Ministry of Higher Education

Sar-e-Pul Higher Education Institute

Education Faculty

Department of English Language and Literature

Monograph

THE EFFECTS OF VOCABULARY USE ON

Advisor: Pohanyar Amanullah “Sadiqi”

Prepared by: Sayed Abbas “Aleem”

2022 -1401
 DECLARATION

I hereby affirm that the monograph titled “The Effects of Vocabulary Use on EFL

Learners’ Writing Skill” has not previously formed the bases for award of any diploma since

2018 at English Department, Sar-e-Pul Higher Education institute.

Signature

Sayed Abbas “Aleem’

UG (undergraduate student)

English Department

Sar-e-Pul Higher Education Institute

Date: 1401/9/29
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the monograph titled The Effects of Vocabulary Use on EFL

Learners’ Writing Skill by Sayed Abbas is a record of bona fide research carried out by him

under my guidance and supervision. No part of the dissertation has been presented for any

diploma since 2018 at English Department, Sar-e-Pul Higher Education Institute.

Pohanyar: Amanullah “Sadiqi”

Department of English and Literature

Sar-e-Pul Higher Education Institute

First and Foremost, praises and thanks to Allah almighty for his showers of blessings

throughout my research work to complete the research successfully. I would like to express my

deep and sincere gratitude to my honorable advisor, (Pohanyar Bahman Sadeqi) for his

precious assistance, the continuous and nonstop support, step by step guidance, fertile

comments and constructive feedback, his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense

knowledge throughout my BA study and research. His guidance helped me in all the time of

research and writing of this monograph. This research would not have been possible without

support, guidance, encouragement and helpful remarks of my supervisor.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of my professors and English

department members: Prof. M. Ramin Edris, Prof. and assistant professor Bahman Sadeqi,

Prof. M. Hassan Rasoli, Prof. Ali Haidari, Prof. Ainuddin Moradi and Prof. Feda Mohammad

Makhdomzada, for their encouragement, insightful comments.

Last but not the least, I am extremely grateful to my parents for their love, prayers,

caring and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future, prayers and continuing

support to complete this research work. I would like to express my thanks to my sisters

and brothers for their support and valuable prayers.

I
 Preface

As we know it’s the usual procedure of the Ministry of Higher Education every student

has responsibility to write a monograph when they graduate from their related faculty. So,

based on this responsibility, I have tried to write my monograph. Under the title of (The

Effects of Vocabulary Use on EFL Learners’ Writing Skill)

In this monograph, the researcher attempts to express, what is writing and why writing

is important, and what are the effects of vocabulary on EFL learners writing skill.

Writing is the hardest skill for Foreign Language (FL) learners to be master. It forces

students to think and try to improve their knowledge. It can help learners to organize their

ideas, and develop their critical thinking skills to summaries, analyze, and criticize. Also helps

people to transfer their ideas and knowledge to others without being physically. In this

monograph I have expressed and explained the effects of vocabulary on writing.

The current monograph contains five chapters. The first chapter is introduction of the

monograph. Chapter two expresses about vocabulary, types of vocabulary and its importance.

Chapter three explains writing skill. The correlation of vocabulary and writing, and chapter

five is the conclusion of this monograph.

II
 Contents

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................I
Preface.........................................................................................................................................II
List of Abbreviations..................................................................................................................IV
CHAPTER ONE:
Introduction………………………………………………………………….1
1.1 Background of the Study...................................................................................................3
1.2 The Goal of Study..............................................................................................................4
1.3 Research Question.............................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO: Vocabulary ……………………………………….…………………...……
5
2.1 Importance of Vocabulary..................................................................................................6
2.2 What is Vocabulary in English?..........................................................................................7
2.3 Writing and Vocabulary Knowledge..................................................................................8
2.4 Vocabulary According to Text Type..................................................................................9
2.5 Types of Vocabulary...........................................................................................................9
2.6 Receptive Vocabulary Knowledge Vs Productive Vocabulary Knowledge.....................11
2.6.1 Relations of Receptive Vocabulary and Productive Vocabulary Knowledg..........12
2.7 Three Stages of Vocabulary...............................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE: Writing
Skill…………………………………………………………….15
3.1 Theoretical writing...............................................................................................................17
3.2 Organizations of Writing.....................................................................................................18
3.3 The Goals of Writing Skill..................................................................................................19
3.4 Modules of Writing.............................................................................................................20
3.4.1 Narrative Writing........................................................................................................20
3.4.2 Descriptive Writing.....................................................................................................21
3.4.3 Expository Writing......................................................................................................21
3.4.4 Persuasive Writing......................................................................................................21
CHAPTER FOUR: The Correlations of Vocabulary and Writing ……………………………
22
4.1 The Role of Writing to Vocabulary Learning.....................................................................22
4.2 Good Vocabulary Infleunces Writing Skill........................................................................24
4.2.1 Industry-specific Words..............................................................................................27
4.2.2 Improving Your Writing Based on Your Vocabulary................................................27
4.2.3 Increased Accuracy.....................................................................................................27
CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion…………………………………………………..…………….29
5.1 Limitation of the Study:......................................................................................................30
5.2 Suggest for Future Researchers:.........................................................................................30

III
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..v

IV
 List of Abbreviations

LRSW (Listening Reading, speaking and Writing)

EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

VLS (Vocabulary Learning Strategies)

V
 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

This paper investigates the effect of vocabulary use on EFL learners’ writing skill in

learning. In fact, the learners’ ability to communication by writing effectively depends on a

good knowledge of vocabulary, which they continue to expand throughout their life span.

Writing skills is an expression that describes the learners' ability in language use. In order to

master writing skills, listening skills must be mastered in advance to get the language. Next,

learners should have the reading skills to recognize the letters and writings. After mastering

these skills, the learners considered can write well. This coincided with Nation (2001) that

stated writing skills are not skills acquired naturally, but involves coordination of other senses

to stimulate metacognitive. Therefore, to master the writing skills, vocabulary selection is one

of an important skill. Olinghouse & Leaird (2009) & Flower et al. (1981) also defines that

vocabulary in writing symbolizes the maturity and authenticity of words selection for the

learners which is stated as one of the writing theories in second or foreign language. EFL

students generally face difficulty to communicate in English due to lack of vocabulary items,

methods of teaching and incompatible learning environment and writing skill. This

quantitative study emphasizes the importance of learning target vocabulary, draws students’

attention towards it, highlights the problems encountered by students, and raises their

awareness of vocabulary. It depends on the responses of the participants. The results reveal

that students faced a range of problems in learning the vocabulary of the English language. It

also suggests strategies that, hopefully, would enrich students’ vocabulary knowledge and

minimize their difficulties. It begins by introducing the vocabulary.

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 In learning a mother tongue or any foreign language, vocabulary is the most significant

component. Language acquisition cannot take place without learning its lexis with unlimited

shifts in meaning caused by various contextual variables. Vocabulary is one of the most

essential parts, along with phonetics/pronunciation and grammar, required to learn a foreign

language. In addition, vocabulary is the basis for language skills, namely, listening, speaking,

reading, and writing. Without learning the vocabulary, it is difficult to attain any language

proficiency. Vocabulary is the basis of acquiring a second language. Experts asserts that

without learning the vocabulary communication and writing in the second language becomes

harder. Further, vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of the language; it is central to

communicative competence. Low vocabulary knowledge poses severe problems to its

learners, which consequently impedes the learning of English language, vocabulary plays a

vital role in teaching and learning the second language as lexical knowledge is fundamental to

communicative effectively. The language of the human beings depends on the vocabulary

used or gained. Thus, without vocabulary, the learners will be discouraged to use the

language.

WIDA Consortium (2012) also established a high correlation between both breadth

and depth of vocabulary and reading comprehension in a study conducted on young adult ESL

learners. To take this perspective on vocabulary one step further, without sufficient knowledge

of vocabulary, the reading process of learners is severely limited. Hu and Nation (2000) points

out that when learner’s vocabulary knowledge is lower than 95% coverage, learners rarely

gained adequate comprehension. Most learners who read accurately had at least 98% coverage

of vocabulary. Based on the fact that reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge have

a close relationship, many studies have focused on certain aspects of vocabulary due to the

complicated structure and types of knowledge. For example, a plethora of studies has focused

2
on the breadth or depth of vocabulary knowledge and its contributions to reading. Among

numerous studies, Olinghouse & Leaird focused on the narrow entities of vocabulary to reveal

the complex relationship between different types of vocabulary with decoding, word

recognition, and reading comprehension. Results indicated that each type of receptive and

excessive vocabulary size and depth contributed differently to reading.

1.1 Background of the Study

Learning vocabulary is a neglected area in literature and there is a need for more

research in this field. Learning vocabulary is a very complex issue. Nation (2001:9)

emphasizes that "second language learners need to know very large numbers of words. While

this may be useful in the long-term, it is not an essential short- term goal". Vocabulary

teaching and learning is an important part of the curriculum at the Language Center, at South

East European University. As a teacher of English myself, I have found that a lot of students

taking English courses have expressed problems with learning words in English. The students

face difficulties when they communicate in English because they lack vocabulary in English

especially high-frequency words. High-frequency words are encountered in a few occasions

only. Alkhaldi, (2018). points out that "knowing words is the key to understanding and being

understood. The bulk of learning new language consists of learning new words. Grammatical

knowledge does not make for great proficiency in a language". No matter how well the student

learns grammar, no matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are mastered, without words to

express a wider range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any

meaningful way. Therefore, it is beneficial to explore deeper their difficulties and offer some

innovative ideas in order to improve learning and teaching vocabulary. The first goal is to look

at the strategies that the students use to learn new English words and make them aware that

there are many vocabulary learning strategies that they could use in learning new words.

3
Language Learning Strategies are defined differently by many scholars. Strategies are ways

and techniques that learners use to learn new information in English. Another goal of this

study is to look at the strategies used by female and male students.

1.2 Goal of the Study

Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Knowledge the intricate relation between

reading and vocabulary has been well established by numerous studies. Vocabulary has been

repeatedly shown as a meaningful predictor for reading comprehension. Vocabulary accounted

for more than half of reading comprehension which once again confirms that vocabulary is a

major factor for reading. The study also shows that as the students’ vocabulary knowledge

increased, their reading comprehension also improved even though the text coverage hardly

changed. The goal of this study is to find and analyses the effect of vocabulary on writing skill

of EFL learner.

1.3 Research Question

In this monograph the researcher attempts to answer the following research questions:

1. What is vocabulary?

2. What is the relation of vocabulary and writing skill?

3. What are the effects of vocabulary on improving writing skill of EFL learners?

4
 CHAPTER TWO

Vocabulary
Vocabulary is denoted as “the group and collection of words that are known and used

by a particular person”. It can also be defined as “a list or collection of words or phrases that

are normally alphabetically arranged and defined or explained”.

Vocabulary is also commonly called word stock, lexis, and lexicon. Learning the

meaning of new words in second language learning requires some specific approaches or plans

for the learners to follow. Based on research, there are some of approaches which are called

‘vocabulary learning strategies’ (VLS) which is regarded as part of the strategies for language

learning.

Accidental learning of vocabulary seems to be more effective than the intentional way.

for instance, argues that the best way to learn vocabulary is ‘reading for pleasure’. He believes

that reading is one of the best ways to enhance vocabulary. The major purpose of learning

vocabulary may vary among the learners of a new language. Many papers investigate the

purposes. Alkhaldi, (2018) claims that language learners may not be able to take part in

conversations if they do not know the meaning of major words which are addressed to them.

However, one should bear in mind that the difficulties learners face in reading is that they

should know approximately 95% of the words surrounding a particular vocabulary. there are

other effective ways for attaining vocabulary such as having a note book, using dictionary and

revision of a vocabulary list.

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 Among the many components that consist reading, vocabulary plays a crucial role in

reading comprehension. Numerous studies have dealt with various aspects of both reading and

vocabulary in an attempt to unearth the intimate relationship between the two skills. An

explanation for the strong relation is that if the learner’s lexical coverage for the reading

passage is high, it is more likely for the reader to understand the text adequately (Stæhr, 2008).

Particularly for L2 learners, lexical knowledge was found to have a bigger role in 48 Young

sun Moon reading than L1 learners Alkhaldi, (2018) also mentioned the importance of

vocabulary for EFL students’ reading comprehension and raised awareness to the frequent

cases of EFL students not gaining a sufficient amount of vocabulary even after long periods of

studying English. Unlike L1 learners, it is hard for learners in EFL environment to receive an

adequate amount of input which is crucial for learning vocabulary and developing English

proficiency. Considering the great importance of vocabulary knowledge for second language

learners, a plethora of researchers have investigated the relationship between reading and

vocabulary in ESL.

2.1 Importance of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is an essential part of anyone’s life and the following points describe the

importance of vocabulary.

 Vocabulary is critical for communication and expression

 Vocabulary forms the basis of reading comprehension

 Linguistic vocabulary and thinking vocabulary work parallel

 Vocabulary also forms a basis for judgment many times

 For conveying anything, vocabulary is important

6
2.2 What is Vocabulary in English?

The answer to 'what is vocabulary in English?' is all the words that form a language to

be understood by a specific person or maybe a group of people. Vocabulary in English can be

categorized into two types, namely- active and passive. The words that we use and understand

in day-to-day language are termed as active vocabulary while the ones which we know but use

rarely are said to be passive vocabulary.

Vocabulary is considered to be a significant part of a language, especially in the

process of learning a foreign language because the more vocabulary one knows the more

capacities s/he has for uttering the phrases, clauses and sentences. vocabulary can be defined

as ‘the words of a language, including single items and phrases or chunks of several words

which convey a particular meaning, the way individual words do.’ Oxford Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary (2012) defines vocabulary as ‘the body of words used in a particular

language’. Whereas According to Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2008),

vocabulary is ‘all the words which exist in a particular language or subject’. It is worth

mentioning that all the parts of speech in English are considered as vocabulary. For instance,

the words ‘nation, national, and nationality’ are different parts of speech as well as different

vocabulary. Not only single words, but readymade chunks and phrases are considered as

vocabulary as well as in ‘look for, stand up, and put off’

The intricate relation between reading and vocabulary has been well established by

numerous studies. Vocabulary has been repeatedly shown as a meaningful predictor for

reading comprehension. Vocabulary accounted for more than half of reading comprehension

which once again confirms that vocabulary is a major factor for reading. The study also shows

that as the students’ vocabulary knowledge increased, their reading comprehension also

improved even though the text coverage hardly changed. WIDA Consortium (2012) also

7
established a high correlation between both breadth and depth of vocabulary and reading

comprehension in a study conducted on young adult ESL learners. To take this perspective on

vocabulary one step further, without sufficient knowledge of vocabulary, the reading process

of learners is severely limited. WIDA Consortium (2012) out that when learner’s vocabulary

knowledge is lower than 95% coverage, learners rarely gained adequate comprehension. Most

learners who read accurately had at least 98% coverage of vocabulary.

2.3 Writing and Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary has been repeatedly shown as a meaningful predictor for writing skill.

Vocabulary learning strategies’ (VLS) vocabulary learning strategies’ (VLS)ocabulary

accounted for more than half of writing which once again confirms that vocabulary is a major

factor for writing. The study also shows that as the students’ vocabulary knowledge increased,

their writing and reading comprehension also improved even though the text coverage hardly

changed. Alkhaldi, (2018)) also established a high correlation between both breadth and depth

of vocabulary and writing in a study conducted on young adult ESL learners. To take this

perspective on vocabulary one step further, without sufficient knowledge of vocabulary, the

writing process of learners is severely limited. Hu and Nation (2000) points out that when

learner’s vocabulary knowledge is lower than 95% coverage, learners rarely gained adequate

comprehension. Most learners who write accurately had at least 98% coverage of vocabulary.

Based on the fact that writing and reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge have a

close relationship, many studies have focused on certain aspects of vocabulary due to the

complicated structure and types of knowledge. For example, a plethora of studies has focused

on the breadth or depth of vocabulary knowledge and its contributions to writing. Among

numerous studies, the narrow entities of vocabulary to reveal the complex relationship

between different types of vocabulary with decoding, word recognition, and writing skill and

8
reading comprehension. Results indicated that each type of receptive and excessive vocabulary

size and depth contributed differently to writing.

2.4 Vocabulary According to Text Type

Even though there is a clear distinction of vocabulary according to the text type in

which the word is used, not many studies have explored the differences. Although not directly

related to reading or vocabulary, Cummins’ (1999, 2008) distinction of BICS and CALP for

English proficiency points out the discrepancy between basic and academic English.

The most widely used list is West and West’s (1953) General Service List of English

Words (GSL). But several studies have criticized that GSL has been outdated and raised the

need for a new list of high frequency words in general text. In this study, Browne’s (2014)

New General Service List (NGSL) was utilized instead of the original GSL due to the fact that

the NGSL is based on a more up-to-date corpus, and the coverage of NGSL for modern corpus

surpasses that of West and West’s (1953) GSL. By testing students with these lists of high-

frequency words, teachers are able to decide whether students need to study these words

further or move on to learning mid-frequency words Alkhaldi, (2018) Nation (2001) mentions

that especially for academic passages, certain types of texts contain words that are more

frequent in that specific context than in general texts. Acknowledging this distinct

characteristic of words used in academic texts.

2.5 Types of Vocabulary

The types of vocabulary can be categorized based on spoken and written vocabulary.

Children start vocabulary-building through listening and speaking even before writing and

reading. Every type of vocabulary has a different aim and purpose. However, the development

of one type of vocabulary facilitates another.

The types of vocabulary are discussed below briefly.

9
  Listening Vocabulary

Listening vocabulary comprises words that we understand through hearing. A fetus

may start recognizing some words when in the womb. Learning new words is a continuous

process, and by the time you reach adulthood, almost fifty thousand words are understood and

recognized by you. Deaf people can be exposed to visual listening vocabulary for learning.

 Speaking Vocabulary

Speaking vocabulary consists of words that we actually speak. It has a horizon of

around 5000 to 10000 words. These are used for giving instructions and conversations. The

number of words in this category are comparatively lesser than the listening vocabulary.

 Reading Vocabulary

The major ingredient of vocabulary building is reading. Reading grows and develops

your vocabulary. The words we get to learn while reading a text are termed as reading

vocabulary. It may happen that we understand words through reading vocabulary even if we

don’t use it in speaking vocabulary.

 Writing Vocabulary

Words we recoup while expressing ourselves through writing are termed as writing

vocabulary. Writing vocabulary is normally influenced by the words we are able to spell. We

find it easy to express verbally, through facial expression, or intonation, but writing

vocabulary depends upon our expertise in vocabulary.

 Final Vocabulary

Richard Rorty discovered this term ‘Final Vocabulary’. It is a collection, set, or group

of words that every person applies to justify their actions, beliefs, and lives. Final vocabulary

comprises words a person avails to praise, contempt, express deep feelings, hopes, doubts, etc.

10
 The types of vocabulary can be categorized based on spoken and written vocabulary.

Children start vocabulary-building through listening and speaking even before writing and

reading. Every type of vocabulary has a different aim and purpose. However, the development

of one type of vocabulary facilitates another.

2.6 Receptive Vocabulary Knowledge Vs Productive Vocabulary Knowledge

Most prominent researchers in this field agreed to divide, renowned vocabulary

knowledge within the scope of its use in either the skills of writing, reading, listening and

speaking. Thus, they divide vocabulary knowledge into productive and receptive vocabulary

However, knowledge of vocabulary to the active vocabulary which students can use and call it

orally. While a passive vocabulary of words known by learners through recognition, but they

cannot call and produced through writing. Distribution of this definition seems to limit the

knowledge of vocabulary receptive and productive just to function, meaning and word

structure. Nevertheless, it should be investigated to what extent both parties have a

relationship or not in learning a second language and foreign language. Divided the

knowledge of vocabulary into three dimensions, (a) a partial trend towards the right

dimensions that reflect the level of meaning and understanding; (b) the depth dimension, such

as the construction of the system showing the relationship between words; and (c) receptive-

productive dimension that shows the learner control and access to knowledge about the word.

These dimensions may bring light to guide researchers in determining aspects of vocabulary to

stress in their study.

1- What Is Receptive Vocabulary Knowledge?

Receptive vocabulary knowledge is known and understood its meaning by learners

when reading text or listening to the text. Learners know and recognize the meaning of words

that caused them to understand the text they have read but not used to speak and write.

11
Learning the receptive vocabulary usually in the form in which the teacher will usually give

the meaning of the word, using the word in a sentence, but just ask the learners to spell and

pronounce only.

2- What Is Productive Vocabulary Knowledge?

Productive vocabulary knowledge assumed as the words that are understood and can

be pronounced by the learners. In fact, learners can use these words in speech and writing

well. Thus, productive vocabulary can be regarded as a process of active word because

learners can generate words to express their thoughts and feelings which understood by others.

Productive vocabulary knowledge is deemed as the ability to recover the structure and

meaning, or to pass on the word as in the original learners’ language. knowledge into

productive vocabulary into controlled and free vocabulary. Controlled productive vocabulary

knowledge indicates the capacity to construct words when the cue is given while, free

productive vocabulary knowledge is the ability to use words spontaneously and without

specific encouragement to produce certain words, such as writing independently.

2.6.1 Relations between Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Knowledge

Various assumptions about the nature of receptive vocabulary knowledge and

productive vocabulary knowledge which previously existed between them. Although there are

various responses the researchers gave, this could only be true if we look over at each aspect

of vocabulary knowledge in broader perspective. For example, the ability to identify spelling

in written form will precede the ability to spell correctly, or the ability to identify and

recognize the written form may precede the ability to convey meaning and use it in the right

words. On the other hand, is also likely to spell the word correctly (productive vocabulary

knowledge in written aspect) or using the right words with grammar (productive vocabulary

12
knowledge in grammatical function) before the meaning of the word is understood (receptive

vocabulary knowledge in form and meaning). Therefore, to study and understand the

productive vocabulary knowledge, it is necessary to distinguish between receptive and

productive knowledge in every aspect of vocabulary knowledge. It should be noted also the

main goal is to bring learning vocabulary, in the form of communicative either orally or

written. According to Alkhaldi, (2018) study of the word receptively only gives impact at the

meaning in receptive. While learning vocabulary in productive way, the results accounted for

receptive and productive knowledge. Both turned out to have a strong relationship and mutual

in the development of the vocabulary, especially in improving the learners’ language

efficiency. Consequently, teaching and learning vocabulary may optimize and benefit both

parties (teachers and learners) when the aspect of vocabulary knowledge and its process being

understood.

2.7 Three Stages of Vocabulary

As for vocabulary, Nation (2001) divided the entities of vocabulary according to

frequency as well as the area of vocabulary such as specialized vocabulary frequently found in

academic texts. According to frequency, vocabulary can be divided into high, mid, and low-

frequency vocabulary. High-frequency vocabulary is used frequently regardless of text type

which makes it the foundation of language use (Richards, 1974). Beginning level students are

highly advised to learn these high frequency vocabularies first as their coverage of vocabulary

will increase greatly (Nation, 2001). Therefore, for the convenience of language learners, the

most frequently used vocabularies in general text has been made into lists by several scholars.

Vocabulary is described with the following three stages:

1. Basic Vocabulary

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 The basic words form the first tier of vocabulary. These words normally have a single

meaning and do not require instruction. Early reading words, sight words, adjectives, verbs,

nouns, etc. are portrayed in this tier. 8000-word families in English comprise this tier.

2. High-frequency Vocabulary

Also called the multiple meaning vocabulary tier, this tier comprises words used in a

variety of domains, adult communication, literature, etc. It influences reading and speaking.

7000-word families comprise this tier. The characteristics for tier two words are as follows:

 It has multiple meanings

 Vital for reading comprehension

 Typical mature language

 Descriptive vocabulary

 A diverse environment uses these words

 Used for direct instruction

3. Low-frequency Vocabulary

The words that are used only when specifically required or in a particular domain like

weather, technology, geographical region, occupation, hobbies, school, etc. comprise this tier.

About four lakh words in vocabulary in English comprise this tier.

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 CHAPTER THREE

Writing Skill

Writing skill is one of the productive skills that everyone tries to be mastered in using

a language. It is because writing skill has imports in improving a communicative capability of

learning the language. A language is used for many kinds of goals and many fields. Therefore,

it has many functions as well. Furthermore, a language has two macro skills; they are

receptive and productive skills. Writing is also a vital tool for learning and without writing the

process of learning may fail. We use it to gather, preserve and transmit or carrying information

widely. Writing is an imagination process. Furthermore, writing can be planned and given

with an unlimited number of revisions before its release.

The definitions of writing are clearly stated by some experts and professors. writing is

conveying information or expression of original ideas in a consecutive way in the new

language. In addition, writing is a two-step process. The first process is figuring out the

meaning and the second process is putting the meaning into language. Writing represents what

we think. It is because the writing process reflects things, which stay in the mind or my brain

or on other word writing reflect what we imagine. Students who are reluctant to write things

down often suffer for this activity. The students find difficulties when they start looking for

some reasons to write and producing written sentences.

Furthermore, based on those definitions, it can be definite that writing skill is a

complex activity in producing a fit writing. The multipart activity consists of periods as the

steps in writing. To improve students’ writing skill, the teaching and learning process of

writing needs to be done well with developed input and current activities. As an outcome,

15
teachers need to consider the teaching of writing skill well based on their student’s needs,

aptitude and ability.

Based on the definitions overhead, a definition of writing skill can be achieved.

Writing is a productive process done through some stages. First, discovering and transferring

ideas, thought and sensation into written or printed form. Secondly, conducting a number of

studying process to carry out a grammatically and arranged texts. The writing productions are

in the forms of readable texts which should be meaningful to everyone who read the writing or

text. Also, Harmer (2004) states that writing inspires students to focus on accurate

language use. It is because students consider the language use when the students engage in

their writing process. This activity will provoke language development because the students

resolve problems what writing puts in students’ minds.

Learning to write and using writing for communication and for other goals, and

learning are not natural activities, such as learning to speak or learning to listening or acting.

They require a great deal of training or schooling. The kind of schooling that teachers offer

beginners or more advanced writers has changed over time. The history of writing education

started in ancient Greece at about 500 BC, where writing was a part of both speech making

education and of more elementary schooling for workers and other craftsmen who needed a

certain technical writing ability to record information for trade and organizational purposes

(Murphy, 2001). Writing was not until the fixing of the public school system in the 19th

century that writing education started to increase form. Tools such as blackboard and mark,

stylus, schedule, and pencil or pen then added attractiveness in classrooms. Until the second

half of the 20th century, the purpose of writing instruction was mainly to teach system and

conventions: handwriting, sentence construction (grammar), spelling, and punctuation. In the

16
past half century, writing teachers began to pay more attention to text, content, style, creativity

and imagination.

Process writing has become fully accepted in modern writing education and fixed in

many modern textbooks. Frequently writing is now no longer the central mode of

representation in learning materials like textbooks, Web-based resources, and teacher

produced materials. Still (as well as moving) images are increasingly prominent as carriers of

meaning and idea. The digital media, rather than the (text) books, are more and more the site

of appearance and spreading of learning resources or idea, and writing is being displaced by

image as the central mode for representation. Technology also affects production systems;

writing is no longer produced as primarily by handwriting, with pen and on paper, but done on

(increasingly smaller) screens (e.g., mobile devices) with various forms of typing and

keyboards. Other symbols are used besides letters. Producing written text can be realized even

without writing. It is likely that speech recognition will replace typing or handwriting.

Students with learning disabilities or other persons with disabilities already use speech

recognition systems to produce written texts. But these changes are not more important, and

do not have more effect on writing, also cannot take the place of text books or written books.

3.1 Theoretical Writing

Academic writing does not have to be self-opinionated and hard to decrypt with long,

winding sentences that only lead to dread and uneasiness. Granted, you may feel that some of

your textbooks are written in the academic same of symbols. But that does not mean that you

have to match that style. Put simply, academic writing uses other people’s work to evaluate,

compare and contrast viewpoints, and then it discusses them at length. The subject matter may

be different, but we all do the same with our friends when discussing music, films or sport.

However, most students get tripped up by the conventional way in which this is done.

17
Academic style is careful and neutral. For instance, instead of writing: ‘I think’, the

convention is to write: ‘It seems that’. However, the trouble is that most students haven’t been

taught to write in the first place. So faced with what seems like a whole new way of writing,

they rely too much on quotes, definitions and regurgitating what other academics have said.

1.2 Organizations of Writing

Writing is typically seen as a three-way process, pre-writing, writing and rewriting. It

may appear that writing may seems to progress in a linear, step-by step fashion. But, in fact, it

almost always progresses in a recursive manner. This simply means that writers return over

and over again to their ideas, clarifying them, extending them or improving them. Most writers

will plan and then revise their plans, write and rewrite parts or whole of their drafts, until

literally the last moment when they need to submit or send to the reader concerned. Another

approach that has added popularity is the sociocultural approach, which starts from the

evidence that choices made by the writer are governed by social background and cultural

demands and habits. The implication for writing education is that students become aware of

how their environment shapes their writing and their learning to write. They learn to lodge

their choices regarding content, style, and voice to the environment in which the written text

roles. Last, the writing classroom has undergone a change in the information age: Computer-

assisted writing has become the standard. Students use the computer as a text processor, as a

source of information, and as a device for communication.

Also, writing process is done based on some stages. On each stage, students engage in

a certain activity to construct their writing. Furthermore, Richard said (2002: 303) that the

process of writing contains of planning, drafting, revising and editing.

When we write it is a good idea to think about three key elements:

 Purpose

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  Subject matter

 . Reader/audience

 Also you need to ask yourself:

 Why am I writing this piece?

 Whom am I writing for?

 Where do I collect the materials for it?

3.3 The Goals of Writing Skill

Nothing is without goal, so before writing surly you have your purpose and decide to

write, without deciding and without having purposes, it is impossible to do anything. every

actions that we do in our life, are not without any purpose, so when we write, it also has

purpose. Frequently writing is now no longer the central mode of representation in

learning materials like textbooks, Web-based resources, and teacher produced materials. Still

(as well as moving) images are increasingly prominent as carriers of meaning and idea. The

digital media, rather than the (text) books, are more and more the site of appearance and

spreading of learning resources or idea, and writing is being displaced by image as the central

mode for representation. Technology also affects production systems; writing is no longer

produced as primarily by handwriting, with pen and on paper, but done on (increasingly

smaller) screens (e.g., mobile devices) with various forms of typing and keyboards. Other

symbols are used besides letters. Producing written text can be realized even without writing.

It is likely that speech recognition will replace typing or handwriting. Stu-dents with learning

disabilities or other persons with disabilities already use speech recognition systems to

produce written texts. But these changes are not more important, and do not have more effect

on writing, also cannot take the place of text books or written books.

Near of all writings have one or more of the following purposes:

19
  Writing to transfer idea with people

 Writing for conscious someone of something

 Writing for transferring knowledge

 writing for reporting or instructing

 writing for explaining or stating something

 writing for studying

 writing for finding the valuation of something

 Writing for discoursing or persuasion

 Writing for practice and examine ourselves

A good understanding of the features of different types of writing such as style,

structure and language will support some people to develop their writing skills and become

more independent on writing.

Knowledge of a range of different types of writing will enable writers to know the

most proper type of writing to know the purpose and audience of their task. This could be a

newspaper article to inform people about an historical event or a newspaper or leaflet to

persuade someone to stop using Pan or advise to do exercise.

3.4 Modules of Writing

There are four modules of writing:

Narrative

o Descriptive

o Expository

o Persuasive

20
 3.4.1 Narrative Writing

Narrative writing is a type of writing which the author places himself as a character or

not and narrate the story, in this type if writing. Or writer in the story show himself or herself

as an actor/character, and narrate the story for readers. This kind of writing is a kind of story

with aspects of transferring a message or an idea. Writers use from this kind of story to aware

reader from some news or advice the reader.

3.4.2 Descriptive Writing

In this kind if writing, the author tries to describe or get details the event, a character or

a place as he saw or hear it, instead of getting information of what happened. In this kind of

story writer tries to say how happened an event or action, not what happened. In this kind of

writing the writer tries to say about the manner of happening of an action or tries to explain

how happened an event, not to get information about the occur. For example, “: when I was

walking at home I saw him on the way”. Here the writer does not explain or inform about the

man who he saw, he explains how to saw him.

3.4.3 Expository Writing

Expository writing is a subject-oriented writing style, in which the main focus of the

writer is to get information for you about a given topic or subject and tells his/her opinion

about it. This is one of the most common types of writing style which you always see in

textbooks and How to articles.

3.4.4 Persuasive Writing

Persuasive writing, unlike expository writing, contains the opinions, biasness and

justification of the author. Persuasive writing is a type of writing which contains justifications

and reasons to make someone believe in what the author believes in. Also in persuasive

writing, the author takes a stand and asks you to believe their point of view.

21
22
 CHAPTER FOUR

The Correlation of Vocabulary and Writing

We cannot communicate in speech or writing without knowing and using words that

convey the ideas that we want to express. This is true for all languages, native and foreign. In

the native language, lexical growth is concomitant with our cognitive development and

education so that by the time we need to express complex ideas we have acquired the

necessary lexis. In foreign languages, however, we usually experience a gap between what we

want to convey in terms of content and what we can convey with the limited vocabulary we

have. This is particularly true for writing, which is a more formal mode of expression than

speech, and which is often characterized by more low-frequent as well as academic vocabulary

and requires, therefore, a more carefully chosen vocabulary. Learners are conscious of the

importance of vocabulary and often report that their major problem in expression is lack of

adequate lexis. In an interview conducted with learners of English as an additional language in

Afghanistan, learners reported the need for technical, academic, or professional words to

express their ideas in writing. The relationship between vocabulary and writing is that of

mutual contribution and support. Good lexis is an important factor in making a piece of

writing effective, and writing practice leads to vocabulary growth. All these contributions are

discussed below. (In this entry, “writing” is defined as producing original meaningful

language, in the form of a sentence, a paragraph, or an essay. Activities like filling blanks in

ready-made phrases or sentences, locating specific words in texts and writing them down, and

copying pieces of texts are not considered “writing.”

4.1 Usages of Vocabulary in Text

Original writing in which specific target words have to be used correctly and

meaningfully can result in some knowledge of these words even if learners do not try to

23
memorize them. Furthermore, most studies suggest that, among a variety of language activities

which involve new words, writing has been one of the most effective ways of imprinting the

practiced vocabulary in learners’ memory. In such studies, different groups of learners

perform different vocabulary tasks with selected target words that are unfamiliar to them, or

with pseudo-words. The (pseudo) words are explained or translated for them before the task.

After the task, learners are tested on whether they remember the meaning of the target words,

and sometimes also on other aspects of word knowledge. In some studies, the test is repeated

at a later point of time to see how many words have been retained over time. Word retention

that occurs as a result of performing a task without learners’ attempt to commit the words to

memory is incidental learning. Olinghouse & Leaird (2009) found that using words in a

composition was more effective than supplying them in a fill-in-blanks exercise, or reading

the words in a text and answering comprehension questions that required understanding these

words. Pichette, de Serres, and Lafontaine (2012) showed that writing three sentences with

each target word was more effective than reading three sentences per target word. However,

this advantage disappeared on a delayed test.

One criticism against writing tasks is that learners need more time for them than for

other tasks which do not require producing original language. Webb (2005) showed that when

the same amount of time is allotted to writing and reading tasks, reading tasks yielded better

vocabulary learning results. However, in a more authentic situation, when learners were

allowed to spend the necessary time to complete the writing task, it was the writing task that

proved more effective for subsequent word learning. In a similar vein, Olinghouse & Leaird

(2009) demonstrated the superiority of sentence writing over other tasks, but he claims that

this advantage fades in view of the time-on-task it requires. Translation has not been included

in the definition of writing since the message in the source language is provided for the

24
translator. However, translation requires formulating the original message in the best possible

way in another language. translation tasks were more effective for remembering new words

than other form-focused tasks. The superiority of cognitively demanding tasks that include

different types of writing can be theoretically explained in terms of pushed output hypothesis

(Swain, 1985) according to which learners need to stretch their linguistic resources to

complete the task. Consequently, they “focus on form” (i.e., attend to the way in which

particular words in the task are used). Focus on vocabulary form was shown to be conducive

to vocabulary learning.

4.2 Good Vocabulary Influence Writing Skill

Two most common quantitative measures are the amount of infrequent vocabulary and

the degree of variation in the vocabulary used in the text. In the case of L2 users, infrequent

vocabulary is usually defined as the percentage of words that are not among the 2,000 most

frequent words in the language. In the case of low-level language learners, words that are less

frequent than the first 1,000 most frequent words are sometimes regarded as “infrequent.”

Depending on learners’ L1, low frequency cognates with L2 are sometimes not counted as

infrequent words as they are regarded as easy and part of the learner’s L2 basic vocabulary.

The percentage of infrequent vocabulary is easily calculated by computerized programs that

have specially been designed for the purpose. Lexical variation is the ratio between different

words and the total number of words in a written text, often referred to as type– token ratio.

When writers use different words it means that they do not repeat the same vocabulary too

often. Hence, lexical variation shows how diverse the writing is lexically.

Does lexical quality of single words and lexical combinations improve with overall

language proficiency, and particularly with the knowledge of larger amount of words? One

assumption is that if people know more words, as measured by vocabulary tests which elicit

25
vocabulary knowledge, particularly productive knowledge, also use more words in writing.

However, a counterargument would be that learners may refrain from using complicated

vocabulary and choose simpler words in order to avoid difficulty. the process of writing

performed by learners of L2 English in grade 7, grade 10, and university. Think aloud

protocols revealed that, during the writing process, some students quickly settled for a vague

expression rather than engaging in a keen search for the precise word. the growth in the use of

less frequent vocabulary and more diverse vocabulary is slower than the growth in lexical

knowledge. The authors studied the development of Israeli learners’ active lexical knowledge

and vocabulary use in writing from school grade 6 to university. They found that vocabulary

knowledge developed linearly through the school years, but in vocabulary use, a statistically

significant percentage of “beyond 1,000” words (words less frequent than the first 1,000)

appeared in the learners’ writing in grade 12 (when compared with lower grades) and a

significant percentage of “beyond 2,000” words and collocations appeared only at the

university level (when compared with different school levels). Apparently, a large amount of

vocabulary has first to be known before some of it is used in free writing. Without it, not only

lexical quality is impaired, but the entire writing process and outcome. beginners with smaller

vocabulary paid a lot of attention to language during the writing process at the expense of

engaging in formulation and organization of ideas. Vocabulary focused instruction is

necessary to improve writing.

Studies on vocabulary instruction and their effect on writing do not provide conclusive

results. Lee (2003) compared L2 learners’ writing before and after they had been taught

writing and vocabulary. The compositions written after instruction showed a higher

percentage of infrequent vocabulary and improved lexical variation and were judged to have

more content and more sophisticated ideas due to the use of higher level and more varied

26
vocabulary. Explicit vocabulary instruction helped learners use words that had previously

been known passively and also words that had been newly learned in an immediate writing

task. However, while the previously familiar vocabulary was retained later on, the newly

learned vocabulary was subject to loss.

Whether you are writing professionally, at work or for reports in school, you should

have a vocabulary that will provide for clear communication of your ideas and thoughts. You

need to know the type and level of your audience and adjust your vocabulary accordingly. It is

worthwhile to constantly work at improving your knowledge of words.

Questions you may have included:

 What about industry-specific words?

 How can I improve my vocabulary?

Television commentator William S. Buckley has a tremendous vocabulary and would

often overpower his debate opponents through the use of long words, whose definitions only

highly literate people would know. He wouldn't win on logic of argument but on frustrating

his opponents.

If the reader cannot understand the words, you may seem intelligent, but the message

you are trying to deliver is lost. Modern day readers do not possess the vocabulary that people

had in the previous generation. Studies have shown that high school students know only 2/3 of

the words the average student knew 20 years ago.

Use caution with the words you employ to make sure the audience understands them.

27
4.2.1 Industry-Specific Words

Likewise, you must be careful when using industry-specific words. Each industry has

its own special jargon and words they like to use. Sometimes those words have other

meanings outside that industry or may seem meaningless to the average reader.

When writing for a special group, you can use their industry-specific words, but you

still should include the real meanings. It is surprising the number of people within an industry

who don't know the true meanings of their jargon.

4.2.2 Improving Writing Based on Vocabulary

Writers should love words. There are simple words and complex words. I will often

use a dictionary to look up the meaning of a word I see or hear, as well as using a thesaurus to

find alternate words. Even the simple thesaurus in your word processor is handy for this.

I feel that paying attention to words used around you is the best way to increase your

working vocabulary. If you are really into improving the number of words you know, you can

use such vocabulary-improvement lessons as are in the Reader's Digest.

Word games and crossword puzzles often help strengthen your mental vocabulary

muscles.

4.2.3 Increased Accuracy

In all assignments, including spoken assignments such as presentations, as well as

written assignments, require accurate use of language to communicate effectivity. Words are

used to convey ideas or information; when used correctly, the effectiveness of the

communication is increased concurrently reducing the potential for misunderstanding.

Accuracy may also be enhanced when specific technical or specialized terms are

used correctly within assignments which will demonstrate knowledge of the topic and the

application of learning.

28
 Broad but appropriate use of vocabulary will enhance the understanding of ideas or

information presented. Many terms may have similar meanings but indicate subtle differences;

good vocabulary skills will allow the most appropriate words to be chosen which will increase

accuracy of the communication. For example, a task may be hard to complete, but merely

saying it is hard only providing an ambiguous description which lacks detail. The use of

different words, such as complex, intricate, or problematic implies the task may be hard but

provide greater insights regarding how or why the task for difficult.

When an individual has an extensive vocabulary to use, they have more words which

may be selected which can increase the precision. In addition, the use of the correct terms or

words can also reduce the number of words or length of a sentence needed to express an idea;

a factor which may also be important for students writing assignments with a limited word

count as well as aiding with ease of reading.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion

In learning a mother tongue or any foreign language, vocabulary is the most significant

component. Language acquisition cannot take place without learning its lexis with unlimited

shifts in meaning caused by various contextual variables. Vocabulary is one of the most

essential parts, along with phonetics/pronunciation and grammar, required to learn a foreign

language. In addition, vocabulary is the basis for language skills, namely, listening, speaking,

reading, and writing. Without learning the vocabulary, it is difficult to attain any language

proficiency. Vocabulary is the basis of acquiring a second language. Experts asserts that

without learning the vocabulary communication and writing in the second language becomes

harder. Further, vocabulary knowledge is an integral part of the language; it is central to

communicative competence.

We cannot communicate in speech or writing without knowing and using words that

convey the ideas that we want to express. This is true for all languages, native and foreign. In

the native language, lexical growth is concomitant with our cognitive development and

education so that by the time we need to express complex ideas we have acquired the

necessary lexis. In foreign languages, however, we usually experience a gap between what we

want to convey in terms of content and what we can convey with the limited vocabulary we

have. This is particularly true for writing, which is a more formal mode of expression than

speech, and which is often characterized by more low-frequent as well as academic vocabulary

and requires, therefore, a more carefully chosen vocabulary. Learners are conscious of the

importance of vocabulary and often report that their major problem in expression is lack of

adequate lexis. In an interview conducted with learners of English as an additional language in

Afghanistan, learners reported the need for technical, academic, or professional words to

30
express their ideas in writing. The relationship between vocabulary and writing is that of

mutual contribution and support.

5.1 Limitation of the Study

Every researcher may face some problems during research, the problems which the

researcher of this research faced during research are: Shortage of references, time and poor

internet.

5.2 Recommendation

The researcher of this monograph has done research under tittle of (the effects of

vocabulary use of EFL learners’ writing skill). Also it is mentionable that the researcher used

library research method but because of problems of accessing to references library and poor

internet, he could not do the research so good. thus, he suggests for other researchers to

complete this research and do a study and research about (Ways for Improving Vocabulary),

because as the researcher searched but he did not find a reference for improvement of

vocabulary to mention it in this monograph my the reader of this research, may need to search

about the ways and techniques for improving his/her vocabulary.

31
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