American College

Skopje

Conflicts

Student: Professor:

Skopje, 2021
ABSTRACT

The focus of every organization in society is to create an environment where employees

can effectively perform their duties without any negative impact that may hinder the
achievement of individual and organizational goals. However, conflict in organizations has
become inevitable as employees struggle for authority, position, recognition, insufficient
resources, and so on. This paper examines conflict management as a tool for increasing
organizational efficiency. Emphasis is placed on defining conflicts in an organization, as well as
recognizing the types of conflicts and their causes and finding an appropriate strategy to be
applied to achieve positive results that will lead to increased organizational efficiency.

Keywords: organization, conflicts, conflict management, increased efficiency.

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 Content

ABSTRACT 1

Introduction 3

Classification of conflicts 4

Types of conflicts 5

Sources and causes of conflicts 6

Sources of conflict 6
Ten causes of conflict 7

Definition of organizational conflict 9

Different views of conflicts 10
Traditional approach to conflicts 10
Behavioral approach to conflict 11
Modern approach to conflicts 11

Conflict management 12
Conflict management criteria 14
Conflict management strategy 15
Organizational conflict management process 17
Conflict stimulation methods 18
Methods for reducing conflicts 19
Conflict resolution methods 21
Dynamics of organizational conflicts 23

The role of the manager in resolving the conflict 30

Conclusion 38

BIBLIOGRAPHY 39

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Introduction

Each individual is in constant interaction with other individuals in their daily lives.
Namely, conflicts manifested as dialogue or interaction are an inevitable part of people's daily
lives. Very often this term is understood in a negative connotation, especially in organizational
environments. In fact, they are needed to effectively solve problems, generate new, innovative
ideas, and improve interpersonal relationships and collaboration.

In work organizations, conflicts arise between employees. Given that people are different
from each other and each person is characterized by their own unique individuality, there is a
great possibility of reaching a certain misunderstanding. Conflict situations in work
organizations often occur as a result of misunderstandings in mutual communication, possession
of different attitudes and values.

When a conflict arises in the workplace, a barrier is created between the individuals
between whom the situation arose. When a certain conflict is present in the work organization, it
is very important to identify it in time, but also to act in order to deal with the situation. Often the
conflict is reflected in the withdrawal or withdrawal of the conflict from a certain number of
employees or there is insufficient communication between employees, i.e. non-transmission of
information occurs which greatly harms the work and the organization.

In order to avoid such an outcome, it is very important that each individual who is part of a
working organization, regardless of the level of the organizational structure, belongs to be aware
of the existence of the conflict and to act in order to deal with it in a constructive way. Such an
approach to conflicts would improve interpersonal relations and their cooperation, but would
also have a positive impact on the progress of the organization.

Classification of conflicts

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 Different scientists have tried to classify conflict in different forms. The first
classification is a conflict in relation, task and process. However, there is considerable
conceptual overlap between these different forms of conflict.1

(a) Conflicts in the relationship: this conflict exists when there are interpersonal
incompatibilities between group members, including personality conflicts, tension, animosity and
anxiety.2 This type of conflict results in negative individual emotions, such as anxiety, mistrust
or dissatisfaction, frustration, tension, and fear of rejection by other team members.3

(b) Task conflicts: disagreements about the content of the task and the work objectives,
such as the distribution of resources, procedures, and interpretation of the facts. 4 Task conflicts
involve differences in views, ideas, and opinions. Unlike relationship conflicts, task conflict
findings are less conclusive. Task conflict is associated with several beneficial effects, such as
improving the use of debate within a group, resulting in quality ideas and innovations 5 and
leading to better service delivery.6 In addition, studies have shown that task conflict can be
associated with several adverse effects, such as job dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork 7 and
increased anxiety.

1 Dirks, K.T. & Parks, J.M. (2003). Conflicting Stories: The State of the Science of Conflict: In J.
Greenberg (Ed.), Organizational Behaviour: The State of Science. Hillsdate, NJ: Lawrence Earbanm
Associates pp. 283-324.
2 Jehn, K.A. (1995). A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits of Intragroup Conflict Administration
Science Quarterly. 40, 256-282.
3 Murnigham, J.K. & Conlon, D.E. (1991). The Dynamics of Intense Workgroups: A study of British Sting
Qualets. Administrative ScienceQuarterly, 36, 165-186.
4 Jehn, K.A., et al, (1999). Why some Differences Make a Difference: A Field Study of Diversity, Conflict
and Performance in Workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
5 Amason, A.C. (1996), Distinguishing the Effects of Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict on Strategies
Decision-making: Resolving a Paradox for Top Management Groups. Academy of Management Journal,
39, 123-148.
West, W.A. & Anderson, N.R. (1996). Innovation in to Management Teams. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 81 (6), 680-693.
6 Tjosvold, et al (1992). Managing Conflict Between Department to Serve Customers. Human Relations
45 (10), 1035-1054
7 Kabanoff, (1991). Equity, Equality, Power and Conflict. Academy ofManagement Review, 16 (2), 416-
441.

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 (c) Conflicts in the process: this refers to disagreement about how a task should be
accomplished, the responsibilities of individuals and delegation 8, e.g. when the members of the
group do not agree whose responsibility it is to perform a certain duty. Conflicts in the process
are associated with lower morale, reduced productivity and poor teamwork.9

Another form of classification or levels of conflict are:

● Interpersonal conflict
● Intragroup conflict
● Integral conflict
● Interorganizational conflict

Types of conflicts

Functional or constructive conflict: The interactionist view does not suggest that all
conflicts are good. Instead, some conflicts support the group's goals and improve its
performance; these are functional, constructive forms of conflict. Robbins 10 defines functional
conflict as a conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its (group) performance.
The argument is that if conflict leads to normal competition between groups and groups work
harder and produce more, which is good for the group and the organization. Confrontations
between two ideas, goals, and individuals are thought to improve employee and organizational
performance. One of the major benefits of constructive conflict is that it enables its members to
identify problems and perceive opportunities. Constructive conflicts can also inspire new ideas,
learning and growth among individuals.11

Dysfunctional or destructive conflict: there are conflicts that hinder the work of groups;
these are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict. Conflict is inevitable and desirable in

8 Jehn, K.A. & Mannix, E. (2001). The Dynamic Nature of Conflict: A Longitudinal Study of Intragroup
Conflict and Performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 238-251.
9 Jehn, K.A., et al, (1999). Why some Differences Make a Difference: A Field Study of Diversity, Conflict
and Performance in Workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
10 Robbins, S.P, et al, (2003). Management Forest NSW: Pearson Education, Pp 385-421.
11 Kinicki, A. & Kreithner, R. (2008). Organizational Behaviour: Key Concepts, Skills and Best Practice.
New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies.

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organizations, but when not implemented effectively, conflict can break relationships and thus
interfere with the exchange of ideas, information and resources in groups and between
departments. Dysfunctional conflict reduces or prevents the achievement of organizational goals.
Dysfunctional conflict usually hinders organizational performance and leads to reduced
productivity. This conflict orientation is characterized by competing individual interests that
outweigh the overall business interest. Managers retain information from each other; employees
sabotage the work of others, intentionally or through subtle, conflict-oriented, disinterest in
teamwork.12

Sources and causes of conflicts

It is important to distinguish between the sources and causes of organizational conflict.

While the former explains the place or nature with which or from which the conflict arises
(explains why the conflict is inevitable), the latter clarifies these conditions that can guarantee
that the conflict will arise and become a problem. This is because the conflict at its source does
not have to be the subject of controversy, confrontation and concern, but the conflict that is
provoked (intentionally or not) will undoubtedly bring further confrontations.

Sources of conflict

Fajana (2000)13 identifies two sources of conflict and they include:

● Internal sources: this is so called because they relate to factors that are inherent within the
organization. Fajana (2000) states that the biggest major factor in internal sources of
conflict is "conflicting interests".
● External sources: these sources are so called because they are located outside the four
walls of an organization. Third-party intervention in an industrial dispute may become
one-sided or biased.

12 Kinicki, A. & Kreithner, R. (2008). Organizational Behaviour: Key Concepts, Skills and Best Practice.
New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies.
13 Fajana, S. (2000).Industrial Relations in Nigeria.2nd Edition, Lagos:Labofin and Company

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Ten causes of conflict

Difference in goals: organizations pursue goals such as profit maximization, survival and
benefits for society.14 As organizations grow, the overall goals of the organization should be
divided into several different sub-goals and divided into separate organizations, units,
departments and people. As soon as the goals are distributed to different departments within the
organization a coordination problem arises. Organizations face the difficult problem of how to
coordinate the goals and activities of all their members in such a way that they will meet the
overall goals of the company, such as making a profit and guaranteeing survival. This is a serious
problem because the goals of different departments are not only different, but can also be
incompatible, resulting in conflicts between departments in the organization.15

Relationship between employees and superiors: Recent research suggests that

interpersonal conflict with superiors is a contextual condition that has a detrimental effect on
employees' attitudes toward the organization. An employee is in conflict with a supervisor when
the employee feels frustrated and obstructed by the supervisor.16

Roles and expectations: the role is the behavior expected of the employee. Each
employee has one or more roles in the organization. These roles include elements such as title,
job description and agreement between the employee and the organization. Conflict between
managers and employees can occur when the role of the employee is not clearly defined and each
party has a different understanding of that role.17

Differences in approaches (methods): Two groups could share the same goals, but at the
same time have differences in the ways of their realization. As a result, misunderstandings about
choosing the method that is most favorable to the organization are clear. and for example, when

14 Miller, J.G., & Arnold, P. (1998). POM teaching and research in the 21st century. Production and
Operations Management, 7(2), 99-105.
15 John, C.H.St. (1991). Marketing and manufacturing agreement on goals and planned actions. Human
Relations, 44, 211-229
16 Rubin, J.Z., Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H. (1994). Social conflict. Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement.
New York: McGraw-Hill
17 Whetten, David. A. & Cameron, Kins (2012). Managing Power and Conflict in the workplace.
Introduction to International Organizational Behavior.

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the sales and production department of an organization is interested in increasing profits, there
may be a misunderstanding between them about how to achieve that goal. The sales department
would see the answer in increasing sales by increasing supply, while the production department
would work to reduce costs. So, when a buyer would be interested in a small order of specialized
products from the sales department, a confirmed answer would follow, unlike the production
one, which would reject the order. In this case, both departments could not be said to be in the
mood for confrontation because both departments are committed to what is most positive from
their point of view - increasing profits.

Interdependence in performing the tasks: The realization of the set goals often requires
joint work of several groups within an organization, ie there is their interdependence in the work.
The greater the interdependence of groups or individuals, the more likely it is that a conflict will
arise. Greater interdependence in the performance of tasks increases the intensity of relations
between groups, so a small misunderstanding can very quickly turn into a major conflict.

Differences in operating criteria and payment methods: Such differences often represent
the potential for conflict in organizations. In an organization, different groups are valued and sent
according to different criteria. For example, people in the manufacturing department get paid for
their success, which is a result of the long-term development of the production of some products.
On the other hand, sales department employees are paid for responding quickly to market
changes, often at the expense of the long-term development success of the manufacturing
department. In this case, conflicts are inevitable if each of the departments adheres to its criteria
of operation and payment, and also strives to impose them as generally valid.

Lack of resources: Another factor that can also contribute to conflicts is dependence on
shared resources. When one group realizes that it is becoming a loser, that is, that its claims are
rejected at the expense of another group, the conflict is more than likely. This is exactly what
happens in conditions of limited resources. When allocating most of the resources to one group,
which on the other hand is a loss for the other group, it can be said with greater certainty that
there will be a conflict between the groups. This type of conflict arises due to lack of resources
such as capital, labor, assets and the like.

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 Insufficient communication: Conflict can also occur when there is misinterpretation of
messages by groups, and especially when one group deliberately neglects information from
another group for its own benefit. Such a group seriously jeopardizes the trust between the
groups and often has far-reaching negative consequences for their work. The essence of such
conflicts lies in the disturbed communication between the groups.

Differences in value systems: Differences in the goals of members of different groups are
often accompanied by differences in attitudes, values and perceptions that also lead to conflict.
For example, members of the engineering department may value quality, sophisticated design,
and durability more, while those in manufacturing prefer simplicity, low cost, and cost.

Other causes of conflict: different styles of individuals and organizational ambiguities:

Some people like conflicts, debates and arguments. If their passion is under control, mild
disagreement can stimulate employees and improve their performance. However, fans of
conflicts, debates and arguments participate in them unreservedly and militarily. For them, these
are real battles. Those with a strong authoritarian attitude or those with a little self-esteem with
their fierce reaction and the slightest disagreement, often anger their co-workers and colleagues.
In general, the potential for intergroup conflict is greatest when members differ significantly in
work attitudes, age, or education.

Definition of organizational conflict

There are several definitions of conflict depending on whether it is viewed in terms of the
behavior of the participants in the conflict; the sources of the conflict, or in terms of the attitudes
and feelings that arise between individuals during it. One definition says that conflict is a process
in which one party notices that the other party has, or will have, a negative opinion of something
that the first party considers to be good or useful. This definition covers a wide range of conflicts
that people experience in the organization - differences in interpretations of facts, incompatibility
of goals, disagreements based on behavioral expectations. This definition is flexible enough to
cover the full range of levels of conflict - from subtle forms of resentment to open and violent

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conflict. Conflict can also be defined as behavior that is intended to prevent the acceptance of
another individual's goals.18 There is a definition that defines conflict as "a situation in which the
conditions, practices or goals of different participants are inherently incompatible". 19 Another
definition of conflict is "the type of behavior that occurs when two or more parties are opposed
as a result of perceived relative loss of activity or interaction with another person or group.” 20
The difference between the last two authors in defining conflict is that Smith views conflict as a
situation, while Litterer views it as a type of behavior.. However, both authors agree that the
conflict is the result of incompatibility or opposition to goals, activities or interaction between
social entities.

Different views of conflicts

Traditional approach to conflicts

In the past, 1930s and 1940s, conflict was seen as a negative phenomenon in the
organization and was seen as harmful, unnecessary and synonymous with destructiveness and
irrationality. According to this view, conflict arises as a result of reduced communication, lack of
openness, lack of trust and failure of managers to respond to the needs and requirements of their
employees. Advocates of this view held that conflict must be avoided at all costs. During this
period, organizational structures developed where responsibilities were properly placed and
rules, regulations and policies were incorporated into the systems. Such an appropriate
mechanism was introduced in the management systems and attention was paid by the
management staff to ensure that there is no misunderstanding between the employees and that
the conflict will be avoided.

Behavioral approach to conflict

18 Mullins J. L. (2005). Management and organizational behavior. Prentice Hall/Financial Times

19 Smith, C. G. (1966). A comparative analysis of some conditions and consequences of
interorganizational conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 10, pp.511
20 Litterer, J.A. (1966). Conflict in organization: A re-examination. Academy of Management Journal, 9.
pp. 180

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 The behaviorist view (1940 to 1970) holds that conflict is a natural occurrence of
individual behavior and that conflict cannot be avoided. The theory is that the conflict must be
accepted because it cannot be eliminated. According to this theory, organizations must set
appropriate policies and procedures and set desired goals. Conflict can be avoided if there is
proper communication. Resources should be allocated appropriately and steps should be taken to
avoid conflict. An environment in which trust, cooperation, friendship and division among
employees prevail, can lead to greater productivity in the organization itself. Building trust and
avoiding conflict is the key to an organization's prosperity.

Modern approach to conflicts

The modern view holds that conflict may be necessary for organizational effectiveness.
Harmonious, quiet and cooperative groups can become static and non-innovative. A minimum
level of conflict is needed to keep a particular group vigilant, self-critical and creative.
Modernists believe that conflict is structural in nature, that it is inevitable and endemic to any
organizational environment. It is a product of systems, determined by structural factors and an
integral part of the nature of change. When groups communicate, there is a difference of opinion
and disagreement that can lead to conflict. Conflict exists even when there is an individual facing
organizational problems such as the decision-making process. It should be welcome and
effectively managed. The conflict needs to be articulated. Thus, the communication is renewed
and its growth is achieved; The minimum level of conflict serves as a prerequisite for
organizational development. On the positive side, conflict brings change; Conflict helps to
achieve compactness, unity, attractiveness, mutual respect, among the members of the group that
develops group identity. This tendency leads to a higher level of productivity, a sense of identity
with the organization and increases the group's ability to compete with other groups.

The minimal level of conflict promotes a stimulus for analytical thinking, which can
contribute to new perspectives, policies and systems that will prevail in the organization.
Conflict can serve as a stabilizer of power between two parties.21

21 V.G. Kondalkar, Organizational Behavior, 2007, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, New
Delhi, pp.163

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 A key difference between the traditional approach and the modern approach to conflict is
their view of conflict. According to the traditional approach, conflicts are avoided, but according
to the modern approach, conflicts are inevitable. According to the traditional approach, conflicts
are considered destructive to the workplace while in the modern approach conflicts are
considered to be supportive of the workplace.

Previously, people believed that conflicts would bring demotivated labor, low
productivity, and violence to the organization. On the contrary, in the modern context, people
believe that conflicts can bring self-motivation, self-evaluation, improved group performance,
and only creativity in the workplace because of competition between individuals.

A key difference between the traditional approach and the modern approach is that the
traditional approach considers conflicts as destructive for an organization, while the modern
approach presents conflicts as inevitable and necessary for an organization.

Conflict management

Conflict resolution means reducing, eliminating or ending the conflict. A number of

studies in negotiation, bargaining, mediation and arbitration fall into the category of conflict
resolution. Conflict management does not necessarily mean avoiding, reducing or ending
conflict. Conflict management involves designing an effective level of strategies for minimizing
conflict dysfunctions and strengthening the constructive functions of conflict in order to improve
learning and effectiveness in an organization.

Organizational learning is a significant construction and many modern theorists of the

organization point out that the question for organizations is not whether they want to learn; they
must learn as quickly as possible.22 Luthans, Rubach, and Marsnik concluded from their review
of the literary learning organization that “the presence of tension and conflict seems to be

22 Argyris, C., & Schon, D. (1996). Organizational learningTII. Reading MA: AddisonWesley.
Schein, E. H. (1993). How can organizations learn faster? The challenge of entering the green room.
Sloan Management Review, 35 (2), 85h92.

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essential features of the organization.23 Tensions and conflict come to light through questioning
"examination, imbalance and challenging the status quo." Unfortunately, the organizational
conflict literature does not provide a clear link between conflict management strategies and
organizational learning and effectiveness. Argyris suggests that existing theories foster self-
reinforcing processes that can best be described as "quasi-conflict resolution" (p. 3). 24 Several
scholars dedicated to conflict management have proposed conflict management strategies that
include recognizing: 25

1. Certain types of conflicts, which can have negative effects on the individual and the
performance of the groups. These conflicts are generally caused by negative reactions from
organizational members (eg personal attacks on group members, racial disharmony, sexual
harassment).

2. There are other types of conflicts that can have positive effects on individual and group
performance. These conflicts relate to disagreements over tasks, tactics, and other organizational
issues. Conflict management strategies include maintaining a moderate amount of these
conflicts.

3. Members of the organization who communicate with each other should deal constructively
with their disagreements. This calls for learning how to use different styles of conflict
management to deal effectively with different situations.

Conflict management criteria

23 Luthans, F., Rubach, M. J., & Marsnik, P. (1995). Going beyond total quality: The characteristics,
techniques, and measures of learning organizations. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 3,
24-44.
24 Argyris, C. (1994). On organizational learning. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
25 Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic
decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39,
123-148.
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of
diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.

13
 In order for conflict management strategies to be effective, they need to meet certain
criteria. The criteria are derived from the diverse literature on theory of organization and
organizational behavior. The following criteria are particularly useful for conflict management:

1. Organizational learning and effectiveness.

Conflict management strategies should be designed to reinforce organizational learning. 26

Organizational learning is expected to lead to long-term effectiveness. To achieve this goal,
conflict management strategies need to be designed to enhance critical and innovative thinking
about the process of diagnosing and intervening for real problems.

2. Need for shareholders.

Conflict management strategies should be designed to meet the needs and expectations of
strategic constituencies (stakeholders) and to strike a balance between them. Mitroff strongly
suggests choosing the right stakeholders to solve the real problems. 27 Sometimes multiple parties
are involved in a conflict in an organization and the challenge of conflict management is to
involve these parties in a problem-solving process that leads to collective learning. and
organizational effectiveness. This process is expected to bring satisfaction to relevant
stakeholders.

3. Ethics.

Mitroff28 is a strong proponent of ethical governance. He concluded: "If we can not

define a problem that leads to ethical activities that benefit humanity, then either we have not
defined it or we are currently unable to define the problem correctly."

26 Luthans, F., Rubach, M. J., & Marsnik, P. (1995). Going beyond total quality: The characteristics,
techniques, and measures of learning organizations. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 3,
24h44.
27 Mitroff, I. I. (1998). Smart thinking for crazy times: The art of solving the right problems. San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
28 Mitroff, I. I. (1998). Smart thinking for crazy times: The art of solving the right problems. San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

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 A wise leader must act ethically, and in order to do so, the leader must be open to new
information and ready to change his mind. Subordinates and other stakeholders also have an
ethical duty to exercise their right to vote against the decisions of supervisors when the
consequences of such decisions are serious. To manage conflicts ethically, organizations need to
institutionalize the positions of employee advocates, consumer and supplier advocates, as well as
environmental advocates and shareholders. Only if these advocates listen to decision-makers in
organizations can we hope for improved ethics.29

Conflict management strategy

The existing conflict management literature is insufficient for the necessary management
strategies conflict at the macro level, which can meet the above criteria. An effective conflict
management strategy should:

1. Minimize affective conflicts at different levels. Affective conflict refers to inconsistencies in

interpersonal relationships, which occur when members become aware that their feelings and
emotions about some of the questions are incompatible with the feelings and emotions of other
members.

A. Evidence shows that affective conflict interferes with group work. It affects the
performance of groups by limiting the ability to process information and cognitive
functioning of group members and the antagonistic behaviors prescribed to group
members.30

29 Rahim, M. A., Garrett, J. E., & Buntzman, G. F. (1992). Ethics of managing interpersonal conflict in
organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 87-96.
30 Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic
decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 39,
123-148.
Baron, R. A. (1997). Positive effects of conflict: Insights from social cognition. In C. K. W. DeDreu & E.
Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in organizations (pp. 177-191). London: Sage.
Wall, V. D., Jr., & Nolan, L. L. (1986). Perceptions of inequity, satisfaction, and conflict in task in task-
oriented groups. Human Relations, 39, 1033-1052.

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 B. Affective conflict reduces group loyalty, work group commitment, intention to stay in
the current organization, and job satisfaction. 31 This results in higher levels of stress and
anxiety leading to escalating conflict.

2. Maintaining moderation in substantive conflicts. Substantial conflict arises when two or more
organizational members disagree with solving problems related to their assigned tasks.
Substantial conflict is very similar to task conflict. Jehn's study indicates that moderate conflict is
beneficial because it encourages discussion and debate, which helps groups achieve a higher
level of performance.32 “Groups without conflict of interest may miss new ways to improve their
performance, while many high levels of task conflict can hinder the completion of tasks ". 33
Some evidence suggests that substantive conflict is positively associated with beneficial
outcomes:

A. Groups that have substantial conflict can make better decisions from those who do
not.34 Substantial conflict encourages greater understanding of issues, leading to better
decisions.

B. Groups that have a substantial collision generally have higher performance. This
conflict can improve group performance through a better understanding of different
perspectives and alternative solutions.35 It should be noted that the beneficial effects of
substantial conflict on performance are found only in non-routine task groups, but not in
groups that perform standardized or routine tasks. Although substantial conflict improves

31 Jehn, K. A. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and determinants of intragroup conflict.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256-282.
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of
diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
32 Jehn, K. A. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and determinants of intragroup conflict.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256-282.
33 Jehn, K. A. (1997). A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions of organizational groups.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 530-557.
34 Cosier, R. A., & Rose, G. L. (1977). Cognitive conflict and goal conflict effects on task performance.
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 19, 378-391.
Fiol, C. M. (1994). Consensus, diversity and learning organizations. Organization Science, 5, 403-420.
35 Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study
of diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
Burgeois, L. J. (1985). Strategic goals, environmental uncertainty, and economic performance in volatile
environments. Academy of Management Journal, 28, 548-573.

16
 group performance, as well as affective conflicts, it can reduce group loyalty, work group
commitment, intention to stay in the current organization, and job satisfaction. 36 As a
result, conflict management interventions should be designed to develop cultural norms
to support disagreement among group members about tasks and other management-
related topics without creating affective conflict.

3. Selection and implementation of appropriate conflict management strategies. There are

different styles of behavior, such as integration, commitment, dominance, avoidance, and
compromise that can be used to deal with conflicts. The members of the organization will need
practice and work experience to properly select and implement different styles of dealing with
interpersonal conflict, so that different conflict situations can be properly resolved.

Organizational conflict management process

Managers need to manage organizational conflicts. It must be a well-thought-out process

for effective conflict management. It has been pointed out that only conflicts in the optimal
amount (neither too much nor too little) give good results in the operation.

Once the conflict arises the reactions can be in the direction of:

● Avoiding,
● Opposition,
● Communication.
● There are other ways to group conflict management methods.
● They can be divided into methods for:
● Stimulating conflicts,
● Conflict reduction,
● Conflict resolution.
36 Jehn, K. A. (1997). A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions of organizational groups.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 530-557.
Jehn, K. A., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of
diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.

17
Conflict stimulation methods

Many of us have been taught since early childhood that not just conflict but any
disagreement should be avoided. However, the tendency in our culture to stifle debate is not
always productive.

In situations where the conflict is too general, people who are afraid to "drive the boat"
participate. They passively accept things as they are and are not interested in some new, better
ways of working. They ignore all specific cases, behaviors and information that can improve the
quality of work and tolerate each other's weaknesses and shortcomings.

The view of top managers is that conflict must be encouraged but also controlled. An
open assertion that conflict is desirable will encourage members to openly disagree. Only in this
way will the conflict be maintained on a functional level.

Stimulation methods are:

● Bringing in "outsiders". The most commonly used method of "Shaking" the stagnant unit
is to bring in managers whose styles and values differ from existing ones.
● Restructuring the organization. Reorganizing teams and departments creates a period of
uncertainty and rejection. However, as they accept the new conditions and circumstances,
so the conflicts that will arise in that period can lead to improved methods of operation.

● Encouraging competition. Offering bonuses, additional rewards for a better result or a

demonstrated initiative is a way to encourage competition. A productive conflict is
reached by nurturing a competitive spirit and nurturing a desire to overcome the other.

● Selection of suitable managers. Authoritarian and strict managers who do not allow any
rise of opposing views often make their groups passive. Some groups need an active

18
 manager who will shake them up from their lethargy. Finding the right manager can fuel
conflict where it does not exist.

Methods for reducing conflicts

Too often, managers are more interested in reducing than in stimulating conflict.
Reduction methods reduce conflict-induced antagonism. Therefore, these are methods that lower
the level of conflict, leaving things to "cool down", and do not touch the issues and problems that
actually caused the conflict and raised its level.

When conflicts are inevitable, something needs to be done to reduce them. 37 Two general
approaches are possible in this regard: attempts to change attitudes, or behavior change.

In the event of a change of attitude, open conflicts are often reduced, but aversion
between groups remains. On the other hand, the change of attitudes leads to fundamental changes
in the relations between the groups. In fact, changing attitudes can improve group relationships,
but it takes significantly more time than changing behavior, which in turn requires fundamental
changes in social perceptions.
Physical separation. The quickest and easiest way to reduce conflicts is to physically separate
the groups. Separation is useful in cases where conflicting groups are not working on common
tasks and there is no need for a high degree of interaction. This approach does not encourage
group members to change their views but only provides space for better alignment.

Use of rules and regulations (Bureaucratic method). Conflicts could also be reduced by
introducing specific rules, procedures and regulations. This approach is also known as the
"bureaucratic method", which imposes solutions and does not change the basic views.

37 E. N. Neilsen: Understanding and Managing Conflict

J. Lorsch and Lawrence (Eds): Managing Group and Intergroup Relations, Homewood, II. Irwin 1972,
p.329-343

19
Limited interaction between groups. Another approach to conflict reduction is limited
interaction between groups on issues related to common goals. When groups agree on goals,
mutual cooperation is much easier.

Use of integrators. Integrators are individuals assigned the role of bridging differences between
groups in conflict. To gain the trust of groups, integrators must have legitimacy and expertise.
They often apply the principle of "flying diplomacy", moving from group to group in order to
find areas of agreement and future cooperation.

Confrontation and negotiation. This approach puts the opposing parties in a position to discuss
face-to-face the issues of their disagreement. There is hope that through open discussion and
negotiation could be found ways to overcome the problems. An example of this is reaching an
agreement through negotiations between the union and the management. The increase in the
chances of finding acceptable solutions to conflicts depends on reaching a compromise through
negotiations.

Involvement of third party consultants. In some cases it is useful to involve external

consultants who know human behavior and can help find solutions. External consultants are not
just mediators, but are in a position to discuss certain issues more openly and directly, as they are
not members of any group.

Rotation of members. The rotation of persons from one group to another enables them to get
acquainted with the competencies, values and attitudes of the other members. This is how
communication grows. Depending on the degree of acceptance of these rotating members by the
groups, changes in both attitudes and behavior are possible. This approach is a long-term
process, where it takes time to develop good interpersonal relationships and understanding
between group members.

Setting interdependent tasks and important goals. The further strategy available to managers
is to set goals for the successful implementation of which requires joint work of the groups. This
is especially the case when the survival of the enterprise is threatened. The threat to close the

20
company causes the long-term opponents to come together in order to achieve the common goals
(in this case, the continuation of the work of the company).

Joint training. The last conflict resolution procedure is the application of joint training. External
training experts enable the creation of a long-term basis to support the development of
mechanisms for joint work between groups. Structured workshops and training programs are of
great help in shaping more favorable attitudes, and as a result, constructive behavior of groups
towards each other.

In experimental research38, conflicts are first stimulated, and later ways are sought to
reduce them. Some methods of reducing conflict have proved ineffective. The praise given to the
opposing party was rejected. Joint meals and watching movies by opposing groups did not work.
But when the opposing parties were put in a position to agree on which movie to watch, the
conflict subsided. Conflict behavior was also reduced when the truck carrying the two groups
back to the camp was set up to break down, and one group could not solve the problem on its
own. Hence, the common trouble, i.e. the common "enemy" reduced the conflict.

Conflict resolution methods

Because large-scale conflicts are one of the basic elements that hinder the efficiency of
the organization, it is necessary to deal with them, i.e. their resolution. There are basically five
ways or methods of resolving conflicts for this purpose. These are: competition (competition,
opposition), cooperation, compromise, avoidance and adjustment. 39 Each of these options has
certain strengths and weaknesses, and it is emphasized that none of them is absolutely ideal for
all occasions.

Competition (competition, opposition, competitiveness) is a method in which there is

non-cooperation (care is not taken to satisfy the interests of the other party) and striving in

38 Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif, 1956-1966, Classical studies for intergroup conflicts
39 Kenneth Thomas, Conflict and Conflict Management,
M.D. Dunnette (Ed): Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Behavior John Wiley and Sons, N. Y.
1976 p.895, p.900

21
attempts to satisfy one's own interest. It is practically a matter of one side trying to win. This
method is chosen when one party has a great interest in the disputed issues and has no interest in
the opinion and needs of the other party.

Customization. Maximum effort to satisfy the interests of the opposing party followed
by non-insistence when it comes to their own interests. This method is recommended for
irrelevant issues, relatively insignificant, which could disrupt mutual relations.

Avoiding. It is a method in which there is non-cooperation and non-persistence. It is

avoiding a state of conflict, i.e. suppressing the conflict. This method will be used when for a
certain conflict it is concluded that it is insignificant, and its resolution is considered
insignificant. Practically the conflict is ignored and it is considered that it will be resolved on its
own, without taking any action. It acts as if the conflict is gone.

Compromise. In compromise, co-operation and perseverance are halved. This method

will be used when the opposing parties are interested in resolving the conflict, but are also
interested in good mutual relations. In a compromise, each side has to sacrifice something. The
compromise solution does not fully satisfy either side.

Cooperation. With maximum cooperation and perseverance, important issues are

resolved. Practically, a solution is obtained that suits both parties. It looks like a sack that
encloses with a drawstring. Cooperation can be considered as one of the methods of integrative
conflict resolution.

With the help of this last method, the situation of intergroup conflict is transformed into a
situation of joint problem solving. Both sides are trying to jointly solve the problem that has
arisen and arisen between them. If managers try to give their subordinates a sense of working
together and achieving the same goal, if they encourage the free exchange of ideas and if they
emphasize the benefits of finding an optimal solution to the conflict situation, it is very likely to
achieve integrative solutions.

22
There are three methods of integrative conflict resolution: consensus, confrontation, and the use
of "higher" goals.

In consensus (general agreement) the two opposing sides meet and do not try to win, but
seek a solution that will be optimal for their problem. Any solution proposed by an individual
will be worse than the solution proposed and accepted by group consensus. However, the most
important thing is to prevent premature consensus in which the chosen solution is a reflection of
the desire to end the conflict as soon as possible, and not the best one.

In the confrontation, the opposing parties confront and directly state their position. The
causes of the conflict are being investigated and methods are being sought to resolve it. If the
leadership is skilled enough, this way a rational solution can be reached. When "higher goals" are
set, intergroup conflicts can be expected to take a back seat. This is identical to the realization
that internal cohesion increases when intergroup conflicts arise. Setting "higher goals" not only
resolves the conflict but also increases integrative cohesion.

Dynamics of organizational conflicts

Experimental research has shown that intergroup conflicts change in a completely

predictable way. It is the so-called conflict dynamics from which it can be seen that from the
appearance to the end the conflicts behave with a certain legality, ie order:

Cohesion increases: as a rule, the members of the groups in the intergroup conflict get
closer and put aside the previous disagreements. Increasing cohesion stimulates efforts that can
be transformed into action to solve the problem. However, the inevitable development of
conformism can be discouraging for creativity and new approaches to the problem.

Growing role and importance of leaders: when the conflict becomes very intense, those
individuals who can contribute the most to victory become the most important. More aggressive,
more capable or better speakers are given more power. The rivalry for the lead is diminishing
and everyone is working harder to defeat the "enemy".

23
 Views are distorted: Views on both sides are distorted. Each group enhances its own
skills and performance and justifies its shortcomings. The shortcomings of the opposite group are
highlighted.

Rising negative stereotypes: because each group belittles the other's ideas, the differences
between the groups seem bigger than they really are, while the differences within the group seem
smaller than they really are.

Selection of strong representatives: in order to deal with the other side, each group selects
its own representatives who it believes will not succumb to the pressure of the "enemy" group.
They always think positively about their representative and negatively about their opponent.

Dead ends: the fight adversely affects the ability to understand, think accurately and
evaluate one's positions. Strong group identification, fear of defeat, fear of betrayal, all this
blinds both parties and they can not recognize the similarities of the proposals and the possibility
of an agreement that will suit both parties.

Other research confirms the knowledge that the development of conflicts takes place in
the same way.40 If a conflict is not resolved adequately, some previous conflicts appear on the
surface, so the "fight" becomes irreplaceable from the initial conflict.
As the conflict intensifies, new problems arise, often completely unrelated to the initial
problem. Issues that have not been controversial and important so far are brought to the surface,
and people who have not been involved in the conflict so far are also engaged.

Once a conflict has started, it can continue even when the original problem is resolved.
What started out as disagreement on one issue can end in mutual impatience, because of our
tendency to remain consistent in our views at all costs.

40 J. S. Coleman: Community Conflict. Free Press and Corporation. 1957 p.11.

24
 The development of conflicts can be observed in a different way, as a dynamic process in
5 phases: 41

➔ In the first phase the conflict is latent.

➔ In the second phase, the conflict is realized.

➔ In this second phase, the parties to the conflict reveal the "face" of the conflict. This stage
may not be reached. The latent conflict can be resolved before the parties become aware
of it.

➔ In the third phase, the conflict was felt.

➔ In the fourth stage the conflict arises when the parties take some active action.

➔ In the fifth phase are the consequences of the conflict.

Consequences of integral conflicts

The conflict is over. The consequences are different for winners and losers (for the "win-lose"
variant in resolving the conflict):

The winners:
Leaders strengthen their leadership position. "The winning team does not change".

Negative stereotypes caused by the conflict may increase, so further cooperation with the other
group is almost impossible.

The losers:

41 L. R. Pondy: Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models.

Contemporary Readings in Organizational Behavior, Ed. Fred Luthans 1977

25
Tendency to separate new fractions. Candidates for the leadership position. They are becoming
more lenient with new ways of behaving and functioning. Whether the end result of the conflict
will be functional or non-functional depends on three factors:

● Level of conflict
● Organizational structure and culture
● The way the conflict is treated and managed.

A moderate level of conflict has by far the greatest potential for a satisfactory outcome
than a high level. With moderate conflict, opposing groups will learn to solve problems together
and constructively. As the level of conflict grows, so does the temptation to act destructively
against rivals.

One of the advantages of conflict is that it can point out problem areas in the
organization. If the organization rigidly resists change, conflict situations will always exist.
Tensions will rise and any new conflict will further divide the organization. In general, the
stricter the organizational culture and structure, the less useful the conflict will be.

Unresolved conflict also adversely affects informally structured organizations where

units depend heavily on mutual information. In a conflict situation, the relations can be disturbed
by affecting the work of all units.

For many people the consequences of conflicts are on the side of negativity, ie that
conflicts are dysfunctional. However, a detailed analysis of organizational conflicts also points to
a number of good sides as a consequence of conflicts. In order to benefit from conflicts,
managers need to adequately treat or deal with them:

Conflicts can serve as a "safety valve" for releasing accumulated emotions. Cohesiveness of the
group occurs when its focus is on the confronted side. As a result of the conflicts, changes are
encouraged, which were difficult to do without the existence of a conflict situation.

26
 ● It allows "the past to come to the surface" and some former issues, i.e. stifled conflicts.

● The members of the group are mobilized and they engage more energetically.

● Innovation and creativity are encouraged.

● Communication that was not a strong point before the conflict is increasing.

● Unproductive relationships are resolved, i.e. ended.

When a conflict arises, certain serious changes occur. There are two types of changes -
changes within groups and changes in relations between groups.

Changes within groups

Within groups where there is conflict, three types of change are common:

● Increased group cohesion.

● External threats to the group may cause greater cohesion among its members. The group
begins to become very important to the members, with differences of opinion being
ignored, and loyalty to the group becoming their main characteristic.
● Increased focus on tasks.

Increased efforts are being made towards challenges while striving for more rational
spending of time. At the forefront comes the realization of the group's goals and the defeat of the
"enemy" with a present sense of urgency.

Occurrence in an autocratic way of leadership.

Where there are fierce conflicts between groups, an autocratic way of leading often
occurs. A powerful and determined leader is considered to be more capable of leading a group,

27
as opposed to a leadership in which more people participate. The second approach is usually
considered slow and incapable of responding quickly to external threats.

However, the most important benefits of these changes within groups are: providing
support from its members, making additional efforts, and achieving centralized leadership in
times of conflict. In this way, the groups are able to respond more energetically to the conflicts
and to deal more resolutely with their resolution.

Changes in group relations

Certain changes in their relationships are possible between the groups:

● Negative attitudes.
● The main feature of the conflict situation is hostility, with the opposing group perceived
as hostile. Unfortunately, very often these negative attitudes are retained even after the
resolution of the conflicts and thus leave great consequences after the work.
● Distorted perception.

Negative attitudes may be accompanied by distorted perceptions. A negative stereotype

often appears, in which one group overestimates its contributions to the organization, as opposed
to underestimating the contributions of the other group. For example, union members who decide
to join the strike are viewed as immoral, while managers are viewed as inhumane, from the point
of view of one group versus the other.

● Reduced communication.
● Communication between groups can deteriorate. reduced in part due to negative attitudes
and distorted perception. The feeling of "There is no reason to talk to them" is often
present. This fear, unfortunately, only increases conflicts and makes them more difficult
to resolve.
● Increased observation.

28
 In the event of a conflict, groups often try to obtain as much information as possible
about the opposing group. It seeks answers to the questions: "Why do they feel this way?", "Who
are their allies?", "What is their next step?", "What is their weak point?". In this way, by
observing the activities of the other group, an effort is made to single out a victory in the conflict.

The above activities are a common manifestation of a conflict process. In this case, the
challenge for managers is to find ways to minimize such activities, and thus create a more
favorable climate for resolving conflicts. The first step in that direction is to find out the cause of
the conflict.

There are many cases when the result of interorganizational or intergroup conflict is a
long-term intolerance between the managers of those two organizations or groups. The
expression impatience sometimes turns into open hatred. That hatred can be so visible that the
people of those two organizations know that their directors hate each other. It can go so far that
one of the directors takes business moves that will harm both his organization and the opponent.

Business is a world of successes and results, but also of successes and conflicts. Too
sensitive, vengeful, malicious, etc., should not be managers.

The role of the manager in resolving the conflict

In today's world, an organization's most valuable resource is human resources. For this
reason, during the process of change and development, the evaluation of human resources in all
management activities in the most efficient way has become more important than all other
studies.42 It is necessary for the manager to resolve conflicts between people and focus on
conflict resolution in the name of efficient use of human resources. Strategic decision making
affects organizational performance. However, careful examination of this relationship reveals a

42 ŞİMŞEK M.Ş., ÇELİK A., AKATAY, A. (2007) Kariyer yönetimi ve insan kaynakları yönetimi
uygulamaları. Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara.

29
subtle paradox. The benefits of strategic decision-making, which are necessary for enhanced
organizational performance, do not seem to coexist peacefully.

Conflict seems to be at the heart of this puzzle. 43 If conflict resolution in organizations

becomes inevitable, the manager should intervene in the situation with a proper "action plan and
correct recipe for solving the problem". For personal or organizational reasons, workers should
not be allowed to create a conflicting environment that could harm themselves or the
organization. No matter what kind of regulation is made, it is not possible to destroy personal
conflicts or role conflicts.

However, if the manager can predict what negatives will occur, he / she can know how to
make an analysis based on what kind of events he / she will increase the management
efficiency.44 There are several prominent analyzes where the manager if he / she wants to resolve
conflicts should first of all investigate:

What are the parties to the conflict? What are the reasons? What are the stages of the
conflict? In addition, what stage is there in the conflict? In addition, at what stage of the conflict
does the organization exist? What are the positive effects and negative effects that the conflict
had on the business organization, which of them have an advantage over others? Can the conflict
be managed? Can it be prevented? What are the solutions to conflicts? A manager who can
answer these questions with relevant and valid information can now make better decisions, and
the effort to resolve the conflict in this way can be invented in a safer field.

Conflict does not occur all at once. It grows through different stages. We can briefly
explain these stages:

43 AMASON A.C., SCHWEIGER D.M. (1994). Resolving the paradox of conflict, strategic decision
making, and organisational performance. International Jounal of Conflict
Management, 5 (3), pp.239-253
44 ERDOĞAN, İ. (1990). İşletme yönetiminde kişiliğe bağlı çatışma, stres ve çözüm yolları. İstanbul,
İstanbul Üniversitesi İşletme Fakültesi

30
First phase: This is a phase of waiting and predictability. The manager predicts that different
opinions will manifest themselves for reasons that may cause conflicts.

Second phase: Symptoms of conflict are slowly becoming apparent. On indications regarding
that conflict, the difficulties will be shown.

Third phase: This is an open interview phase. Change is mentioned, questions and
disagreements are asked or namely conflicts (differences of opinion) become obvious.

Fourth phase: The topic of conflict is discussed in this phase.

Fifth phase: The parties finally bring their own positions positive or negative decisions
regarding the problem. The fight began. Either one will win and the other will be defeated or a
common solution will be reached. The involvement of the manager in conflicts will vary
according to the stages. Involvement will take place in the first phase, while being least active in
the fifth phase.46 Depending on the phase in which the conflict is present, the manager should
choose how to prevent the conflict or how to eliminate it in accordance with the phase in which
the conflict is located. If the conflict is moderate, the profit that the business organization will
receive from the manager's point of view is not enough, he / she may consider that preventing or
eliminating the conflict is more profitable. Within this range, these are the methods he / she can
choose:

According to Genç45, the methods that prevent and destroy conflicts in organizations are:

a) Commitment.

This attitude is to ignore the conflict. The manager does not become part of the conflict and does
not become directly involved in the conflict. Such a method does not resolve the conflict, but can
be profitable in the short term.

45 GENÇ, N. (2007). Yönetim ve organizasyon. Ankara, Seçkin Yayıncılık.

31
b) Freezing.

In this case, the moderation method is used. In this way, reducing the differences between the
groups emphasizes that all groups have common benefits. By setting more important goals, both
sides fight, get involved and cooperate for the same goals in question, making the parties forget
about their differences.

c) Approach to solving the problem.

The manager allows the conflicting parties to discuss the issue that needs to be presented to the
"whole world", making them oppose each other. This method is very useful especially for those
conflicts arising from lack of information and communication.

d) Moderation.

This means reducing the conflict by bringing collective benefits or differences between the
parties to the conflict to the forefront. The manager thus leads the conflicting parties to
moderation and compromise. For example, one way is to approach the manager with the words
"we are a family", thus moderating the pages.

e) Use of power and authority.

This means resolving conflicts using the power, authority and competence of the manager. The
manager who follows this method says, "I am the manager here, and this will be the way I want
it" and that solves the problem. There is no doubt that this decision can not bring an agreement
between the parties, but it ends the conflict.

f) Goal setting.

32
By setting more important, effective and comprehensive goals than the goals of the conflicting
parties, by setting aside the differences between the conflicting parties, this method allows the
parties to unite in accordance with these goals.

g) Making a concession.

This method can have the power to strike a balance by sacrificing for the sake of the goals. In
this way, neither side prevails. The two sides reach an agreement by making concessions.

h) Change of persons.

Conflict prevention can be ensured by having information that people are in conflict situations
with another person or group. This method can be used in conflicts that harm the organization
and bring only negative results.

i) Change of organizational relations.

Reorganization and development of organizational relationships reduced conflicts within the

organization.

j) Punishment.

At some point when the conflict harms the people and the foundation, those who caused the
conflict may be punished.

k) Mediation.

Assigning an expert arbitrator between the parties, to get them to cooperate and prepare in a
contractual environment can be helpful in preventing conflict.

l) Competition.

33
Implementing the parties to the "win or lose" approach, playing games with power, encouraging
them to win, are some of the methods of competition.

m) Cooperation.

Ready to solve the problem, facing differences and exchanging ideas, looking for cohesive
solutions, finding a result that will be profitable for everyone.46

Something that is more important than this is conflict management, that is, eliminating
the adverse effects of the conflict. Each of the methods has a special technique and each activity
shows different results. The approaches to conflict resolution in the organization are: 47

a) An approach to ignorance or indifference

b) Retardation approach

c) Persuasion approach

d) Smoothing approach

e) Draw approach

f) Problem solving approach

g) Decision of a third party (arbitrator)

h) Political approach

i) Negotiating and making mutual concessions

46 GENÇ, N. (2007). Yönetim ve organizasyon. Ankara, Seçkin Yayıncılık. p.278
47 EREN, E. (2010). Örgütsel davranış ve yönetim psikolojisi. İstanbul, Beta Yayınları. p.575

34
j) Voting method

k) The method of assessing the effects of the conflict

l) Holding method

k) Discovering new opportunities

l) Taking organizational precautions

k) Other issues to consider in order to reduce the negative effects of conflict

Research in social psychology and organizational behavior has suggested models that we
adopt the tactics of negotiators and managers who have several basic styles of conflict
management.48 In the approach of ignoring and being indifferent, the manager believes that the
parties will reach an agreement before a violent reaction occurs. He / she may not want to act as
an interventionist or he / she may not yet be aware of the seriousness of the problem. This
approach can be correct in cases where the parties are moderate and perceptive. In the retardation
approach, the manager is aware of the problem and its seriousness, he / she conveys this to the
parties, but does not want to interfere and gives the parties a chance to find a solution between
them. In this way, the parties are more willing to solve the problem that the manager knows.

In the method of persuasion, giving the conflicting groups or parties a much superior goal
or duty that can make them forget their conflicts, they are in harmony and the union is sure to
happen. In the smoothing method, the parties are enabled to think in the long run and on a larger
scale, making short-term conflicting interests farther away. In this way the parties try to be
smoothed by emphasizing that the environment in which they work is not necessary at all. In the
lottery approach method, if the manager gives rights to all parties, he / she will explain to them
48 MORRIS, M.W., WILLIAMS, K.Y., LEUNG, K., LARRICK, R., MENDOZA, M.T., BHATNAGAR, D., [at.
al.] (1998). Conflict management style: accounting for crossnational differences. Journal of International
Business Studies, 29 (4), pp.729-747.

35
that one of the parties will lose while the other party wins, and it is necessary for the manager to
take risks with this. Finally, the manager brings the parties together to discuss the conflict in
detail. They are asked to explain the topic in the last detail, in this way the reasons that are
considered to have occurred due to lack of communication or misunderstandings are resolved
more easily. In the approach of the decision to a third party (arbitrator), if the parties can not
agree well with each other, a third party that has confidence in both parties should be involved in
the decision. It must be guaranteed that this third party will be objective in its decision, and the
parties will comply with this decision. In policy approaches, the manager explains that he will
support all parties in the long run. The promise that an opportunity for a new topic will be given
if a step back in the topics that caused the conflict is made. In this way, the emphasis that the
parties not only lose but also win is emphasized. In the retard method, by increasing the
workload of workers or staff, managers try to capture and reduce conflicts. The goal is not to
find time for conflict over work. In the method of discovering new opportunities, the manager
leads to the destruction of conflicts arising from scarce resources.

Conflict will be reduced by increasing financial resources, hiring new staff, appointing
new machinery and equipment. In the method of taking organizational methods, the manager
makes changes in the definitions of duties in an attempt to keep the conflicting parties away from
each other or prevent them from having business relations with each other. Parties that change
authority or responsibility and deal with new types of scope of work are guaranteed not to be in
conflict. In the voting method, the parties explain their ideas to a group that they think is
objective and should be voted on. Thus, the solution of the problem is done in a democratic way.
In the conflict assessment method, the parties continue their conflict regardless of which
manager is called and what consequences they caused to the organization, and it is said that they
will be punished if they continue the conflict. In this way, the parties are expected to end the
conflict with each other. This approach is also referred to as the use of force approach. In the
retention method, by increasing their tasks, the manager tries to keep employees busy and thus
tries to reduce conflicts. It is ensured that they can not find time between operations to cause
conflict between each other. In the method of discovering new opportunities, the manager aims
to eliminate conflicts arising from scarce sources. Saving funds, resources and employment

36
opportunities, appointing a new machine or installation will reduce conflicts. In the method of
taking organizational precautions, the manager will change the definitions of duties.

Parties dealing with authority, shifting responsibility, and new issues ensure that they do
not lead to conflict. Other issues that need to be addressed in order to reduce the negative effects
of conflict arise from the fact that people do not know each other well enough, or lack
communication. This will be resolved if there are environments where the parties can get to
know each other better or communicate with each other. By using the development techniques of
the organization, the parties ensure that they are socially close. The subject of conflict resolution
in organizations is entirely the responsibility of the manager, and can also be resolved with the
skills of the manager. If the issue that caused the conflict is the kind of issue that can be resolved
between the parties, the issue will be resolved easily by avoiding conflict. The manager identifies
the most appropriate methods or approaches to ensure that the conflict is resolved promptly and
then applies the method in practice.

37
Conclusion

Group activities can not avoid conflict. Some conflict may have no benefit for the
organization, but also the conflict will help the team become better. Conflict is always present, in
the scale, scope and frequency of different organizations. Identifying conflicts, their causes, and
therefore, conflict management, is an effective way that requires a lot of knowledge and skills.
Although conflict is a normal phenomenon in society, it is a phenomenon that should be
considered as research, because it not only helps us to correctly identify conflict, but also the
right choice method of solving conflict for human and social benefit. Summarizing all the above
described in this assignment, we can easily realize that conflict management is a very important
issue in the workplace. We cannot evaluate how it could be solved, or which is the best way to
manage or approach its resolution. It would be definitely positive for companies to set up conflict
policies, so they can better control such problems. But the assured thing is that, even policies
would be set up, every manager, every employee has to be careful and try to take advantage of
the positive effects that conflict can give. Thus, in order to achieve this, everyone has to “do it”
with his own style, since he has to adapt his behavior depending on the working environment he
is occupied. If we think again that conflict guides in violence in the workplace, but can also
guide creative solutions, integrative negotiations, passion for participating in problems solving,
we have to individually think and drive ourselves at the positive part of conflict results.

38
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Afzalur, R. (2001) Managing Conflict in Organizations, Westport, Connecticut, London.

AMASON A.C., SCHWEIGER D.M. (1994). Resolving the paradox of conflict, strategic
decision making, and organisational performance. International Jounal of Conflict

Management, 5 (3), pp.239-253

Amason, A.C. (1996), Distinguishing the Effects of Functional and Dysfunctional Conflict on
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