МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РФ

ПЕНЗЕНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ ИМ. В. Г. БЕЛИНСКОГО

Историко-филологический факультет Кафедра "Перевод и переводоведение"

Курсовая работа по дисциплине:

«История и культура стран изучаемого языка»

на тему: «Колониальная политика Великобритании XIX века»

Направление подготовки – 45.03.02 Лингвистика

Профиль подготовки – «Перевод и переводоведение»

Выполнил: ________ Чудин А.А.

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Асс. _______ Савостьянов В.О.

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Пенза – 2021
 Table of contents

Introduction...................................................................................................................
Chapter I Colonial policies as a sign of domination group of industrialized
countries over the rest of the world...............................................................................
1.1 The concept and nature of colonialism and colonial politics...............................
1.2 Forms and methods of colonial policy.................................................................
Chapter II British Foreign Policy in the 19th Century..............................................
2.1 British colonial policy in the first half of the 19th century..................................
2.2 The British East India Company..........................................................................
Chapter III. British foreign policy at the end of the 19th century............................10
3.1 The British military reform at the end of the 19th century and the
establishment of control of the Suez Canal..............................................................12
3.2 British Foreign Policy in the Middle East: Expansion in the Arabian
Peninsula and the Persian Gulf in the late 19th century..........................................13
Conclusion...................................................................................................................18
List of sources:............................................................................................................20

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 Introduction

The British colonial empire, which was dissolved after the Second World War, continued
to exist for a long time and was surprisingly strong in terms of both politics and economics, thus,
in fact, English has become an international language. Naval power, the continued exploitation
of colonies, financial activism, the arts, and the experience of the diplomatic corps have made
Britain one of the richest and most influential nations in the world, that for centuries Britain has
been able to play a leading role in the world political arena, with direct influence on the ruling
elites of the other major States, by forcing them to accept the supremacy of England on a host of
political and economic issues and to accept, without any objection, anything dictated by English
diplomatic representatives. For all these reasons, of particular interest is British foreign policy,
that is, politics, which, although studied and analyzed in a plethora of historical and scientific
writings, has not yet been fully studied. Its general directions and principles are covered in a
variety of works by historians and political scientists, but certain British diplomatic activities, in
particular, the principles of its colonial policy in relation to a number of States or specific regions
still require in-depth study.
Relevance of the topic: is dictated by the need for a more in-depth and substantive
examination of the driving forces as well as the mechanisms for the formation of British colonial
policy in the 19th century, taking into account the forms and methods of its implementation with
a view to better understanding the many processes that are taking place in the country at the
present time.
The subject: British colonial policy in the 19th century.
The object: the process of the formation of British colonial policy, its driving forces in
conquered states, the forms and methods of British colonial policy during the presence of its
troops in a given state.
The purpose of this work: Comprehensive study of the formation of British colonial
policy throughout the world in the 19th century.
Tasks:
- to examine the features of colonial policy in general, while considering the concept and
essence of colonialism and colonial policy;
- study the main purposes for which metropolitan colonies are to be acquired;
- to identify and examine the main features of the colonies and the forms and methods of
colonial policy;
- to investigate the main facts of the conduct of British foreign policy in the 19th century.

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 Chapter I. Colonial policies as a sign of domination
group of industrialized countries over the rest of the world
1.1 The concept and nature of colonialism and colonial politics

Colonialism is referred to as the system of domination by groups of industrialized States

over the rest of the world in the 16th to 20th centuries. Colonialism: a State’s foreign policy of
conquest territories of other countries and peoples for the purpose of economic exploitation, to
plunder and effectively enslave the local population by the aggressor. Colonial policies were
now considered criminal and had been completely eliminated.
The former colonial countries had almost all gained independence by the middle of the
20th century. A number of small Territories, mostly islands, can be considered to some extent
colonies and are now under the rule of the United States, Britain, France and other advanced
States. However, the legal status of these territories and their inhabitants has been brought to the
uniform standard of the metropolitan country, which provides the remote territory with economic
and social support.
The colonies were originally commercial, pastoral and military agriculture, based mainly
in the ancient era on the mass migration of the inhabitants of the State, most often outside the
State. These colonies were generally either independent of the metropolitan nations or their
populations were in the same position as the metropolitan inhabitants.
Colonization was widespread in modern times. Some of the resulting colonies became
capitalist extensions of metropolises and then became independent imperialist states. Colonial
policies are policies of conquest and, often, military, political and economic exploitation of
peoples, States and territories with predominantly foreign populations, and these States are
generally economically less developed.

1.2 Forms and methods of colonial policy

The forms and methods of colonial policy may have varied greatly. The colonies of
Western European states did not form a whole with the territories of metropolises, but rather the
opposite. For example, in North America the territories east of the Mississippi River were an
extension of the metropolis and were gradually incorporated into the federation as states.
Similarly, some Asian nationalities were included in the Russian state, that is, they were
territorially connected with the metropolis.

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 Colonization generated mass emigration from Europe, which gradually intensified,
reaching its peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The main masses of immigrants went
to colonies with temperate climates and to fertile lands, i.e. to North and South America, South
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, etc. Thus, step by step, differences began to emerge between the
colonies with considerably newcomers as well as natives. In the settler colonies, European forms
of industrial activity, as well as culture and way of life prevailed. In the colonies with
predominantly aboriginal populations, the European population usually lived in compact groups
in special districts that were specially designated for foreigners. Usually such districts arose in
large commercial and industrial cities or in administrative centres.
The colonizers, as representatives of the colonial authorities as well as of the military and
merchants, were generally dismissive of the settler colonists from Europe as well as of the
natives. But while they did recognize some rights for the colonists and their descendants, they
were not ceremonious with the natives. The history of colonialism is a history of the violence
inflicted by colonizers on local populations, especially when they, because of their backwardness
and fragmentation, could not offer vigorous resistance.
The conquest of the Americas by the Spaniards is a case in point. Taking advantage of
their military and technical superiority, the conquistadors fairly quickly broke all resistance from
the Indian tribes, who did not have firearms. In 1525 the King of Spain, Emperor Charles V,
declared the Indians, who were pagans, hereditary slaves. Thus, they were forced to work in
silver mines in Bolivia. Because of the inhumane working and living conditions, the native
population of Spanish America in the 16th century began to decline sharply, and on the islands
of the West Indies it became completely extinct, which, in fact, forced the Spanish to begin mass
importations of negro slaves from African countries to their American colonies in the middle of
the 16th century.
Thus, the colonizers simply had to proceed more cautiously where they were confronted
by stronger countries with large indigenous populations. The Portuguese, who were the first to
discover maritime routes to India, did not initially set out to conquer the state in question. When
threatened by force, they began to conclude trade treaties with the rulers of individual
principalities, which gave them trade monopolies, low purchase prices and a host of other
unilateral benefits.

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 Chapter II British Foreign Policy in the 19th Century

Throughout the 19th century, Britain's colonial expansions continued. During the anti-
Napoleonic wars, the United Kingdom strengthened its dominance in India and Africa, seized
most of France's African colonies, as well as the Dutch colonies in South Africa and Indonesia.
Many of these territories remained British possessions even after the French victory over
Napoleon. In 1852, the British invaded Lower Burma and in 1856 they began a war against the
Iranian state, which, however, the British government was forced to stop, because troops were
needed to restore order in a rebellious India. In 1857, the bloody defeat of the Sepoy Rebellion
(1857-1859) resulted in the conquest of India, which had begun, in fact, in 1600, when the East
India Company was founded. At the same time, Great Britain, together with France, began a
military campaign against the Chinese state (1856- 1860), imposing on that state the terms of the
peace treaties. The desire to dominate the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, which promised huge
profits, pushed Great Britain into war with the Russian state (1853-1856). The aim of the British
in this case was not only to weaken the influence of the Russian state in the Black Sea, but also
to partially dismember it. The Crimean War cost Britain 25 thousand human lives and 50 million
pounds sterling.
In 1869, the Suez Canal became operational, opening the passage between the
Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea to large ocean-going ships. Britain had a vital interest in
controlling the Suez Canal, which significantly shortened the sea route from Europe to India.
British interests in East Africa were related to the development of cotton plantations in Egypt
that could supply raw materials for British textile mills. Britain began to pursue a policy of heavy
investment in the Egyptian economy. By 1875 Egypt's debt to Britain was so great that it was
forced to cede its shares in the Suez Canal Company to Britain (so that half the shares remained
in the hands of France, which had built the new canal, and the other half went under British
control), and by 1882 Britain had carried out a de facto conquest of Egypt. The occupation of
that country allowed Britain to control the navigation of the Suez Canal for the next 70 years.
The British military presence in Egypt continued until 1952, when Egypt gained independence,
and it was not until 1956 that Egypt took control of the Suez Canal.
Shortly after the occupation of Egypt, Britain established its authority over neighbouring
Sudan, a country whose southern borders approach the very equator, and by the end of the
nineteenth century Britain began to hatch plans for the subjugation of a continuous strip of
African territory from Cairo to the Cape of Good Hope. One of the fathers of that plan was Cecil

6
Rohde, Prime Minister of the British South African Cape Colony. The expansion of British
colonial possessions in South Africa provoked strong protests from another group of white
settlers in the region, the Boers, descendants of the Dutch colonists who had settled in Africa as
early as the 17th century. The territorial claims became the cause of the fierce Anglo-Boer War
of 1899-1902, during which 22 thousand British and 35 thousand Boers were killed.

2.1 British colonial policy in the first half of the 19th century

Following the defeat of France under Napoleon in 1815, which had been the main rival in
the colonial field, British colonizers, taking advantage of favourable circumstances, by means of
threats and bribery, war and diplomacy, murder and deception, had by the late forties completed
the conquest of India, which at the time had a population of almost 200 million. In 1813, the
monopoly on trade with India, then held by the East India Company, was abolished. An Act of
Parliament in 1833 retained the Company only as an administrative and military body.
In 1819, Great Britain conquered Singapore, and in 1839 Aden, which became the
stronghold for the subjugation of the southern tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. It was then that a
decisive step was taken regarding the capture of the Chinese market. Under the Treaty of
Nanjing of 1824, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain in perpetual possession.
The abolition of the East India Company's trade monopoly ushered in a new era of
economic exploitation of the Indian state. The East India Company derived a considerable
percentage of its income from sales of exotic Oriental products in Great Britain. After the
abolition of the monopoly on British trade with India, the exports of British manufactured goods,
particularly cotton cloth, in the twenties were able to reach nearly two million pounds sterling
per annum.
English cotton cloth very quickly succeeded in destroying the light industry of the Indian
State, which used manual looms. The diminution, or one might even say the destruction, of the
rural manual industry forced the rural population back into agriculture alone. India, like Ireland,
became an exclusively agricultural colony that supplied Britain with food and a variety of raw
materials.
English cotton cloth very quickly succeeded in destroying the light industry of the Indian
State, which used manual looms. The diminution, or one might even say the destruction, of the
rural manual industry forced the rural population back into agriculture alone. India, like Ireland,
became an exclusively agricultural colony that supplied Britain with food and a variety of raw
materials.

7
 English cotton cloth very quickly succeeded in destroying the light industry of the Indian
State, which used manual looms. The diminution, or one might even say the destruction, of the
rural manual industry forced the rural population back into agriculture alone. India, like Ireland,
became an exclusively agricultural colony that supplied Britain with food and a variety of raw
materials.
The struggle for influence in Afghanistan, and particularly in Iran, proceeded with mixed
success, but trade, as well as British military and political expansion in the area, was able to
provide the newest markets for British factory workers as early as 1840-1860.
The strengthening of Britain's position in the Middle East could lead to the aggravation of
its relations with the Russian state and, afterwards, to direct military conflicts. The main outcome
of the Crimean War (1853-1856) for Great Britain was the decision to neutralize the Black Sea.
Thus, Great Britain was able to get rid of the danger of Russian advance towards the straits for a
while. Also Great Britain had the opportunity to strengthen its position in the eastern
Mediterranean Sea.

2.2 The British East India Company

The British East India Company, before 1707, the English East India Company, was a
limited company established by the edict of Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, which was given
rich privileges for trading operations in the Indian country. With the help of the East India
Company, the colonization of India by Britain, including a number of states in the East, was
carried out.
Practically a royal decree granted the company a monopoly of trade in the Indian State.
Initially the company had 125 shareholders and a capital of £72,000. The company was managed
by a governor and a board of directors, which was responsible to a meeting of shareholders. The
commercial company soon acquired government and military functions, which it did not lose
until 1858.
By 1813 the Company had seized control of all India except Punjab, Sindh and Nepal.
The local princes had become vassals of the Company. The expenses caused by all these made it
necessary to petition Parliament for help. This resulted in the abolition of the monopoly, except
for the tea trade, as well as trade relations with China. In 1833 the remnants of the trade
monopoly were abolished. In 1845, the Dutch colony of Tranquebar was sold to Britain. The
company began to increase its influence in China, the Philippines and Java. With insufficient

8
funds to purchase tea in China, the Company began mass cultivation of opium in India for future
export to China.
By 1813 the Company had seized control of all India except Punjab, Sindh and Nepal.
The local princes had become vassals of the Company. The expenses caused by all these made it
necessary to petition Parliament for help. This resulted in the abolition of the monopoly, except
for the tea trade, as well as trade relations with China. In 1833 the remnants of the trade
monopoly were abolished. In 1845, the Dutch colony of Tranquebar was sold to Britain. The
company began to increase its influence in China, the Philippines and Java. With insufficient
funds to purchase tea in China, the Company began mass cultivation of opium in India for future
export to China.
In 1612, the company's armed forces inflicted a severe defeat on the Portuguese at the
Battle of Suwali. In 1640 permission was granted by the local governor of Vijayanagar to
establish a second trading post at Madras. In 1647 the company already had 23 trading posts in
the Indian country.
In 1612, the company's armed forces inflicted a severe defeat on the Portuguese at the
Battle of Suwali. In 1640 permission was granted by the local governor of Vijayanagar to
establish a second trading post at Madras. In 1647 the company already had 23 trading posts in
the Indian country.
Expansion began to take a major form: the use of so-called subsidiary treaties, essentially
feudal treaties, that is, when local rulers transferred the conduct of foreign affairs to the
Company, in addition to obliging them to pay subsidies for the maintenance of Company troops.
If there were any nonpayment, the territory was annexed to the British. Moreover, the local ruler
was obliged to maintain a British resident at his court.
Great Britain saw Russia as its main competitor for colonial expansion. Fearing the
enormous influence the Russians had over Persia, the Company began to increase pressure on
Afghanistan, and in 1839- 1842 the First Anglo-Afghan War was fought. Russia established a
protectorate over the Khanate of Bukhara and annexed.
In 1857 a rebellion broke out against the British East India Campaign, which is known in
India as the First War of Independence or the Sepoy Rebellion. But only the rebellion was very
quickly put down and Britain established direct administrative control over almost the entire
territory of South Asia.
After the Indian National Revolt in 1857, the English Parliament passed the Act for the
Better Management of India, based on which the company was transferred all administrative
functions to the British crown from 1858. In 1874 the company was completely dissolved.

9
 Chapter III. British foreign policy at the end of the 19th century

In the last third of the 19th century Britain not only retained but also significantly
expanded its colonial possessions. The struggle to seize territories not yet divided and to
strengthen the British Empire was the core of British foreign policy in those decades. Using its
superiority at sea and its extensive network of naval bases and strongholds, Britain waged
numerous colonial wars.
In 1875, British control of the Suez Canal was established. The Conservative government
of Disraeli, taking advantage of financial difficulties in Egypt, acquired shares in the Suez Canal
from the Egyptian khedive and thus gained control of one of the most important strategic points
on the way to India. Colonial expansion of England intensified in connection with the Middle
East crisis of 1875-1878. The government pursued its traditional policy of preserving the
integrity of Turkey, hoping to eventually establish British rule over the entire vast Ottoman
empire. When Bulgaria was liberated during the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) and Russian
troops fought their way to the outskirts of Constantinople, Disraeli moved ostentatiously to
prepare for war by ordering a British squadron to enter the Sea of Marmara. However, it did not
come to war. England was not going to wage war with her own hands, and British diplomacy
failed this time to acquire a "soldier on the continent" in France or Austria, as had been the case
during the Crimean War.
Acting as a patron of Turkey, England imposed a treaty on Turkey whereby the island of
Cyprus was transferred to England and it was immediately occupied by British troops. In this
way, England was able to establish a new naval base in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
On the whole, Disraeli's colonial policy was successful and reflected the power of
Victorian England. In 1875-76, in an effort to emphasize the global character of the empire, to
raise the prestige of England, and especially to impress the peoples of the East, Disraeli
organized a grand tour of India for the heir to the throne, after which Queen Victoria was
proclaimed empress of India. From this time the term "British Empire" officially came into use.
Relying on the previously established colonies in Asia, especially India, England
continued to strengthen and expand its position in this part of the world. In 1880, at the cost of
great military effort, England succeeded in establishing a protectorate over Afghanistan.

10
 In Southeast Asia, France was England's main rival. The strengthening of France's
position in Indochina, and its penetration into Upper Burma, pushed London into decisive action.
Anglo-Indian troops occupied Upper Burma, and on 1 January 1881 it was annexed by England.
During the 70s and 80s, England seized the Malay Peninsula as well as most of the islands in the
Pacific. England's position in the Far East was reinforced by the conquest of a number of Malay
principalities in 1885-95 and the Chinese port of Weiheiwei in 1898. England also took an active
part in sharing the Pacific Ocean islands, including New Guinea, Northern Borneo, etc.
However, the main arena of colonial struggle at the end of the 19th century was the
African continent. Egypt fell into financial bondage to England and France, who were united in
their desire to enslave it, but at the same time fought among themselves for predominance in the
new colony.
The leading circles of Egyptian officers twice started national uprisings. A British landing
force defeated Egyptian troops and by September 1882 all of Egypt was occupied.
Encouraged by their success in Egypt, the British colonizers tried to push southward into
Sudan, which was under the control of Egyptian feudal lords. But the Egyptian army and the
English detachment were defeated and destroyed by the Mahdists (the liberation movement in
Sudan was led by the massively popular "prophet" Mahdi). Defeat in Sudan led to temporary
abandonment of the conquest.
The more vigorously the British colonizers rushed into new ventures in South and
Equatorial Africa. As early as 1877 England announced its annexation of the Republic of Orange
and the Transvaal. The descendants of the Dutch settlers who had long lived in the area, the
Boers, had temporarily reconciled themselves to this as they themselves waged an invasive war
against a federation of African Zulu tribes. England waged war against these tribes, which in
1879 ended with the defeat of the Zulu. Now the Boers rebelled, besieging the English garrison
in Pretoria; a detachment sent to its aid was defeated. The previously annexed states regained
their independence. The best Zulu lands had fallen to the Boers.
In 1885 a British protectorate was declared over most of the territory between the Boer
republics and German Southwest Africa, which became known as the protectorate of
Bechuanaland.
The British government did not abandon its intention to subdue the new territories, but
preferred not to act directly but through the hands of enterprising capitalists, who were
subsequently united in the privileged South African Company headed by S. Rhodes (1889). The
territories acquired through bribery, deceit, and direct violence were called Rhodesia. The gold
mines in the Transvaal as well as the diamond mines came under the control of the Rhodes
financial group. On top of this Rhodes became premier of the Cape Colony.
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 S. Rhodes called for a continuous line of English possessions from Cairo to Cape Town.
Only German East Africa lay in the way, and most importantly still independent were the
Transvaal and the Orange Republic, surrounded by the Cape Colony to the south, Bechuanaland
to the west and Rhodesia to the north. After the Sudan incident was settled, powerful financial
groups in England saw the moment to seize the Boer republics as opportune.
The English government provoked conflict over the issue of the English settlers, who
were allegedly oppressed by the Boers. The Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) required England to
exert enormous effort. Ultimately, Britain achieved victory and annexed the Boer republics,
becoming the main exploiter of their African population.

3.1 The British military reform at the end of the 19th century and the
establishment of control of the Suez Canal

In the 1950s and 1960s, England did not have a strong bureaucracy and militarism. In the
last third of the century the situation begins to change. England under both the Liberals and then
the Conservatives saw a rise in bureaucracy and militarism. The centralized state apparatus with
its army of civil servants plays an increasing role. In order to shield the apparatus from
democratically minded people and fill it entirely with representatives of the propertied and
"educated" classes, a special examination for officials of state institutions was introduced.
The Gladstone government reformed the army. The system of manning the army with
volunteer mercenaries was retained. To create trained reserves, the period of active service was
shortened and enlistment was introduced.
The reform abolished the system of buying officer positions, which had been beneficial to
the aristocracy. In order to obtain the rank of officer and to hold an officer's position, it was
necessary to have military knowledge. Under the Army Reform Act, its commander-in-chief,
who had previously been subordinate only to the monarch, was now subordinate to the cabinet
and the minister of war.
The army thus acquired even greater importance as an instrument of the bourgeois state.
Along with the reform of the army, the appropriations for the military forces were increased.
Between 1869 and 1870 the expenditure on the army absorbed £22.5 million.
The increase in military allocations, the growth of militarism - it was all related to the
aggressive foreign policy of England and its policy of bloody colonialism. In 1874 the
Conservative government headed by the leader of this party, Disraeli, came to power, focusing
on foreign aggression and new colonial conquests. Building on its earlier gains in the western

12
and middle Mediterranean, the English Conservative government sought to gain a foothold in the
eastern Mediterranean as well.
In November 1869 the inauguration of the Suez Canal took place. The Egyptian
government spent a total of 11.5 million pounds sterling on the construction of the canal. The
enormous expenditure led to a significant deterioration in Egypt's economic situation, which had
to turn to European bankers for loans. More than £6 million had been spent on interest
repayments alone up to September 1873. By this time Egypt had a completely devastated
treasury. It was forced to turn to foreign bankers for help, and England took advantage of this.
Having failed to prevent the construction of the canal and the strengthening of the French
position in Egypt, England hoped that she would eventually succeed in gaining supremacy in the
area. In the meantime, England tried to enslave Egypt with the various loans the country needed.
In 1874 the situation in Egypt became disastrous. In order to prevent the bankruptcy of
the Egyptian treasury, Khedive Ismail was forced to sell the canal shares belonging to Egypt.
England bought 172 thousand shares for only £4 million.
As a result of this deal, control of the canal was firmly in the hands of England. The Suez
Canal becomes its most important strategic position in the eastern Mediterranean and on the
shortest route to India, and Egypt begins in fact to become a British colony.
As early as 1876, England and the other powers succeeded in having Egypt declared
bankrupt and placed under the guardianship of foreign powers. England's goal was to prepare a
complete takeover of Egypt. The British colonizers declared that the capture of Egypt would be
only the first step toward further expansion in Africa. "Egypt," they said, "is the egg from which
the African empire will be hatched

3.2 British Foreign Policy in the Middle East: Expansion in the Arabian
Peninsula and the Persian Gulf in the late 19th century

The peculiarity of the situation was that this expansion was paid for by the Anglo-Indian
government, and order was enforced by its armed forces. This was not least due to the fact that
the Anglo-Indian capital, concentrated mainly in Bombay and linked financially with the City,
was developing the territory. However, the expansion was not purely regional in nature. All
fundamental decisions were taken in London, taking into account the commercial, political and
strategic interests of English capital.
Aden occupied an exceptional position at the outlet of the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean,
was the most important coal station and the center of transit trade. Its importance increased

13
manifold after the opening of the Suez Canal. The British Resident in the 70s and 80s, through
bribery and sometimes military force, extended its influence to the surrounding areas. In 1869
the Sultanate of Lahj was occupied, and soon nine principalities whose territory adjoined Aden
were annexed to British possessions. In 1886 the British annexed Socotra Island and in 1888
concluded a treaty with one of the powerful Sultans of Hadramaut.
There was another area of expansion - Yemen. In November 1870 an English resident
tried to conclude a treaty with Sheikh Khalid bin Hussein. However, this idea was not
implemented. In 1871 Turkish troops invaded Yemen, occupied Sana'a, and in 1872 the country
became a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. The British ambassador in Istanbul demanded the
withdrawal of Turkish troops from those principalities that had an agreement with Great Britain.
In October 1873 Northbrook even proposed sending an expeditionary corps to South Yemen.
This idea was supported in India as well as in Aden. But Prime Minister Gladstone was hesitant
to undertake this action, as he was unsure of its safe outcome, fearing tribal resistance and
possible international complications.
In March 1874 the Turks occupied Dala, which was situated on the caravan route from
Sana'a to Aden. In May 1875 the British resident in Aden proposed the liberation of Dala by
military means. But it did not come to that, and in September 1876 the Ottoman Empire
withdrew its own troops, helped by the uprisings in the Balkans, its own financial difficulties,
British pressure and the resistance of local tribes. In 1878, the Sheikhs appealed to Britain for a
protectorate. London decided to refuse them, as it did not want to aggravate relations with the
Porte. This caused discontent in colonial circles. In March 1880, Turkish troops reappeared in
the area and Britain signed a friendship treaty with the ruler of Dala.
This rivalry between Istanbul and London continued to develop. Britain eventually
succeeded in establishing a protectorate over the principalities near Aden. In addition, it
supported numerous local tribal uprisings against the Ottoman Empire in the 1990s by allowing
arms smuggling through Aden. A special place in Britain's plans was the Persian Gulf, which it
sought to turn into a "British lake." Penetration there began with Muscat, and by the mid-19th
century England monopolized trade and shipping in the Gulf. The expansion was conducted
under the banner of combating piracy and the slave trade.
With the opening of the Suez Canal the role of the Persian Gulf changed dramatically:
commerce was given a new impetus. England's two major shipping companies practically
monopolized Gulf traffic. English businessmen profited from loans, trading operations, and
concessions. Intermediary trade was conducted by Indian merchants. By the end of the XIX
century, Bombay had become the financial and economic centre of the Persian Gulf.

14
 In the 70s and 80s, when British influence in Istanbul was great and the positions of other
powers in the Persian Gulf were weak, the British supported Turkish claims. But as the positions
of other powers in the Gulf strengthened, a bid was made to seize these territories, Arab-Turkish
contradictions in El-Has, Qatar, Kuwait were fomented and strife among the Arab peoples
themselves was maintained.
In the 1970s, Britain continued to support the Sultanate of Muscat, hoping to prevent the
unification of the Omani tribes and to block the path of Turkish influence. In 1871, the British
protégé Turku became sultan of Muscat. The Indian treasury paid him £6,000 a year to bribe
tribal leaders. He was largely held by English bayonets. In February 1886 the English resident of
the Persian Gulf, Ross, issued a declaration in which he explicitly stated that the Anglo-Indian
government would "support the Sultan by armed force." In February 1890, the English
representative in Muscat favored a protectorate. On March 20, 1891, the secret Treaty of Aiglo-
Maskat was concluded. The Sultan undertook not to lease any part of his territory to foreigners
without British consent. The new treaty of "friendship, commerce and navigation" of March 19,
1891, stipulated that duties on imported goods should not exceed 5% of the value of the goods;
all restrictions on trade and travel in the Sultanate for British subjects were removed.
From the mid-1990s, French penetration into Muscat and the struggle of the Omani
people against the British colonizers intensified. In March 1896, England decided to suppress an
uprising in Dhofar, presenting it as aid to Sultan Feisal. But suddenly Feisal refused aid,
suspecting Britain was trying to establish a protectorate in Dhofar. France protested against
sending British troops. This angered the British representatives in the Persian Gulf, and they
began to demand a protectorate over Muscat.26 In May 1897 the conflict was resolved and the
uprising suppressed with British assistance.
At the same time, i.e. from the mid-1990s onwards, the economic enslavement of the
Sultanate through loans was accelerating; new privileges were being sought by Indian merchants.
Contradictions with France became acute. France's attempt to get a coal-fired power plant in
Muscat caused a major scandal. In February 1899, British warships anchored in Muscat Bay.
Britain demanded that the agreement for the coal station be terminated. The fleet pointed its guns
at the Sultan's palace, and the Sultan capitulated. The British press marveled at the "energy and
will" of Indian Viceroy Curzon. The conflict ended in a compromise: one of the British coal
depots was given to France. But the bitter struggle between the two powers for influence in
Muscat continued.
One of the points through which British agents infiltrated the west coast and central
Arabia was the Peninsula of Qatar, claimed by the Ottoman Empire and Bahrain. Britain had
imposed a protectorate on Bahrain as early as 1861. When Bahraini and Abu Dhabi sheikhs
15
attacked Qatar in 1867, Colonel Pelly, the British resident in the Persian Gulf, accused the
Bahraini sheikh of piracy and had him deposed. An agreement was struck with a Qatari sheikh in
which the British resident was recognized as an intermediary in Qatar's relations with Bahrain.
However, in 1871, the Turkish ruling circles dramatically increased their expansion in
Eastern Arabia, created the Nej Sanjak and the rulers of Qatar recognized the sovereignty of the
Ottoman Empire.
On May 22, 1879, Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India, in a message to the Minister of Indian
Affairs, proposed a division of spheres of influence with Turkey in East Arabia. In fact, the plan
was to extend British penetration to include not only Qatar, but also the coastal principalities of
eastern Arabia, Muscat and Bahrain, within the British sphere of influence. Salisbury did not
support this plan, understanding that Porta would not agree to it. At the same time in 1880 he
warned the Sultan government that Great Britain itself did not claim the corresponding Ottoman
possessions, but also would not allow the strengthening of Turkish activity in the area.
In 1880 the British imposed on Bahrain an agreement by which its rulers undertook not to
conclude any agreements with other powers without the consent of Great Britain. In 1891 -
added the obligation not to cede any part of the territory to other powers, in 1898 - the
prohibition to buy and sell weapons.
In 1882, during the tribal clash between Qatar and Abu Dhabi, British warships
bombarded the Doha area.
The Porta tried to protest, but Britain stated that it had never recognized Ottoman
sovereignty over Qatar. Britain's intervention in the Qatar-Abu Dhabi conflict and its opposition
to Turkey's attempts to consolidate its influence in the area continued thereafter.
On April 20, 1893, British Foreign Secretary Rosebery asked the Porte to refrain from
sending troops to Qatar and offered his mediation in the resolution of tribal conflicts. The
Turkish government began to demand the withdrawal of the English resident from Qatar. As a
result, the plan to send TurkishOttoman troops was thwarted.
In the spring of 1895 an uprising was unfolding in the Bahraini archipelago. A British
squadron led by Lieutenant Colonel Wilson, resident in the Persian Gulf, bombed the coastal
areas of the archipelago. At the same time, an attack by one of the Abu Dhabi tribes on Qatar
was provoked. The British were pleased: Turkey had not defended Qatar, and England's prestige
had risen.
After these events the dependence of Qatari sheikhs on Great Britain increased. Large
Bombay firms subsidized pearl production, so the rulers of the sheikhs and emirates were
interested in ties with AngloIndian authorities. By 1899 British influence had increased
considerably. The ruler of Qatar had been promised aid against the Ottoman Turks. The British
16
clearly sought to turn the peninsula into a bridgehead for infiltration into al-Hasu and the interior
of Arabia.
The British resident in Bushehr closely followed developments in Kuwait, an important
transshipment point for the British trade, including arms. Ties with Kuwait intensified after a
new ruler came to power there in 1892. An agreement was reached for British India Shipping
Company ships to visit Kuwait. The sheikh himself was a shareholder in a Bombay pearl trading
firm.
In May 1896 a coup in Kuwait brought Sheikh Mubarak to power. The captain of a
British gunboat, who visited Kuwait immediately after the coup, noted the strengthening of
Turkish influence here: the sheikh refused to pay a visit aboard the British Sphinx. The British
actively intrigued against the new sheikh, but, convinced of the futility of such a policy, made
contact with him. The sheikh feared an increase in Turkish influence and agreed to negotiations.
Great Britain hatched plans to establish a protectorate. In November 1897 the British gunboat
Pigeon arrived in Kuwait to protect "British interests", which were not threatened. The memos
from the Anglo-Indian authorities to London called for the elimination of the "nest of pirates",
the "center of the slave trade". In addition, they threatened... the Russian threat. Curzon in early
1898 openly demanded the establishment of a protectorate over Kuwait. Salisbury, given the
possible opposition of the Porte, advised to conclude a secret agreement with the sheikh for a
subsidy - 5 thousand pounds sterling. Mubarak must undertake not to cede his territory to
anyone.
In January 1899 a British consul arrived by gunboat and Kuwait to conclude an
agreement. Mubarak demanded a guarantee of the inviolability of the sheikhdom's territory and
an increase in the subsidy. The agreement was signed, but there was no official announcement.
In the mid-1990s, a political crisis erupted again in the Middle East as the brutal
massacres of the Armenian population by the Turkish authorities became known. In 1895
Salisbury put forward a plan to divide the Ottoman Empire, but it was not supported by other
countries, as the lion's share of the project went to England. France, Russia and Germany foiled
the attempts of Great Britain to establish its undivided influence in the Ottoman Empire by
imposing financial bondage upon Abdul Hamid. In general, British policy in the Middle East
contributed to suppression of the national liberation movement, preservation of feudal and semi-
colonial regimes in Southeastern Europe and the Middle East.
Thus by the end of the 19th century the world was in fact divided between imperialistic
powers and Britain managed to get the biggest part of it: by the end of the century its colonial
area reached 33 million square kilometers and increased in one and a half times from 1870; the

17
population of British empire was 370 million people. The unrestrained conquests brought
England into sharp conflicts with all powers and worsened its international position.

CONCLUSION

British policy towards its colonies during the period under study was in line with the
general colonial policy. It is known that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when British
colonial control over many countries was being established, the British Empire was at its greatest
stage of power. Continued expansion at that time was motivated and justified primarily by
strategic considerations, especially the need to assert British control over the routes leading to
and defending British India.
As Britain was pushed back from its position as leader of the industrial world, the
expansion of colonial possessions began to be seen as one of the most important means of
ensuring dynamic economic development of the country. At the same time, the role of military
force as a means of capturing new colonies increased. The attitude towards the unity of the
Ottoman heritage also changed: Great Britain set a course for the dismemberment of the Turkish
possessions.
A well-designed system of colonial administration was put in place to exercise control
over the invaded states. Organizationally, foreign policy matters fell under the jurisdiction of two
ministries - the Ministry of the Colonies, and the Office of Dominion Affairs. The Ministry of
the Colonies administered the finances of the Colonial Development Fund, recruited and
appointed British colonial officials and advisers to Egyptian governments.
On the whole, however, the colonizers simply had to proceed more cautiously where they
were confronted by stronger countries with large indigenous populations. The Portuguese, who
were the first to discover maritime routes to India, did not initially set out to conquer the state in
question. When threatened by force, they began to conclude trade treaties with the rulers of
individual principalities, which gave them trade monopolies, low purchase prices and a host of
other unilateral benefits.
Also it is necessary to mention that by the end of the XIX century the whole world was
in fact divided between imperialistic powers and Britain managed to get the biggest part of it: by
the end of the century its colonial area reached 33 million square kilometers and had increased in
one and half times since 1870; the population of British empire was 370 million people. The

18
unrestrained conquests brought England into sharp conflicts with all powers and worsened its
international position.
In the course of the work peculiarities of colonial policy were studied, the concept and
essence of colonialism and colonial policy were considered, the main purposes of colonies'
acquisition by metropolises were studied as well as forms and methods of colonial policy.
Thus, the process of globalization that began at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries was
not just an acceleration of European trade and colonial expansion to the East, but was
transformed into a new system of establishing subordination relations between all regions of the
world. This shows that Europe had begun to play a new role in international relations. In
particular, Great Britain and its foreign policy were of paramount importance in this process.

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