence, there is not only
one intelligence but several different bits of intelligence. He
established that intrapersonal intelligence, linguistic intelligence,
logical-mathematical intelligence, and musical intelligence are
examples of higher cognitive processes. Recently, emotional
intelligence has caught people’s attention, it is the ability to manage
the difficulties we face daily.
We can always work to strengthen our different types of intelligence
and we shouldn’t limit ourselves to a number given from a specific
intelligence test.
Thought
The complexity and heterogeneity of our thoughts are fascinating.
This higher mental process is responsible for tasks related to
problem-solving, reasoning, decision-making, creative thinking,
divergent thinking, etc.
To simplify these functions, our brain creates concepts. We need to
group ideas, objects, people or any other kind of elements that
come to mind. Usually, this helps us streamline our cognitive
processes. However, sometimes we try to be logical and often
ignore how irrational we can be. We take shortcuts to process
information faster not taking into account the details that might be
important. This can lead to cognitive biases, which are deviations
from the normal process of reasoning. For example, we sometimes
believe that we are able to figure out what is going to happen in a
game of chance.

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On occasions, cognitive biases can lead to cognitive

distortions which are extremely negative and irrational thoughts, for
example, “the world hates me”. It’s always important to remember
we are able to stop these thoughts and work on them. If these
thoughts overpower you, it’s crucial you speak to someone.
Language
Astonishingly, we are capable of producing and comprehending
different sounds and words, combine different letters and phrases
and expressing with precision what we want to communicate, even
in different languages. We even use our body language to
communicate.
Language development is produced all throughout our lifetime. The
communicative skills of each person vary significantly and can be
improved by practice. Some language disorders especially make it
difficult to communicate for different reasons, although it is also
possible to help people with these problems.
Cognitive processes involved in language are fundamental in
learning how to effectively communicate.
Cognitive Processes in Education: Applications and Examples
Cognitive Processes in psychology are analyzed in order to help us
improve our quality of life. It’s basic that we learn how to develop
and manage them from birth. In school, we face different activities
that test our skills and ability to learn, listen and solve unforeseeable
obstacles.
Cognitive Processes in Learning
All the different theories of learning, except for associative learning,
take into account our cognitive processes. However, no cognitive

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process acts on its own in the learning process. We strive to

integrate all of our resources to improve our study habits and
achieve meaningful learning. Cognitive processes play a part in
learning things such as math concepts and abstract
operations. Teaching styles can aide cognitive processes or even
hinder their development. When these fail it is possible to develop
dyscalculia. Find out how to treat dyscalculia.
Cognitive Processes in Reading
When faced with a book, we must recognize the letters, avoid
distracting ourselves with irrelevant stimuli, remember the words we
are reading, associate what we read with other contents that we
learned previously, etc. We use our cognitive processes from the
beginning to the end. However, the number of cognitive processes
will vary since we will not process the information in the same way if
we only want to find a fragment that interests us other than reading
the whole book.
Cognitive Processes in Writing
As for the cognitive processes involved in writing, the same
happens with those related to reading. We need to ignore the
noises that make it difficult for us to write, to make our writing
readable, to remember what we have written in the previous
paragraphs, to worry about our spelling, etc. In addition, we also
need to properly plan what we want to write. Is this expression too
colloquial? Will others understand what I mean? Does this zero look
like an o?
When there is a problem in cognitive processes in reading and/or
writing it might be symptoms of dyslexia.
Tips and activities to improve your mental processes

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We can train our cognitive processes at any stage in our lives,

regardless of age. Here are some tips on how to train and take care
of your cognitive processes.
1. Take care of your health
Our physical and mental health is inseparable from our cognitive
processes. There are various bad habits that harm our minds and
worsen our performance in different areas of our lives. For example,
being on our cell phone before going to bed, underestimating
ourselves, neglecting our social relationships or not eating properly
can affect our mental processes.
2. Benefit from technology
Today there are different activities one can do to train our brains in
a fun and simple way. CogniFit personalized brain
training evaluates and stimulates cognitive processes. This is done
through fun games and activities that can strengthen and
rehabilitate cognitive processes such as memory, planning, visual
scanning, and shifting. Its activities adapt to children and adults
alike and you can compare your results with people all around the
world.
3. Reflect on your progress
Self-appraisals are important since they show us our progress and
where we might need to make more efforts to continue advancing.
It’s essential that we believe in ourselves and our ability to
strengthen our cognitive processes. It’s a matter of practicing and
self-confidence.
4. Develop Critical Thinking

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Try to ask yourself questions and look for different arguments. This
allows for critical thinking to develop, and in turn increases our
reasoning, creativity, and language. Curiosity is essential in order to
develop our full potential. Critical thinking can be developed from
childhood, by asking children to explain, reason and debate their
decisions and actions. You can also put these into practice!
5. Read
Reading implies lots of cognitive processes as we explained above.
Other than producing great satisfaction and knowledge, reading is
also a way to learn to focus and work on our communication skills.
6. Dedicate time to creative activities
Painting, writing short stories, composing songs, dancing,
performing… It doesn’t matter the activity you choose, the important
thing is that creativity is being used. Creativity is all about practice
and perseverance, so go out and try something new!
Creativity allows us to develop our intelligence, concentration,
problem-solving, sustained attention and ability to de-stress and
relax. Creativity is all about practice and perseverance, so go out
and try something new!
7. Avoid multitasking
It’s quite common that our obligations are many and we don’t know
how to get all of them done. It’s normal that we try to multitask so
we can finish everything quicker. However, this can be
counterproductive since our attention is not centered on one activity.
For example, if you are watching a movie while you are answering
an email, writing a paper and cooking it is very probable that one of
those things will turn out wrong. It’s preferable to center your
attention in the present in order to enjoy each activity to the fullest
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and be more efficient. This can also help in overcoming

procrastination since it centers your attention on one activity making
it easier to focus and not get distracted.
8. Let your children solve their own difficulties.
We need to support our children, however, it’s also very important
that they don’t get used to us solving all their difficulties. Solving
problems is a way to strengthen cognitive processes, therefore,
starting at a young age is important. Giving clues is a perfect way to
encourage children to think outside the box.

Principles of Motor skill learning

MOTOR SKILL LEARNING

A variety of motor skills occur in various forms of movement: work,
play, sport, communication, dance, and so on. Psychophysical
studies of the learning and retention of motor skills date from the
1890s, with neurophysiological studies coming later. Attempts to
combine cognitive and neural approaches flourished in the twentieth
century (Bernstein, 1967) and persist unabated, capitalizing on
advances in technology.
The theoretical and operational emphases of this field parallel those
in other subdomains of learning, in part because motor, perceptual,
and cognitive skills are not mutually exclusive and in part because
of anatomical advances that show the underlying modular
architecture of the brain (Houk, 2001). Definitions of motor skills
typically pertain to the movements of the limbs and torso as
opposed to those of perceptions and the formulation of ideas, but

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the conceptual boundaries blur in the face of the planning that

precedes elaborate motor acts.

Motor skills are an essential component of the expertise displayed

by, and required of, individuals working in medicine or other health
professions. How these skills are taught and practised has changed
considerably over the past few years. For example, with the
advancement of technological capabilities, training in surgical skills
now makes increasing use of virtual‐reality simulation and
computer‐based video instruction. Although some studies have
found that additional virtual‐reality training can facilitate the transfer
of skills to the operating room, others did not find any beneficial
effect of prior virtual‐reality training on surgical
performance. Furthermore, the effectiveness of simulation
compared with other methods of medical training has been
questioned. Some have made suggestions for enhancing the
usefulness of simulator training by combining it with instructional
techniques that adhere to learning ‘principles’. Yet not all such
principles have stood the test of time, as we will argue in this
review. More recent findings question some of the traditional
assumptions regarding learning.
Some studies examining factors that have been shown to facilitate
learning in the cognitive or motor domain, such as the use of
repeated testing or summary feedback, have already demonstrated
their utility for medical training. Other researchers have begun to
compare the effectiveness of different practice schedules in the
learning of surgical tasks. years or so) that we believe also have
potentially important implications for medical education. Specifically,
we review studies related to observational learning, learners’ focus
of attention, feedback and self‐controlled practice. These factors
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have consistently been shown to affect skill learning. We argue that

the effectiveness of certain practice conditions or instructions is, to a
large extent, the result of optimised motivational states of the
learner.
The role of motivation in learning has, until recently, been largely
neglected in the motor learning literature. Consideration of these
newer findings in designing procedures for medical training has the
potential to enhance performance effectiveness and training
efficiency. First, however, we address the distinction between The
results of these studies are promising. In this review, we highlight
some relatively recent findings (i.e. from the past
10 performance and learning, which has important implications for
the interpretation of findings and the design of studies.
Learning versus performance
Training in the medical field is expensive. Therefore, finding
effective and efficient training methods that can result in cost
savings is a legitimate and important motive for many researchers.
An intuitive approach might be to compare different practice
methods in terms of the time needed by participants to reach a
predefined level of performance.
Such an approach has significant shortcomings, however. It can
only demonstrate how performance is influenced by certain training
methods, which may, or may not, have anything to do with how
much was learned. Learning is typically defined as a relatively
permanent change in a person’s capability to perform a skill.
Motor Learning and Sport
Motor learning is the shaping of individual sensorimotor
capabilities by the physical and social environment. It is based

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on changes of neural networks of the brain that enable a relatively

permanent improvement of performance, even though this may
not always be manifest. Motor learning is induced by experience or
practice and can take place with the intention to learn but also
without; indeed, even without conscious awareness that
something has been learned. In this entry, three issues are
addressed:
(1) the behavioral changes that give evidence of motor learning,
(2) the internal representations and mechanisms involved, and
(3) the practice conditions that affect motor learning.
Behavioral Changes
Motor learning is associated with a number of behavioral
changes. Prominent among them are improvements of speed
and accuracy, increasing movement consistency, economy, and
automatization.
For many motor skills, higher speed means better performance.
Exceptions are skills for which correct temporal patterns are
defined, as in playing a musical instrument, or where movements
have to be synchronized with environmental events, as in catching
balls. The improvement of speed is captured by the power law
of practice, which is a good approximation for a variety of skills.
According to this empirical law, the time T needed to perform
a particular action declines with the number of repetitions N in a
way that can be described by a power function, T = kN-α.
Across the first repetitions the decline of movement duration is
rapid. Later on it becomes progressively smaller, and finally, it
can hardly be detected against the background of random
variations of performance. Diminishing returns in terms of
improvements are a fairly universal characteristic of practice

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curves not only with temporal measures of performance but also

with many other dependent variables. As a consequence, the early
stages of practice are generally more rewarding than later stages.
Representations and Mechanisms
In the course of motor learning, the control of movements is
changed, which results in better performance. There are
underlying changes of internal representations, and there are
mechanisms that bring these changes about.
Types of representation, which are acquired or modified during
motor learning, are representations of correct movements, of
environmental characteristics, and of transformations the motor
system has to master. Representations of correct movements
have been posited by a number of theories. For example, a
core construct in the influential theory of Jack Adams is
the perceptual trace. This is a representation of the reafference
of the correct movement that is claimed to serve as a
reference for closed-loop control. A number of theorists have
posited (generalized) motor programs, which are representations of
the motor outflow. These have been conceived as prestructured
motor commands but also as prototypical force time profiles that
can be varied in certain ways so that different variants of
movements of a certain type can be produced.
Practice Conditions
From the various representations and mechanisms involved in
motor learning, a number of principles for the design of practice
conditions are obvious. Motor learning requires information to
enable error-based learning and evaluative feedback to enable
reinforcement learning, variability should facilitate the acquisition
of internal models of motor transformations, and sufficient spacing
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can bring in consolidation and serve to prevent muscle fatigue

as well as mental fatigue. Among the less obvious design
principles are the avoidance of over-optimization, the use of
imagery and observation of the motor skill, and the proper direction
of the focus of attention.

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What is Transfer of training and its types with its

implication in sports. Long and short term
psychological preparation for performance/
competition. Psychological skill training for
activation and relaxation Spectators and sports
performance?

Transfer of training and its types with its implication in sports.

Long and short term psychological preparation for
performance/ competition. Psychological skill training for
activation and relaxation Spectators and sports performance

Transfer of training and its types with its implication in sports

Training constitutes a basic concept in human resource
development. It is concerned with developing a particular skill to a
desired standard by instruction and practice. Training is a highly
useful tool that can bring an Player into a position where they can
do their Sport correctly, effectively, and conscientiously. Training is
the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an Player for doing
a particular Sport.
Psychological Skills Important for Athletes
Is physical practice the only component of your training program?
How do you learn to maximize your performance or even to be a
consistent performer? Athletes and coaches always think they must

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only practice longer and harder - they are reluctant to include

psychological tools in their training and performance regime.
To be a better athlete does not necessarily mean that you must train
harder or longer. It could mean that you need to address all the
components that make up a successful athletic performance -
mental as well as physical. Since you do not enter into competition
with a completely empty head, you must include mental skills in
your training and conditioning programmes as well. This will enable
you to develope the strategies which will prepare you to enter a
competition with the “proper mindset”

 If you are interested in getting the most of your athletic

endeavors, you can no longer treat your performance as a
combination of isolated factors which come together in some
mysterious and unified way on the day of the competition. A
long distance athlete would never think to enter a long
distance race without spending time physically preparing the
body to meet the conditioning demands of a race. Yet, most
athletes probably enter a race without determining what
psychological skills he or she would need to help achieve the
best physical performance. Almost no one prepares and
practices the necessary mental conditions.

 As the science of sport performance evolves, it becomes

increasingly important to integrate the mental and physical
aspect of performance. Traditionally, no attention has been
given to the cognitive aspects of performance. Coaches and
athletes have devoted most of their attention to the physical
components of performance.

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 Yet coaches, athletes and parents often attribute non-

performance to things related to the mental aspects of
performance such as “She was not hungry enough,” “He did
not focus,” “I was so tense or I was psyched out,” “She is so
good but she cannot handle the competition stress,” “I was so
scared....,” “I wasn’t psyched enough.” These are all
comments frequently used to describe competitive
disappointments, but rarely do you find a coach who says that
the athlete has not been taught the proper psychological skills
and strategies.

 An athlete seldom realizes that the failure to achieve was

related to poor or inadequate preparation of psychological
strategies. After a competition the greatest percentage of
excuses are generally attributed to the mental and emotional
aspects of the game. Yet, almost no time is spent in
incorporating these into the training routine. Rather, it is a case
of back to the drawing board for a new physical strategy or
increased practice time.

 It is much easier to evaluate cardiovascular or mechanical

differences between athletes than it is to evaluate different
athletic “mindsets” and psychological aspects around
performance. Why is it that performance differs from practice
to a competition? Improving performance is not accomplished
by isolating the body from the mind but by providing cognitive
skills and strategies that deal with skilled performance.

 There are no marked changes in physical capacity, in skill

level or biomechanical efficiency during a competition or

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between two competitions which immediately follow each

other. An athlete does not suddenly lose or gain stamina,
talent, skill or speed in a day, week, month or sometimes even
years. What does change is psychological control or
mindset. When an athlete loses momentum or gains
momentum, the change is created by psychological and
emotional factors. He or she can gain or lose psychological
control or get psyched out in split seconds, or what
psychologists sometimes call “chocking.” Choking can occur in
close competitive situations where psychological frame of
reference interferes with skill execution.

 This fluctuation in psychological regulation can be prevented

by developing cognitive skills and strategies to manage
anxiety, stress, negative thoughts and emotions - in other
words, to help the athlete to cope with negative stimuli from
the external world. An athlete must learn to take responsibility
for recognizing their own arousal mechanism and to perform
with it under control. This will establish cognitive behaviour
which in turn will allow him to perform in a constant manner.
Sometimes athletes blame the coach, parents, fans or the
weather when things go wrong or if they don’t perform up to
their potential. But it is the athlete’s own psychological mindset
that controls performance.

 It takes time to develop and optimize the individual behavioural

skills necessary to maximize athletic performance. A plan A, B,
or C or a one day lecture will not be enough. One requires
training on a regular, systematic basis to develope and apply
the correct skills. Psychological training should incorporate

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methods and techniques which teach one how to interpret

what is happening to you and why. Then in the following order,
how to cope with whatever is happening to and around you;
how to cope with whatever you encounter; how to make
decisions based on relevant cues and how to persist despite
what is happening with you and to you. In short you need to
learn the cognitive skills and strategies that are necessary for
controlling sport performance and the environment. These
skills are not concomitant learning that just happens when
playing, practicing or during competition. In today’s world, each
of us is responsible for controlling our own behaviour. We can
no longer transfer the responsibility or excuse for failures to
others or to some mysterious factor.

 It is no longer appropriate to talk in psychological terms as if

knowledgeable in psychology if we do not make some effort to
become informed and educated in this area. This is a problem
with many coaches. It is unreasonable to continue contributing
shortcomings in performance to psychological factors and not
to do something about it. The days of coaching and/or
performing through “hope” are no longer appropriate or
effective. There are brilliant techniques and strategies in the
field of sport psychology that enable us to control and monitor
our behaviour in sport. By using these techniques we can
develop consistent performance and maximize our potential.

 It stands to reason that no athlete performs correctly and

perfectly all the time. However, you can be taught to analyze
your own thoughts and behaviour so that you can recognize
the cause of performance inconsistencies. The athlete that is

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taught to work toward consistent control over behaviour learns

to analyze and determine the factors that influence it. In order
to develop a sport-psychological skill strategy for control of
behaviour, situations that are characteristic of the specific
sport and the required behaviour for that specific sport must be
understood. Once the athlete understands the behavioural
demands being placed on him, he can cope better with these
demands.

 An athlete who competes competitively faces stressful

situations and anxious moments hundreds of times over the
course of a competitive career. You don’t have to be a
professional athlete to experience those anxious moments
when your hearts starts pounding, your hands are sweaty and
you feel weak in the knees. Regardless how many times you
have been in the situation, you still react in the same way. In
other words, experience is not always the best teacher.

 Moments of panic, anxiety and emotional ups and downs can

interfere with the physical performance at every level. Athletes,
who continue to perform with some degree of consistency
despite of their feelings of anxiety, have learned to cope in one
way or another. Relatively few of us, however, have been
taught skills and strategies that would enable us to cope and
maintain consistency in performance. Athletes have been
helped with their physical skills and strategies, but few have
attempted to help them with the development of the mental
side of sport and sport performances.

 Many athletes with superior physical capabilities have been

systematically eliminated from competitive sports because

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they could not perform on the day of the competition. They

might perform beautifully in practice but “choke” in competition.
Coaches, parents and teachers have pulled their hair out over
athletes who do things so correctly in practice for an entire
week and on the day of competition just couldn’t do it again.
Why do these things happen? Has it happened to you? What
can you do to try to prevent these situations from repeating
themselves year after year, season after season? What can
we do to help an athlete who is physically talented but who
does not appear to be able to perform on the big day. How can
an athlete help himself or herself to perform consistently?

 Many people feel having someone to teach psychological skills

to an athlete means that the athlete is unstable, or has “mental
problems” or is “totally mad.” There is a feeling among
coaches and even some athletes is that psychologists are
people who provide help to those who are disturbed or
maladjusted. They would never consider that a “normal”
athlete has the need of positive cognitive assistance of
someone trained in psychology and specifically sport
psychology. Further, many coaches want only tough minded
athletes and they do not want what they think are “head
cases.” Coaches have eliminated athletes who had all the
necessary physical assets because they did not appear to be
able to perform with any degree of consistency or because
they “choked” under pressure. They have never stopped to ask
if certain skills could be taught to these athletes which would
enable them to use their physical abilities even more
effectively.

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 I think that some athletes and coaches think that an athlete

does not need this mental training. They are much like Avis,
the Number 2 car rental agency who just “tries harder!” Trying
harder is not always the solution; in many cases trying harder
creates even greater problems. You may think that going back
to the fundamentals and practicing harder and longer is the
only solution to inconsistent performance. Frequently, longer
and harder practices are used as punishment for not
performing up to your expectations or to the coach’s.
Obviously, too much emphasis has been placed on the
physical aspect of sport performance without understanding all
the components of psychological or the cognitive part of
performance.

 No one can dispute the fact that the state of mind has a lot to
do with performance. Yet almost nothing has been done to
identify the emotional and/or mental factors that tend to
prevent good performance any more than trying to identify
those factors that produce poor performance. Basically what
sport psychology does for the athlete is to teach her/him how
to identify the factors that lead to good performance and those
that lead to poor performance. This provides a basis for
understanding why an athlete performs well or inconsistently.
The athlete will not have to say “I had a good competition” or “I
had an off-day,” he or she will be able to analyze why it was a
good or bad competition.

 If you were told that the body and mind do not interact, you
would most likely disagree. Examples to demonstrate how this
interaction occurs such as experiencing fear and having the
perception of fear being accompanied by sweating, increased

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heart rate, altered breathing, feelings of muscular weakness

and nausea. Our bodies are a highly complex entity composed
of a multitude of different, yet highly, integrated, biological
systems which promote effective interaction between our
internal and external environments. These highly different
systems are integrated and monitored by the nervous system.
This nervous system is anatomically divided into the central
and the peripheral nervous systems. The brain and spinal cord
compose the central nervous system; the network of nerves
connecting the various organs and systems of the body to the
central nervous system makes up the peripheral nervous
system.

 Thought and memory are the responsibility of the central

nervous system. However, the entire nervous system allows
the body to interpret consciously and unconsciously to our
external and internal environments. Some nerves are
specialized for sight, smell, touch, temperature, pain etc., but
the entire nervous system coordinates bodily responses to the
internal and external environments. In sport, as well as all
other situations, a combination of reactions occurs. Some of
these reactions are at the conscious level while others may
occur at a subconscious level.

 So the truth is that our muscles do not function unless directed

to do so by the brain. We do not perform physical skills in
isolation without mental skills. Sport performance must be
approached from a holistic perspective to integrate the”
thinking with our muscles” to produce high levels of
performance.

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 Hardly anyone disputes the fact that your mental state has a
great deal to do with your physical performance. We all know
that worry, negative emotions and anxiety about your
performance can cause sub-par performance. One of the ways
to avoid this and prepare the “whole” person is through holistic
coaching and preparation. That is, to incorporate physical and
mental skills and strategies in practice and performance of any
talented athlete. After an athlete becomes aware of how this
relationship affects performances, he or she will be ready to
learn skills and strategies to help control factors like worry and
anxiety.

 An Olympic champion said he choked terribly in his first

Olympic Games. “I had worked very hard but wasn’t mentally
prepared.” In his preparation for the next Olympic Games he
talked with other Olympic champions about how they had
prepared mentally and he employed sport psychology
strategies, ultimately developing his own mental training
programme. He practiced his programme regularly for the next
four years and credits this for his gold medal performance at
the next Olympic Games.

 The vast majority of elite athletes recognize the importance of

psychological training for competition. Sport performances are
90% mental, and many great athletes also credit the mental
side of the game as crucially important in determining the
outcome. These athletes know the importance of physical skill
and preparation.

 What they mean when they stress the psychological

preparation as extremely important, is that once athletes have

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developed their physical skills to a high level and when they

are competing at that level, is that the winner is more likely to
be the person who is best prepared psychologically. Coaches
also recognize the significance of being mentally prepared in
order to compete well. Yet many coaches remain reluctant to
send their athletes to a sport psychologist. So, if the mental
side of the game accounts for 90 percent of the outcome or
only 50 percent, or even only 10 percent, doesn’t it make
sense to devote at least some time to mental training?

 The answer is most likely that coaches do not know how to

teach athletes the essential psychological skills. There are also
coaches that are of the opinion that psychosocial qualities are
innate characteristics that cannot be taught. Some of them
think that athletes either have these psychological qualities or
that they don’t. If they don’t, then competition will eliminate
them as they compete at higher and higher levels. A few
coaches also believe that psychological training is unimportant
and that only hard physical work is necessary to prepare
athletes.

 Nowadays the vast majority of coaches, parents and teachers

recognize the importance of psychological training, but simply
do not know how to implement such training.

 Some athletes and coaches feel that it is a waste of time to

practice these skills and think that just developing an
awareness of the relationship of anxiety and performance is
sufficient. It should be emphasized again and again that only
practice on a regular basis can attain the skill. Once all
psychological skills are learnt, they are incorporated into

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regular practice sessions and then into competitions, without a

specified time being set aside for their practice. As athletes
begin to acquire the skills, many of the responses are subtle.
Most athletes are not aware of them unless they are really
“tuned in” to their bodies. At the same time, the practices
scheduled for mental skills should be short compared to the
physical practices. It is important to practice for short periods
of time and on a regular basis.

 In short, like most other things, the more you use it

appropriately, the better you will become. With time the
responses practiced and the psychological skills and strategies
learnt become automatic. Eventually, this type of behavioural
responses becomes a way of life. It comes a way of
responding to a particular situation in a more effective,
positive, controlled way. These more conducive responses will
help to realize your potential in whatever you pursue. Sport
psychological principles are the same for regulating your
awareness and managing your worries about performance
whether it is on the athletic field, being interviewed for a job,
taking an examination, public speaking, acting or giving a
musical performance on stage. Learning these sport
psychological skills will last you a lifetime and allow you to
enjoy your performance much more at a much higher level
than you have previously attained.
Meaning and Definitions of Transfer of Training:
It is common belief that training in one subject is transferred to
another subject. If we study mathematics, the logical reasoning
developed in solving complex mathematical problems is so
developed that it is utilised in other situation.

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It is again generally said that study of science develops scientific

spirit, the teaching of grammar develops discipline of mind, music
develops aesthetic sense and cricket develops sportsmanship in
every walk of life.
Thus if the training in one act is transferred to another, we say
transfer has taken place.
Definitions:
1. Crow and Crow:
“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working of
knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another
usually is referred to as the transfer of training.”
2. Skinner:
“Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or
not the learning of material A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders or
does not affect the subsequent learning of material B – say Physics
or Chemistry.
3. Sorrenson:
“A person learns through transfer to the extent that the abilities
acquired in one situation help in another.”
4. W.B. Kolesnik:
“Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills,
habits, attitudes or other responses from the situation in which they
are initially acquired to some other situation.”
5. Peterson:
“Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.”

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6. Hilgard Atkinson Atkinson:

(Introduction to Psychology)” The influence that learning one task,
may have on the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of
learning.”
7. Guthrie & Others:
“Transfer may be defined as a process of extending and applying
behaviour.”
8. Encyclopaedia of Educational Research:
“The term’ learning’ would be applied to the special kind of transfer
phenomena in which there is great similarity between training
conditions and test conditions.”
Types of Transfer:
On the basis of magnitude or quality, it is of three types-positive,
zero and negative.
Positive Transfer:
In this case, the past learning of one subject or activity facilitates the
learning of another subject or activity. A sportsman playing football
plays volley-ball as nicely. A bus-driver can drive a truck also
equally efficiently.
Zero Transfer:
In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of
another. There may be zero transfer between language and
mathematics.
Negative Transfer:

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Herein learning of one task makes the learning of a second task

harder. Learning shorthand by Danton method may cause
interference in subsequent learning by Pitman method. The
negative transfer is also called habit interferences.
One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer.
Practice in using right hand while handling a machine in the factory
may help handling by the left hand.
Theories of Transfer:
There are a number of theories regarding transfer of training.
The major theories are explained briefly below:
1. Mental Faculty Theory:
This theory is the out-come of Faculty School of Psychology, which
believed that mind is composed of a number of independent
faculties like memory, attention, will, imagination, reasoning and
temperament. According to this theory, a particular faculty works in
every situation. If a person possesses strong memory, he can use it
in any situation. He will be able to remember anything.
Theory has been abandoned now. It has been found experimentally
that there is no faculty (amongst many) that is used in different
situations. Take memory, for instance. Memory is of different types
visual memory, auditory memory, immediate memory, rote memory,
etc. Training in visual memory does not affect auditory memory and
vice-versa. Hence this theory is not tenable now.
2. Theory of Formal Discipline:
According of this theory some school subjects or instructional items
have a disciplinary value, apart from the knowledge value. Subjects

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like classics, geometry, logic and grammar train the mind and
strengthen the faculties of observations and scientific thinking.
The advocates of formal discipline undermined the study of practical
or utilitarian subjects, because the subjects having disciplinary value
could train to learn to meet all situations in life. Geometry, for
instance, was enough to strengthen the reasoning faculty.
Appraisal of the Theory:
A number of experiments were made to find out the significance and
truth of the theory.
(i) William James was the first person to attack on this problem. He
determined to find out whether practising memorisation of poetry
really helped general memory. He discovered that it did not help at
all.
Educational Implication:
This theory has got significant implications. There are a number of a
courses in our scheme of studies which have identical elements. It
would be profitable to form a group of all those subjects which
possess identical or common components. This grouping of
subjects was unknown during the last century. But the present
higher secondary curriculum is based on the same principle.
The elective groups constitute of the subjects which have common
elements. These common elements are related to some special skill
or ability. If a student possesses that special ability he will profit by
taking up that educational course in which all the subjects are
related to ability.
Secondly, now-a-days, we like to drop all those topics and skills,
from the school curriculum which are unique and isolated. A subject

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or topic which has nothing common with other subjects, may be

dropped. A number of a topics in arithmetic like stocks and shares’,
‘trains’, ‘pipes and cisterns’ are being dropped on this account.
Again, subjects which are of practical nature, which develop a
number of abilities, like scientific curiosity, initiative, originality,
resourcefulness, application of knowledge, judgment and reasoning,
are being emphasised more. The curriculum is being divested of
much of the theoretical topics. Practical work, activity, projects,
assignments, field-work and application are being emphasised
more.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION
Psychological preparation in sports:
Definition: psychological preparation refers to the mental
preparation of the player before competition, during the competition,
after the competition
Importance of psychological preparation
• Mental training is important as well as physical training
• Mind trains the body hence it is necessary to train the mind for
high level performance in sports
• Psychological preparation helps the player to meet the demands
of competition situations and everyday problems.
• Psychological preparation is important because it helps the player
to deal with negative emotions like anxiety, fear of competition and
arousal etc.,
• It helps the player to develop qualities like developing self
awareness, and control, positive attitude, self confidence, tough-
mindedness, strong will power and determination etc.
• It also helps the player to develop their concentration, decision
making, and goal setting
• Psychological preparation helps to resolve the interpersonal
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conflict and to improve interpersonal relationships with team mates

and the coach.
• It helps the athlete to learn mental skills.
Types of psychological preparation

I. Short term psychological preparation

II. Long term psychological preparation

Long term psychological preparation

Pre competition phase

Stage 1: psycho diagnosis:

• The psycho diagnosis includes psychological tests which have to
be designed keeping in mind the demands of the particular game,
age and skill level.
• Broadly the psychological tests can include the area of
psychomotor abilities, information processing, personality,
motivation and social psychological factors.
• The testing is to be conducted during selecting a player or even
when the training camps are in progress
Stage 2: Psychological recommendations:
• After the psychological assessment is done in the first stage,
psycho pedagogical recommendations are given.
• The recommendation is to be given to different personal involved
with the team.
• This includes coaches, players, doctors and other paramedical
staff for further improvement of player’s performance.
Stage 3: psychological preparation
• Psychological preparation of team will include different exercises
(relaxation training, managing stress, positive thinking, regulation of
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self, mental practice, training for concentration, and self talk) to

improve those qualities which have been evaluated.
• The psychologist and the coach should be sensitive to observe the
motivational levels of athletes and group dynamics of the team.
• Psychological stress management training has to be an integral
part of training.

Competition phase or immediate phase:

Phase 4: Psychological control of player and self regulation during

competition

• Psychological control during competition (pre game, start of match

and competition period) will be achieved if the sports person has
learned the psycho regulative techniques during long term
preparation.

• During critical period of the competition, well meaning suggestions

offered by the coach elicits change in athlete’s behavior.
• Pep talk, psycho regulatory techniques and brief counseling during
the competition will help the player for better performance.
Post competition phase:

Stage 5:
Evaluation
• Every competition provides a feed back of strengths, weaknesses
and strategies used.

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• Coach and player should together analyze the reasons for winning
and defeating the match
• Based on these, future strategies can be chalked out and
psychological preparation of the players should be continued.

Psychological Skills Training

Psychological Skills Training:

The Other Side Of The Coin In The Success Of An Athlete

Psychological skills training (PST) is the deliberate, systematic

practice of strategies and methods designed to enhance an
athlete's performance, by enhancing their psychological skills.
PST is as important to the athlete as physical training, and in most
sports success comes from utilizing and maximizing a combination
of technical, tactical, physical, and psychological abilities (Hardy,
Jones & Gould, 1997; Hodge, 2007; Orlick, 2000; Weinberg &
Gould, 1999).
For example, Weinberg and Gould (1999) state that some coaches
attribute between 50-90% of an athlete's success to their
psychological skills, and that detriments to performance can arise
from none or improper mental preparation (Orlick, 2000; Weinberg
& Gould, 1999). This article is going to discuss the conceptual basis
of PST.

Myths Surrounding Psychological Skills Training

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There are four myths about the use of PST in maximizing sports
performance (Gould & Eckland, 1991):
1. That it is for "problem" athletes only—PST focuses on
developing psychological skills of "normal" athletes;
2. That it is for elite athletes only—Young and developing
athletes (Hellestedt, 1987) and special populations will benefit
from PST (Asken, 1991, as cited in Weinberg & Gould, 1999;
Clark & Sachs, 1991, as cited in Weinberg & Gould, 1999);
3. That it provides "quick-fix" solutions; and
4. That it is not useful (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).
Other reasons that athletes do not incorporate PST into their sports
training are that they do not realize that psychological skills actually
have to be learned and developed; they have a lack of knowledge
about PST and what it can do to help their performance; or they do
not have enough time (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).
Subsections Of Psychological Skills

Psychological skills, like technical or tactical aspects of a

sport, must be learned, developed, and practiced by the
athlete (Hardy, Jones & Gould, 1997; Hodge, 2007; Weinberg
& Gould, 1999).
There are three subsections of psychological skills: Foundation
skills, performance skills, and facilitative skills. Like physical skills,

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psychological skills have different times in which they should be

developed and practiced (Hodge, 2007).

Foundation Skills

As aerobic endurance is the foundation for any athlete's physical

fitness, so foundation skills are the psychological skills that form the
'foundation' for the rest of the psychological skills that an athlete
needs. Foundation skills include commitment, motivation, self-
confidence, and self-esteem (Hodge, 2007).

Performance Skills

Once the foundation skills have been developed, performance skills

need to be concentrated on. These are the psychological skills that
the athlete uses during training and their actual competition. These
are concentration/attention, coping with pressure (arousal
regulation) (Weinberg & Gould, 1999), and control activation
(mental preparation and readiness).
For example, an athlete needs to know how to block out the
irrelevant aspects of competition, such as the crowd in a 500 meter
time trial, and focus on the important details, like the gunshot that
starts the clock, and trying to keep their cadence and speed up
throughout the duration of the time trial (Hodge, 2007).

Facilitative Skills

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Facilitative skills are necessary in order to be able to utilize

performance skills effectively. These include communication,
training motivation, teambuilding, teamwork and team spirit,
psychological rehabilitation from injury, and retirement and lifestyle
management.
For example, an athlete may never be able to compete to the best
of their ability or reach the level that they desire if they have no
training motivation, and thus miss most of their scheduled training
sessions (Hodge, 2007).

Psychological Skills Training Methods

Psychological skills are learned and developed through using PST

methods (Hardy, et. al., 1997; Hodge, 2007; Orlick, 2000; Porter,
2003; Weinberg & Gould, 1999). As with psychological skills PST
methods can be divided into categories: Foundation methods and
specific PST methods.
Foundation methods are the self analysis of an athlete of their
current PST; the education of that athlete on the basis of PST and
the specific PST methods that will be useful to them in developing
the psychological skills that they are weak in; and the actual
physical practice of those methods (Hodge, 2007).

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Specific PST methods include goal setting, relaxation, mental

preparation, self-talk, and mental imagery and mental rehearsal
(Hodge, 2007).

Psychological Skills Training Methods

Goal setting, self-talk, mental imagery and mental rehearsal, and

relaxation are the four PST methods that Vealy (1988) identified as
being the four most prominent PST methods in sports psychology
books (as cited in Hardy, et al., 1997).
Each method enables the athlete to work on developing more than
one psychological skill, so that they are also working on improving
and maintaining their strengths, such as commitment,
concentration/attention, and motivation, as they build up their weak
areas (Hardy, et. al., 1999; Weinberg & Gould, 1999).
Psychological Skills Training And Athletes

PST developed a knowledge base from original research studies

using elite athletes, and the observation and experience of both
athletes and coaches (Orlick, 2000; Porter, 2003; Weinberg &
Gould, 1999).
Many studies of elite athletes (Hardy, Hall & Alexander, 2001;
Hardy, et. al., 1997; Harwood, Cumming & Fletcher, 2004;
Weinberg & Gould, 1999) show that more successful and skilled
athletes have more commitment, self-confidence, better task-

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orientation, and arousal regulation (Gould, Eckland & Jackson,

1992, as cited in Weinberg & Gould, 1999) than less successful
athletes.
Studies also show that more successful athletes use positive
thinking and positive imagery to visualize success more than less
successful athletes (Hardy, et al., 2001; Porter, 2003; Weinberg &
Gould, 1999).
In addition, athletes and coaches, especially at the Olympic level,
have expressed that concentration/attention, relaxation, self-talk,
mental imagery, and team cohesion as important psychological
skills and methods of an athlete (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

The Psychological Skills Training Program

Once an athlete's psychological skills weaknesses and strengths

are assessed and identified, either though an interview or a series
of PST questionnaires, a PST training program, based upon the
athlete's goals and needs, can be put together for the athlete.
Because each athlete has different needs, due to their sporting
needs (technical, tactical, and physical), their psychological skill
development, their orientations and experience, every PST program
must be individualized to fit that athlete.
Thus, every PST program is different, and only needs to include the
PST methods required to meet the athlete's PST requirements - i.e.
develop and maintain their strengths, and enhance their
weaknesses (Hodge, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

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Phases Of The Psychological Skills Training Program

However, despite each PST program being unique, they all follow a
general structure broken into three distinct phases:
1. The Education Phase
2. The Acquisition Phase
3. The Practice Phase (Hodge, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

The Education Phase

In the Education Phase it is important to teach the athlete about the

importance and benefits of PST training to their performance. In this
phase the athlete learns about the PST methods through which
psychological skills can be learned. This phase lasts as long as it
takes for the athlete to understand the importance of developing
their psychological skills (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

The Acquisition Phase

The Acquisition Phase focuses on learning the methods for

acquiring and developing the different psychological skills. Formal
sessions with an instructor are used to teach the athlete the relevant

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methods that they require, and then they should practice them by
themselves, until they are competent in those methods (Weinberg &
Gould, 1999).

The Practice Phase

The Practice Phase is the longest phase of the three phases. This
phase is when the athlete just practices and practices the methods
that are relevant to them, until they have accomplished the three
primary objectives of this stage.
The three primary objectives are:
1. To automate psychological skills through over learning—i.e.
practicing PST methods every day until the skills that the
athlete wants become automatic;
2. To teach the athlete to systematically integrate psychological
skills into their competitive situations—i.e. using relaxation
before a competition to decrease anxiety;
3. To simulate the psychological skills that athlete needs in
competition—i.e. using self-talk to increase self-confidence
(Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

Evaluation Of The Psychological Skills Training Program

Once an athlete has been given a PST program, as they do with

their physical training, they must keep a logbook, so that they can

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continually reevaluate it as they make progress and their needs

change, to ensure that their psychological skills are developing.
AUDIENCE AND CROWD EFFECTS IN SPORTS
Audience participation is a powerful on
athletic performance. Perhaps no social-psychological effect is more
important to
athletic performance and outcome than the audience, or spectators,
effect. While many
variables may help create the home court or home field advantage,
none seem to be as important as the
presence of
a supportive audience. Determining how and why an audience pres
ence affects athletic
performance is the focus of this section. Topics to
be discussed include:
1.
Social facilitation
2.
Effect of an interactive audience on performance
3.
Audience characteristics(size, intimacy, density, and hostility)
4.
Team quality
5.
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Players' perceptions.
Social Facilitation
Social facilitation research is based on
the notion that the presence of an audience of one or more
spectators can facilitate performance. This is
an appealing concept, since almost everyone has experienced
the desire to perform better when friends, family, or members of the
opposite gender are watching.
Research in the area of social facilitation was significantly
influenced by the work of Robert Zajonc
(pronounced "science"). Zajonc's classical paper on
the topic remains the single most critical factor in the
development of social facilitation as

a field of inquiry. (Zajonc, 1965). Zajonc proposed that the presence

of an audience has the effect
of increasing (drive) in performing subjects.

Relaxation

Relaxation is crucial at top sporting levels; and it is the primary PST

technique that athletes use in order to cope with pressure (Hardy, et
al., 1997). Because the athlete has difficulty getting to sleep,

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especially nearing and during competition, relaxation must become

an important daily aspect.
The most common form of physical relaxation is progressive
muscular relaxation (PMR), a method that takes 2-15 minutes to
complete. PMR has been used to enhance sporting performance by
reducing anxiety and enhancing self-efficacy (Haney, 2004).
Another form of relaxation is transcendental meditation; this is best
used on competition days, anywhere up until an hour before
competing, to regain composure and control (Jones, 1999, as cited
in Hardy, et. al., 1999). "Reddy et al.'s (1976) study showed that,
when compared to a control group, athletes who meditated for
twenty minutes a day during a six-week athletic conditioning
program showed significantly greater improvement in sprinting"
(Hardy, et al., 1997, p. 16).
The athlete is a sprinter; therefore meditation is likely to enhance
their performance. Relaxation also allows the mind to be more open
to mental imagery, which in turn enhances performance further
(Porter, 2003).
Spectators and sports performance

Crowd can behave in different ways towards an athlete. Many

spectators heckle athletes while they are playing to express their
opinion of them or to distract them from their performance. An
example of this is an Australian darts player called Paul Nicholson.
In 2008 Nicholson was being heckled and in response he put his
finger to his mouth. This act and the fact he is actually English but
chose to play for Australia made the crowd boo him every time he
threw a dart. Even now in 2013 the crowd get on his back every
time he plays. Some people would thrive on the hostility from the
crowd as they may find it amusing and it may spur them on to prove
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them hostile people wrong. However in other cases players can

crumble to the reaction they are receiving from the crowd.
Last week Serena Williams met Sabine Lisicki in the 4th Round of
Wimbledon. Williams was the clear favourite to win Wimbledon with
pretty much everyone thinking she was going to win the Wimbledon
title. However at Wimbledon the crowd always love the underdog to
win and with Lisicki winning in the third set, the crowd erupted every
time Lisicki won a point. Serena Williams is known for her physical
strength but at this moment her mental strength must have had to
work in overdrive.
To be thinking that the majority of the crowd want your opponent to
beat you must make you feel quite alone on the court. Sabine Lisicki
went on to win the match with the crowd even cheering when she hit
a powerful shot down the line which looked to have clinched the win
but was hit back for Lisicki to finish at the net. Serena Williams
wasn’t even having an off day. She was playing some of her best
tennis but something was giving Lisicki that extra edge to give her
the confidence to play the best she has ever played. One of the
reasons for Lisicki’s performance must be the outstanding support
from the crowd on Centre Court.
Wimbledon gives the British public one of the few chances a year to
support their country in an event that is watched all over the world.
The support given to the British players is commendable. Especially
the way Andy Murray and Laura Robson have been supported this
year and in previous years. Murray always packs out any court he
plays on when he plays at Wimbledon and every point he wins is
met with a huge cheer and a round of applause. However whenever
he misses a shot, you could hear a pin drop as no one is applauding
his opponent. This is the same for Laura Robson who reached the
4th round at Wimbledon for the first time in her career. She has said
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how much she loves playing on Centre Court and Court 1 at

Wimbledon because of the huge crowd. The crowd get behind her
and give her that extra bit of energy and motivation to succeed.
The effect of British support can be seen in Great Britain’s
performance at the London 2012 Olympic Games last summer.
Team GB won 65 medals with 29 of them gold. Whenever athletes
such as Greg Rutherford, Mo Farah or Jessica Ennis were
competing the roar from the crowd was phenomenal. The home
support has been praised by most of the British athletes and they
say that the crowd made them want to win even more!
Brazil recently hosted the Confederations Cup in preparation for
them hosting the 2014 World Cup next year. Brazil met Spain in the
final last week who are considered the best team in the world
according to the FIFA rankings. The atmosphere at the Maracana
stadium was electric. Brazil went on to win 3-0 and completely
outplay Spain who are known for outplaying all of their opponents.
The Brazil support was there for all to see and the sea of yellow
shirts around the stadium reinforced the amount of support Brazil
had. This might in some way have affected the Spain team in a
negative way which could be the reason they didn’t perform on the
night. However the opposite effect was felt by Brazil who thrived on
the support from their own fans.
The crowd can be a scary thing and affect your performance
negatively if they are against you. However the crowd can be a
wonderful thing and if they are on your side you can thrive on their
support and your performance can improve and in turn affect the
outcome of a match.

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Unit - IV: Physical Education
MCQS
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EDUCATION

HUB
 Unit - IV: Physical Education

(c) Extinction
1. Decreased performance in the (d) All the above.
beginning but gradual improvement
is indicated by Answer: D
(a) Concave graph
(b) convex graph 5. Psychology is taught to the
(c) Concavo-convex graph student of physical education
(d) none of the above. because
(a) It enhances performance
Answer: A (b) It is related to behaviour
(c) it help in learning
2. Increased performance in the (d) it motivates athletes.
beginning but gradual decline later is
indicated by Answer: B
(a) Concave graph
(b) convex graph 6. In psychological testing, norm is
(c) Both defined as
(d) none of the above. (a) Record of performance
(b) unique performance of a team
Answer: B (c) Average performance of the team
(d) highest performance of the
3. Which is not a primary motive? athlete.
(a) Affection
(b) Hunger Answer: C
(c) Sex
(d) Thirst. 7. What level of stress may enhance
performance of athletes?
Answer: A (a) Heightened
(b) Moderate
4 What processes are parts of (c) Optimal
classical conditioning? (d) None of the above.
(a) Generalization
(b) Discrimination Answer: C
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(d) none of the above.

8. Concentration is the narrowest
path of Answer: B
(a) Aggression
(b) arousal 12. Psychological process of
(c) activation adaptation which eventually leads to
(d) attention. increase in performance capacity is
known as?
Answer: D (a) Principle of progression of load
(b) principles of continuity
9. Whose name is associated with (c) Principles of differentiation
conditioned reflex learning? (d) none of the above.
(a) John Dewey
(b) Aristotle Answer: A
(c) Rousseau
(d) Pavlov. 13. Observing one’s own behaviour
through self-analysis is called
Answer: D (a) Development method
(b) clinical method
10. The personal feedback is (c) Introspection method
facilitated through (d) rating scale method.
(a) Television
(b) tape recorder Answer: C
(c) Kinesthetic knowledge
(d) all the above. 14. The knowing aspect or
awareness in psychology in known
Answer: C as
(a) Affection
11. Concurrent feedback is provided (b) conation
to the learner (c) Cognition
(a) After the activity (d) none of the above.
(b) During the activity
(c) before the activity Answer: C
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Answer: B
15. Reaction time is a component of
(a) Physical fitness 19. Who gave the laws of learning?
(b) motor fitness (a) Watson
(c) Health related physical fitness (b) McDougal
(d) none of the above. (c) Watson
(d) Thorndike.
Answer: B
Answer: D
16. The test that measures reaction
time is 20. Theory of learning was given by
(a) Standing broad jump (a) Throndike
(b) sergeant jumps (b) Gestalt
(c) Shuttle run (c) H. C. Buck
(d) stick drop test. (d) G. D. Sondhi.

Answer: D Answer: A

17. These are the conditions related 21. Achievement motivation is

with stress except synonymous to
(a) Hypertension (a) Biofeedback theory only
(b) anemia (b) feedback theory
(c) mental illness (c) neuro-biofeedback theory
(d) peptic ulcer. (d) none of the above.

Answer: B Answer: B

18. Theory of conditioning was given 22. The period of growth and
by (a) Aristotle development from 9 to 11 years is
(b) Pavlov known as
(c) Gestalt (a) Early childhood
(d) Thorndike. (b) later childhood
(c) Puberty
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(d) adulthood. (c) Themselves and others

(d) none of the above.
Answer: B
Answer: A
23. The reason for lower
performance in sports competition is 27. During adolescence, the
(a) Fear of failure behaviour of a person is influenced
(b) anxiety by
(c) Aggression (a) Family
(d) motivation. (b) peer group
(c) School
Answer: B (d) society.

24. Individual differences are due to Answer: B

(a) Environmental impact
(b) heredity impact 28. Violence associated with the
(c) Heredity and environmental competition sport is mainly due to
impact (a) The very nature of the
(d) community impact. competitive sport
b) the social tensions within the
Answer: B society
(c) The social backwardness
25. Cognitive learning is also called (d) identity of spectators with teams
(a) Mental learning on racial, religious or national
(b) Affective learning considerations.
(c) Tnotor learning
(d) All the above. Answer: D

Answer: A 29. The personal factors in learning

are
26. Introverts are interested in (a) Heredity factors
(a) Themselves (b) fitness factors
(b) others (c) Psychological factors
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(d) all the above. (b) feeling

(c) Instinct
Answer: D (d) sentiment.

30. Gestalt has propounded Answer: C

(a) Theory of trial and error
(b) theory of conditioning 34. The best method for training of
(c) Theory of learning emotions in sports is
(d) none of the above. (a) Repression
(b) redirection
Answer: C (c) Inhibition
(d) sublimation.
31. Feedback method
(a) is helpful to the learner Answer: D
(b) is detrimental to the learner
(c) is neither helpful nor detrimental 35. Proximo-distal growth means
(d) None of the above. (a) Development from spinal cord
outwards
Answer: A (b) no uniform growth and
development
32. Learning of physical skills is (c) Growth from general to specific
concerned with (d) growth from head to the lower
(a) Cognitive learning body parts.
(b) affective learning
(c) Motor learning Answer: A
(d) all the above.
36. Cephalo-caudal growth means
Answer: C (a) Growth form general to specific
(b) no uniform growth and
33. In born tendency for particular development
mode of behaviour in lower or (c) Growth and development
higher animals is called proceeds from birth to death
(a) Emotion (d) growth is form head downwards.
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(a) Accuracy of measurement

Answer: D (b) forecasting behaviour
(c) Consistency of measurement
37. Surplus energy theory of play (d) none of the above.
was propounded by
(a) McDougal Answer: C
(b) Lazarus
(c) Karl Groose 41. The first test of intelligence was
(d) Herbert Spencer. developed by
(a) Binet and Simon
Answer: D (b) Pavlov and Watson
(c) Terman and Merril
38. Body assumes a ‘fight or flight’ (d) Maslow and McDougal.
condition preparing for emergency
situations, when the nervous system Answer: A
is active.
(a) Central 42. In development process the term
(b) somatic “gang- age” occurs during
(c) Sympathetic (a) Early childhood
(d) parasympathetic. (b) puberty
(c) Infancy
Answer: C (d) later childhood.

39. Emotion is defined as Answer: B

(a) Feeling
(b) disturbed state or organism 43. Cognition deals with
(c) Fear of future (a) Learning
(d) state of organism. (b) memory
(c) Creativity
Answer: B (d) all the above.

40. A reliable psychological test Answer: D

means
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44. Outstanding athletes usually (c) Binet

possess certain personality (d) Waston.
characteristics, such as
(a) Aggressiveness Answer: C
(b) neurotic
(c) Ambivalence 48. The impulses that travel from
(d) submissiveness. CNS to muscle are called
(a) Efferent
Answer: A (b) afferent
(c) Sensation
45. Psycho-sexual development (d) all the above.
takes place during
(a) Later childhood Answer: A
(b) adolescene
(c) Young age 49. Natural motivation is also known
(d) adulthood. as
(a) Intrinsic
Answer: B (b) self assertion
(c) Self actualization
46. The psychologist who has been (d) extrinsic.
most closely related with the study
of achievement motivation is Answer: A
(a) Meclelland
(b) Maslow 50. Human psychology is confined to
(c) Vroom the study of
(d) McGregor. (a) Behaviour
(b) mind
Answer: A (c) Soul
(d) relationship.
47. The concept of mental age was
given by Answer: A
(a) Stern
(b) Galton
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51. Which of the following is a law of (b) loss of interest

learning? (c) Boredom
(a) Law of readiness (d) difficult stage.
(b) Law of exercise
(c) Law of effect Answer: A
(d) All the above.
55. The therapy of psychoanalysis
Answer: D was developed by
(a) Skinner
52. Mental development includes (b) Sigmund Freud
(a) External and internal organs (c) Plato
(b) reasoning and thinking (d) Darwin.
(c) Ethical and moral
(d) emotional maturity. Answer: B

Answer: B 56. Sports performance is the bi-

product of
53. Through which of the following (a) Skill
methods, desirable channels are (b) conditional ability
provided for the release of (c) Total personality
emotional energy? (d) tactical ability.
(a) Inhibition
(b) Sublimation Answer: C
(c) Catharsis
(d) Repression. 57. The first metamorphosis falls
between the ages of
Answer: C (a) 7-10 years
(b) 3-5 years
54. The rate of progress in learning (c) 11-14 years
slows down and reaches a limit (d) 2-4 years.
beyond which further improvement
seems impossible. It is known as Answer: A
(a) Plateau
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58. Which is the most effective (d) conation.

method for encouraging self
learning? Answer: C
(a) Demonstration method
(b) Lecture method 62. Which need is on top of the
(c) Observation method Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
(d) Task method. (a) Self-actualization
(b) Esteem
Answer: C (c) Belongingness
(d) Safety.
59. Which one is the simplest form
of cognition? Answer: A
(a) Conception
(b) Perception 63. ERG theory was given by
(c) Sensation (a) Maslow
(d) Affection. (b) Alderfer
(c) Jung
Answer: C (d) Mcclellan.

60. The functional division of spinal Answer: D

cord are
(a) somatic-motor 64. Alderfer’s theory categorizes
(b) somatic-sensory needs into three categories. The
(c) visceral-motor most important is
(d) none of the above. (a) Growth needs
(b) ralatedness need
Answer: B (c) Existence need
(d) none of the above.
61. The response defined as a result
of training is called Answer: C
(a) Conditioned stimulus
(b) unconditioned reflex 65. Which of the following is an
(c) Conditioned reflex intrinsic motivator?
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(a) Pay
(b) Promotion 69. Terminal feedback is the
(c) Feedback information provided to the learner
(d) Interest of play. (a) Before the activity
(b) During the activity
Answer: D (c) After the activity
(d) none of the above.
66. The two factor theory of
motivation is given by Answer: C
(a) Maslow
(b) Jung 70. The initial steep rise in the
(c) Alderfer learning graph is an indication of
(d) Harzberg. quick progress and is technically
known as
Answer: D (a) ‘End spurt’
(b) ‘Initial spurt’
67. Reinforcement theory of (c) Saturation point
motivation is given by (d) None of the above.
(a) Jung
(b) Herzberg Answer: B
(c) Skinner
(d) Maslow. 71. What type of motivation is not
applicable to young children?
Answer: C (a) Intrinsic motivation
(b) Extrinsic motivation
68. Achievement motivation relates (c) Achievement motivation
to (d) none of the above.
(a) Need of the person
(b) Knowledge of the person Answer: A
(c) experience of the person
(d) aptitude of the person. 72. The ‘trial and error’ theory of
learning was propounded by
Answer: A (a) Newton
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(b) Pavlov
(c) Thorndike Answer: A
(d) Homer.
76. Trial & Error learning is also
Answer: C known as
(a) Conditioning
73. In the childhood, individual’s (b) connectionism
behaviour is most influenced by (c) Insight
(a) Community (d) none of the above.
(b) School
(c) Peer group Answer: B
(d) family.
77. ‘Exercise for the body and music
Answer: D for the soul, in which country the
common adage was used?
74. The cause of frustration among (a) Italy
sports person is (b) France
(a) Result of own performance (c) Greece
(b) Normally due to mismatched (d) Germany.
level of aspiration and ability
(c) Result of good performance Answer: C
(d) Natural outcome of competitive
sports. 78. What aspect of movement refers
to body awareness?
Answer: B (a) To identify the parts of the body
and the whole
75. Which is the description of the (b) To establish the relationship of
methods of personality the body parts
measurement? (c) Able to identify the body parts
(a) Rating scale (d) All the above.
(b) Interviews & observations
(c) Paper & pencil test Answer: D
(d) All the above.
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79. Law of effect in learning was (a) Sigmund Freud

started by (b) Ivan Pavlov
(a) Pavlov (c) John B. Watson
(b) Thomdike (d) Wundt.
(c) Skinner
(d) Gestalt. Answer: D

Answer: B 83. When catching a ball, your hand

knows when to grasp because
80. What is the population that (a) Your parasympathetic nervous
psychologists usually study? system is active
(a) Cats & Dogs (b) Alpha waves are being generated
(b) Monkeys by your brain
(c) People (c) participating muscles receive
(d) Pigeons and rats. efferent signals from the brain
(d) afferent signals inform your hand
Answer: D that the ball is about to make
contact.
81. How is psychology defined
today? Answer: C
(a) The science of behaviour and
mental processes 84. Body mind relationship was first
(b) The science of human behaviour promulgated by
and mental processes (a) Socrates
(c) The science of mind (b) Plato
(d) The study of motivation, (c) Hitler
emotion, personality, adjustment (d) Homer.
and abnormality.
Answer: B
Answer: A
85. Who said, “I think therefore I
82. Who is regarded as the ‘father’ am”?
of psychology? (a) Discartes
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(b) Plato (a) Advantageous to the performer

(c) Aristotle (b) Detrimental to the performer
(d) Rousseau. (c) Neither
(d) helpful in the development of
Answer: A strength.

86. Who said, “sound mind in a Answer: B

sound body”?
(a) Discartes 90. Which law of learning states that
(b) Rousseau things most often repeated are best
(c) Aristotle retained?
(d) Plato. (a) Law of readiness
(b) Law of exercise
Answer: D (c) Law of effect
(d) Law of recency.
87. The hereditary factors of learning
are Answer: B
(a) Height and weight
(b) Physical structure 91. The state of being first creates a
(c) body composition strong almost unusable impression.
(d) all the above. This is
(a) Law of primacy
Answer: D (b) Law of intensity
(c) Law of recency
88. Autogenic training is a technique (d) law of effect.
(a) To bring about relaxation in body
(b) To increase anxiety level Answer: A
(c) to counter avoidance syndrome
(d) none of the above. 92. That the things most recently
learned are best remembered refers
Answer: A to
(a) Law of intensity
89. The stress condition is (b) Law of effect
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(c) Law of primacy Answer: B

(d) Law of recency.
96. The leader who allows complete
Answer: D freedom in decision making and do
not participate in the group activities
93. Which is the lowest level of is
learning? (a) Autocratic
(a) Rate learning (b) Democratic
(b) Understanding (c) Lassez fair
(c) Application (d) none of the above.
(d) Correlation.
Answer: C
Answer: A
97. Stress is
94. Emotional stability, anxiety, (a) Advantageous to the player
sadness and built ability are (b) Detrimental to his abilities
attributes of which personality (c) Both advantageous and
dimension? detrimental as per the situation
(a) Extroversion (d) None of the above.
(b) Agreeableness
(c) Bourgeoisies Answer: C
(d) Openness.
98. Maslow places needs at the
Answer: C bottom of hierarchy.
(a) Esteem
95. Which of the following is not an (b) belongingness
attribute of agreeableness (c) Safety
personality dimension? (d) physiological.
(a) Altruism
(b) Complexity Answer: D
(c) Trust
(d) Modesty. 99. Which law of learning is also
called the law of use and disuse?
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(a) Law of exercise (b) Rationalization

(b) Law of readiness (c) Regression
(c) Law of effect (d) Repression
(d) Law of intimacy. (e) None of the above

Answer: A Answer: B

100. The law of effect is also known 103. “After being told by her mother
as that her father has died, a little girl
(a) Law of use & disuse may act as though she has not heard
(b) Law of satisfaction her mother’s words and may ask
(c) Law of recency where her father is”, This is an
(d) Law of frequency. illustration of:
(a) Rationalization
Answer: B (b) Denial
(c) Repression
101. Freudian theory reveals that the (d) Regression
fundamental technique people use (e) None of the above
to alley anxiety caused by conflicts
is: Answer: B
(a) Regression
(b) Sublimation 104. Who has seen dreams as a form
(c) Repression of displacement in which the
(d) Rationalization contents of the dream serve as
(e) Reaction Formation symbols of actions or persons that
evoke severe anxiety and thus
Answer: C require repression?
(a) Anna Freud
102. Which defense mechanism (b) Sigmund Freud
substitutes an acceptable conscious (c) Alfred Adler
motive for an unacceptable (d) C.G. Jung
unconscious one? (e) None of the above
(a) Sublimation
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Answer: B (c) Conflicts

(d) Coping Behaviour
105. A mother punished her children (e) None of the above
too severely and said that she did so
because she loves them and because Answer: A
“it is for their own good”. This is an
illustration of: 108. If the gap between “level of
(a) Sublimation aspiration” and “level of
(b) Rationalization achievement” is too wide:
(c) Conversion (a) Frustration is bound to occur
(d) Reaction Formation (b) Conflict occurs
(e) None of the above (c) Psychological imbalance occurs
(d) Abnormal disease is found
Answer: B (e) None of the above

106. Any external factor which Answer: A

blocks or delays the satisfaction of a
motive is regarded as: 109. When a person has two positive
(a) Barrier of motive (desirable) but mutually exclusive
(b) Blocking Behaviour goals, his situation is expressed as:
(c) Personal Source of Frustration (a) An approach-avoidance conflict
(d) Environmental Source of (b) A double approach-avoidance
Frustration conflict
(e) None of the above (c) An approach-approach conflict
(d) An avoidance-avoidance conflict
Answer: D (e) None of the above

107. Lack of height, intelligence and Answer: C

incapacity for hard work are
examples of: 110. The approach-approach conflict
(a) Personal source of Frustration becomes more difficult to resolve
(b) Environmental Sources of when:
Frustration
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(a) The goals are not only equally (a) May pose a big problem for the
attractive but equally important and individual
having far- reaching effects on an (b) May not pose a big problem for
individual’s life the individual
(b) Two goals are not equally (c) Becomes impossible
unattractive (d) Takes a long time to resolve
(c) Two goals are within reach (e) None of the above
(d) Two goals are not equally
important Answer: B
(e) None of the above
113. When a person seeks to avoid
Answer: A two unpleasant alternatives but
cannot directly avoid one without
111. “A young man wants to get encountering the other, he is
married to the girl whom he loves confronted with:
and at the same time he wants to (a) An approach-approach conflict
complete an important course in (b) An avoidance-avoidance conflict
order to get a good job which is (c) An approach-avoidance conflict
essential to start a new life.” What (d) A double approach-avoidance
type of conflict he is facing? conflict
(a) Approach-approach Conflict (e) None of the above
(b) Approach-avoidance Conflict
(c) Avoidance-avoidance Conflict Answer: B
(d) Double Approach-avoidance
Conflict 114. When the individual is between
(e) None of the above the devil and deep sea, he is
supposed to confront with:
Answer: A (a) An avoidance-avoidance conflict
(b) An approach-approach conflict
112. When the goals are unevenly (c) An approach-avoidance conflict
balanced, the resolution of the (d) A double approach-avoidance
approach-approach conflict: conflict
(e) None of the above
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(a) Double approach-avoidance

Answer: A conflict
(b) Approach-avoidance conflict
115. When a person is attracted (c) Approach-approach conflict
towards a goal and at the same time (d) Avoidance-avoidance conflict
repelled by something associated (e) None of the above
with jt, he is supposed to confront
with: Answer: B
(a) An approach-approach conflict
(b) An avoidance-avoidance conflict 118. Once a college teacher was
(c) An approach-avoidance conflict found to be in a dilemma. He had to
(d) A double approach-avoidance decide between two jobs-one in a
conflict renowned institution, with small
(e) None of the above classes, beautiful campus, excellent
living accommodation but with a low
Answer: C salary and the other in a college that
is not well known, with crowded and
116. The attitude towards the goal, dingy classrooms, with a dreary
which is at once liked and disliked or campus, but with a very attractive
wanted and unwanted, is known as: salary and good chances of
(a) Ambivalence promotion. Such type of conflict is
(b) Conflict known as:
(c) Tension (a) Double approach-avoidance
(d) Obstruction conflict
(e) None of the above (b) Approach-avoidance conflict
(c) Approach-approach conflict
Answer: A (d) Avoidance-avoidance conflict
(e) None of the above
117. A girl likes candy very much; at
the same time, she does not want to Answer: A
be fatty. She is supposed to be
confronted with: 119. A person who is confronted
with a goal- object but finds it at
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once attractive and repulsive,

shows: 122. The necessity of making a
(a) Double approach-avoidance choice involves :
conflict (a) Affective strain
(b) Approach-approach conflict (b) Cognitive strain
(c) Considerable “vacillatory” (c) Conflicts
behaviour (d) Tension
(d) Avoidance-avoidance conflict (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: B
Answer: C
123. The conflict in which the
120. When we speak of “multiple motives are divergent but the goal
conflict”, generally we mean: object is same is known as:
(a) Avoidance-avoidance conflict (a) Approach-avoidance conflict
(b) Approach-avoidance conflict (b) Avoidance-avoidance conflict
(c) Double approach-avoidance (c) Convergent conflict
conflict (d) Divergent conflict
(d) Approach-approach conflict (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: C
Answer: C
124. When the individual wants to
121. A change in the response go to two different goals at the same
strength as a function of the time, it is known as:
distance from goal is known as: (a) A convergent conflict
(a) Frustration (b) A divergent conflict
(b) Conflict (c) An approach-avoidance conflict
(c) Gradient (d) A double approach-avoidance
(d) Reinforcement conflict
(e) Punishment (e) None of the above

Answer: C Answer: B
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given the above definition of

125. Who defined frustrations as the conflict?
results of the thwarting of motive (a) J. C. Coleman
either by some obstacle that blocks (b) J. F. Brown
or impedes progress towards a (c) Sigmund Freud
derived goal? (d) Anna Freud
(a) J. D. Page (e) None of the above
(b) R. K. Merton
(c) J. C. Coleman Answer: B
(d) M. Mead
(e) None of the above 128. The stress is maximum when
the stressful event:
Answer: C (a) Comes suddenly
(b) Comes gradually
126. A state of affairs in which two (c) Is anticipated in future
or more incompatible behaviour (d) Is related to past experience
trends are evoked that cannot be (e) None of the above
satisfied at the same time is known
as: Answer: A
(a) Tension
(b) Conflict 129. A process by which a living
(c) Stress organism acquires a particular way
(d) Dilemma of acting or behaving or changes an
(e) None of the above existing form of behaviour or action
is called:
Answer: B (a) Sensation
(b) Adjustment
127. “By conflict, the psychoanalysts (c) Perception
mean a situation in which two (d) Attending
wishes are so incompatible that the (e) None of the above
fulfilment of one would preclude the
fulfilment of the other.” Who has Answer: B

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130. When the needs are neither

high nor low, but are totally 133. Who emphatically told that
impossible; they are called: changes in one’s life are important
(a) Conflicting Needs stressors?
(b) Exaggerated Needs (a) Allen (1983)
(c) Unrealistic Needs (b) Folkman (1984)
(d) Social Needs (c) T.H. Holmes (1984)
(e) None of the above (d) Ruch (1971)
(e) Lazarus (1984)
Answer: C
Answer: C
131. When an individual experiences
a strong need for achievement and 134. The body’s response to
an equally strong need for security, stressors has been called:
it is called a/an: (a) General adaptation syndrome
(a) Exaggerated Need (b) Homeostasis
(b) Conflicting Need (c) Frustration
(c) Unrealistic Need (d) Ego defenses
(d) Realistic Need (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: B
135. One stage in the general
132. The physical, environmental adaptation syndrome is essentially
and social causes of the stress state the emergency response of the
are termed: body. What is the name of this
(a) Stressors stage?
(b) Conflicts (a) Stage of Resistance
(c) Mechanisms (b) Stage of Exhaustion
(d) Sources (c) Stage of Homeostasis
(e) None of the above (d) Alarm Reaction
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
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Answer: D (c) Scizophrenia occurs

(d) Psychosomatic disorders occur
136. In which stage of general (e) None of the above
adaptation syndrome, certain
hormonal responses, especially in Answer: D
the adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) axis,
become an important line of defense 139. Cortisol and other similar
in resisting the effect of stressors? hormones have many actions which
(a) Stage of Resistance allow the body to deal adaptively
(b) Stage of Homeostasis with stressors for long periods of
(c) Stage of Alarm Reaction time during the:
(d) Stage of Exhaustion (a) Stage of Exhaustion
(e) None of the above (b) Stage of Alarm Reaction
(c) Stage of Homeostasis
Answer: A (d) Stage of Resistance
(e) None of the above
137. In which stage of general
adaptation syndrome, the body’s Answer: D
ability to respond to stresses has
been seriously compromised? 140. The technique by which the
(a) Stage of Alarm Reaction involuntary physiological responses
(b) Stage of Exhaustion can actually be brought under
(c) Stage of Resistance voluntary control through
(d) Stage of Homeostasis instrumental conditioning is known
(e) None of the above as:
(a) Biofeedback
Answer: B (b) Hypnosis
(c) Systematic desensitization
138. When perceived stressors (d) Relaxation Training
increase the susceptibility of the (e) None of the above
body to disease:
(a) Neurotic diseases occur Answer: A
(b) Psychotic diseases occur
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141. Who viewed that defense

mechanisms originate in conflicts 144. Redirection of sexual impulses
among the id, ego and super ego? to socially valued activities and goals
(a) Anna Freud is known as:
(b) Sigmund Fund (a) Rationalization
(c) Alfred Adler (b) Sublimation
(d) Otto Rank (c) Displacement
(e) C.G. Jung (d) Intellectualization
(e) Regression
Answer: B
Answer: B
142. An active process by which a
person “forgets” by “pushing down” 145. The extreme form of
into unconscious any thoughts that “regression” is found in:
arouse anxiety is known as: (a) Hysteria
(a) Repression (b) Schizophrenia
(b) Regression (c) Mental Retardation
(c) Rationalization (d) Phobia
(d) Sublimation (e) Obsessive Compulsive Neurosis
(e) Projection
Answer: B
Answer: A
146. The “sour grapes” mechanism is
143. A way of coping with one’s otherwise known as:
unwanted motives by shifting them (a) Displacement
onto someone else is known: (b) Rationalization
(a) Sublimation (c) Compensation
(b) Projection (d) Reaction Formation
(c) Withdrawal (e) Regression
(d) Rationalization
(e) Regression Answer: B

Answer: B
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147. Direct compensation consists in 150. Many persons substitute

intensive striving for success in the “good” reasons for real reasons, so
very field of: that their actions may appear
(a) Inferiority justified and logical to preserve self
(b) Superiority respect and good opinion of
(c) Learning associates without conscious intent.
(d) Intelligence This window dressing of motives and
(e) None of the above actions is called:
(a) Rationalization
Answer: A (b) Projection
(c) Introjection
148. “Hero worship” is an obvious (d) Sublimation
form of: (e) Delusion
(a) Sublimation
(b) Identification Answer: A
(c) Compensation
(d) Rationalization 151. A high school student wanted
(e) Regression to join the college after passing his
annual examination. But to his utter
Answer: B disappointment, he failed in the
examination. When he was asked
149. The common tendency of that why he has not joined the
blaming others of our mistakes is a college, he cautioned his
simple illustration of: disappointment by stating that
(a) Introjection college is a waste of time and
(b) Identification money. The above story is an
(c) Sublimation illustration of:
(d) Projection (a) Sublimation
(e) Rationalization (b) Rationalization
(c) Projection
Answer: D (d) Identification
(e) Regression

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 Unit - IV: Physical Education

Answer: B (b) Rationalization

(c) Suppresion
152. Sometimes people think that (d) Repression
whatever happens is all for the best. (e) Regression
This is an example of:
(a) “Sweet-Lemon” or “Pollyanna” Answer: D
attitude
(b) Introjection 155. To protest too much is
(c) Projection equivalent to an admission of guilt.
(d) Sublimation This is an example of:
(e) Regression (a) Reaction Formation
(b) Projection
Answer: A (c) Introjection
(d) Sublimation
153. The deliberate and conscious (e) Displacement
ejection of discomforting impulses
and memories from the field of Answer: A
attention is called:
(a) Repression 156. The imaginative infusion of an
(b) Supression object or person with the attributes
(c) Regression of another and their after feeling
(d) Projection and behaving as one did to the first
(e) Introjection object is termed as:
(a) Projection
Answer: B (b) Identification
(c) Introjection
154. The involuntary or spontaneous (d) Compensation
exclusion from conscious awareness (e) Sublimation
of thoughts and impulses that are
disturbing to the individual because Answer: B
of their painful or immoral nature is
termed: 157. Many children manifest the
(a) Projection tendency to do the precise opposite
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of anything that they have been 160. The entire psychoanalytic

directed to do. This is an example of: theory of Freud was mostly based on
(a) Negativism the concept of:
(b) Projection (a) Repression and Unconscious
(c) Reaction Formation (b) Regression and Conscious
(d) Sublimation (c) Psychosexual Development
(e) Inhibition (d) Sex and Libido
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: A
158. Many disagreeable realities of
life may be indirectly evaded by 161. In his psychoanalytic theory,
refusing to accept or come in contact Freud believed that repression which
with them. This is called: is purely unconscious, is the only
(a) Reality Evasion cause of:
(b) Projection (a) Neurosis
(c) Introjection (b) Psychosis
(d) Sublimation (c) Psychopathology
(e) Displacement (d) Psychosomatic Disorder
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: C
159. In the earlier stage, Freudian
psychology was mostly concerned 162. To perform the homeostatic
with the process of: function, the ego has to struggle
(a) Conscious always against instinctive and
(b) Subconscious dynamic tendencies which need:
(c) Sex (a) Sexual gratification
(d) Unconscious (b) Reinforcement
(e) None of the above (c) Immediate gratification
(d) Libido satisfaction
Answer: D (e) None of the above

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Answer: C
Answer: B
163. The mechanism which the ego
uses to check the satisfaction of 166. The economic approach to
unacceptable sexual and aggressive mental activities is done by using
urges are referred to as: various:
(a) Narcissism (a) Dreams
(b) Libido Satisfaction (b) Defence Mechanisms
(c) Defences (c) Nightmares
(d) Ego Function (d) Fantasies
(e) None of the above (e) None of the above

Answer: C Answer: B

164. When id and the super ego 167. The defence mechanisms are
dominate the ego, harmony is broadly classified into:
broken and to maintain balance, the (a) Successful and unsuccessful
ego applies various: defence mechanisms
(a) Methods (b) Ego and Super Ego mechanisms
(b) Techniques (c) Id and Ego mechanisms
(c) Approaches (d) Id and Super Ego mechanisms
(d) Defence Mechanisms (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: D
168. Which type of defense
165. Who emphasized that even mechanisms are not able to press
anxiety is reduced through defensive back the various id desires for a long
fantasies of children? time?
(a) Sigmund Freud (a) Successful defence mechanisms
(b) Anna Freud (b) Direct defence mechanisms
(c) Alfred Adler (d) C.G. Jung (c) Indirect defence mechanisms
(e) None of the above
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(d) Unsuccessful defence (b) Ego conflict

mechanisms (c) Unconscious conflict
(e) None of the above (d) Conscious conflict
(e) None of the above
Answer: D
Answer: D
169. The unsuccessful defence
mechanisms are otherwise known 172. Conversion and sublimation are
as: the major defence mechanisms for
(a) Pathological or diseased defences the solution of:
(b) Ego defences (a) Conscious conflict
(c) Direct defences (b) Ego conflict
(d) Indirect defences (c) Supper ego conflict
(e) None of the above (d) Unconscious conflict
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: D
170. Most of the defence
mechanisms: 173. Which type of defence
(a) Operate unconsciously although mechanisms help the ego to
they do not belong to the system of channelize many of the id desires in
unconscious proper direction?
(b) Are nothing to do with normal (a) Unsuccessful Defense
life Mechanisms
(c) Are not helpful for survival (b) Direct Defense Mechanisms
(d) Operate consciously (c) Successful Defense mechanisms
(e) None of the above (d) Indirect Defense Mechanisms
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: C
171. Repression is the major
mechanism for the solution of:
(a) Super ego conflict
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174. Which one is considered as the

most complete and successful of all 177. The transformation of sexual
defense mechanisms? and aggressive urges into creative
(a) Sublimation work in socially acceptable
(b) Rationalization directions is known as:
(c) Reaction Formation (a) Sublimation
(d) Identification (b) Rationalization
(e) Repression (c) Regression
(d) Reaction Formation
Answer: A (e) Repression

175. Which defense mechanism is Answer: A

not a defence, but the full use of a
tamed and channeled drive? 178. The resolution of certain
(a) Repression frustrations related to the basic
(b) Regression urges through the substitution of a
(c) Rationalization socially acceptable goal is the main
(d) Sublimation purpose of:
(e) Reaction Formation (a) Rationalization
(b) Sublimation
Answer: D (c) Regression
(d) Repression
176. In which defense mechanism, (e) Reaction Formation
the forces of libido are diverted to
social activity when finds them Answer: D
unsatiable?
(a) Reaction Formation 179. Sexual desires are usually
(b) Rationalization sublimated in:
(c) Repression (a) Art and literature
(d) Sublimation (b) Medicine
(e) None of the above (c) Games and Sports
(d) Culture
Answer: D (e) None of the above
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Answer: A
Answer: A
183. The invention of unconsciously
180. Aggressive desires are acceptable motives by the ego to
sublimated in: cover up those unconscious motives
(a) Art and literature which it cannot accept refers to:
(b) Medicine (a) Sublimation
(c) Sports and Adventure (b) Rationalization
(d) Culture (c) Reaction Formation
(e) None of the above (d) Fantasy
(e) Identification
Answer: C
Answer: D
181. In sublimation, the unconscious
conflict is resolved by flight to: 184. Which defense mechanism
(a) Active Politics refers to the substitution of a
(b) Active Research socially approved motive for a
(c) Creative Work socially disapproved one?
(d) Dreams (a) Sublimation
(e) None of the above (b) Regression
(c) Rationalization
Answer: C (d) Reaction Formation
(e) Repression
182. Rationalization consists in
adding good reasons for actions, Answer: C
unaccepted drives and needs which
are: 185. When the individual allows
(a) Not accepted by the society some of his id desires to be satisfied
(b) Not accepted by the parents and acts in a particular manner to
(c) Accepted by the society defend himself at the same time, he
(d) Accepted by the family members is said to have:
(e) None of the above (a) Repressed
(b) Regressed
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(c) Identified (b) Reaction Formation

(d) Rationalized (c) Rationalization
(e) Displaced (d) Sublimation
(e) None of the above
Answer: D
Answer: C
186. Rationalization is a justification
to complete irrational desires 189. “Many people cannot tolerate
coming from the: the closing of windows in the winter
(a) Ego though they do not know the ‘why’
(b) Super Ego of it.” This shows how
(c) Id rationalization functions in:
(d) Conscious (a) Unconscious level
(e) Subconscious (b) Conscious level
(c) Subconscious level
Answer: C (d) Id level
(e) None of the above
187. By rationalization, one tries to
justify his: Answer: A
(a) Motive
(b) Personality 190. Repression is a/an:
(c) Behaviour (a) Major defense which does not
(d) Emotion check inner forces
(e) Memory (b) Involuntary forgetting of wishes
(c) Cornerstone of Behaviourism
Answer: C (d) Topographic-dynamic conception
(e) None of the above
188. “A candidate who fails in an
interview tries to save his prestige Answer: D
by announcing that he did not really
want the job” This illustrates the 191. Repression is a major defence
defense mechanism of: which checks:
(a) Displacement (a) Dreams
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(b) Nightmares (c) Childhood

(c) Innerforces (d) Old Age
(d) Fantasies (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: C
Answer: C
195. Primal Repression refers to
192. A conflict among Id, Ego and those wishes which have never
Super ego which produces anxiety been:
may be prevented from registering (a) Conscious
itself in consciousness by being (b) Unconscious
opposed by an anticathexis is called: (c) Regressive
(a) Regression (d) Subconscious
(b) Rationalization (e) None of the above
(c) Reaction Formation
(d) Repression Answer: A
(e) None of the above
196. Sometimes repression operates
Answer: D upon memories that are associated
with:
193. Repression is a/an: (a) Traumatic Experience
(a) Unconscious process (b) Past Experiences
(b) Conscious process (c) Childhood
(c) Topographic static conception (d) Adolescence
(d) Voluntary Forgetting (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: A
Answer: A
197. Who viewed that the wide
194. Maximum repression occurs in spread forgetting during preoedipal
the: stage and in the latency period is not
(a) Adulthood due to normal causes of forgetting
(b) Adolescence but because of repression?
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(a) J. B. Watson (c) Going back

(b) B. B. Wolman (d) Throwing Out
(c) Blum (e) None of the above
(d) H.S. Sullivan
(e) H.S. Rosenthal Answer: C

Answer: C 201. The ability to see the

enterprise/sports organization as a
198. In normal cases, the effects of whole is called
repression can be observed only in (a) Human skill
studying: (b) Conceptual skill
(a) Fantasies and Nightmares (c) Mechanical skill
(b) Dreams (d) None of the above.
(c) Regressive Behaviour
(d) Abnormal Behaviour Answer: B
(e) None of the above
202. The use of a particular method
Answer: B of teaching depends upon
(a) Skill of the teacher
199. Having reached a certain stage, (b) Sex of the teacher
a person may retreat to an earlier (c) Age of the teacher
level because of fear. This is called: (d) None of the above.
(a) Repression
(b) Reaction Formation Answer: A
(c) Regression
(d) Rationalization 203. Biological sciences and suggest
(e) Projection (a) Physical exercises balanced
nutrition is interrelated
Answer: C (b) Variety of activity sustain interest
(c) Games and sports are great social
200. Literally, regression means: experience
(a) Marching Forward
(b) Antisocial Desires
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(d) Playfield does not recognize any 207. Sports management is

distinction of cast, language, creed (a) An art
color, etc. (b) A science
(c) Both a & b
Answer: A (d) None of the above.

204 Free hand activities generally Answer: C

done in group is called
(a) ply metrics 208. The first step in planning
(b) Calisthenics process is
(c) Drill and marching (a) Determination of objectives
(d) Weight training. (b) Resource mobilisation
(c) Constraints identification
Answer: A (d) Evaluation of alternatives

205. Which of the following is the Answer: A

first step in sports programmed?
(a) Directing 209. Which of the following does not
(b) Staffing come under the purview of
(c) Planning constraint identification in sports
(d) Budgeting. management?
(a) Geographical
Answer: C (b) Physiological
(c) Economical
206. Terms Administration and (d) Social.
Management are
(a) Synonymous to each other Answer: D
(b) Entirely different from each other
(c) Somewhat similar to each other 210. The plan in which only the chief
(d) All the above. executive dictates initiates and
monitors is called
Answer: B (a) Democratic plan
(b) Participative plan
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(c) Authoritarian plan Answer: D

(d) None of the above.
214. Objective of a national sports
Answer: C organization may be
(a) To encourage the development of
211. ‘Getting the right facts to the sports in the country
right people at the right time in the (b) To organize the championships at
right way’ is called national and regional level
(a) Game management (c) To participate in international
(b) Public relations in sports events from time to time be decided
(c) Motivation for sports (d) All the above.
(d) Leadership in sports.
Answer: D
Answer: B
215. Which of the following is not a
212. The last link of the sports principle of lesson planning?
management chain is (a) Age and sex
(a) Control and evaluation (b) Progression
(b) Finance and budget (c) Warming up
(c) Public relations (d) Teachers experience.
(d) None of the above.
Answer: D
Answer: A
216. Which of the following is a
213. Funds for the sports method for the classification of
programmes can be collected pupil?
through (a) Cozen method
(a) Alumni associations (b) YNCA method
(b) Donations/gifts (c) Atlanta city method
(c) Funds from public sector (d) All the above.
undertakings
(d) All the above. Answer: D

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217. Which of the following (c) Kolkata

represents a type of supervisor in (d) Bangalore.
physical education?
(a) Strongest person of the institute Answer: B
(b) Tallest girl of the institute
(c) Head of the institute 221. The Rural Sports Programme
(d) Tallest boy in the class. was launched in which year?
(a) 1980-81
Answer: C (b) 1970-71
(c) 1990-91
218. Whether or not a given source (d) 1960-61.
is genuine and admissible as
evidence is found through Answer: B
(a) Internal criticism
(b) External criticism 222. SPDA stands for
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Sports Policy of Development and
(d) None of the above. Administration
(b) Sports Project Development Area
Answer: B (c) Sports Project of Delhi Area
(d) None of the above.
219. Indian Olympic Association
(IDA) is headed by Answer: B
(a) A Chairman
(b) A Director 223. Which of the following is the
(c) A President prime objective of planning in
(d) A Treasurer. sports?
(a) Entertainment
Answer: C (b) For physical fitness
(c) Development of oneness
220. ‘Olympic Bhavan’ site is being (d) All the above.
planned at
(a) Chennai Answer: D
(b) New Delhi
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224. SAI was established in (d) Director General.

(a) 1985
(b) 1984 Answer: B
(c) 1983
(d) 1982. 228. Sports Talent Search
Scholarship Scheme was launched in
Answer: A (a) 1970-71
(b) 1975-76
225. The Society for National (c) 1977-78
Institute of Physical Education and (d) 1980-81.
Sports (SNIPES) merged with SAI in
(a) 1982 Answer: A
(b) 1983
(c) 1985 229. Intramural programme creates
(d) 1987. in students the sense of
(a) Achievement
Answer: D (b) involvement
(c) humor
226. Army Boys Sports Company (d) enjoyment.
(ABSC) scouts talent in the age group
of Answer: B
(a) 12-18 years
(b) 8-14 years 230. A leader must possess the
(c) 10-14 years following except
(d) 14-18 years. (a) Missionary zeal
(b) Commitment
Answer: B (c) Persuasiveness
(d) Selfishness.
227. Ex-officio president of SAI is
(a) President of India Answer: D
(b) Prime Minister of India
(c) Union Minister of Youth Affairs & 231. The basic functions of
Sports management are
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(a) Planning and organization (c) Strategy

(b) Directing and programme (d) skill.
development
(c) Personal management and Answer: C
financial management
(d) All the above. 235. The first step in planning
process is
Answer: D (a) Identification of target group
(b) Determination of goals
232. Ambit with in which the sports (c) Mobilization of resources
management must perform is (d) Provision of facilities.
generally referred to as
(a) Leadership in sports Answer: B
(b) Sphere of sports management
(c) Evaluation in sports 236. Which of the following is
(d) Innovation in sports. against the principles of
organisation?
Answer: B (a) Proper decentralization
(b) Proper communication
233. Effective communication is (c) Overlapping of authority
essential in sports management to (d) Delegation of power.
keep alive its
(a) Dynamics Answer: C
(b) characteristics
(c) Principle 237. The fund constituted to assist
(d) foundation. sports persons of yester years living
in indigent circumstances is
Answer: A (a) Rural Sports Programme
(b) National Welfare Fund
234. Blue print of the competition (c) National Sport Development
plan is called Fund
(a) Technique (d) National Service Volunteer
(b) tactics Scheme
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(a) Arjuna Award

Answer: B (b) Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award
(c) Dronacharya Award
238. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna (d) None of the above.
Award Scheme was launched in
(a) 1991-92 Answer: C
(b) 1992-93
(c) 1993-94 242. In which year were the first SAF
(d) 1994-95. games held?
(a) 1982
Answer: A (b) 1983
(c) 1984
239. When and where was the first (d) 1985.
world volleyball championship held?
(a) Tokyo, 1955 Answer: C
(b) Tokyo, 1964
(c) Prague, 1949 243. Which is the America’s highest
(d) Tokyo, 1958. Athletics Award?
(a) Jesse Owens Award
Answer: C (b) Michael Johnson Award
(c) Carl Lewis Award
240. Paddlers are (d) None of the above.
(a) Wrestlers
(b) basketballers Answer: A
(c) kho-kho players
(d) T. T. players. 244. Who amongst the following is
the Chairman of Common Wealth
Answer: D Games?
(a) Michael Fennell
241. The award given to coaches (b) Juan Antonio Samaranch
who have trained sports persons or (c) Jagdish Tytler
teams making outstanding (d) Jagmohan Dalmia.
achievements in the year is
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Answer: A 248. What is the amount of money

given to the winner of Rajiv Gandhi
245. What is amount of money that Khel Ratna Award?
is given to the winner of Arjuna (a) Rs. 1, 50,000
Award? (b) Rs. 2, 00,000
(a) Rs. 1, 50,000 (c) Rs. 2, 50,000
(b) Rs. 50,000 (d) Rs. 3, 00,000.
(c) Rs. 10,000
(d) None of the above. Answer: B

Answer: A 249. Who said, “I hope this game

creating hurdles in sport will be
246. What is the amount of money removed”?
that is given to winner of (a) Indian President K. R. Narayanan
Dronacharya Award? (b) Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(a) $75,000 (c) Sachin Tendulkar
(b) Rs. 2, 50,000 (d) None of the above.
(c) Rs. 80,000
(d) None of the above. Answer: B

Answer: D 250. Who is the president of All India

Football Federation?
247. The Arjuna Award was (a) Ram Vilas Paswan
instituted in (b) Priya Ranjan Das Munshi
(a) 1960 (c) R. L. Anad
(b) 1961 (d) K. P. S. Gill.
(c) 1962
(d) 1963. Answer: B

Answer: B
251. Phrenologists tried to find out
about personality by:
a. reading a person’s horoscope
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b. feeling a person’s skull described by Adler as having:

c. looking at a person’s hands a. low self-realization
d. asking people questions b. an Adlerian complex
c. an inferiority complex
Answer: B d. low actualization

Answer: C
252. A limitation of selective
breeding studies is that they 255. According to Freud, the mind’s
cannot: three components are:
a. tell us anything about the a. ego, id, superego
role of genes b. unconscious, moral, immoral
b. be used to study human c. oral, anal, phallic
beings d. primary, secondary, tertiary
c. provide information relevant
to the nature/nurture debate Answer: A
d. tell us anything about the
role of the environment 256. The idea that you can assess
someone’s personality by
Answer: B studying their face is called:
a. phrenology
253. Which neo-Freudian challenged b. physiology
his ideas about penis envy? c. somatology
a. Adler d. physiognomy
b. Fromm
c. Jung Answer: D
d. Horney
257. The ________ complex is to
Answer: D girls as the ________ complex
is to boys.
254. Someone who feels as though a. Electra, Oedipus
they are not living up to b. Oedipus, Electra
expectations would be
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c. oral, phallic seek to ________ their arousal.

d. phallic, oral a. decrease, increase
b. hide, reveal
Answer: A c. increase, decrease
d. reveal, hide

258. The discovery that the Answer: C

heritability of the Big Five
personality traits is around 40% 261. Allport believed that traits
– 50% suggests that: could be organized into three
a. the environment plays no levels:
role in personality a. primary, secondary, tertiary
b. genes play no role in b. cognitive, emotional,
personality physiological
c. the environment plays an c. id, ego, superego
important role in personality d. cardinal, central, secondary
d. the Big Five traits account for
about half of our personality Answer: D

Answer: C 262. The MMPI is used to measure:

a. unconscious drives
259. Humanistic psychologists b. the Big Five traits
embraced the idea of: c. personality and psychological
a. repression disorders
b. free will d. leadership potential
c. unconscious drives
d. the id Answer: C

Answer: B 263. Which of the following is NOT

one of the Big Five traits?
260. According to Eysenck, a. sense of humour
extraverts seek to ________ b. openness to experience
their arousal while introverts
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c. conscientiousness Answer: B
d. extraversion

Answer: A 267. The aim of behavioural genetics

is to learn about:
264. Freud founded the ________ a. the extent to which
approach to understanding geneticists can modify people’s
human behaviour. behaviour
a. palliative b. the possibility of eradicating
b. psychodynamic behavioural problems in
c. patronymic children
d. psychedelic c. the genetic and
environmental influences on
Answer: B human behaviour
d. the ability of animals to
265. The influence of parents on the learn language
personality of their children is:
a. non-existent Answer: C
b. weakest in early childhood
c. strongest in early childhood 268. Monozygotic is to ________
d. consistent across the twins as dizygotic is to
lifespan ________ twins.
a. male, female,
Answer: C b. female, male
c. fraternal, identical
266. What is special about d. identical, fraternal
“knockout” mice?
a. they are very attractive Answer: D
b. their DNA has been modified
c. they are easy to knock out 269. Which of the following
d. they are unusually characteristics describe
aggressive someone who, according to
Maslow, is self-actualized?
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a. creativity b. relatively enduring

b. confidence characteristics that influence
c. spontaneity our behaviour across many
d. all of the above situations
c. unconscious tendencies to
Answer: D act in different ways according
to the situation
270. According to Freud, children d. permanent personality
pass through 4 stages of tendencies that determine our
psychosexual development. behaviour in any situation
Which of the following shows
the stages in the correct Answer: B
developmental order?
a. oral, anal, phallic, latency 273. Sheldon’s theory that people
b. latency, oral, anal, phallic with different body types have
c. phallic, anal, oral, latency different personalities
d. oral, phallic, latency, anal has been:
a. supported by research
Answer: A b. discredited
c. shown to be accurate for thin
271. Projective tests claim to reveal people but not overweight
information about: people
a. career aptitude d. shown to be accurate for
b. intellectual attainment women but not for men
c. unconscious processes
d. parenting style Answer: B

Answer: C 274. Which of the following is not a

defence mechanism?
272. Traits are defined as: a. projection
a. physical characteristics that b. regression
distinguish us from other c. ingratiation
people d. sublimation
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Answer: A
Answer: C
278. Which of the following would
275. Rohan is self-disciplined, NOT be useful to a behavioural
focused on achievement and geneticist?
keen to do his duty. He would a. family studies
be b. case studies
expected to score highly on: c. adoption studies
a. neuroticism d. twin studies
b. agreeableness
c. extraversion Answer: B
d. conscientiousness
279. According to Freud, the id is to
Answer: D the ________ principle as the
ego is to the ________
276. The Barnum effect helps to principle.
explain people’s belief in: a. aggressive, sexual
a. fortune-telling b. sexual, aggressive
b. astrology c. pleasure, reality
c. horoscopes d. reality, pleasure
d. all the above
Answer: C
Answer: D
280. I.A.A.F. was formed in
277. ________ are the basic (a) 1911
biological units that transmit (b) 1912
characteristics from one (c) 1913
generation to the next: (d) 1914.
a. genes
b. neurons Answer: C
c. glia
d. instincts 281. Who was the first athlete to be
awarded Padmashree Award?
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(a) P. T. Usha Answer: C

(b) Milkha Singh
(c) G. S. Randhawa 285. After how many years Thomas
(d) V. S. Chauhan. Cup and beer cup tournaments in
Badminton held?
Answer: B (a) Biannually
(b) Triannually
282. Which of the following will host (c) Annually
the first Afro-Asian Games in 2001? (d) Quarterly
(a) New Delhi
(b) Kathmandu Answer: B
(c) Paris
(d) Mumbai. 286. Which Indian was the first to
win world title in badminton?
Answer: A (a) Prakash Padukon
(b) Syed Modi
283. Who won the maximum (c) Aparna Popat
number of medals in the 5th (d) P. Gopichand.
National Games at Manipur?
(a) Sebastian Xavier Answer: A
(b) Nisha Millet
(c) Shakti Singh 287. Who is the president of
(d) None of the above. A.A.F.I.?
(a) Vijay Kumar Malhotra
Answer: B (b) R. L. Anand
(c) Suresh Kalmadi
284. Hall of fame for year 1999 in (d) Murli Manohar Joshi.
tennis was given to
(a) Leander Paes Answer: C
(b) Wayne Arthur
(c) Both (a) and (b) 288. How many total indoor and
(d) None of the above. outdoor records are being made by

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Sergei Bubka in the event of pole 4. Kolkata (India).

vault?
(a) 33 Answer: B
(b) 34
(c) 35 292. Where was the ‘School Games
(d) 36. Federation of India’ (SGFI) formed?
(a) Kamataka
Answer: C (b) Mumbai
(c) Chennai
289. What is the ancient name of (d) Kolkata.
‘Polo’ and who gave it?
(a) ‘Chaupar’ by Rajputs Answer: A
(b) ‘Chauhan’ by Mughals
(c) ‘Chaturanga’ by Marathasi 293. ‘Ruud Gullit’ is associated with
(d) None of the above. which sport?
(a) Volleyball
Answer: B (b) Football
(c) Athletics
290. Which of the following (d) basketball.
international games originated in
India? Answer: B
(a) Volleyball and Kho-kho
(b) Snooker and Badminton 294. Karnam Malleshwari
(c) Tae kwando and Judo weightlifter belongs to which state?
(d) Judo and Karate. (a) Andra Pradesh
(b) Arunachal Pradesh
Answer: B (c) Karnataka
(d) Kerala
291. Where is the world’s highest
cricket ground situated? Answer: A
1. Lords (England)
2. Chail (India)
3. Oval (England)
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295. Dick Fosbury who invented the (d) Pondicherry.

‘Fosbury Flop’ style in high jump
event belongs to Answer: B
(a) USA
(b) England 299. ‘Pugilists’ are also known as
(c) Russia (a) Athletes
(d) Ukraine. (b) Chess players
(c) Boxers
Answer: A (d) Archers.

296. ‘Synthetic track’ in athletics was Answer: C

used for the first time in
(a) 1968 (Mexico Olympics) 300. World ‘Tee off’ is associated
(b) 1948 (London Olympics) with which game?
(c) 1896 (Athens Olympics) (a) Polo
(d) 1996 (Atlanta Olympics). (b) Snooker
(c) Golf
Answer: A (d) Billiards.

297. First World Cup Athletics Answer: C

Championship was held at
(a) Pusan 301. Isometric exercise is the one in
(b) Helsinki which muscle length is
(c) Kathmandu (a) constant
(d) Stuttgart. (b) Shortened
(c) Lengthens
Answer: B (d) None of the above.

298. In which state is the ‘Britannia Answer: A

Amritraj Tennis Academy’ situated?
(a) Kerala 302. 'Cyber' machine is based on the
(b) Chennai principle of
(c) Karnataka (a) Isometric contraction
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(b) Isotonic contraction 306. 'Stadiometer' is used to

(c) Is kinetic contraction measure (a) strength
(d) None of the above. (b) weight
(c) Height
Answer: C (d) stadium area.

303. Isokinetic method of training Answer: C

was introduced by
(a) G. D. Sondhi 307. 'Fertile Training' is used best to
(b) J. J. Perrine develop
(c) Aristotle (a) Flexibility
(d) Hippocrates. (b) strength
(c) Endurance
Answer: A (d) stadium area.

304 Pushing against the stationary Answer: C

wall is an example of
(a) Eccentric exercise 308. Adaptation to training load at
(b) Isometric exercise high altitudes is known as
(c) Isotonic exercise (a) Thermoregulation
(d) Is kinetic exercise. (b) Super compensation
(c) Acclimatization
Answer: B (d) None of the above.

305. 'Super compensation' means Answer: C

(a) Fatigue
(b) Second wind 309. Aerobic fitness is best achieved
(c) Adaptation to load through
(d) Oxygen debt. (a) Swimming
(b) Circuit training
Answer: C (c) Short sprints
(d) Long distance running.

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Answer: D (c) fartlek training

(d) interval training.
310. Progression method can equally
be used in teaching the activities Answer: C
except
(a) Hammer throws 314. The best season for doing
(b) Mass physical training 'Fartlek Training' is
(c) Dance (a) Racing season
(d) Pole vault. (b) Transition period
(c) Competition period
Answer: D (d) Off season.

311. 'Fartlek Training' was first Answer: D

devised and adopted in
(a) USA 315. The actual variables in interval
(b) Sweden method of training are
(c) England (a) Distance, time, repetitions and
(d) Switzerland. recovery period
(b) Preparatory, transition and
Answer: B competition period
(c) Distance, transition and recovery
312. Basic principle of Fartlek period
training is (d) Force, mass, acceleration.
(a) Variation in space
(b) Variation in pace Answer: A
(c) Variation in duration
(d) Variation in place. 316. Interval training is good for
(a) Off season
Answer: B (b) Mid season
(c) Competition period
313. 'Speed play' is also known as (d) None of the above.
(a) Weight training
(b) pressure training Answer: B
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317. 'Fartlek' training is given for Answer: B

improving
(a) Strength 321. 'Pyramid Training' was invented
(b) Endurance by
(c) Flexibility (a) Russians
(d) None of the above. (b) Germans
(c) Swedish
Answer: B (d) Americans.

318. 'Active flexibility' refers to Answer: A

(a) Muscular stretch without
assistance 322. Who invented circuit training?
(b) Muscular stretch with assistance (a) Morgan and Adamson
(c) Stretching at maximum range (b) Aristotle
(d) None of the above. (c) Herbert Spencer
(d) C. A. Bucher.
Answer: A
Answer: A
319. 'Micro cycle' involves training of
(a) one week 323. Who amongst the following
(b) 6-8 weeks introduced the is-kinetic method of
(c) 8-10 weeks training for the development of
(d) 1-2 weeks. strength?
(a) Plato
Answer: A (b) J. J. Parrine
(c) B. P. Coubertin
320. Leg strength can be best (d) Jacobson.
improved by
(a) High jumps Answer: C
(b) depth jumps
(c) pushups. 324. Long term exercise program
(d) Chin ups. made up of different activities &
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sports for developing all round (c) Scoop

fitness is known as (d) hit.
(a) Set training
(b) circuit training Answer: D
(c) interval training
(d) cross training. 328. In soccer the penalty kick spot is
marked at a distance of
Answer: D (a) 12 yards
(b) 8 yards
325. Physical ability which enables a (c) 10 yards
person to rapidly change body (d) 16 yards.
position & direction in a precise
manner is called Answer: A
(a) Speed
(b) Balance 329. In hockey the corner hit is taken
(c) Coordination from the
(d) Agility. (a) back-line
(b) centre-line
Answer: D (c) side-line
(d) goal-line.
326. The height of the blackboard of
hockey goal is Answer: C
(a) 12 inches
(b) 10 inches 330. 'Round Robin' is a name given
(c) 18 inches to
(d) 24 inches. (a) Knock out tournament
(b) Ladder tournament
Answer: C (c) League type composition
(d) None of the above.
327. To take penalty stroke in
hockey, any skill can be used except Answer: C
(a) Push
(b) flick
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331. The final event in 'Decathlon' is (c) Slow stretching and holding
always method
(a) javelin throw (d) Relaxation method.
(b) 1500 meter race
(c) 110 meter hurdles Answer: C
(d) 800 meter race.
335. Fartlek is more closely related
Answer: B to
(a) Jumpers
332. The super compensation effect (b) Throwers
of training is due to (c) Sprinters
(a) Improper proportion between (d) Middle distance runners.
load and recovery
(b) Proper proportion between load Answer: D
and recovery
(c) Massage 336. After acquiring mastery of skills,
(d) All the above. stress is laid on
(a) Development of motor
Answer: B components
(b) Tactical training
333. The duration of a meso cycle is (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) 5 to 10 days (d) None of the above.
(b) 4 to 6 weeks
(c) 4 to 6 months Answer: B
(d) 1 to 2 years.
337. Sprinting speed is best
Answer: B developed through
(a) Interval training
334. Best, method to develop (b) Weight training
flexibility is (c) Ins and outs
(a) Ballistic method (d) Continuous running.
(b) Slow method
Answer: A
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338. Main consideration for effective Answer: D

periodization should be
(a) Base creation 342. An efficient coach is he who
(b) Achievement of top form (a) Tells
(c) Skill development. (b) Tells and demonstrates
(d) Development of tactical ability. (c) Tells, demonstrates and explains
(d) Tells, demonstrates, explains and
Answer: B inspires.

339. Transition period aims at Answer: D

(a) Stabilization of performance
(b) Super compensation 343. High altitude training at 8,000 ft
(c) Recreation (a) Enhances performance
(d) Recovery. (b) Deteriorates performance
(c) Increase muscle strength
Answer: D (d) None of the above.

340. The first metamorphosis falls Answer: A

between the ages of
(a) 7-10 years 344. Abdominal muscles are best
(b) 3-5 years developed from
(c) 11-14 years (a) Running
(d) 2-4 years. (b) Abdominal crunch
(c) Back hyperextension
Answer: A (d) Lateral bending.

341. In selecting talent, the most Answer: B

important factor to be considered is
(a) Training state 345. Circuit training is an effective
(b) Health method for developing
(c) Interest and attitude (a) Speed
(d) All the above. (b) Flexibility
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(c) Strength endurance

(d) Agility. Answer: C

Answer: C 349. What is the duration of a

football game?
346. Ply metrics is also called (a) 45-10-45 (min.)
(a) Reflex phenomena (b) 40-10-40 (min.)
(b) Reactive jumps (c) 35-10-35 (min.)
(c) Agility training (d) 45-2-45 (min.).
(d) Till the above.
Answer: A
Answer: B
350. How many referees are
347. Tactical training is done required for a Football match?
(a) After skills are mastered (a) 4
(b) Before skills are mastered (b) 3
(c) Both tactical training and (c) 2
technical training are done side by (d) 1.
side
(d) All the above. Answer: D

Answer: A 351. Sound of words is generally

coded in:
348. Overload in sports training (a) Sensory Memory
relates to when (b) Visual Memory
(a) The oxygen is adequate to supply (c) Long-term Memory
the need of the body (d) Short-term memory
(b) The-oxygen supplying (e) None of the above
mechanisms are not able to increase
(c) The intake of oxygen is Answer: D
insufficient to meet the demand
(d) The supply of oxygen is more
than required.
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352. The TOT phenomenon is 355. Complete loss of memory is

associated with that theory of otherwise known as:
forgetting in which the basis is: (a) Astasia Abasia
(a) Retrieval Failure (b) Amnesia
(b) Psychic tension (c) Aphonsia
(c) Retrograde Amnesia (d) Mental Retardation
(d) Ego involvement (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: B
Answer: A
356. The retrieval of what has been
353. Amnesia is considered to be an stored in memory is called:
extreme case of: (a) Recognition
(a) Regression (b) Recall
(b) Rationalization (c) Relearning
(c) Displacement (d) Reconstruction
(d) Repression (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: B
Answer: D
357. Two types of recall are
354. The amount of items a person discernible. These are:
can grasp in a single act of (a) Free Recall and Cued Recall
apprehension is called: (b) Free Recall and Restricted Recall
(a) Reminiscence (c) Incomplete Recall and Complete
(b) Zeigarnik Effect Recall
(c) Immediate memory span (d) Systematic Recall and
(d) Span of attention Unsystematic Recall
(e) None of the above (e) None of the above

Answer: C Answer: A

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358. “What some dogs can do if you 361. A popular example of short-tem
take them to hunt birds at a lake” memory is:
describes the word: (a) Rumour
(a) Rehearsal (b) Storytelling
(b) Semantic Memory (c) Poem Recitation
(c) Episodic Memory (d) Immediate memory span
(d) Retrieval (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: D
Answer: D
362. What we remember for long is
359. The memory we merely called:
remember as long as it is in our eyes, (a) Long-term memory
casting an image in our retina, is: (b) Short-term memory
(a) Sensory Memory (c) Amnesia
(b) Iconic Memory (d) Qualitative Memory
(c) Episodic Memory (e) Mood
(d) Semantic Memory
(e) None of the above Answer: A

Answer: A 363. Mrs. B. Zeigarnik is a/an:

(a) Russian Psychologist
360. The memory for the image lasts (b) American Psychologist
in our eyes for only about: (c) German Psycholeist
(a) l/6th of a second (d) Swiss Psychologist
(b) l/5th of a second (e) Indian Psychologist
(c) 1/10th of a second
(d) 1/9th of a second Answer: A
(e) l/7th of a second
364. Dutta and Kanungo (Indian
Answer: B Psychologists) have given a new
interpretation to the “Zeigarnik
Effect”. Their experimental
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evidences indicated that the critical 367. In 1927, a psychologist wrote

factor in “Zeigarnik Effect” is: about seven strategies by which we
(a) Dimension of emotion can improve our memory. His /Her
(b) Subjective factors in perception name is:
(c) Intensity of emotion (a) Zeigarnik
(d) Objective factors in perception (b) Woodrow
(e) None of the above (c) Watson
(d) Sigmund Freud
Answer: C (e) Alfred Adler

365. Long-term memory has a more Answer: B

or less enduring impression in the:
(a) Body 368. As it has been noticed, the
(b) Glands study techniques are survey,
(c) Brain question, read, recite and review,
(d) Spinal Cord which is abbreviated to:
(e) None of the above (a) SPQR
(b) SQPR
Answer: C (c) SQ3R
(d) SQ2R
366. If you know the multiplication (e) SQ1R
tables by heart, it would be difficult
to forget them overnight. This is a Answer: C
bright example of:
(a) Long-term memory 369. The very term “SQ3R” is an
(b) Short-term memory example of what is called a/an:
(c) Rote Learning (a) Elaborative Rehearsal
(d) Episodic Memory (b) Maintenance Rehearsal
(e) None of the above (c) Semantic Memory
(d) Mnemonic Device
Answer: A (e) None of the above

Answer: D
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(b) 1885
370. “Mnemonic” means something (c) 1856
that is related to: (d) 1845
(a) Learning (e) 1986
(b) Memory
(c) Perception Answer: B
(d) Meaning
(e) None of the above 374. According to consolidation
theorists, the changes in the nervous
Answer: B system produce by learning are:
(a) Time dependent
371. Rhyming is a/an: (b) Response dependent
(a) Matrix (c) Stimulus dependent
(b) Mnemonic Device (d) Space dependent
(c) Cue (e) None of the above
(d) Sign
(e) None of the above Answer: A

Answer: B 375. A person, who has had a head

injury, is unable to recall the events
372. “CBI” is a/an: that took place before the accident.
(a) Nonsense syllable This is technically known as:
(b) “CVC” trigram (a) Retrograde Amnesia
(c) Acronym (b) Astasia Abasia
(d) “CCC” trigram (c) Aphonia
(e) None of the above (d) Phobia
(e) Trauma
Answer: C
Answer: A
373. Ebbinghaus published a
monograph of experiments on 376. The “Decay Theory” is
memory in: sometimes called:
(a) 1934 (a) Trace Theory
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(b) Interference Theory

(c) Leaky-bucket Theory 379. The superficial elements in the
(d) Levels-of-processing Theory original materials are pruned and
(e) None of the above the retained materials become more
and more condensed compared to
Answer: C the original material in the process
of:
377. Which theory of forgetting gives (a) Levelling
an explanation by pointing to the (b) Sharpening
weakening of the memory trace (c) Information Processing
formed by experience with passage (d) Retrieval
of time? (e) None of the above
(a) Trace Theory
(b) Interference Theory Answer: A
(c) Decay Theory
(d) Levels-of-processing Theory 380. A high positive transfer results
(e) None of the above when:
(a) Stimuli are similar and responses
Answer: C are identical
(b) Stimuli are dissimilar and
378. Who told that the memory responses are identical
trace undergoes a gradual change (d) Stimuli are dissimilar and
with the passage of time and responses are not identical
becomes so different that it is (e) None of the above
difficult to recognize it from its
original? Answer: A
(a) Ebbinghaus
(b) Trion 381. Recently, in psychology, the
(c) Robinson word “input” is used synonymously
(d) Bertlett with:
(e) Warkins (a) Influence
(b) Acquisition
Answer: D (c) Vision
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(d) Information and humiliating experiences is

(e) None of the above called:
(a) Repression
Answer: B (b) Regression
(c) Rationalization
382. Very often, snatches of what we (d) Sublimation
learnt before, a poem or a song (e) Escapism
burst into our consciousness, all of a
sudden, without any effort on our Answer: A
part and without any apparent
stimulation. Such type of 385. The TOT planomenon indicates
unintentional recall is called: that information is organised in:
(a) Spontaneous Recovery (a) Short-term-memory (STM)
(b) Reminiscence (b) Original Learning
(c) Preservation (c) Long-term Memory (LTM)
(d) Perseveration (d) Interpolated Learning
(e) None of the above (e) None of the above

Answer: D Answer: C

383. To avoid forgetting, we should 386. Information seems to be stored

over learn the material by: in semantic memory:
(a) 150% (a) In a highly organized way
(b) 75% (b) In a highly disorganised way
(c) 30% (c) In different levels of processing
(d) 45% (d) In a systematic pattern
(e) 26% (e) None of the above

Answer: A Answer: A

384. A protective mental mechanism 387. “Semantic Memory” is

to which an individual resorts to considered to be:
escape unpleasant, unsatisfactory (a) Very unstable
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(b) Very unpredictable (b) Semantic Memory

(c) Very stable (c) Iconic Memory
(d) Very dynamic (d) Levels of Processing
(e) None of the above (e) None of the above

Answer: C Answer: A

388. Which type of memory consists 391. The concept of “repression”

of long-term memories of specific was originated in:
things that have happened to us at a (a) Physiology
particular time and space? (b) Behaviourism
(a) Episodic Memory (c) Psychoanalysis
(b) Semantic Memory (d) Functionalism
(c) Iconic Memory (e) Structuralism
(d) Levels of processing
(e) None of the above Answer: C

Answer: A 392. When previous skill learning

interferes with the learning of a new
389. Which type of memory has a skill:
biographical reference? (a) Positive transfer occurs
(a) Semantic Memory (b) Zero transfer occurs
(b) Iconic Memory (c) 25% transfer occurs
(c) Episodic Memory (d) Negative transfer occurs
(d) Levels-of-processing (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Answer: D
Answer: C
393. Retrieval from long-term
390. Our “remembrances of things memory is a two stage process
past” that have happened to us at according to the:
certain times and places is: (a) Level-of-processing theory
(a) Episodic Memory (b) Generation-recognition theory
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(c) Interference theory (e) None of the above

(d) Trace theory
(e) None of the above Answer: B

Answer: B 397. One type of rehearsal in which

items in short-term store are simply
394. Semantic and Episodic memory repeated over and over is called:
are two kinds of: (a) Elaborative Rehearsal
(a) Short-term memory organisation (b) Sensory Register
(b) Retrieval Process (c) Maintenance Rehearsal
(c) Long-term memory organization (d) Levels-of-processing
(d) Rehearsal Process (e) None of the Above
(e) None of the above
Answer: C
Answer: C
398. Which type of rehearsal
395. The short-term store holds involves giving information in the
information for up to about: rehearsal buffer organisation and
(a) 20 seconds meaning as it is rehearsed?
(b) 40 seconds (a) Maintenance Rehearsal
(c) 30 seconds (b) Sensory Register
(d) 50 seconds (c) Levels-of-processing
(e) 80 seconds (d) Elaborative Rehearsal

Answer: C Answer: D

396. The portion of short-term store 399. The graphic representation of

in which the information is learning which shows that the
rehearsed is called the: strength of response gradually
(a) Retrieval Store increases with more and more
(b) Rehearsal Buffer learning trials is called:
(c) Encoding Store (a) Acquisition Curve
(d) Information processing store (b) Forgetting Curve
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(c) Retention Curve

(d) Plateau
(e) None of the above

Answer: A

400. Which type of memory results

from conditioning of forced
associations? s
(a) Semantic Memory
(b) Iconic Memory
(c) Rote Memory
(d) Episodic Memory
(e) None of the above

Answer: C

401. The methods of Ebbinghaus and

materials of memory
experimentation were introduced in
our country by:
(a) Jain Mahendra and Jain Surendra
(b) Ganguli, H.C. and M. N. Rao
(c) Rath, R and N. Pattanaik
(d) Maiti, H. P. and N. S. N Sastry
(e) Sinha, D. and P. Kumar

Answer: D

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