POLITICAL SCIENCE

Administration and Public Policy:

Concepts and Theories
B.A Program Semester 5th
Important Questions
with Answer

NOTES
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Administration and Public Policy: Concepts and Theories

CONTENT

Unit-1: Public Administration as a Discipline

Meaning, Dimension and Significance

Public and Private Administration

Evolution of Public Administration

Unit-2: Administrative Theory

Classical Theories

Scientific Management Approach

Administrative Management

Ideal-Type Bureaucracy (Max Weber)

Neo-Classical Theories

Human Relations Theory (Elton Mayo)

Rational Decision-Making (Herbert Simon)

Unit-3: Development Administration

Development Administration: An Analysis

Unit-4: Understanding Public Policy

Concept, Relevance and Approaches

Public Policy: Formulation, Implementation and Evaluation

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Question : What is Public Administration? Discuss its major approaches.

Or

Question : Define public administration? What are the major approaches to the

study of public administration?

Or

Question : Define Public Administration. Discuss the various approaches to the

study of Public Administration.

Answer - Public Administration

Public administration is a field of political science that plans, organizes, directs,

coordinates, and controls operations at government, public sector, and non-profit

organizations. The government grants public administrators the authority to advise

policymakers based on observations of constituent populations and society.

Every nation employs some form of public administration within its government

systems. In the U.S., public administration is practiced at the local, state, national, and

international levels, with different policy goals at each level.

Public administrators coordinate with civil servants to write public policy and

achieve policy objectives. Professionals in the field also work to develop strong

relationships between public and private groups by advocating for consensus and
interests through policy. Different groups have competing desires, so it is important

that public administrators have the skills to mitigate conflict in policymaking.

 Approaches to the Study of Public Administration

These are relatively distinct approaches that emanate from the different structures

and functions of administrative activities. These approaches—briefly reviewed

below—are best regarded as ways in which to approach the study of administrative

activity, rather than as theories.

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1. Historical Approach

The theorists of the historical approach believe that knowledge of history in new

window is essential for a thorough study of any field. The historical approach sought

to explain the administrative institutions in the light of their past.

It analyses the administrative institutions by tracing their development within a

particular time span. Therefore, this approach organizes and interprets the

information relating to administrative institutions in a chronological order.

The father of the study of Public administration Woodrow Wilson in new window

emphasized the historical method as one of the two best suited methods (the other

being comparative method) for the study of Public Administration.

2. Legal Approach

Another name for the legal approach is juristic approach. The proponents of this

approach sought to study public administration in new window as part of law and
focus on the formal legal structure and organization of public bodies.

The primacy of the legal approach is concerned with power—its structure and
functions. It lays emphasis on the formal organization of offices, official duties,

limitations of power and discretionary authority of administrators. Its source

materials include constitution, codes of law, office manuals of rules and regulations

and judicial decisions.

Some European countries, for example, Germany, Belgium and France, are
particularly known to have employed the legal approach to the study of public

administration.

The legal approach is valuable for the understanding of the legal framework within

which the administrative system operates. However, by neglecting the informal

forces operating in the organization (the sociological and psychological variables).

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3. Philosophical Approach

The philosophical approach comes with a comprehensive range as it takes within its

purview all aspects of administrative activities and enunciates the ideals underlying

those activities.

It tends to focus attention on the rationalization of human behaviour in

administrative activities.

By a philosophy of public administration is meant that scheme of classification and

analysis, which looks at values of the administrative structures and the values and

expectations of the individuals or society it ought to serve.

This might incorporate a philosophy of the science of administration, i.e., the ways

and methods by which the administration in new window, ranks and justifies

decisions.

4. Systems Approach

The system, in relation to the study of Public Administration, is derived from the

technique of engineering.

It appeared on the scene in the 1960s. The term system in new window may be
defined as ‘a complex whole, a set of connected things or parts.

In other words, a system is a collection of interrelated parts which receives inputs,

acts upon them in an organized manner and thereby produces certain outputs.

Systems theory, therefore, generally means that the administration is seen as a

system of interrelated and interdependent parts (sub-systems) who interact among

themselves.

Interdependence implies that a change in one part influences the other parts,

ultimately affecting the entire system. Persons in the organization are seen as the
basic unit of organizational systems.

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5. Case-method Approach

The case-method approach began to develop in USA in new window in the 1930s. It

narrates what has actually occurred in the past in the sphere of administration in new

window by giving detailed account of specific events leading to a decision taken by a

public administrator.

In other words, the Public administration case is a narrative of the events that

constitute a decision of an administrator.

6. Mechanical or Managerial Approach

This is the earliest approach to the study of public administration. Its main advocates

are Leonard D. White in new window, William F. Willoughby in new window,

Frederick W. Taylor in new window and Richard Warner. These theorists deliberated

efforts and focused attention on achieving efficiency in public administration.

Taylor particularly believed that the problems of efficiency were alike in private
industry and public administration and advocates the idea that the principles of

organization are of universal applicability to all forms of administration.

7. Behavioural Approach

The behavioural approach also called the socio-psychological approach is basically

concerned with the scientific study of human behaviour in diverse social settings,

being that it incorporates a diversity of perspectives, including the Human Relations

Movement in new window, Simon’s Model of Decision-making in new window,

Theory of Organizational Humanism in new window, and Contingency Theory in new

window.

The approach grew out of the criticism against the traditional approaches which laid

emphasis on descriptive analysis rather than substantive one.

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Question : Critically analyse Elton Mayo's Theory of Human Relations.

Or

Question : Discuss Elton Mayo's Human relation theory with special reference

to the Hawthorne experiments.

Or

Question : Critically evaluate Elton Mayo's human relation theory.

Answer - Human Relations Theory

Human Relations Theory focuses specifically on the individuals needs and resultant

behaviors of individuals and groups. It takes an interpersonal approach to managing

human beings. It presents the organization is made up of formal and informal

elements.

The formal elements of an organization are its structure. The informal aspects of the
organization include the interactions between individuals. In this way, the

organization is a type of social system.

 Elements of Human Relations Theory

 At the core of human relations theory are these six basic propositions:

 A focus on people, rather than upon machines or economics

 The organizational environment is not an organized social context

 Human relations are important in motivating people

 Motivation depends upon teamwork, requiring co-ordination and cooperation

of individuals involved.

 Human relations within teams must fulfil both individual and organizational
objectives simultaneously

 Individuals and organizations desire efficiency by achieving maximum results

with minimum inputs

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Also, central to the understanding of Human Relations theory is the concept of

individual motivation. The drawback of this theory is that it requires the acceptance

of numerous assumptions about human behavior.

 The primary contributors to Human Relations Theory are:

Elton Mayo - Mayo is best known for his contribution to human relationships
management through the Hawthorne experiments.

Mary Parker Follet - Follet employed psychological tools to understand the efficient
use of people. She introduced the concept of de-personalized authority and

responsibility. The also advocated for the integration of decision making through

communication channels.

 Hawthorne Experiments

Professor Elton Mayo is known as the Father of the Human Relations Approach to

Management Theory. From 1924 - 1932, he, along with Fritz Roethlisberger, T.N.
Whitehead and William Dickson, conducted the Hawthorne studies (so named for the

location of the studies - the Hawthorne Plan of Western Electric Company).

In these experiments, Mayo evaluated the attitudes and psychological reactions of

workers in on-the-job situations. It began by examining the impact of illumination

levels on worker productivity. Eventually, the study was extended through the early

1930s and addressed a broader range of workplace conditions.

The results, however, identified a unique identifier of group performance -

attention. The control and experimental groups' performance improved irrespective

of the environmental conditions.

The theory became known as the Hawthorne Effect - individuals perform better

when given special attention.

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The study also addresses other major concerns, such as: individual vs group job

performance, worker motivation, and production standards.

The findings were as follows:

 Group dynamics (Social Factors) are important determinants of job

performance and output.

 Groups have their own norms and beliefs, independent of the individual

members.

 Individuals are not solely motivated by compensation. Perceived meaning and

importance of one’s work are the primary determinants of output.

 Employees prefer a cooperative attitude from superiors, rather than command

and control.

 Communication between management and employees is essential to

understand employee issues.

 Workplace culture sets production standards - despite standards set by

managers.

The work of Mayo, through the Hawthorne studies, was instrumental in

understanding the roles of group behavior and individual psychology in

management practice.

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Question: Critically examine the classical theory of Public Administration.

Or

Question : Critically examine the classical theory of public administration as

discussed by Gullick and Urwick.

Or

Question : Examine the main features of the classical theories of Public

Administration.

Answer - Classical Theory

A classical theory defines how to design and conduct the operations of any
organisation or system. A public administration can also be considered as a system

where we find the involvement of various officers with their responsibilities. There are
various authors that have provided their theory about the structure of the public

administration and in general studies, we mainly find the notable work is from Luther

Gulick and Lyndall Urwick.

Both of the authors work mainly in defining the structure of the organisation.

According to Urwick lack of design or structure leads to inefficient and confused

organisations and according to Gulick, 10 principles can define a good structural

organisation.

These principles are as follows:

 Division of labour

 Departments of Organisation

 Coordination is a hierarchy

 Deliberate coordination
 Designing coordination committees

 Decentralisation
 Unity in officers to the command

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 Line and staff

 Delegation and Span of Control

Talking about the principles from Urwick, there are mainly 8 principles that need to

be followed to design an efficient organisation. Some of the important points are as

follows:

 The objective of the organisation

 Authority and responsibility

 The principle of span of control

 Coordination
 The principle of definition amongst other principles

We also call the work of Gulick POSDCORB, because it has the following executive
functions:

 P – Planning

 P – Organising

 S – Staffing

 D – Directing
 CO – Coordination

 R – Reporting

 B – Budgeting

These two theories are the most important theories in the field of public

administration which is why a combination of these can be called a classical theory.

 Principle of organisation

According to the Gulick,

 Distribution of work is a basic requirement

 Above defined POSDCORB is executive functions of the system

 Department can be created by suggesting 4 principles.

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 Hierarchy is applied for coordination

 Coordination should be deliberated

 There is always a need for coordination between the departments

 Decentralisation

According to Urwick:

 Distribution of departments and designing the departments is a basic

requirement.

 There is always a need for correspondence to generate coordination.

 Distributed responsibility
 The principle should be scalar

 Officers need to be specialised

 Coordination is required in every aspect.

 The work of the officers needs to be predefined

Here in the above, we can see what are the principles derived from the theories of

Luther Gulick and Lyndell Urwick.

 Criticism of Classical theory

some of the important criticisms are as follows:

 These are just theories that are not scientifically proven

 We can find the neglect of the human dimensions in the theory

 These theories neglect the sociological aspects

 These theories neglect the psychological aspects

 Represented principles in the theory are based on the economic motivation of

the workers, there are no principles that represent the emotional motivation of
the workers to the office or other staff

 These theories are stable means designed organisations using such theories are

not able to adopt the changes

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 These theories represent the organisation as an isolated system in any

environment

 Only focused on the structure or hierarchy of the system

 Theories are non-descriptive which means a perfect reason for any suggestions

under the theory is not defined or not provided

Significance of Classical Theory

We can find in the theories that public administration is expressed as a science at the

start and the end of the theory it is expressed as art, there can be principles that are

not applicable universally but their application depends on the personality of the in-
charge

These theories promote the use of administration deficient departments like

reporting, accounting, and budgeting

These theories can play an important role in the industrial organisation because it

gives an overview of how we can make an organisation by assembling different

departments.

Conclusion

Classical theory can be considered as the theory for establishing any organisation in

public administration. This theory explains how we can design an organisation and

run it to complete a predefined aim. Theories given by Luther Gulick and Lyndall
Urwick are the basic theories whose combination is called a classic theory.

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Question : What is Development Administration? Discuss its main elements.

Or

Question : Describe the features of development administration.

Answer - Development Administration

The traditional approach towards administration has been limited in its scope and

premise, the core of which was strict adherence to laid down rules and hierarchy. In

essence it has limited the role administration to that of a fire fighter or overseer of

law and order in the comfort of laid down principals. While, nothing is wrong in this
approach, if society is utopian but, in a more practical sense it causes problems.

Since, bureaucracy is that arm of government which is responsible for executing

plans and allocating resources at the grassroots, it is imperative that they take some

risks and be innovative in approach, especially more so when the nation is a

developing one.

Development Administration is about projects, programs, policies and ideas which

are focused at development of a nation, with the point of view of socio-economic

and socio-political development of society in general, carried out by talented and

skilled bureaucrats.

A model of Development Administration must contain the following points:

 It should reject status quo and be directed towards change and more so

towards results. It is result oriented at its core and every development function
should have a defined objective.

 Planning is essential to decide the framework of resources and time to be

allotted for a development function.

 Innovation. It is dynamic in approach and encourages new and better ways to

achieve objectives.

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 It should focus on planning for the people as well as with the people. It is

people-centered, must empower society as a whole and not product or profit-

centered.

The concept of Development Administration should be understood using two

concepts Administration of Development and administrative Development.

Administration of Development: Resources are scarce, material or human thus the

need to make optimum utilization of available resources and making new means for

development gathers importance. So, administration of development involves

following objectives:

 Innovation at all levels of planning.

 Importance to the development at grassroots level.
 Development of human capital as a resource.

 Politics and administration must go hand in hand to establish rapid change in

society and bring about just and distinct social order.

 Freedom of administrative machinery to express ideas, views for the most

effective and efficient use of natural resources.

Administrative Development: For effective Development Administration the

structure of Administration itself must be empowered, large and capable enough to

sustain the pressures by the developmental activities. In simpler words it means to

develop administrative health by rationalizing and institution building and bringing

about a radical change in the administrative framework, from the traditionalist

approach, to handle and create socio-economic and political development and social

change. In essence the objective of Administrative development can be summarized

as:

 Building decision making capabilities.

 Development of skill and specialization to tackle complex issues in the

personnel.

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 Giving importance to training, effective use of technology to bring about change

in Administrative approach.

 Increasing administrative capacity, capabilities, removing corruption and

bringing in more accountability.

 Creating leaders out of bureaucrats for promotion of development initiatives.

To achieve development goals, it is necessary to that there is proper planning,

optimum utilization of resources, skilled personnel, accountability in actions and

words, self-reliance and emphasis on technology. At the same time, we need to

develop the bureaucracy, innovativeness, build capabilities, integrity and

decentralized decision making.

So, Administrative development and Administration of Development both are

important for the effective development of Society.

The main elements of the development administration model were:

 Establishment of planning institutions and agencies.

 Improvement of the central administrative systems.

 Budgeting and financial control and

 Personal management and organization and methods. This model primarily laid

emphasis on three requirements:

→ Reforming the administrative structures.

→ Creation of new agencies improving the administrative technology in terms

of methods

→ Procedures and practices on the lines of western administrative thought.

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Question : What is Public Policy? Describe the process or public policy

formulation.

Or

Question : What is public policy? Discuss its major theories.

Or

Question : What do you understand by public policy? Discuss the challenges in

execution of public policy.

Answer - Public policy

Public policy is said to be a combination of laws, regulations, actions, policies and

a lot of other factors concerning a given topic. Such public policies of a nation are

shaped over time by education, advocacy groups, influences of lobbyists, and

conflicting interests of special interest groups.

So, the public policy process is a very dynamic and complicated process that occurs

via public forums. First, the problems of the public receive recognition and

identification. And the process of public policy will help sort the problems. These

policies can be political, economic, cultural or social in nature.

Let us take an example of traffic violations. Say for example in India the fine for traffic

violations use to be very lenient. But now they have been revised and made quite
strict.

However, they are still not quite as strict as the ones in Hong Kong or Singapore. This

can be chalked up to the public policies of the nation.

Public policy formulation,

The process of policy formulation is a tentative measure taken by mankind to try and

bring sanity to the world. Whether or not we have done well as a people is again
another question I choose to let you answer yourself for yourself.

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A better shot at explaining what the process of policy formulation and

implementation is, for the purposes of this article alone, is to interact with the five

steps of the policy making process.

These unpack the process from conception to full existence in whatever form.
Closer to home for me is the process of policy formulation in democratic

governments where elected legislators formulate policies which are then executed by

government employees. Process of policy formulation and implementation generally

determines the lines along which human beings in a particular country can operate.

Legality of activities, voting and even which side of the road you can drive your
vehicle is impacted by policy.

Institutions, companies and other entities operating under these governments have
adopted the idea of policy formulation for the benefit of their organizations.

 Features of Public Policy

1] Goal-Oriented

All public policies have the ultimate aim to fulfil certain goals the government has in
mind. The reason for the formation and implementation of these policies is the

welfare of the citizens of the nation.

So, the government can use public policies to implement government programs to

achieve their goals.

For example, the current government has a financial inclusion policy. They wish to

enlist the majority of our rural population in banks through the Jan Dhan Yojna.

2] Result of Government Action

Public policy is the result of the collective of all government actions. So, the actions

and activities of all government officials collectively integrate to form public policy.

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The entire legal structure of our country stands on the collective actions of its

representatives. From the actions of the highest judge in the land to that of lawyers

and clerks forms the basis of our judiciary.

3] Can Take Various Forms

Public policy forms by the decision of the government to do something, or even to

not do something. The decision of the government can represent itself in many

forms like law, notices, ordinances, judicial decisions, executive orders, and

judgments etc. In India most, public policies will be in a written format, however, this

is not a necessity,

4] Depicts Concern of the Government

Public policy is the solution to a problem the society is facing. This means the

solution for the betterment of society has the sanction of the government.

So, it is of great importance to entrepreneurs and businessmen in a country. They

need assurance that the government is looking after their concerns and economic

interests as well.

And if the government refuses to take any action it reflects their ignorance or

disconcert. This will warn its citizens of the government’s lack of empathy and

concern.

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Question: Explain the various stages of public policy implementation.

Or

Question : What is Public Policy? Discuss various theories of Public Policy.

Or

Question : What is public policy? Explain the process of policy formulation and

its implementation.

Answer - Public policy

Public policy is said to be a combination of laws, regulations, actions, policies and

a lot of other factors concerning a given topic. Such public policies of a nation are
shaped over time by education, advocacy groups, influences of lobbyists, and

conflicting interests of special interest groups.

So, the public policy process is a very dynamic and complicated process that occurs
via public forums. First, the problems of the public receive recognition and

identification. And the process of public policy will help sort the problems. These

policies can be political, economic, cultural or social in nature.

Let us take an example of traffic violations. Say for example in India the fine for traffic

violations use to be very lenient. But now they have been revised and made quite

strict.

However, they are still not quite as strict as the ones in Hong Kong or Singapore. This
can be chalked up to the public policies of the nation.

Process of policy formulation and implementation

The five steps of the policy making process are Agenda Setting, Policy Formation,
Decision Making, Policy Implementation and Policy Evaluation which is the 1950s

work of Harold Laswell.

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1. Agenda Setting

This is the troubleshooting stage where the challenge impacting the public is

undressed and laid bare for the legislators to address and come up with solutions. In

functional governments, solutions not only come from concerned parties in and
outside government, but they are also objectively implemented for public benefit.

Agenda setting itself also has sub-stages to be followed i.e.:

 Systemic Agenda. Public officials brainstorm (based of interactions with the

constituencies they represent) all the issues they deem fit to address.

 Institutional Agenda. Issues shortlisted from the systemic agenda are awarded
time for policymakers to articulate and initiate action on.

 Discretionary Agenda. Lawmakers are responsible for this list of issues without

influence from the afore mentioned agendas.

 Decision Agenda. When this one comes out, it has the agreed upon list of
issues policy makers ought to act upon following 7 steps of policy formulation

PDF.

2. Policy Formation

At this point, conversations get heated up. Options of policies are developed within

government and from a wide range of options, the least effective are taken down.

Because public officials have differences by virtue of them being human to start with,

and them coming from different walks of life including political parties, interested
parties try to have policies more desirable to them kept on the remaining options.

3. Decision Making

Relevant authorities in government single out a particular course of action towards

the remaining policy choices. This action should ideally be of the greatest public

benefit resonating with the rout that led to the process of trying to come up with the

policy.

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4. Policy Implementation

At this stage, government rolls out the policy and through public administration

tools public officials for the distribution of government resources in whatever form

they take. Changes implemented should reflect the plight of affected parties which
becomes the first step towards embracing a new policy.

5. Policy Evaluation

Here both government and all stakeholder follow up on the account of the policy
from its impact on the issue that led to its formulation. They also determine whether

or not, the policy is bringing desired results. Policies tend to rub on to each other

such that this may result in changes in existing policies or even an alteration of the
new one to minimize negative impact on existing policy.

Present day governments, the world over, have been accused of abusing the
responsibility vested in them in the policy making process. Matters of public interest

in some instances have become nonentities such that policies are even formulated to

legalize personal growth activities to the detriment of the public who are the rightful

beneficiaries of this process.

policy formulation process, there are variations to the policy making process. These

are just but a framework of the policy making system which has its weaknesses and
strengths.

Call to mind how Covid-19 has impacted process of policy formulation and

implementation in your respective country.

We have seen activities of the old day being banned and, in some instances, referred

to as illegal and attracting fines and even jail penalties. Not only public policy was

affected, private entities have also found themselves changing their policies to suit
the new business atmosphere.

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Question : Describe the evolution of Public Administration as a discipline.

Or

Question : Write an essay on evolution of Public Administration as a discipline.

Or

Question : Briefly explain the evolution of public administration.

Answer - The development of public administration has gone through several crucial

stages. The following seven major periods can be used to broadly classify the

development of public administration as an academic discipline:

 Phase I (1887-1926): Politics-Administration Dichotomy

The United States is where the academic field of public administration was founded.

Woodrow Wilson, who later became the President of the United States and was a

political science professor at Princeton University, is credited with starting the

academic study of public administration.

As the founder of the field of public administration, he is revered. Wilson

emphasised the importance of studying public administration as a separate discipline

from politics in his article titled "The Study of Administration," which was published

in Political Science Quarterly in 1887. This is referred to as the politics-administration

dichotomy principle. Administration, according to Wilson, "lies outside the proper

sphere of politics." Political questions are not administrative questions.

Wilson commented on the role of administrators and argued that instead of

replacing elected officials' judgement with their own, administrators should

concentrate on running the government. Thus, administration was distinct from

politics and limited to carrying out laws. Politics and administration are thus in
opposition to one another.

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Wilson promoted the four ideas listed below in his well-known essay The Study of

Administration (1887): Politics and administration are kept apart. Comparative studies

of public organizations are introduced. c. Increasing effectiveness through business-

like procedures d. Increasing the efficiency of public services by training government

employees.

Wilson made the call, but Frank J. Goodnow was largely responsible for advancing

the movement in the USA to modernise the field of public administration. He

attempted to make a functional distinction between politics and administration in his

book Politics and Administration, writing that the former had to do with the policies

or expressions of the State's will and the latter, with the execution of these policies.

In fact, Goodnow courageously expanded on the Wilsonian theme and made a

strong case for the politics administration dichotomy.

 2. Phase II (1927-1937): Search for Principles of Administration (Economy

and Efficiency)

With the release of W. F. Willoughby's book Principles of Public Administration,

which became known as the second textbook in the field of public administration,

the second phase in the development of public administration as an academic

discipline could be said to have started in 1927. He believed that if public

administrators learned and used scientific principles of administration, they would be

successful.

A few other books were also released; notably, Mooney and Reilly's Principles of

Organization, Henry Fayol's Industrial and General Management, M. P. Follett's

Creative Experience, and Mooney and Reilly's Industrial and General Management.

The main tenet of the time was centred around a few "principles of administration,"
like economy and efficiency.

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 24

The administration industry operated under the principles of scientific

management, while business schools and administrative professionals collaborated

on the mechanistic side of management. Public administration has been significantly

impacted by F. Taylor's work and the principles of scientific management.

Taylor was eager to incorporate scientific principles into public administration

because he thought they were universally applicable. Papers on the Science of

Administration, a 1937 publication by Gullick and Urwick, made the most significant

contribution during this time. They asserted that the management of public affairs is
a science. For the purpose of researching the range of public administration, they

both created the acronym "POSDCORB." In the history of public administration, these

times served as the "principles" golden age, during which they attained a high level

of respectability.

 3. Phase III (1933-1947): Era of Challenges and Human Relations Movement

The third period was characterised by ongoing, increasing difficulties and doubts

regarding the development of public administration. In the first and second phases,
the developments in the field of public administration were vigorously contested.

The main criticisms were that: a. Politics and administration could never be clearly

separated; b. administrative principles were not a significant enough concept.

Numerous previously accepted public administration theories came under fire.

The need for flexibility, creativity, and discretion in decision-making started to

become apparent in the challenging decision-making environment of World War II.

In such a setting, the rigid, hierarchical administrative principles were completely

ineffective. Following these encounters, the emphasis shifted to the discipline's

social, moral, and political orientation in an effort to refute the dogma of managerial
effectiveness. Chester I. Bernard did not support the position taken by earlier writers

in his 1938 book, "The Functions of the Executive. say that there are no such things

as administrative principles.

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 4. Phase IV (1948-1970): Development of a Scientific and Interdisciplinary

Character

The public administration experienced a severe identity crisis during this time. Many

academics sought to re-join political science, the mother science, but discovered that

political science dominated administration. Additionally, they believed that political

science did not promote the expansion and advancement of the discipline and
discouraged it from appearing as a distinct field. Thus, there was a lack of a

comprehensive intellectual framework for public administration as a separate

discipline, which was one of the major problems of this time.

The political scientists' readiness to incorporate public administration into their

field of study. The discipline needed to become more adaptable, dynamic, and

environment focused. The post-World War II shift in emphasis toward Third World

countries and the emergence of new countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
established a new trend in the study of public administration.

 5. Phase V (1971-1980): Emergence of New Public Administration

In the midst of the turmoil and unpredictability of earlier periods of public

administration, the fifth period started in the 1970s. The National Association of

Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA), which was established in

1970, was a significant development. In addition to the public administrations' act of

breaking away from political science or management science, the NASPAA also
showed a rise in public administration's self-confidence.

During this time, public administration made significant strides and received

recognition in a variety of areas. The most significant change that occurred during

this time period in terms of its evolution was: a. A greater focus on the dynamic

nature of administration as opposed to the static nature that had previously been
held. b. Public administration, like many other social sciences, used an
interdisciplinary approach to study.

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 26

Question : Write short notes on the following:

(a) Politics of Development Administration

(b) Evaluation of Public Policy

Answer - (a)

Politics of Development Administration

Fred Riggs has maintained that there are two kinds of politics “balanced” politics

where the political system and the bureaucracy enjoy almost equal power in

decision-making, and “unbalanced” politics where such a ‘balance of power’ is

missing. Unbalanced politics are again of two types - those dominated by the
political system and those dominated by the bureaucratic system. The former are

called “party-run” politics and the latter “bureaucratic” politics. Balanced politics are

most suited for promoting development administration.

Supporting the goal of a balanced polity, the protagonists of what Warren

Ilchman has called “balanced social growth” (Ilchman, 1965) have advocated

technical assistance to bureaucracies in developing nations only to the extent that

such assistance would help to achieve and maintain a balance between the

bureaucracy and the political system.

A leading theorist of the balanced social growth approach, Riggs, has explicated

his philosophical premise behind such a position as follows: My confidence in the

self-restraint and integrity of any group is enhanced to the extent they are subjected
to the discipline of countervailing powers.

(Riggs, 1965) Varying shades of this premise are found in the works of Henry
Goodnow, Lucian Pie, Samuel Eisenstadt, and in the early writings of Joseph La

Palombara.

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 27

(b)

Evaluation of Public Policy

Policy evaluation can be better defined as a process by which general judgments

about quality, goal attainment, program effectiveness, impact, and costs can be

determined.

Once public policy has been operationalized through the formal adoption of laws,

rules, or regulations, and the bureaucracy has acted to implement the policy, some
form of evaluation needs to be accomplished to determine if the policy has achieved

the desired outcome or impact.

Public policy represents the expenditure of limited public resources and or

restrictions on certain types of individual or organizational behavior. Consequently,

the public has a right to expect that their government officials are accountable for
the validity, efficiency, and effectiveness of those policies.

Policy evaluation is therefore an absolutely critical stage in the policy process

whereby we can determine whether a policy’s effects are intended or unintended and

whether the results are positive or negative for the target population and society as a

whole (Theodoulou and Kofinis, 2004, p. 191). In essence, policy evaluation is the

process used to determine what the consequences of public policy are and what has
and has not been achieved.

Policy Evaluation

 Elected officials, policy makers, community leaders, bureaucrats, and the public

want to know what policies work and what policies don't.

 The purpose of evaluation is to determine whether an implemented program is

doing what it is supposed to.

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Policies need to be monitored to ensure they are working correctly — that they

are properly implemented, pass a cost-benefit analysis and are not facing unforeseen

obstacles. Policies that are outdated, ineffective or no longer supported by their

interest groups or congressional champions may face termination or replacement

with entirely new policy strategy.

Those who desire to work in policy strategy, public policy formation, public policy

education or in a wide variety of public administration careers should ideally have a

Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree.

Online programs such as the MPA degree at Anna Maria College deliver not only a
sound foundational and real-world basis for successful public administration careers

but also provide the access and flexibility for working professionals and those who

cannot relocate to enroll in their desired program.

The consequences of such policy programs are determined by describing their

impacts, or by looking at whether they have succeeded or failed according to a set of

established standards. Several evaluation perspectives are:

 Evaluation is the assessment of whether a set of activities implemented under a

specific policy has achieved a given set of objectives.

 Evaluation is the effort that renders a judgment about program quality.

 Evaluation is information gathering for the purposes of making decisions about

the future of the program.

 Evaluation is the use of scientific methods to determine how successful

implementation and its outcomes have been.

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 29

Question : Critically examine the Scientific Management Theory of

Administration.

Or

Question: What is Scientific Management? Discuss its major principles.

Answer - Scientific Management

After the World War II public administration was able to establish itself as a

separate discipline. That is, it freed itself from the tutelage of political science. But

unfortunately, the newly-achieved status was not enough for its glamour or prestige.
It was thought that public admin-istration as a part of government has not been able

to satisfy the growing needs of all sections of society. It was thought that the
government management system or public administration has not been able to

prove its efficiency. Less qualified or not properly trained persons are at the helm of
the entire structure of public administration.

Specially in USA the elite groups and top business community were controlling
administrative system which resulted in gross inefficiency or mismanagement of

administration. The administrative section of the state is extremely inefficient and this

was hindering the growth of economy and attain-ment of purposes. It has also been

alleged that the state authority was the storehouse of mismanagements, corruption,
and the absence of proper and real objectives. The basic needs of citizens remain

unrealised and corruption raised its ugly head.

 Origin and Nature of Scientific Management:

Some administrations and enthusiasts in public administration developed the notion

that the administrative organisation of state and function of public administration

could considerably be improved by applying certain principles of management based

on scientific grounds. The most important of them are Frederick Taylor, the

Frenchman Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick and L.F. Urwick.

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All are important but Taylor started the journey of scientific management.

Taylor was an ordinary apprentice in a machinery-making work ship and

subsequently he was promoted to the rank of a foreman. He thought that one best
way must be devised whose application could improve the management of the

organisation. In this connection it may be noted that the term scientific management

was really the brain-child of Gantt and Brandies.

scientific management wants to achieve three objectives at a time:

 improvement in management,

 rise in this total amount of wages or salary of workers, and

 the profit of the owner of management.

 principles which may be stated in the following way:

(a) Development of a science to replace the old rule so that the management can

achieve success,

(b) The employees and workers can be recruited scientifically. After this they can be

given proper and vigorous training to make them suitable for the management,

(c) The total work-load shall be distributed among all the workers in a scientific or

rational way. In this case, personal liking or disliking must not be allowed to interfere,

(d) There is also a duty of the management and this, according to Taylor, is that
manage-ment must cooperate with all the workers and a good or cordial relationship

must develop between management and workers,

(e) Taylor had also suggested that the entire volume of work should be distributed

among all the workers properly. In other words, some workers shall not be over-

burdened. If this is not done some of the workers shall be aggrieved,

(f) The concept of scientific, rationality and keenness shall be propagated among all
the workers and they shall be inculcated,

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 31

Question : Describe the major differences between Public and Private

Administration.

Answer -

Public Administration

Public Administration is a field of study that is concerned with the systematic

application of public policies and programmes formulated by the state. It relates to

the administrative functions carried out by the government. It focuses on providing

services to the general public, to ensure a good and safe life to people.

It is both a discipline as well as an activity. While as a discipline, it covers all the

subjects, i.e. budgeting, planning, organising, controlling, reporting, directing,

staffing, etc. As an activity, it performs services like welfare services, social security

services, management of government undertaking, regulation of private enterprises,

and so on.

In short, public administration is a non-political public bureaucracy that operates

within a legal framework. It deals with the objectives of the government, the public

interest and laws. All the branches of the government, i.e. executive, legislative and

judicial, as well as their relationship with each other, are covered in the public

administration. It works on the principles of uniformity, external financial control and

service motive.

Private Administration

Private Administration is defined as management and organisation of private

business enterprises. It is an administrative function carried out by the private

individuals or a group, to earn a profit. It is a business activity which is non-political

in nature.

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 32

It involves an array of activities like planning, organising, controlling, coordinating

and implementation of policies and programs, performed by the management of the

organisation. It works for the economic benefit of the organisation, considering the
interest of employees and clients or partners as well of the concerned organisation.

Differences Between Public and Private Administration

The management of affairs by private individuals or body of individuals is private

administration while management of affairs by central, state or local government is

public administration. There are some points of similarity between public and private

administration. However, there are some basic differences between the public and
private administration.

The important points of difference between public and private administration

are given below:

1. The systematic and well-planned management of the affairs of the state to

achieve the purposes established by the government is known as Public

Administration. The term private administration refers to the operation,

management, and organisation of the affairs of the business enterprise.

2. Public Administration is a political process. On the other hand, the private

administration is a business activity.

3. Public administration takes place in governmental setup, whereas private

administration operates in the structure other than the governmental setup.

4. Public administration follows a bureaucratic approach, while the private

administration has an egalitarian approach.

5. Decision making in public administration is pluralistic, but in private

administration, there is monopolistic decisions are taken.

6. In public administration, the revenue is generated from taxes, fees, duties,

penalties and other dues paid by the general public. As opposed to private

administration, where profits from operating activities are the major source of
revenue.

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 33

7. When it comes to accountability, public officials are accountable to the general

public. Unlike, private administration where the employees are accountable to

the owners.
8. Public administration is welfare oriented; it works with service motive.

Conversely, the private administration is profit oriented.

Conclusion

Public administration runs in a governmental setting, and that is why it is also known

as government administration. On the contrary, the private administration is a

business process, hence considered as business administration. Both of them play a

crucial role in contributing towards the development of the society in different ways.

Moreover, the measurement of performance, progress and results thereof, can be

done using different methods.

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 34

Question: Examine Herbert Simon's theory of Rational Decision making.

Or

Question : Examine the rational decision-making theory of Herbert Simon.

Answer - Introduction

Decision making is an essential part of a workplace where managers, leaders, and

employees need to make effective decisions that will cause benefit. It helps in

reaching the beneficial goals of the organizations. Herbert was one of the first

theorists who introduced the importance and benefits of effective decision-making.

Herbert A. Simon was a political scientist from America. He contributed a lot to

administrative theory. He was also awarded the Nobel Prize for economics science in

1978.

Simon argued that the decisions are an integral and critical part of an

organization, and if they are not taken correctly and on time, they may harm the
organization’s goals. Decision Making is a process that includes two steps; the first

one is the decision itself and the second one is its application. Both the phases are

equally important.

 The Simon Decision Making Theory

The Simon decision making theory is a descriptive theory that gives a clear picture of

the world in which decisions are significant. Here, decisions will decide the outputs or

prices. Simon says in the theory that the decisions are the choice of selecting an
option among the different possibilities of options. The chosen option can even be

action or non-action.

The theory basically predicts the importance of a decision and how to imply it Based

on Simon’s opinions, there can be multiple actions that can best suit the situation, as

there can always be some missing information to the person.

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 35

who is making the decision. In other words, it can be said that there can always be a

better way to make decisions based on the available information on the situation.

In the classical aspects of economics, the psychological angle was not considered,

while in this theory, Simon considered the psychological aspects also. The limit of an
employee to solve a complex problem depends on factors like stress and motivation

very much.

In simple words, the ability or decision of a person to perform is different when

there is a possibility of risk or uncertainty. The theory deals with a satisficing strategy

that considers a satisfactory and adequate result instead of an optimal result. This
strategy gives a result with minimum risk and maximum profit while ignoring high

complexities.

 Three Stages of the Decision-Making Process

The whole process of decision-making is divided into three stages. Each stage has its

own importance and cannot be skipped while making the decisions.

Stage 1: Intelligence Activity Stage

It is the stage of the decision-making process where some experts identify the

problems of an organization. Based on the issues, the management will try to find a

solution that can be applied to the system in order to provide an effective

environment.

Stage 2: Design Activity Stage

This stage involves the study of several strategies which can be applied to find the

solution to the problem. The main characteristic of this stage is the analysis of
strategies based on the merits and demerits. The management analyses the merits

and demerits and hence decides which strategy is best suited for the given problem.

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Stage 3: Choice Activity Stage

The third and last stage gives the decision output. In this stage, the management

decides the best-suited strategy, which can be applied based on the merits and

demerits listed in the previous stage. This stage is the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of the strategies and requires creativity and judgemental skills.

 Rational Decision Making

The main purpose of this theory is to find a rational decision that can benefit the
system and its ingredients. There are several methods that can be used to improve

the rationality of organisational decisions.

 Improving the specialization.

 Use of scientific tools to improve the outcomes.

 Understanding the market mechanism and enhancing the operations involved.

 Providing a vast information base to improve problem-solving techniques.

 Improving the political-institutional system.

 The Types of Decisions

There are two types of organisational decisions based on Simon’s decision-making

theory; “programmed” and “non-programmed”. Each decision is discussed below in

detail.

Programmed Decision

As the word programmed says, these decisions are designed by a proper plan or rule

of action to reach the solution. The guidelines or instructions to be followed are

predefined. These decisions are generally repetitive and have the same pattern. For

example, the decisions by management on a routine process.

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Non-Programmed Decisions

These decisions are the opposite of programmed decisions. These decisions are not

planned and don’t follow a fixed pattern. These decisions are generally one-time

decisions. The dynamic problems which a rigid set of rules can’t solve are solved by
non-programmed decisions. These decisions are complex and can have a long-term

impact.

The strategy for programmed and non-programmed decisions can be different, but

the basic rules are always the same. These rules include; defining the problem

properly, collecting the information, and scrutiny of the information which perfectly
satisfies the purpose.

Conclusion

Simon’s decision-making theory proposes the concept of bounded rationality, which

means that people can make decisions within certain limitations. The theory focuses

on psychological aspects and helps solve many unaddressed problems. The theory

explains the possessiveness of decision-making and its importance at the personal

and professional level. Organisations always get benefitted from effective decision-
making.

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 38

Question : Write short notes on the following:

(a) POSDCORB

(b) New Public Management (NPM)

(c) Rational Decision-making theory

Answer -(a)

POSDCORB

POSDCORB is an acronym which means Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing,

Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting which was first coined in a paper on

administrative management that was written for the Brownlow Committee by Luther
Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. POSDCORB can be used as a systematic framework for

efficiently executing business processes in a company or by an individual.

Steps of POSDCORB

As we have already understood that POSDCORB is a series of steps for management,

we need to understand these steps.

These are various steps or stages involved in a typical administrative process.

POSDCORB can be explained sequentially in detail below:

1. Planning

This essentially refers to establishing a broad sketch of the work to be completed and
the procedures incorporated to implement them.

Planning is the first and most important step in POSDCORB as it sets the overall

structure of the process with activities and timelines.

2. Organizing

Organizing involves formally classifying, defining and synchronizing the various sub-
processes or subdivisions of the work to be done.

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3. Staffing

This involves recruiting and selecting the right candidates for the job and facilitating

their orientation and training while maintaining a favourable work environment.

4. Directing

Directing is an important step in the POSDCORB cycle as it makes thing happen by

giving clear objectives to teams and individuals.

5. Coordinating

This basically refers to orchestrating and interlinking the various components of the

work.

6. Reporting

Reporting involves regularly updating the superior about the progress or the work-

related activities. The information dissemination can be through records or

inspection.

7. Budgeting

Budgeting involves all the activities that under Auditing, Accounting, Fiscal Planning
and Control.

Importance of POSDCORB

Every business needs to have systematic framework in ensuring there is maximum

output, minimum wastage and higher margins.

POSDCORB is one such method in management where workforce and employees

can be managed in a way which would be beneficial for a company.

This concept helps organizations to break down the work into multiple processes

and help in getting maximum value out to each employee. These steps and stages of

POSDCORB help the HR team to deliver to the needs of a company.

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 40

(b)

New Public Management (NPM)

The first wave of public-sector reform was the new public management (NPM).

It was inspired by ideas associated with neoliberalism and public choice theory. At

first, NPM spread in developed, Anglo-Saxon states. Later it spread through much of
Europe though France, Germany, and Spain are often seen as remaining largely

untouched by it and to developing and transitional states. In developed countries the

impetus for NPM came from fiscal crises.

Talk of the overloaded state grew as oil crises cut state revenues and the

expansion of welfare services saw state expenditure increase as a proportion of gross

national product. The result was a quest to cut costs. NPM was one proposed
solution. In developing and transitional states, the impetus for NPM lay more in

external pressures, notably those associated with structural-adjustment programs.

NPM has two main strands: marketization and corporate management. The most

extreme form of marketization is privatization. Privatization is the transfer of assets

from the state to the private sector. Some states sold various nationalized industries
by floating them on the stock exchange. Other state-owned enterprises were sold to

their employees through, say, management buyouts. Yet others were sold to

individual companies or consortiums.

Industries subject to dramatic privatizations included telecommunications,

railways, electricity, water, and waste services. Smaller privatizations involved hotels,

parking facilities, and convention centres, all of which were as likely to have been
sold by local governments as by central states.

Other forms of marketization remain far more common than privatization. These

other measures typically introduce incentive structures into public-service provision

by means of contracting out, quasi-markets, and consumer choice.

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 41

(c)

Rational Decision-making theory

The Most Basic Use of The Rational Decision-Making Model Is to Ensure A

Consistent Method of Making Decisions. This Could Be Used as A Standardized

Decision-Making Tool Across an Organization or To Ensure That All Managers

Receive the Same Information to Make Decisions. The Rational Decision-Making

Process Can Be Used to Maintain A Structured, Step-By-Step Approach for Every

Decision.

Rational Decision-Making Process

1. Understand and Define the Scope

Just Stating That A Problem Exists Isn’t Enough. Solid, Accurate Data Is Required to

Understand and Analyze The Problem in Depth. This Lets You Know How Much

Attention It Requires.

2. Research and Get Feedback

The Next Step in The Rational Decision-Making Process Is to Delve into The Problem.

Find Out What Is Causing the Problem and How It Can Be Solved. You Could Start
with A Brainstorming Session and Find Out What Your Team Thinks.

3. List Your Choices

There Are Bound to Be A Host of Opinions and Innumerable Choices About How to
Address the Issue. Consider All of Them So That You Don’t Create More Problems

Later.

4. Analyze Your Options Carefully

Now That You Have All the Options in Front of You, Cross Out the Ones That Don’t

Add Value or Don’t Solve the Problem. Understand How Each of The Potential
Solutions Could Turn Out and What Other Effects They Could Have.

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 42

5. Understand the Results You Want

This Is Where the Importance of Rational Decision-Making Comes into Play.

Understand What You Expect from The Solutions. There Has to Be A Clear Outcome

Because Of The Decision That Is Made. Knowing What You Expect from Your Actions
Is Important. It’s Always A Good Idea to Test the Solution to See If It Resolves the

Problem Entirely.

6. Have A Backup Plan

While This May Not Always Be Necessary and Can Be A Little Cost-Intensive, It May

Be Worthwhile to Have A Backup Plan If the Solution Doesn’t Give You the Intended

Results. This Means That You Should Either Have Another Strategy in Place, Created
Using the Rational Decision-Making Model.

7. Implement

Once the Team Has Done All the Work and Created the Solution, Implement It.
Implementing This Plan Means That Everyone Has to Be on Board. This Means That

Everyone Should Be Informed and Be Willing to Contribute in Executing the Plan. The

Plan Won’t Work If Everyone Isn’t Working Toward the Same Goal.

Conclusion

To Sum It Up, Rational Decision Making Can Be the Difference Between A High-

Performance Culture Driven by Results and An Unorganized Setting. If You Would

Like to Drive Decisions That Guarantee Results, You Have to Employ Strategies That
Kindle Organizational Objectives Based on Real Data. Let’s Sum Up the Steps

Explained in This Post About the Importance of Rational Decision-Making.

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