BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Understanding I/O Psychology

21501085
21040501044

INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

5th Sem

Lakshmibai College, University of Delhi

BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

I/O psychology:
Organizational psychology is a field that utilizes scientific methods to better under-
stand the behavior of individuals in organizational settings. It is an area of scientific study and
professional practice that addresses psychological concepts and principles in the work world.
Blum and Naylor (1968) defined it as “simply the application or extension of psychological facts
and principles to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business
and industry”.
Sinha (2008) says,
Organization behavior is a basic and applied social science seeking knowledge about how
individuals, groups, and organizations function for improving the effectiveness and well-being of
employees and organizations.
There are two sides of I/O psychology: science and practice. It is a legitimate field of scientific
inquiry, concerned with advancing knowledge about people at work. As in any area of science,
I/O psychologists pose questions to guide their investigation and then use scientific methods to
obtain answers. Psychologists try to form the results of studies into meaningful patterns that will
be useful in explaining behavior and to replicate findings to make generalizations about behavior.
In this respect, I/O psychology is an academic discipline. The other side of I/O psychology—the
professional side—is concerned with the application of knowledge to solve real problems in the
world of work. I/O psychologists can use research findings to hire better employees, reduce
absenteeism, improve communication, increase job satisfaction, and solve countless other
problems.
(Pg 4, Muchinsky, 2005)

Role of I/O psychologists:

I/O psychologists study and help implement behavior in organizations, such as
selecting employees, training them, appraising their performance as well as programs
that help improve the motivation and work attitudes of employees. Managers do their work in an
organization, which is a consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people,
that functions on a relatively contin-uous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.

Management Functions:

French industrialist Henri Fayol wrote that all managers perform five management
functions: planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Today, we have
condensed these to four: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

● Planning function is a process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy,

and developing plans to coordinate activities. Evidence indicates this function
increases the most as managers move from lower-level to mid-level management.
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

● Organizing function means determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do

them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions
are to be made.

● Leading function is a function that includes motivating employees, directing

them, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving their
conflicts. By doing all this they engage in leading.

● Controlling function includes monitoring, comparing and potential correcting

activities to ensure that the tasks are being accomplished as planned compared to
early years without any significant deviations.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)
Industrial-Organizational psychology plays a crucial role in understanding and improving the
workplace environment. Some of its functions are-
Selection and Placement: I /O psychologists who work in this field are concerned with
developing assessment methods for the selection, placement, and promotion of employees. They
examine various jobs to find out the extent to which tests can forecast performance in those
professions. Additionally, they are concerned with employee placement and locating positions
that best match a person's skills and interests.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Performance Appraisal: Performance appraisal is the process of identifying criteria or

standards for determining how well employees are performing their jobs. I/O psychologists in
this field are also interested in figuring out the value of a job's performance to the company. They
might be involved in evaluating the effectiveness of work teams, organizational units, or the
organization as a whole.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Training and Development: This field is concerned with identifying employee skills that
need to be enhanced to improve job performance. The areas of training include technical skills
enhancement (e.g., computer operations), managerial development programs, and training of all
employees to work together effectively. I /O psychologists who work in this field must design
ways to determine whether training and development programs have been successful.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Quality of Worklife: I/O psychologists in this field are interested in the elements that
support a healthy and productive workforce. They might work on redesigning jobs so that those
who perform them find them more fulfilling and meaningful. A high-quality work-life balance
benefits both the organization's productivity and a person's emotional well-being.
(Muchinsky, 2006)
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Stress and Well-being: They examine factors that contribute to workplace stress and
design interventions to improve employee well-being and reduce burnout.

Organization Development: Organization development is the process of analyzing the

structure of an organization to maximize the satisfaction and effectiveness of individuals, work
groups, and customers. Just like people, organizations develop and grow, so the goal of the field
of organization development is to speed up this process. I /O psychologists who work in this
field are sensitized to the wide array of factors that influence behavior in organizations.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Research and Data Analysis: I/O psychologists conduct research and analyze data to
provide evidence-based insights for informed decision-making in various organizational
contexts. Overall, I/O psychology plays a vital role in optimizing the relationship between
employees and their work environments, leading to improved organizational performance and
employee well-being.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Purpose of I/O psychologists:

Its purpose is to enhance workplace functioning, solve workplace challenges, inform
decision-making, promote employee satisfaction, and advance organizational goals.

Optimizing Workplace Functioning: The primary purpose is to optimize the functioning

of both individuals and organizations within the workplace. This involves finding ways to
improve productivity, employee engagement, and overall organizational performance.

Solving Workplace Challenges: I/O psychologists aim to identify and address various
challenges and issues that can arise in the workplace, such as turnover, conflict, and performance
deficiencies, through evidence-based solutions.

Informing Decision-Making: They provide data-driven insights and recommendations to

inform decision-making within organizations. This includes helping organizations make
informed choices regarding hiring, training, and leadership practices.

Contributing to Employee Satisfaction: I/O psychologists work to enhance employee

satisfaction and well-being, recognizing that content and motivated employees are more likely to
contribute positively to an organization's success.
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Advancing Organizational Goals: Ultimately, the purpose is to align the efforts of

individuals and the strategies of organizations to achieve their respective goals, whether those are
related to profitability, innovation, or social responsibility.
(Muchinsky & Culbertson, 2016)

Employee Well-being: They focus on improving the well-being and job satisfaction of
employees, promoting a healthy work-life balance, and reducing workplace stress and burnout.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Talent Management: I/O psychologists assist in talent acquisition, selection, and

development, ensuring the right people are in the right roles and helping employees reach their
full potential. (Muchinsky, 2006)

Leadership and Management: They provide guidance on effective leadership and

management strategies, improving communication, motivation, and decision-making within
organizations. (Muchinsky, 2006)

Training and Development: I/O psychologists design training programs that enhance
employee skills and knowledge, contributing to career growth and organizational success.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Occupational Health and Safety: They address workplace safety concerns and develop
strategies to reduce workplace accidents and promote employee well-being. Overall, I/O
psychology aims to bridge the gap between psychology and the business world, benefiting both
employees and organizations by creating healthier, more productive work environments.
(Muchinsky, 2006)

Focus of I/O psychology:

It centers on understanding workplace behavior, optimizing organizational processes, and
improving human resource practices.

Understanding Workplace Behavior: I/O psychologists focus on studying and

understanding the behavior of individuals and groups within the workplace. They examine
factors that influence employee behavior, performance, and interactions.

Improving Organizational Processes: Another key focus is on improving various

organizational processes and systems. This includes enhancing communication, decision-making,
and problem-solving within the workplace to increase efficiency and effectiveness.
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Enhancing Human Resource Practices: I/O psychologists concentrate on developing and

optimizing human resource practices, such as recruitment, selection, training, and performance
management, to align them with organizational goals and objectives.

Applying Psychological Theories: I/O psychology draws from various psychological

theories and principles, such as motivation, perception, and social behavior, to explain and
address workplace phenomena.

Promoting Employee Well-Being: A central focus is on promoting the well-being and job
satisfaction of employees by creating a positive work environment, reducing stress, and
supporting work-life balance.
(Conte & Landy, 2019)

Organizational Psychology: Organizational psychology centers on understanding the

dynamics of individuals within organizations. It delves into topics like leadership, motivation,
job satisfaction, and team dynamics
(Conte & Landy, 2019)

Human Factors and Ergonomics: This field is concerned with designing tools,
equipment, and systems that are safe, efficient, and user-friendly. It focuses on optimizing the
interaction between humans and technology.
(Conte & Landy, 2019)

Psychometrics: Psychometrics involves the development and use of psychological tests

and measurement tools, such as aptitude tests, personality assessments, and surveys, to gather
data relevant to the workplace.
(Conte & Landy, 2019)

Interdisciplinary approach to study I/O psychology:

Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science built on contributions from a

number of behavioral disciplines, mainly psychology and social psychology, sociology, and
anthropology.
It is a field of study, meaning that it is a distinct area of expertise with a common body of
knowledge. It investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior
within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an
organization’s effectiveness.

Psychology- Psychology seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior
of humans and other animals. Those who have contributed and continue to add to the knowledge
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

of OB are learning theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists, and, most important,
industrial and organizational psychologists. Early industrial/organizational psychologists studied
the problems of fatigue, boredom, and other working conditions that could impede efficient work
performance. More recently, their contributions have expanded to include learning, perception,
personality, emotions, training, leadership effectiveness, needs and motivational forces, job
satisfaction, decision-making processes, performance appraisals, attitude measurement,
employee-selection techniques, work design, and job stress.

Social Psychology- Social psychology, generally considered a branch of psychology,

blends concepts from both psychology and sociology to focus on peoples’ influence on one
another. One major study area is change, how to implement it and how to reduce barriers to its
acceptance. Social psychologists also contribute to measuring, understanding, and changing
attitudes; identifying communication patterns; and building trust. Finally, they have made
important contributions to our study of group behavior, power, and conflict.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Sociology- While psychology focuses on the individual, sociology studies people in

relation to their social environment or culture. Sociologists have contributed to OB through their
study of group behavior in organizations, particularly formal and complex organizations. Perhaps
most important, sociologists have studied organizational culture, formal organization theory and
structure, organizational technology, communications, power, and conflict.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Anthropology- Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and
their activities. Anthropologists’ work on cultures and environments has helped us understand
differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior between people in different countries
and within different organizations. Much of our current understanding of organizational culture,
organizational environments, and differences among national cultures is a result of the work of
anthropologists or those using their methods.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Political science- It conceptualizes organizations as political systems where individuals

and groups are engaged in a continuous struggle to gain greater access to resources and positions
of power to serve their individual and group interests, often at the cost of others. Thus, according
to this perspective, all individual, group and organizational-level processes are essentially
political and involve power play.
(Sinha, 2008)

Economic theories can be applied to understand issues related to compensation, labor

markets, and resource allocation within organizations. While, insights from management studies
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

can provide a broader perspective on leadership, decision- making, organizational structure, and
strategy, all of which influence practices of I/O psychology.
(Sinha, 2008)

Historical Background of I/O Psychology:

The field of Industrial-Organizational (I/O) psychology has deep historical roots that can be
traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged in response to the industrial and
societal changes of the time.

Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915): Although not a psychologist, Taylor's scientific

management principles had a significant impact on I/O psychology. His work emphasized
efficiency, task analysis, and the scientific study of work processes.
(Jex, 2002)

Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916): Often regarded as one of the founders of I/O

psychology, Münsterberg published "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency" in 1913. This book
explored the application of psychology to various aspects of industry and work, including
personnel selection and job performance.
(Jex, 2002)

Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955): Scott's work in the early 20th century focused on
advertising and personnel selection. He emphasized the importance of using psychological
principles to improve employee selection and management practices.
(Jex, 2002)

World War I and II: Both world wars provided opportunities for the application of
psychological principles in areas such as personnel selection, training, and morale. Psychologists
played a crucial role in assessing and placing military personnel.
(Jex, 2002)

Formation of Professional Organizations (Early 20th Century): The formation of

organizations like the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Society for Industrial
and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) in the United States provided a platform for I-O
psychologists to collaborate, share research, and establish ethical guidelines for their work. SIOP,
founded in 1982, specifically focuses on I-O psychology.

Scientific Management (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century): The origins of I-O
psychology are closely tied to the ideas of scientific management, notably championed by
Frederick W. Taylor. Taylor's work focused on optimizing industrial processes through the
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

systematic study of work tasks and worker productivity. While not psychologists themselves,
Taylor and his contemporaries laid the foundation for the scientific examination of work and
worker efficiency.
(Muchinsky, 2005)

Hawthorne Studies (1920s - 1930s): The Hawthorne Studies were a crucial turning point
in I-O psychology. They were carried out at Western Electric's Hawthorne Works in Chicago.
Elton Mayo and other researchers looked into how psychological and social factors affected
employee satisfaction and productivity. These studies lay the foundation for I-O psychology's
emphasis on the welfare and behavior of employees by highlighting the significance of social
and human elements in the workplace.
(1905; Muchinsky)

Post-War Expansion and Growth (1940s-1960s): Following World War II, there was a
significant increase in the need for I–O psychologists in business and government. They were
approached for projects including recruiting, educating employees, and increasing corporate
effectiveness. This time saw a rapid expansion of the field.

Civil Rights and Equal Employment Opportunity (1960s): I-O psychology was
significantly impacted by the American Civil Rights Movement. Fairness, diversity, and equal
employment opportunity issues have received more attention as a result of laws like the Equal
Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
(Muchinsky, 2005)

Modern I/O Psychology: Today, I/O psychology encompasses a wide range of topics,
including employee selection, training and development, motivation, leadership, job satisfaction,
and organizational culture. It continues to evolve with advances in technology and changes in the
global workforce. These historical developments laid the foundation for contemporary I/O
psychology, which aims to apply psychological principles and research findings to enhance the
well-being and productivity of individuals and organizations in a variety of settings.
(Jex, 2002)

Current Scenario and Challenges faced by I/O Psychology:

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI): Being able to adapt to people who have distinct
personalities is one of the most significant challenges for organizations. Workforce diversity
deals with disparities between people inside a given country, whereas globalization concentrates
on contrasts between people from different nations. Workforce diversity recognises the presence
of both men and women, a wide range of racial and ethnic groupings, people with various
physical or psychological abilities, people of different ages, and people of various sexual
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

orientations. The management of this variety is a universal issue. Organizations nowadays are
releasing more and more how important it is to promote inclusive and diverse workplaces. I/O
psychologists are developing methods to advance diversity, lessen prejudice in hiring and
development decisions, and promote more equal work settings.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Technology and Automation: The rapid advancement of technology and automation in the
workplace has raised questions about how these changes impact job roles, skill requirements, and
employee well-being. I/O psychologists are studying the effects of automation on workers and
helping organizations adapt to these shifts.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Mental Health and Well-being: Mental health in the workplace has gained significant
attention. I/O psychologists are developing strategies to support employees' psychological
well-being, particularly in high-stress industries or during times of crisis.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Work-Life Balance: Balancing work and personal life has become a major concern,
especially with the blurring of boundaries due to remote work. Employees increasingly recognize
that work infringes on their personal lives, and they’re not happy about it. Recent studies suggest
employees want jobs that give them flexibility in their work schedules so they can better manage
work–life conflicts. In fact, balancing work and life demands now surpasses job security as an
employee priority. I/O psychologists are exploring flexible work arrangements and interventions
to improve work-life balance.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Globalization and Cross-Cultural Issues: As organizations expand globally, I/O

psychologists face the challenge of understanding and managing cross-cultural differences in the
workplace. This includes adapting assessment tools and leadership practices to diverse cultural
contexts. To work effectively with people from different cultures, you need to understand how
their culture, geography, and religion have shaped them and how to adapt your management style
to their differences. Managers at global companies such as McDonald’s, Disney, and Coca-Cola
have come to realize that economic values are not universally transferable. Management
practices need to be modified to reflect the values of the different countries in which an
organization operates.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Environmental Sustainability: Some organizations are incorporating sustainability and

environmental responsibility into their corporate values. I/O psychologists can play a role in
aligning HR practices with these values.
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Evolving Leadership Models: Traditional leadership models are being challenged, and
I/O psychologists are exploring more adaptive and inclusive leadership styles suitable for
modern workplaces.
(Robbins & Judge, 2013)

Organizational Behavior in Indian Context:

Organizational behavior appeared in the Indian setting around the 1960s. At that time, the
country had hardly any systematic empirical research of its own. Business activities were
extremely limited and the country had just started industrialization in a big way by importing
Western capital and technology.
One definition of culture is that it consists of people's beliefs regarding what works in most of
the situations they face (Triandis 1995). The scholars were trying to identify what they thought
worked or should work in organizations and, thereby, allowed the invisible hand of culture to
shape their formulations. There was no apparent need to trace the process of how culture shaped
their thoughts. Culture is also like gravity; we do not experience it until we jump 6 feet into the
air (Trompenaars 1993). Organizational behavior indeed jumped out of Western culture to
experience the extent of its generality as well as its limitations.

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) psychology in the Indian context has seen significant

growth and development in recent years (Sinha, 2008). Three phases in the evolving nature of
organizational behavior in India has been identified:

Replication of Western theories and concepts: In the beginning, the Indian studies largely
mirrored all Western theories, concepts, and methodologies, demonstrating their applicability
across the board. When contradictory results were reported, they were disregarded. Replications
that didn't work were blamed on poor sampling, a lack of rigorous research design, or inaccurate
translation of the research instruments. Indian scholars were unable to challenge the
well-established Western theories and concepts because they lacked their own theories and
conceptual framework as well as the ability to get past the colonial mindset. Western scholars
still maintained that their theories and concepts were valid, and either blamed the Indian culture
for Indians behaving differently or justified culture-specific organizational behavior.
(Sinha, 2008)
In order to draw the conclusion that "A many top Indian managements are relatively
authoritarian in their relationships with lower management, and with labor," Myers (1960)
conducted interviews with a number of government officials, labor leaders, and managers. Lewis
(1962) noted that, like other traditional cultures, Indian culture is authoritarian. They all argued
that employees' authoritarian behavior needed to be modified to fit their organizational behavior.
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

However, Meade (1967) confirmed Lippitt and White's research (1943) to demonstrate that
because Indian culture is authoritarian, Indian subordinates require authoritarian leaders in order
to function more efficiently.
(Sinha, 2008)

● Integration of Western and Indian contents and processes of organizational

behavior: A gradual amalgamated approach that attempted to combine Western
and Indian organizational behavior components and processes emerged as a result
of the dialectics between replication and disenchantment. This strategy included
at least five strands.

First, the colonial mindset had worn out in a few cases to the extent that there were
efforts to retrieve some of the ancient Indian concepts of a religio-spiritual nature. Second, some
of them were processed through Western methods. Third, the relevance of Western constructs
was examined in the Indian cultural context. Fourth, attempts were made to synthesize Western
and Indian cultural components into a composite perspective on organizational behavior. Fifth,
indigenous concepts were examined with universally applicable processes.
(Sinha, 2008)

● Ancient Indian Approach to Management: Not all Indian businesses adopted the
global model. Most likely, the search for a spiritual path to organizational
development was a response to the global mode. Srinivas (2000) studied 15 such
Indian organizations, including the largest public sector bank (State Bank of
India), the largest oil company (Indian Oil), which was the only Indian company
among Fortune 500 companies, a leading Fortune 300 company, an information
technology (IT) company (Infosys), among others. Common to their development
efforts was the emphasis on spirituality-management by values and practices
drawn primarily from Vedantic thoughts of which Chakraborty (1987, 1993) and
Sharma (2007) were the chief exponents.

According to Garg and Parikh (1993), managers who were exposed to Western values of
success, careerism, and money at a prestigious business school experienced an identity crisis as a
result of feeling cut off from their inner cultural moorings.

● Ancient Indian Concepts Examined by Western Methods: Meditation and yoga

poses are experiential phenomena, but a strictly experimental approach was used
to demonstrate how they affect behavior (Orme-Johnson et al. 1997). ‘Nishkam
karm’, or working sincerely without worrying about the result, has been
empirically shown to reduce work-related stress and increase satisfaction (Pande
and Naidu 1992; Misra 2003). The triangular taxonomy of the traditional Indian
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

temperamental traits (gunas) was supported by a factor analysis (Kaur and Sinha
1992).

● Assimilative Synthesis of Western and Indian Concepts: Pareek (1988: 30) showed the
need to integrate Western values such as openness, collaboration, trust, authenticity,
autonomy, and confrontation for resolving conflicts with Indians’ concern for others,
tendency to harmonize and synthesize different points of view, and general respect for
knowledge and expertise in order to design effective organizations. Similarly, Sinha
(2004) reported that Indian managers in multinational companies behaved just as the
expatriates.

Indigenous Conceptualization with Universally Applicable Processes: Kanungo and his

colleagues proposed that an organization can achieve high productivity by adopting universally
applicable processes of setting up precise and challenging but attainable goals, organizing
comprehensive training programs, and providing accurate feedback to the staff. They did this by
drawing on the goal theory of motivation. The methods for carrying out these processes must,
however, be culture-specific. For example, how training programs should be run, what goals
should be set, and how evaluations should be conducted. Cultural factors specific to India must
be taken into account.

● Western concepts applicability in the context of India:

In order to demonstrate that ingratiation and manipulation (Mellian propensity)
are more prevalent and risk-free in India, Pandey and Tripathi (1981) investigated
the processes involved in these behaviors compared to the West. Indians, unlike
Westerners, also establish themselves by name-dropping, self-pitying and shifting
opinions in response to circumstances. In addition, unlike in the West, the
psychological Crowding effects aren't necessarily bad (Jain 1987; Pandey 1999).
The requirement for achievement, distributive justice (Agarwal and Misra 1989;
Mehta 1991; Mishra and Agarwal 1985). Morality (Shweder et al. 1990) and
ethics (Krishnan 1997) were removed from the Western framework and
demonstrated to possess distinctively Indian cultural elements and dynamics.
Another illustration is the use of utilizing the psychoanalytical framework to
understand the Indian psyche, culture, society, and healing traditions (Kakar 1978,
1982).

● Disenchantment with them:

Some Indian scholars claimed that Indians were authoritarian or that Indian
culture is not conducive to work. The evidence was not conclusive that Indians
also possess the underlying psychodynamics of authoritarians (such as ego-alien
sexuality, free floating anxiety, etc). However, Indians do have clearly defined dos
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

and don'ts, strong hierarchical orientation, status consciousness, strong need for
power, and so forth. According to some, Indians prefer autocratic leaders because
they are more autocratic than authoritarian. Still others found that authoritarian
leaders were neither preferred nor effective. Similarly, contrary to earlier findings,
participative leaders were perceived to be weak, because they abdicated the
responsibility to take decisions. Participation with Indian subordinates means
‘being consulted’ (De,1984). It was also shown that Indians prefer nurturing
superiors (Kakar,1971) and work effectively under such superiors (Sinha 1980).

Similarly, Maslow’s need hierarchy was not found to hold true in Indian organizations.
Although there were some variations, money, security, and status remained the most salient
needs across levels and industries. Job importance did not predict job satisfaction. The two-factor
theory was shown to be an artifact of the method employed by Herzberg. The hygiene and
motivators were bi-directional, affecting both satisfaction as well as dissatisfaction. The T-group
methodology, because it is person-based, was not found to be effective in the collectivist culture
of India; it was the system-wide interventions that worked more effectively (Singh,2001).

Furthermore, Theory Y did not seem to characterize Indians because Indians were
reported to value work as a part of a relationship. They shirk work in many different ways in
order to satisfy their value of ‘aaram’ (rest and relaxation not preceded by hard work) or to meet
social obligations (Sinha,1985: 134). This non-work orientation was partly due to the inroads of
traditional Indian culture into work organizations that ‘provide settings for interaction of familial
forces, interest groups, caste conflicts, regional and linguistic groups, class conflicts, and
political and religious forces, among others’ (Sinha, 2008).

The lack of ability of Western theories, concepts, and procedures to be validated in Indian
companies gave rise to the necessity to investigate organizational behavior from an Indian
cultural perspective.
At first, either Indians' authoritarian behavior or Indian researchers' inability to accurately copy
well-established Western theories and conceptions were blamed for the failure. But three events
afterwards prompted a reassessment and highlighted the significance of the Indian cultural
perspective:
● Despite greatest attempts, a number of studies that tried to prove Western theories and
concepts in the Indian context failed despite the best efforts to replicate them.
● A surge of self-reliance in the country in the 1970s stimulated a search for ancient
psychospiritual and contemporary indigenous concepts and ideas that seemed to have the
potential to explain Indian organizational behavior more appropriately.
● International cross-cultural research confirmed the limitations of Western theories and
concepts in explaining human behavior in non-Western cultures, and thereby opened up
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

the possibility of developing indigenous perspectives on human, including organizational

behavior in different cultures

Indian organizational behavior study did not entirely reject Western ideas. Instead, it
noted a trend toward the fusion of Western and Indian ideas and practices. Three fundamental
aspects of Indian culture that have an impact on how people behave as individuals, groups, and
organizations in India were discovered through further investigation into the causes of this
integrative trend:
● Pluralistic worldview is willingly receptive to new ideas and influences, and thereby
collects diverse values, beliefs, norms, and practices from other cultures.
● Synthesizing mindset tends to integrate diverse cultural influences, but does not reject
those that cannot be integrated. They are allowed to coexist resulting in an inclusive
cultural frame of consistent, inconsistent, as well as opposite components.
● High context sensitivity enables Indians to selectively retrieve components and organize
them in different combinations for responding effectively to different organizational
contexts.
(Sinha, 2008)
BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO I/O PSYCHOLOGY

References

Conte, J.M., & Landy, F.J.(2019,January 17). Work in the 21st Century. John Wiley & Sons.

Jex, S. M. (2002). Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach. Wiley.

Muchinsky, P. M. (2006). Psychology applied to work: An Introduction to Industrial and

Organizational Psychology. Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Muchinsky, P. (2005, November 1). Psychology Applied to Work

Muchinsky, P. M., & Culbertson, S. S. (2016, April 1). Psychology Applied to Work.

Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. (2013). Organizational behavior. Prentice Hall.

Sinha, J. B. P. (2008). Culture and organizational behavior. SAGE Publications Ltd.