NAME: Madeleine Leininger

DATE OF BIRTH: July 13, 1925

PLACE OF BIRTH: Sutton, Nebraska
DATE OF DEATH: August 10, 2012
PLACE OF DEATH: Omaha, Nebraska
AGE: 87 Years Old
- an internationally known educator, author, theorist, administrator, researcher, consultant, public speaker, and the
developer of the concept of transcultural nursing that has a great impact on how to deal with patients of different
culture and cultural background.
- she lived in a farm with her four brothers and sisters in Sutton,Nebraska, and Graduated in Sutton High. After
graduation, she was in the U.S. Army Nursing Corps while pursuing a basic nursing program.
- she and her sister joined the Cadet Nurse Corps in 1945. Which was a federally funded program to boost the number of
nurses trained to meet anticipated needs during World War II.
- she obtained her basic nursing education at St. Anthony School of Nursing in Denver, Colorado and graduated in 1948.
- she later pursued higher education, earning a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) from Benedictine College in
Atchison, Kansas, in 1950.
- she went on to complete a Master of Science in Nursing (MSN) from the Catholic University of America in 1954.
her passion led her to pursue a Ph.D. in cultural and social anthropology from the University of Washington in 1966.
In 1954, Associate Professor of Nursing and Director of the Graduate Program in Psychiatric Nursing at the University of
Cincinnati.
- 1969-1974, appointed as Dean of the University of Washington, School of Nursing. Under her leadership, the University
of Washington was recognized as the outstanding public institutional school of nursing in the United States.
- considered by some to be the “Margaret Mead of Nursing”. She’s recognized worldwide as the founder of transcultural
nursing, a program that she created in 1974.
- 1974-1980, served as Dean, Professor of Nursing, Adjunct Professor of Anthropology, and Director of the Center for
Nursing Research and the Doctoral and Transcultural Nursing Programs at the University of Utah College of Nursing.
- full-time President of the American Association of Colleges of Nursing and one of the first members of the American
Academy of Nursing in 1975.
- she was Professor Emeritus of Nursing at Wayne State University and an adjunct faculty member at the University of
Nebraska Medical Center in Omaha and retired as the former in 1995.

Leininger’s professional career is recognized as:

- an educator and academic administrator from 1956 to 1995.

- a writer from 1961 to 1995.
- a lecturer from 1965 to 1995.
- a consultant from 1971 to 1992.
- a leader in the field of transcultural nursing from 1966 to 1995.

- she received numerous awards and honors throughout her career, recognizing her contributions to nursing theory and
practice.
- Fellow of the American Academy of Nursing
- Distinguished Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing, Australia.
- Living Legend by the American Academy of Nursing, 1998.
- Conferred an LhD from Benedictine College.
- became the first professional nurse in the world to earn a doctorate in anthropology.
- she developed the “Transcultural Nursing Theory”(1950s), currently known as the "Theory of Culture Care Diversity and
Universality," or "Culture Care Theory” which is the foundation of transcultural nursing.
- she worked as a nurse educator and researcher throughout her career, teaching at various universities, including the
University of Colorado, Washington, & Utah.
- she held leadership positions in nursing organizations and served as the director of the Transcultural Nursing Society.
- authored numerous books, articles, and papers, which contributed significantly to the understanding of cultural
influences on healthcare and nursing practice.
Transcultural Nursing Theory
- Leininger identified a lack of cultural and care knowledge as the missing component to a nurse’s understanding of the
many variations required inpatient care to support compliance, healing, and wellness.
- Transcultural nursing - “a substantive area of study and practiced focused on comparative cultural care (caring) values,
beliefs, and practices of individuals or groups of similar or different cultures to provide culture-specific and universal
 nursing care practices in promoting health or well-being or to help people to face unfavorable human conditions, illness,
or death in culturally meaningful ways.”
Major Ideas
- Care - conceptual phenomena related to helping, supporting or empowering experiences or behaviors toward others
with evident or anticipated needs to improve human condition.
- Caring - behavior directed toward assisting another individual or group with evident or anticipated needs to improve the
human condition either to recover or to face death.
- Culture - the studies, shared and handled values, beliefs, norms and lifeways of a certain group that directs their
thinking, decision, and actions in certain ways.
- Culture Care - subjectively and objectively obtained values, beliefs and outlines of the lifeways that assist, enable,
support, facilitate, or empower another individual or group to maintain well-being, health and deal with illness,
handicaps or deaths.
- Transcultural Nursing - studied scientific and humanistic profession and discipline that centers on human care activities
that assist, support, facilitate for enable individuals or groups to maintain or regain their well-being (or health) in
culturally meaningful and beneficial ways, or to help people face handicaps or deaths.
- Cultural Care Diversity -the changeable differences in meanings, patterns, values, lifeways or symbols of care within
concepts that are related in supporting human care.
- Cultural Care Universality - the common, general definitions of care with its patterns, values , and symbols that is
observed among many cultures and reflect assistive ways to help people.
- Worldview - the method people seem to look out on the world and for universe to form a picture of value perception
about their life or world around around them.
- Cultural and Social Structure Dimensions - the changing patterns related to the arrangement/organizational factors of a
particular culture.
- Environmental Context - the summation of an event, situation or particular experience that gives meaning to human
expressions, particularly physical, ecological, sociopolitical , and/ or cultural situations.
- Ethnohistory - past facts, events and experiences of individuals, groups and various cultures and institutions that are
mainly people-centered (ethnic) and that explains and interprets human lifeways within particular cultural trends.
- Emic - local, indigenous or the insiders views and values about a certain phenomenon.
- Etic - outsiders or more universal vierws and values about a certain phenomenon.
- Professional Care System - formally educated, and instructed professional care, health, illness, wellness and related
knowledge and practice skills that exist in professional institutions usually with multidisciplinary personnel to give
service to clients.
- Generic (Folk or Lay) Care system - culturally studied and given, indigenous (or traditional ), folk (community and home-
based) knowledge and skills used to provide assistive, supportive, enabling, or facilitative acts toward or for another
individual, groups or institution.
- Health - the state of well-being that defined through cultures valued and practiced, and reflects the ability of individuals
to perform their daily role activities in culturally expressed, beneficial and patterned styles.
- Culturally Competent Nursing Care - the cognitively-based assistive, caring, facilitative or empowering acts or decisions
that are made to fit with individual, group or institutional and cultural beliefs and lifeways to offer or carry meaningful,
beneficial and satisfying healthcare or well-being services.
SUNRISE MODEL OF MADELEINE LEININGER'S THEORY
- The Sunrise Model is relevant because it enables nurses to develop critical and complex thoughts about nursing
practice. These thoughts should consider and integrate cultural and social structure dimensions in each specific context,
besides nursing care's biological and psychological aspects.
Nursing Metaparadigms
Person
- Believed to be caring and capable of being concerned about the desires, welfare, and continued existence of others.
Environment
- the environment, including both the physical and sociocultural aspects, plays a significant role in shaping an individual's
health and illness experiences. The environment includes the cultural, social, economic, and political factors that
influence a person's well-being.
Health
- a holistic concept that encompasses physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual well-being. Cultural beliefs and practices
can significantly impact a person's perception of health and illness, as well as their health-seeking behaviors.
Nurse
- seen as a transcultural and holistic discipline. Nurses have a crucial role in providing culturally congruent care, which
means adapting nursing care to align with the cultural beliefs and values of the patient.
Three modes of nursing care decisions and actions:
Cultural Care Preservation or Maintenance
-includes those assistive, supporting, facilitative, or enabling professional actions and decisions that help people of a particular
culture to retain and/or preserve relevant care values so that they can maintain their well-being, recover from illness, or face
handicaps and/or death.
Cultural Care Accommodation or Negotiation
-includes those assistive, supportive, facilitative, or enabling creative professional actions and decisions that help people of a
designated culture to adapt to or negotiate with others for a beneficial or satisfying health outcome with professional care
providers.
Culture care repatterning or Restructuring
-includes those assistive, supporting, facilitative, or enabling professional actions and decisions that help clients reorder, change,
or greatly modify their lifeways for new, different, and beneficial health care pattern while respecting the clients’ cultural values
and beliefs and still providing a beneficial or healthier lifeway than before the changes were established with the clients.
MADELEINE LEININGER
THEORY OF TRANSCULTURAL NURSING
• BORN: July 13, 1925 (Sutton, Nebraska)
• DIED: August 10, 2012 (Omaha, Nebraska) Primary themes
• The concept of “culture” was derived from anthropology and the concept of care was derived from nursing.
• The ultimate goal of the theory is to provide cultural congruent nursing care practices.
• If one fully discovers care meanings, patterns and process, one can explain, predict health or
well-being.
• Health and care behaviors vary among cultures; therefore, nursing care cannot be determined
through superficial knowledge and limited contact with a cultural group.
• Nursing care must be based on knowledge by examining social structure, world view, cultural
values, language and environmental contexts.
Care modalities
Leininger does not use the term “nursing interventions” because it communicates the ideas of cultural interference and
imposition practices.
• She prefers “CARE MODALITIES” terms as it connotes of the nurse and patient working together to implement care.
Steps of care modalities
1. Preservation and/or maintenance
2. Accommodation and/or negotiation
3. Re-patterning and/or restructuring
• These modes have substantially influence nurses’ ability to provide culturally congruent nursing care and have fostered the
development of culturally competent nursing.
Concepts
• Uses culture to understand behavior
• All cultures are not alike
• Culture influences all sphere of life. It defines health, illness and the search for relief from
disease or distress.
• Each person viewed as unique with differences that are respected.
Cultural competence in nursing
Cultural competence is a combination of culturally congruent behaviors, practice, attitudes, and policies that allow nurses to
work effectively in cross culture situations
Leininger’s criticism of nursing metaparadigms
• Nursing is a discipline and a profession and the term “nursing” cannot explain the phenomenon of nursing.
• Term “person” is too limited and culture-bound to explain nursing, as the term “person” does not exist in every culture.
• Concept of “health” is not distinct to nursing as many disciplines use the term.
• Instead of environment, Leininger uses the term “environmental context” which includes
‘events and meanings’ and ‘interpretations’ given to them in particular physical, ecological, and sociopolitical and/or cultural
settings.
Underlying assumptions
1. Care is the essence and central focus of nursing.
2. Caring is essential for health and well-being, growth, survival, and also for facing illness or death.
3. Culture care is the broadest holistic perspective to guide nursing care practices.
4. Nursing’s central purpose is to serve human beings in health, illness and dying.
5. There can be no curing without the giving and receiving of care.
6. Every human culture has folk remedies, professional knowledge and professional care practices
that vary.
7. Beneficial, healthy, satisfying, culturally based care enhances the well-being of clients
8. New ways of knowing are attained through the qualitative paradigm
Synthesis of assumptions
• ”care” has the greatest epistemic and ontological explanatory power to explain nursing.
• A culturally competent nurse is one who:
o Consciously addresses the fact that culture affects the nurse-patient exchanges;
o Has compassion, clarity and inquires on the cultural preferences and practices of the
patient;
o Incorporates the patient’s personal, social, environmental and cultural beliefs into the
plan of care whenever possible;
o Respects cultural diversity and strives to increase knowledge and sensitivity.
Strengths of the theory
• Recognition of the importance of culture and its influence on everything.
• This theory was tested by a number of people in a variety of settings and cultures. Weakness of the theory
• Limited nurses are academically prepared and trained for culture care nursing.
MARGARET JEAN WATSON
Theory of human caring

Born: June 10, 1940 (Welch, West Virginia, USA)

Died: January 1, 2018 (83 years old)

NURSING METEPARADIGM PERSON

 Human being is a valued person in and of himself to be cared for, respected, nurtured, understood, and assisted.
 In general, it is a philosophical view of a person as a fully integrated self. She viewed humans as greater than, and different
form, the sum of its parts.
ENVIRONMENT
1. Provides values that determine how one should behave and what goals one should strive toward. The values are affected by
change in the social, cultural, and spiritual arenas, which in turn, affects the perception of the person and can lead to stress.
HEALTH
2. Refers to unity and harmony within the mind, body, and soul. It is also associated with the degree of congruence between self
as perceive and as experienced.
3 ELEMENTS OF HEALTH
1. A high overall physical, mental, and social functioning;
2. A general adaptive-maintenance level of daily functioning; and
3. Absence of illness (or the presence of efforts that lead to its absence).
NURSING
3. To move educationally in the two areas of stress and development conflicts to provides holistic health care, which she believes
is central to the practice of caring in nursing.
THE THEORY OF HUMAN CARING
Being a skilled nurse requires more than meets the eye. Its not enough to provide care without truly caring about the person.
Students are taught to give care not only physically but also emotionally and spiritually. This is necessary to allow the patient to
recover and develop his potential.
CARING
CARING in nursing conveys physical acts, but embraces the mind-body-spirit as it reclaims the embodied spirit as its focus of
attention.
7 ASSUMPTIONS
1. Caring can be effectively demonstrated and practiced only interpersonally.
2. Caring consists of carative factors that result in the satisfaction of certain human needs.
3. Effective caring promotes health and individual or family growth.
4. Caring responses accept the persons not only as he/she now but as what he/she may become.
5. A caring environment is one that offers the development of potential while allowing the persons
to choose the best action for himself at a given point.
6. Caring is more “Healthogenic” than curing. A science of caring is complimentary to science of
nursing.
7. The practice of caring is central to nursing.
THE TEN PRIMARY CARATIVE FACTORS
1. The formation of a humanistic-altruistic system of values.
2. The installation of faith-hope.
3. The cultivation of sensitivity of one’s self to others.
4. The development of a helping-trust relationship.
5. The promotion and acceptance of the expression of positive and negative feelings.
6. The systematic use of scientific problem-solving method for decision making.
7. The promotion of interpersonal teaching-learning.
8. The provision of supportive, protective or corrective mental, physical, socio-cultural and spiritual
environment.
9. Assistance with gratification of human needs.
10. The allowance for existential-phenomenological forces.
STRENGTHS
• This theory places the client in the context of the family, the community and culture.
• Places the client as the focus of practice rather than technology. WEAKNESSES
• Biophysical needs of the individual are given less importance.
• Needs further research.
CONCLUSION
The essence of Watson’s theory is that through love and caring for the patient, the patient will become even more better.
She believes that if you share something of yourself with your patient, it helps to establish connections, an intimacy which will
allow that person to relate to the nurse.

* Nursing: The Philosophy and Science of Caring (1979) - first book; defined and distinguished the science of nursing as distinct
from medical science.
* Nursing: Human Science and Human
Care - A Theory of Nursing (1985) - 2nd book; advanced Watson's theoretical structure of her caring theory
• Postmodern Nursing and Beyond (1999) - 3rd book; presents a model to bring nursing practice and thinking into the 21st
century.
VINCEN
• Instruments for Assessing and Measuring Caring in Nursing and Health Sciences (2002) - 4th book; a compilation of 22
instruments to assess and measure caring; Journal of Nursing 2002
Book of the Year Award.
• Caring Science as Sacred Science (2005) - 5th book; described Watson's personal journey to enhance understanding about
caring science, spiritual practice, the concept and practice of care, and caring-healing work; leads the reader into the thought-
provoking experiences and the sacredness of nursing by emphasizing deep inner reflection and personal growth, communication
skills, use of self-transpersonal growth and attention to both caring science and healing.
Unitary Caring Science: The Philosophy and Praxis of Nursing (2018) - presents a more advanced perspective of nursing.
Expanded discussion of transpersonal caring theory describing the growth of the theory into the unitary transformative par

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN NURSING (1964)
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHIATRIC AND MENTAL HEALTH NURSING (1966)
PH.D. IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COUNSELING (1973)
(UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO, BOULDER)

WORKS
NURSING; THE PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE OF CARING (1979)
HUMAN SCIENCE AND HUMAN CARE - A THEORY IN NURSING (1985)
POSTMODERN NURSING AND BEYOND (1999)
INSTRUMENTS FOR ASSESSING AND MEASURING CARING IN NURSING AND HEALTH SCIENCES (2002)
CARING SCIENCE AS SACRED SCIENCE (2005)
NURSING: THE PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE OF CARING REVISED EDITION (2008)
HUMAN CARING SCIENCE: A THEORY OF NURSING (2012)
MEASURING CARING: INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH ON CARITAS AS HEALING (2012)
INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH ON CARITAS AS HEALING (2011)
CREATING A CARING SCIENCE CURRICULUM (2011)
HUMAN CARING SCIENCE: A THEORY OF NURSING (2012)

“PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF TRANSPERSONAL CARING”

“NURSING IS CONCERNED WITH PROMOTING HEALTH, PREVENTING ILLNESS, CARING FOR THE SICK, AND RESTORING HEALTH.”
IT FOCUSES ON HEALTH PROMOTION, AS WELL AS THE TREATMENT OF DISEASES. CARING IS CENTRAL TO NURSING PRACTICE
AND PROMOTES HEALTH BETTER THAN A SIMPLE MEDICAL CURE.THE NURSING MODEL ALSO STATES THAT CARING CAN BE
DEMONSTRATED AND PRACTICED BY NURSES. CARING FOR PATIENTS PROMOTES GROWTH; A CARING ENVIRONMENT ACCEPTS
A PERSON AS THEY ARE AND LOOKS TO WHAT THEY MAY BECOME.

SEVEN ASSUMPTIONS OF THE WATSON’S MODEL:

1. Caring can be effectively demonstrated and practiced only interpersonally.
2. Caring consists of carative factors that result in the satisfaction of certain human needs.
3. Effective caring promotes health and individual or family growth.
4. Caring responses accept the patient as he or she is now, as well as what he or she may become.
5. A caring environment offers the development of potential while allowing the patient to choose the best
action for themselves at a given point in time.
6. The science of caring is complementary to the science of nursing.
7. The practice of caring is central to nursing.
CARRATIVE FACTORS
from the Greek word “ Caritas” means to cherish and appreciate, giving special attention to, loving factors. to provide a
framework for the “ core of nursing” is its goal.

THE 10 CARATIVE FACTORS

• Forming humanistic-altruistic value systems
• Instilling faith-hope
• Cultivating a sensitivity to self and others
• Developing a helping-trust relationship
• Promoting an expression of feelings
• Using problem-solving for decision-making
• Promoting teaching-learning
• Promoting a supportive environment
• Assisting with gratification of human needs
• Allowing for existential-phenomenological forces
1.FORMATION OF A HUMANISTIC--ALTRUISTIC SYSTEM OF VALUES
• Developementally beggins at an early age with values shared with the parents.
• Gained from one’s own experience from exposure to humanities.
2. INSTILLATION OF FAITH- HOPE
• Is essential to both carative and curative processes.
• When a nurse could no further provide science, to use faith-hope could provide sense to the patient which
could be meaningful towards him/her.
3. CULTIVIATION OF SENSITIVITY TO ONE’S SELF AND TO OTHERS
• The nurse promote health and higher level functioning only when they form person to person relationship
• Developement of sensitivity, makes the nurse authentic which encourages self growth and self actualization,
in both the nurse and with whom the nurse interacts
4. ESTABLISHING A HELPING-TRUST RELATIONSHIP
• Communication includes verbal, nonverbal and listening in a manner which imply empathetic
understanding.
• Characteristics needed in the helping-trust relationship:
-- Congruence
-- Empathy
-- Warmth
5. THE EXPRESSION OF FEELINGS, BOTH POSSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
• Awareness of the feelings help to understand the behavior it causes.
• Feelings revise the thoughts and behaviour, they should be considered and allowed for in a caring
relationship.
6. THE SYSTEMATIC USE OF THE SCIENTIFIC PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD FOR DECISION MAKING
• The scientific problem- solving method is the only method that allows for control and prediction, and that
permits self-correction.
• The relative nature of nursing and the need to examine and develop other methods of knowing to provide an
holistic perspective is valued and supported.
• The science of caring should not always be neutral and objective.
7. PROMOTION OF INTERPERSONAL TEACHING-LEARNING
• The caring nurse must focus on the learning process as much as the teaching process.
• Understanding the person’s perception of the situation assist the nurse to prepare a cognitive plan.
8. PROVISION FOR A SUPPPORTIVE,PROTECTIVE AND/OR CORRECTIVE MENTAL,PHYSICAL, SOCIO-CULTURAL AND SPIRITUAL
ENVIRONMENT
• These were divided into external and internal variables,which the nurse manipulates in order to provide
support and protection for the person’s mental and physical well-being.
• It is suggested that the nurse also must provide comfort, privacy, and safety as a part of this carative factor.
• The external and internal environments are interdependent.
9.ASSISTANCE WITH THE GRATIFICATION OF HUMAN NEEDS
• It is grounded in a hierarchy of need similar to that of the Maslow’s.
• All the needs need to be attended to and valued.
• She created her own hierarchy which she believes is relevant to the science of caring in nursing.
• To her, each need is equally important for quality nursing care and the promotion of optimal health.

10. ALLOWANCE FOR EXISTENTIAL-PHENOMENOLOGICAL FORCES

 • Phenomenology is a way of understanding people from the way thiings appear to them, from their frame of
reference.
• This factor helps the nurse to reconcile and mediate the incongruity of viewing the person holistically while at
the same time attending to the hierarchal ordering of needs.
• It is way of understanding people from the way things appear to them, from their frame or reference.

LOWER ORDER NEEDS(BIOPHYSICAL NEEDS)

- “The need for Food and Water’‘ -food and water are the basic necessities of life.
- “The need for Elimination’‘ -proper elimination of waste is critical to good health..
- “The need for Ventillation’‘ -it helps to avoid concentration of contaminants in the air...
LOWER ORDER NEEDS (PSYCHOPHYSICAL NEEDS)
“The need for activity-inactivity’‘-a balance activity and inactivity regulates the body..
“The need for sexuality’‘
• it is a rite passage to adulthood.
• it is plesurable.
• it reinforces the relationship between two people.
WATSON’S ORDERING OF NEEDS

- “higher order needs”(psychosocial needs) -aspect of the mental, emotional, spiritual, behavioral needs of a person.
- “the need for achievement”- is the desire to obtain excellent results by setting high standards and striving to accomplish
them.
- “the need for affiliation” it describes a persons need to feel a sense of involvement and belongingness.
- “higher order needs” (intrapersonal-interpersonal) it maintains both personal and social aspect of life.
- “the need for self -actualization” is the personal and creative self-growth, which are achieved through the fulfillment of
our full potential
METAPARADIGM:

- PERSON - Human being is a valued person to be cared for, respected, nurtured, understood, and assisted; in general, a
philosophical view of a person as a fully functional integrated self. A human is viewed as greater than and different from
the sum of his or her parts.
- ENVIRONMENT-
- Society provides the values that determine how one should behave and what goals one should strive toward. Watson
states:
- “Caring (and nursing) has existed in every society. Every society has had some people who have cared for others. A
caring attitude is not transmitted from generation to generation by genes. The culture of the profession transmits it as a
unique way of coping with its environment.”
- HEALTH
- Health is the unity and harmony within the mind, body, and soul; health is associated with the degree of congruence
between the self and the self as experienced. It is defined as a high level of overall physical, mental, and social
functioning; a general adaptive-maintenance level of daily functioning; and the absence of illness, or the presence of
efforts leading to the absence of illness.
- NURSING
- Nursing is a human science of persons and human health-illness experiences mediated by professional, personal,
scientific, esthetic, and ethical human care transactions.
- NURSING PROCESS
- Watson’s theory includes the same steps as the scientific research process:
- Assessment
- assessment includes observation, identification, and review of the problem and the formation of a hypothesis.
- Care Plan
-Creating a care plan helps the nurse determine how variables would be examined or measured and what data
would be collected.
- Intervention
-Intervention is the implementation of the care plan and data collection.
- Evaluation
-evaluation analyzes the data, interprets the results, and may lead to an additional hypothesis.

HIGHLIGHTS:
Actual Caring Occasion
• The actual caring occasion involves actions and choices by the nurse and the individual. The moment of coming
together on a caring occasion presents the two persons with the opportunity to decide how to be in the
relationship – what to do with the moment.
Transpersonal
• The transpersonal concept is an intersubjective human-to-human relationship in which the nurse affects and is
affected by the other person. Both are fully present in the moment and feel a union with the other; they share
a phenomenal field that becomes part of both’s a life story
Phenomenal field
• 8The totality of human experience of one’s in the world. This refers to the individual’s frame of reference that
can only be known to that person.
Self
• The organized conceptual gestalt is composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the “I” or “ME” and the
perceptions of the relationship of the “I” and “ME” to others and various aspects of life.
Time
• The present is more subjectively real, and the past is more objectively real. The past is before or in a different
mode of being than the present, but it is not clearly distinguishable. Past, present, and future incidents merge
and fuse.