intro

Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers
to long-term changes in these processes. One of the most widely known perspectives
about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist
named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth
gradually become able to think logically and scientifically. Piaget proposed that
cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence.
By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:

1. The stages always happen in the same order.

2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself.

Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and

called them
(1) sensorimotor intelligence,
(2) preoperational thinking,
(3) concrete operational thinking, and
(4) formal operational thinking.
 Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only
approximately

Stage Age G

Sensorimotor Birth to 18-24 months Object permanence

Preoperational 2 to 7 years old Symbolic thought

Concrete operational Ages 7 to 11 years Logical thought

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood Scientific reasoning

Jean Piaget’s Theory Of Cognitive Development: 4 Stages.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
 The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, and during this stage, the infant
focuses on physical sensations and on learning to coordinate their body.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage. It

takes place between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage the child does
not use operations, so the thinking is influenced by the way things appear
rather than logical reasoning.

A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that
quantity remains the same even if the appearance changes.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the
world as he does. This has been shown in the three mountains study.

As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children begin

to enjoy the participation of another child in their games and “let’s pretend
“play becomes more important.

. Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the
world through language and mental imagery.

 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This
is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for
something other than itself.

 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world
is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.
 The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 – 11 Years

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use
operations (a set of logical rules) so she can conserve quantities, she realizes
that people see the world in a different way than he does (decentring) and he
has improved in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract
thinking.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding
that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain
the same.

During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of
plasticine returning to its original shap

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this
stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to
combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for
higher-order reasoning’s). Adolescents can think systematically and reason
about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage).. This
allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to
engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division
and fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve
hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are
carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from
physical and perceptual constraints.

 During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer
needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand
division and fractions).

 They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of
specific examples.
 Active learning
 Piaget thought that independent exploration and discovery were important at all stages of
cognitive development in enabling students to lead their own learning in line with their
current developmental understandings. Students at the stage of concrete
operations require opportunities for hands-on learning, experimenting and testing of
objects in order to build concepts, as well as later to work with verbal propositions.

 Individual learning
 Piaget’s focus on learning as individual development is reflected in the organization
of most education systems, where learning is individualized and students are measured on
their individual rather than collaborative performances. Development is seen as
individual rather than social or cultural, for example.

 Student-centred teaching and formative assessment

 Piaget also has also come to influence what is known as student-centred teaching, in
which teachers begin with the student’s existing understandings and help them build on
and develop these (although note this doesn’t preclude teachers identifying and planning
carefully the content to be taught).
Discovery learning
Piaget’s theory is also associated with the concept of ‘discovery learning’ in which students are
invited to explore carefully planned activities and experiences that are designed to
help them realise key observations and ideas. It is important to note that, although Piaget thought
that students could discover some things for themselves, most of the time their
development requires reflection and making connections to construct knowledge. In other words,
teachers’ structuring of students’ discoveries is important.

Peer conflict
Piaget’s ideas about the importance of cognitive conflict to stimulate the process of
equilibrium are sometimes put into practice via opportunities for classroom discussion, which
aims to enable students to come across ideas and theories which conflict with their own.

Theory of personal?
Erik Erikson introduced psychosocial theory, which addresses patterned changes in
self-understanding, identity formation, social relationships, and worldview across the

lifespan.

Introduction  Erik Erikson

was an ego psychologist. He emphasized the role of culture and
society and the conflicts that can take place within the ego itself. Erik Erikson maintained that
personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called
the epigamic principle.
 Psychosocial stages
He assumes that crisis occurs at each stage of development and they are of the psychosocial
nature. Successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality and acquisition of basic
virtues. Failure to complete the stage successfully can lead to inhibition in
Completion of other stage and an unhealthy personality.

Trust vs. Mistrust 

This is stage takes place during the first year of life or so. The infant looks towards the caregiver for
stability as he/she is unaware of the world. If the infant receives care which is reliable and
consistent then a sense of trust is available and in harsh and inconsistent care, mistrust is
developed. Success in this stage will lead to a virtue of hope.

Autonomy vs. Shame 

This is a stage which lasts between the ages of 18months and three. The child learns to play with
toys, wear their clothes themselves etc. thus discovering their skills and attaining independence and
autonomy. If the children are encouraged in this stage, they become confident and secure in their
ability. If they are discouraged, they lack self-esteem and feel a sense of shame. Success in this

stage will lead to the virtue of will.

Initiative vs. Guilt 

This is a stage around the ages three continuing to five where children assert themselves more
frequently. Children make friends, plan activities allowing them to develop a sense of initiative and
developing their abilities to lead others. If the children are criticized or controlled they make become
followers and develop a sense of guilt and may feel like a nuisance to others. Success in this stage
will lead to a virtue of purpose.
are aged 5 to 12 years in this stage and are learning to read, write, do sums etc. The child’s peer
group creates a significant source of the child’s self esteem. If they are encouraged for their
initiative they feel industrious and competent to achieve their goals. If the opposite happens, they
begin to feel inferior and doubt their own abilities and not reach their potential. Success in this stage
will lead to competence.

Ego Integrity vs.

Despair This occurs at the age of 65+ where we become senior citizens and we tend to slow down
our productivity and explore life as a retired person. If we see our life as productive, successful we
are able to develop integrity. If we see our lives unhappy and are dissatisfied with the goals we have
achieved, we develop despair, hopelessness and can become depressed. Success in this stage
leads to the virtue wisdom.
Strengths of the
Theory Limitations of the Theory It provides a broad framework which shows the development
throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and
the important influence that social relationships have on development. He is vague about the causes
of development. Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stages
influence personality at a later stage. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are
necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
Conclusions
Theory of psychosocial development involves changes in our interactions and understandings of
one another as well as in our knowledge and understandings of ourselves as members of society; •
Erikson’s theory suggests that psychosocial development continues throughout life. • It was criticized
for greater emphasis on male development than female development

No 5

References
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Development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
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struggling-with-dementia/%20%20http://helpingpsychology.com/theory-of-
personality-development-erik-erikson-model

Mcleod, S., PhD. (2023). Jean Piaget and His Theory & Stages of Cognitive
Development. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html