After completing her Bachelors and Masters from Mumbai, Dr. Shivani Tandel completed her M.Vet.Sci.
in Conservation Medicine from
the University of Edinburgh. She has trained at the Dubai Falcon Hospital, UAE in falcon medicine, surgery and endoscopy and has
completed observerships at the University of California, Davis (Exotics) and at the University of Florida (Wild Animal Section). For more
than 10 years, Dr. Tandel has been a speaker on Exotic and Avian Medicine at various conferences. Current she has an Exotic Animal
Practice in Mumbai and is a part of the core committee of the Great Indian Bastard Conservation Programme for Maharashtra.
The past and current scenario of avian veterinary medicine in India.
When exotic avian medicine was first introduced in India in 2005, we were unexposed to this branch of veterinary medicine. Treating a bird meant treating
poultry and that only constituted flock medicine. Exotic avian medicine incorporates
1. Pscittacine or Parrot or Hookbill medicine,
2. Bird of Prey or Raptor medicine
3. Passerine or Songbird medicine
4. Galliforms or fowl medicine
5. Aquatic bird medicine.
These are some broad classification according to their food habits. Since most illnesses in humans are directly related to what we eat, diseases especially in
birds stems from it as well. The adaptations birds have for different kinds of food leads to affections being unique to a particular species. For eg. Even in
psittacine medicine a cockatoo lives at a different plane as compared to an eclectus parrot. Cockatoos are generally found cruising the ground and hence having
gram negative organisms in their crop cytology may be considered normal, however gram negative organisms in an eclectus parrot which is primarily a high
canopy dweller warrants treatment. Another example is if a bird is given a high oil seed diet may be acceptable for a macaw, but will cause obesity and diseases
such as atherosclerosis in an amazon parrot.
Another difference from poultry medicine is that generally because poultry live so close together the diseases they get are mostly epidemic in nature or generally
most of the birds show the same problem. Therefore medication has to be administered in drinking water or food for the whole flock. Exotic Avian Medicine
does not follow that rule. Since birds are kept as single birds or in twos very rarely as groups the diseases are generally not transmissible so easily unless it is
viral. And hence individual medication needs to be administered. Medicating birds is a task for owners since capture and restraint is generally involved and
medicines are not accepted easily. However nowadays one can train the bird to accept medication by instituting training earlier on or either masking medicine
with hand feeding formula. This behaviour training is still in its infancy and is not followed due to lack of direction.
Unfortunately for us vaccination protocols do not exist in India because we still do not know the kind of viral diseases that affect birds under Indian condition,
but we know for a fact that viruses like Borna and Polyoma are affecting these birds in addition to the Paramyxovirus that causes Newcastles disease which
commonly affects poultry in India. The serotypes need to be further researched and applied locally.
Generally when one sees birds there are special diseases that are seen in certain bird species. Therefore just as certain breeds of dogs are predisposed to certain
ailments similarly bird species are predisposed to some disease. For eg. conjunctivitis in cockatiels almost always means chlamydiosis or psittacosis. Vomiting
in a macaw fledgeling or young bird generally means proventriculitis or Proventricular dilatation disease. Below are enlisted a few that one would see in general
practice. Fractures and other trauma related injuries will be included as well towards the end.
Organism Disease Species Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Notes
commonly
affected
Paramyxovirus Newcastles Ringnecks, Paresis , anorexia in (young Virus isolation on Antibiotic to prevent secondary
(PMV1) disease / Pigeons birds), fits, diarrhoea- (per-acute) Post mortem. bacterial infection, choice of
Ranikhet antibiotic depends on system
Disease affected.
Nerve tonics and supportive
therapy. Gavage feeding.
Poxviridae Pox Pigeon Cutaneous form is more Characteristic Gavage feeding, care with Treat
(vectors are commonly exhibited than lesions, lesions can supplemental feeding till viral against
mosquitoes) diptheroid. Starvation due to be scraped and episode is over and bird starts self trichomoni
lesions at the muco-cutaneous smeared to find feeding. asis
junction cytoplasmic preventativ
Bollinger bodies ely. With
(subacute and chronic Metronidaz
stages) ole/
Ronidazole
Trichomonas Trichomonia Pigeons, Yellow plugs in the oral cavity, Crop swabs under Metronidazole and Ronidazole are
gallinae sis Hawks, Birds polyuria and polydipsia. buffered saline- the drugs of choice.
of prey/ direct microscopy.
occasionally
parakeets
housed with
pigeons.
Cnemidocoptes Scaly leg Budgies, Hyperkeratotic lesions on the Direct microscopy of Ivermectin – 0.2mg/kg single
finches feet and beak. scraping of altered dose.
areas
Machrorhabdus Avian gastric Budgerigar Vomiting, sticky feathers on the Direct microscopy of Amphoterecin B Injectable
ornithogaster yeast crest, pendulous crop, anorexia, crop wash solutions
dull. can be used
orally,
since the
drug is not
available in
tablet form.
Chlamydia Parrot fever/ Cockateils / Lime green coloured urates- PCR, direct Doxycycline@ 50mg/kg bird for
Pscittacosis alexandrine pathognomonic symptom, microscopy. 40 days.
parrots conjunctivitis in one or both In chronic cases, enrofloxacin
eyes, nasal discharge, crusting of @15mg/kg bid can be added to the
eyes, weight loss, anorexia protocol to decrease the
conjunctival lesions. Eye drops
may help temporarily but are not
required unless conjunctivitis is
extensive.
Candida Candidiasis Ringneck Feather plucking especially Direct microscopy ketoconazole@ 10 mg/kg bid for Liver
parakeet under the neck, whitish plaques from choanal swab or 14 days supplement
in the mouth in severe cases, smears from crop ation is
thickened skin at commissures of wash. necessary.
the beak, feather loss around the
eyes, polydipsia and polyuria.
Metabolic
diseases:
Egg binding Calcium Budgerigar, Sitting at the bottom of the cage, Palpation or Inducing with oxytocin, more Increase
deficiency lovebirds, large voluminous faeces or in radiograph often use of lubrication and gentle day light
ringneck certain cases no feces at all, milking of egg is performed. hours and
parrots bulge at the abdomen Calcium must be supplemented on reduce the
an everyday basis. quantity
which will
pull bird
out of
reproductiv
e phase.
Obesity Iodine Budgerigar, Inability to fly, yellowish stained Diet history and Lugols iodine in water sprinkle
deficiency rarely abdominal wall. If clinically ill digital palpation of iodine
due to high cockatiels may appear lethargic and will be abdomen reveals supplement
seed diet in sternal recumbency. pendulous coelomic s on the
cavity filled with fat. food once a
week.(
Vitapol-
Algi)
Discoloured Vitamin A Ring neck Feathers turn yellow or lose their Diet history reveals Vitamin A supplementation orally
feathers deficiency parrots feather fluroscence and more oil seeds, and inclusion of vegetables in diet.
brightness. choanal papillae are
blunted
Drugs for birds are calculated in mg/kcal according to the metabolic rate. However for the sake of convenience we shall compute doses according to body
weight and species
Drugs Doses Mode of administration Notes
Antibiotics:
Ampicillin – cloxacillin 100mg/kg tid p/o, i/m, i/v
Amoxicillin – clavulanate 125mg/kg tid P/o, s/c
Ceftriaxone 75-100mg/kg i/m, s/c
Clindamycin 25- 100mg/kg p/o
Doxycycline
Enrofloxacin 15mg/kg bid p/o, i/m Injections should be diluted to avoid
muscle necrosis.
Trimethoprim/ sulpha 100mg/kg bid Per os
Drugs -SOS
Aminophylline 4-10 mg/kg i/v,i/m Respiratory distress
Atropine 0.1-0.2 mg/kg q4h i/m Toxicosis
Calcium Gluconate 5-10 mg/kg i/m Hypocalcemic tetany in greys
Dexamethasone (Not advocated in 0.05mg/kg single dose i/m Use only if; trauma is acute within
birds) 30 minutes. It causes severe
immunosuppression, hepatic disease
and granulomas.
Meloxicam 0.2-1 mg/kg bid p/o, i/m Trauma, inflammation.
Below are some client handouts for commonly occurring diseases. All credits to theses handouts go to Lafeber.com
Psittacosis in Birds & Humans
What is psittacosis?
Psittacosis is an infectious disease of birds and people caused by Chlamydophila psittaci, formerly known as Chlamydia psittaci. Psittacosis, also known as
parrot fever, refers to the disease in parrots, while ornithosis refers to the disease in other birds such as turkeys. People usually catch this disease after exposure
to an infected bird. Birds associated with reported human psittacosis include: • parrots and parakeets • turkeys • pigeons and doves • finches • mynah birds
Persons at risk include: • bird fanciers • employees in poultry slaughtering and processing plants • veterinarians • veterinary technicians • laboratory workers •
workers in avian quarantine stations • wildlife rehabilitators • zoo workers • pet shop workers Psittacosis is challenging to diagnose and control. Some birds
may be carriers. These individuals may seem healthy but intermittently shed the organism in their stool. Birds stressed from other health problems, shipping, or
over-crowding are most likely to shed C. psittaci.
Psittacosis infection in man:
Infected birds shed C. psittaci through feces and nasal discharge. There is usually a period of 7-14 days between exposure and signs of disease. The symptoms
of psittacosis range from mild flu-like illness to serious pneumonia requiring hospitalization. Symptoms may include: • sore throat • fever up to 105ºF • chills •
muscle aches • chest pain • weakness • headache • nausea • vomiting • photophobia (sensitivity to light) • cough. Because these symptoms are so non-specific,
physicians rarely suspect psittacosis unless the patient has obvious recent exposure to birds. Unfortunately human infection can also result from only brief
contact with infected birds or their contaminated excretions or secretions. Human patients with psittacosis are treated with antibiotics, usually doxycycline,
azithromycin, or erythromycin for 2-3 weeks. Response to antibiotic therapy is usually prompt. Up to 200 cases of psittacosis occur annually. From 1988-2003,
935 human cases of psittacosis were reported to the Centers for Disease Control. These numbers probably underestimate the true number of cases since
psittacosis is difficult to diagnose and often goes unreported.
Psittacosis in birds:
Signs of psittacosis in birds include “pea soup” greenish diarrhea, loss of appetite, weight loss, ruffled feathers, conjunctivitis, and respiratory problems.
Carriers show no signs but are still capable of infecting others birds and humans. Several tests are available to attempt diagnosis of psittacosis in birds. Your
veterinarian can sample feces or other body samples to look for the organism or a blood test may be performed to detect antibody, which is shows evidence of
exposure (past or present). Birds should be tested for psittacosis before they are boarded or after purchase. Psittacosis screening is particularly important in
households with people that may be more susceptible to infection such as: • the very old or the very young • people that are sick • HIV-positive • pregnant
women, or • those on chemotherapy. Also consult your veterinarian about testing birds with frequent public contact such as birds in nursing homes or schools.
Present sick birds to an avian veterinarian promptly. Many birds with psittacosis can be successfully managed if treatment is prompt and given over a sufficient
time period. Under the supervision of a licensed veterinarian, infected birds and potentially exposed birds should be isolated and treated for 45 days with
doxycycline or other appropriate medications. Your veterinarian may want to retest treated birds 2 weeks after treatment and again in 3-6 months.
Does infection with psittacosis lead to immunity?
Neither a person nor a bird with psittacosis will develop lasting immunity despite having had an infection. Infection can recur after re-exposure to the organism.
What can be done to prevent psittacosis?
Use husbandry practices that will minimize the spread of disease: • Position cages to prevent the transfer of feces, food, and other materials from one cage to
another. • Do not stack cages, and use solid-sided cages or barriers if cages are adjoining. • Select cages with grates on the bottom. Use substrates that will not
produce dust, such as newspaper, to line the cage bottom. • Quarantine new birds for at least 30 days in a separate air space from other birds. Also isolate birds
that have been to shows, exhibitions, fairs, and other events, and consult your veterinarian before returning birds to the group. Clean and disinfect appropriately:
• Clean food and water bowls and cages daily, or at least often enough that feces cannot collect, dry up, and become airborne. • Minimize fecal dust by misting
cage bottoms with water prior to cleaning. • Thoroughly scrub the soiled cage to remove all organic debris, rinse the cage, apply disinfectant and allow this to
contact cage surfaces for at least 5-10 minutes, then re-rinse the cage to remove the disinfectant. • Chlamydophila psittaci is susceptible to most disinfectants
and detergents, such as chlorine dioxide (Dentagene, Oxyfresh), 1:1000 dilutions of quaternary ammonium compounds, or dilute household bleach (1/2 cup per
gallon water). Many disinfectants are respiratory irritants and should be used in a well-ventilated area away from birds. Avoid mixing disinfectants with any
other product
Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD)
Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease is an important disease of psittacine birds or parrots. Unfortunately, there is a lot of misinformation out there on Psittacine
Beak and Feather Disease, and there is also a lot of information that is still unknown.
What is Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease?
Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) is caused by a very small virus that most commonly causes problems of the skin, feathers, and beak. In some birds,
PBFD can also affect the internal organs. It all depends on the age of the bird when exposed.
What birds are at greatest risk?
All birds are at risk, but PBFD seems more of a concern in birds of an Australian, African, or Asian background such as Cockatoos, African Grey parrots,
Senegal or Meyer Parrots, Ringneck Parakeets, and Lovebirds. PBFD cases have also been reported in in South American birds such as macaws and conures.
We recommend all new birds be tested.
How is PBFD transmitted?
PBFD is transmitted by direct contact with infected birds or through contamination of water or feeding areas. The virus can be found in feces, feather dust, or
crop contents regurgitated for babies. Since PBFD virus is blood-borne, it is believed to also be transmissible from the hen to her eggs.
When do birds get the disease?
Birds often become infected with PBFD virus at a very young age. The minimum time frame between exposure and signs of disease is 21-25 days, but it often
takes much longer, from months to even years, for birds to show signs of illness.
How do we determine if a bird has PBFD?
Most commonly, a DNA probe test is run on a blood sample. In some cases, testing may also be performed on feather or skin samples, or a swab from the
internal organs of a deceased bird. The test is very sensitive and specific, so incorrect results rarely occur.
What if my bird tests positive for PBFD virus?
The answer to this question depends on many variables, and will need to be discussed with your veterinarian. These variables include the age of the bird and its
health status. Often a second test is indicated in an otherwise healthy bird approximately 60-90 days later. It is also prudent to test any other birds and notify
the source from where you obtained your bird.
Is there a cure for PBFD?
NO. PBFD is much like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). PBFD tends to weaken the immune system and make the bird more susceptible to other diseases
it would normally be able to fight off.
Is there a vaccine available?
Not at the present time.
What is the best way to remove PBFD from a collection or facility?
• Test every individual for PBFD virus.
• Practice good quarantine protocol when you get a new bird. Keep new birds as far away from birds confirmed negative, until an avian veterinarian has declared
them healthy. Birds that appear healthy but test positive for PBFD can shed the virus and cause huge problems.
• Clean surfaces with bleach diluted at 1 cup per gallon of water. Take precautions with fumes for yourself, other people and animals—particularly birds!! Items
made of wood or other organic material can never be considered clean and should be discarded.
• In some cases, air conditioning and furnace filters should be replaced.
• Consult your avian veterinarian for more specifics if you have concerns about PBFD in your facility.
Is there a facility in in India to test PBFD?
Yes, Avigene, Gurgaon does testing for PBFD.
Lead Poisoning in Birds
Heavy metal poisonings in birds most commonly occurs from ingestion of substances containing lead. Lead may be found in many household items, and the
companion parrot is at risk because of its curious nature and an innate desire to chew.
Possible sources of lead
• Leaded paint (particularly in older homes)
• Antique or imported metal cages
• Plaster and caulking compounds, roofing materials
• Batteries
• Solder
• Stained glass
• Chandeliers
When lead is ingested, small amounts are absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and released into the bloodstream. Lead is then taken up by soft tissues and
eventually by bone. This means that lead poisoning is a “deep seated” problem. The bone retains heavy metal and leaches the toxin out gradually over time.
What are the signs of lead poisoning?
Lead affects all major organs and can cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract, red blood cells, kidneys and liver. Clinical signs may include weakness or
depressor, a poor appetite, delayed crop emptying, vomiting or regurgitation, abnormal droppings, and even neurological signs such as twitching, circling,
convulsions and/or blindness.
Diagnosis of lead poisoning
Treatment of lead toxicity if quite specific, and testing must first be performed to confirm a diagnosis. Your veterinarian will want to perform blood work
including blood lead levels. X-rays are also recommended since some, but not all cases of lead toxicosis will reveal the presence of metal within the
gastrointestinal tract.
How is lead toxicosis managed?
The cornerstone of treatment relies on binding and removing heavy metal from the bird’s tissues. This process is called chelation therapy. Depending on your
bird’s condition, your veterinarian will have a variety of agents to choose from however calcium EDTA (Ca EDTA) is a popular chelation agent. Because
absorbed lead leaches from bone over time, chelation therapy is often administered in pulses over an extended period. For instance Ca EDTA injections may
be given for a 3-5 day periods with break periods in between of 3-5 days. If a source of heavy metal is seen on x-rays, your veterinarian may also recommend
a procedure or treatment to directly remove the lead from the stomach. An ounce of prevention Know what household items may contain lead. Remove all
known sources of heavy metal or limit exposure to areas with heavy metals when removal is impossible. Always supervise pet birds during time outside of the
cage, and prevent your bird from chewing and ingesting undesirable objects.
References
Altman RB, Clubb SL, Dorrenstein GM, Quesenberry K. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1997.
Beasley VR, et al. A systems affected approach to veterinary toxicology. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press; 1999. Pp. 27-69. Denver
MC, Tell LA, Galey, FD, et al. Comparison of two heavy metal chelators for treatment of lead toxicosis in cockatiels. Am J Vet Res 61(8):935-940, 2000.
Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL.
Clinical Avian Medicine. Palm Beach: Spix Publishing, Inc; 2006.
Macintire DK, Drobatz KJ, Haskins SC, Saxon WD. Manual of Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care Medicine. Ames: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. Pp.
270-271 Written on March 23, 2012.
Aspergillosis
What is aspergillosis?
Aspergillosis is a fungal disease caused by the organism, Aspergillus.
Who is affected by aspergillosis?
Aspergillosis may develop in any bird, but companion birds most frequently diagnosed with aspergillosis include African Grey, Amazon, and Pionus parrots.
How do birds become infected?
Aspergillus may be found everywhere but this fungal organism grows best in a warm, moist environment. When the area starts to dry out, the fungus will switch
from the active, growing form (hyphae) to the infectious spore form. Spores are microscopic particles that can be inhaled or ingested. Once spores enter the
body, Aspergillus can switch back to the hyphae form and grow within the body eventually causing illness. Aspergillosis is most likely to occur in a bird with
a weakened immune system or a bird exposed to an overwhelming number of spores.
Factors that may promote the growth of Aspergillus include:
• the presence of waste like old, moist food or bedding or soil contaminated with droppings
• organic cage substrates like corn cob bedding
• poor sanitation and ventilation
• stressors such as illness, malnutrition, or exposure to excess cold or heat
• steroid use, even for a short period of time
• prolonged antibiotic administration
Is Aspergillosis contagious?
Aspergillosis is not contagious, and is not passed directly from bird to another. It is possible, however, for a bird with aspergillosis to be a potential source of
fungal spores in the environment.
What are the signs of aspergillosis in birds?
Although aspergillosis may involve any body system, fungal spores most commonly invade the trachea, air sacs, and/or lungs. Signs of aspergillosis will depend
on the number of spores that enter the body and the organ system affected. Clinical signs of lower respiratory tract disease may be dramatic and develop rapidly
or signs may develop slowly and subtly. Signs of advanced respiratory disease may include reluctance to move or fly, poor appetite, a loss or change in voice,
signs of increased respiratory effort such as open-mouth breathing or persistent tail bobbing, or even sudden death. From the airways, Aspergillus can enter
blood vessels and travel anywhere in the body such as the liver, kidney, brain, or spinal cord. In rare instances, Aspergillus can invade feather follicles or skin.
How serious is Aspergillosis?
Unfortunately, aspergillosis is an extremely serious condition that often carries a poor prognosis. Aspergillosis is usually not diagnosed until disease is quite
advanced and many internal changes can occur before outward signs of disease are seen.
What is the treatment?
Treatment of fungal infection relies on the use of antifungal medication. However even the most potent drugs have a hard time penetrating fungal “granulomas”
or walled off collections of fungi and debris. Therefore depending on your bird’s status, your veterinarian may also want to remove granulomas surgically or
endoscopically.
Can disease recur?
Although antifungal drugs may kill all actively growing fungal hyphae, medication will not affect granulomas. If the bird’s immune system should weaken
again, it is possible for granulomas to release active fungal hyphae to spread through the body again.
What can be done to prevent aspergillosis?
1. Keep the bird’s cage and environment clean. Remove feces and discarded food frequently. Control dust and consider use of a high-quality HEPA filter air
purifier.
2. Provide appropriate husbandry. Select a cage with a grate and cover the cage bottom with an inorganic, non-dusty cage substrate like newspaper. Avoid
organic substrates such as corncob bedding. Ensure adequate airflow and prevent bird exposure to respiratory irritants like cigarette smoke.
3. Minimize stress, promote overall health and support immunity. Minimize crowding, and provide a wholesome, balanced diet. Prevent exposure to extreme
heat or extreme cold. Your veterinarian may want to place your pet on an antifungal medication as a preventive measure in high-risk situations such as use of
antibiotics for an extended period of time.
References:
Kearns KS. Avian aspergillosis. Recent Advances in Avian Infectious Diseases, 2003.
Http:// www.ivis.org/advances/Kearns/kearns2/IVIS.pdf. Accessed June 12, 2008
Trauma, fractures and its management.
Trauma is generally the most common cause that avian patients visit the veterinary clinic. Most of which are when bird’s wings are not clipped and they fly
into fans. Trauma is first addressed by:
1. Stop bleeding if any, manual pressure generally works and stabilising the wound.
2. If the bird is non- cooperative, it’s wise to sedate the bird. Butorphanol @1mg/kg and Midazolam @ 1-7 mg/kg both i/m will make the bird more
managable
3. Reduce the fracture/ stop the bleeding.
4. Provide pain medication.
5. Depending upon the wound bandaging is advised along with an E collar.
6. Fluid therapy @ 60-100 mg/kg must be administered to prevent hypovolemia.
7. Keep the bird warm to prevent hypothermia.
8. Antibiotics depending on location of injury.
To read more about wing wraps in birds, go to the lafebervet site: https://lafeber.com/vet/wing-wrap-placement-in-birds/\
Reference: Pollock C. Wing wrap placement in birds. LafeberVet website. July 23, 2014. Available at https://lafeber.com/vet/wing-wrap-placement-
in-birds/
Thus avian medicine is not only restricted to flock meldicine, but has progressed to individual pet care. Just as a pet parent would go to any extent to save their
dogs and cats the trend is similar in avian medicine. It’s a challenge to venture into the field of avian medicine but with practice and exposure one can appreciate
and enjoy the challenge. Infact the turn around time in birds is less and so immediate to the owner that it’s a make or break moment for the relationship between
the client and veterinarian . One can evolve to take it in their stride and be successful in these cases. Avian medicine has gone beyond prescribing umbrella
treatment which involves a steroid, antibiotic and a Bcomplex to, conducting pathological tests and diagnostics to arrive at an accurate diagnosis.
