Everett F. Harrison, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Carl F.

Henry,
EDITORS
 DICTIONARY OF THEOLOGY

ABADDON. This is the name given to a ABIDE, ABIDING. The Greek word for
satanic angel in Rev. 9:11, who appears as abide is "e#6. The papyri as well as the NT
king of a horde of hellish locust-monsters sent usage is best seen by dividing it with reference
to plague rebellious mankind. The Greek trans- to place, time, and condition. With reference
lation of the name is ho Apozlyo-7®, ``the De- to place, it means to tarry as a guest, to lodge,
stroying One." In the OT ¢Z7flddol® occurs sev- to sojourn, maintain unbroken fellowship.
eral times as .an epithet of Sheol or Hades and With reference to time, it means to continue to
signifies literally "destruction" (from the root be, to endure, [o survive. With reference to
dgad meaning "become lost, be destroyed"). condition, it means to remain as one is (see
It occurs, e.g., in Ps. 88:12: "Shall thy cove- Amdt, MM, Grenfell and Hunt, Oxyr7.y7!c7"is
nant-love be celebrated in the grave, thy faith- Pflpyrj). When turning to the LXX, we find
fulness in (the place Of ) destruction /aky¢d- that no less than sixteen Hebrew words are
de-%J?" (Similarly Prov.15:11; 27:20; Job used for the Greek we"o-. The principal ones
26:6; 28:22; 31:12). G. L. ARCHER, JR. are: (1) y65ab; meaning to live in, to dwell,
to sit down; (2) `677ca¢, meaning to stand; (3)
ABBA. The word occurs three times in the
qti7", meaning to rise; and (4) Z£7c, meaning to
NT. Mark uses it in Jesus' Gethsemane prayer lodge, tarry, dwell, spend the night. A few
(Mark 14:36). Paul employs it twice for the LXX examples will suffice: "let the maiden re-
cry of the Spirit in the heart of a Christian main with us" (Gen. 24:55); "behold, the
(Rom. 8: 15; Gal. 4:6). In every case it is ac- plague remains [stands or is checked] before
companied by the Greek equivalent, ho p¢tGr. him" (Lev. 13:5); "but the counsel of the
Abba is from the Aramaic az7Z7a. Dalman Lord. remains [stands or rises up] forc\'er
(Words of Jest4s, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, (Prov.19:21). Other OT usages are "to stand
1909, p. 192) thinks it signifies "my father." fast in battle" or "to abide by a conviction"
It is not in the LXX. Perhaps Jesus said ohly
``Abba" (HDCG, I, p. 2), but Sanday and (LSJ).
In the NT the verb is used both transiti\rel}'
Headlam think both the Aramaic and Greek and intransitively. The transitive usage means
terms were used (JCC, Ro7"a"s, p. 203). to await, be in store for, withstand or endure
Paul's usage suggests it may have become a
(cf. Jer.10:10; Mal. 3:2; Acts 20:23; Heb.
quasi-liturgical formula. 13:14). The intransitive sense is to continue
See also FATHER, FATHERHooD oF GOD. in a place or state in which one now is, to
RALPH EARLE
reside, to last, especially in the face of trial
ABECEDARIANS. The Abecedarians (cf. Luke 8:27; Acts 27:31; John 15:5; I Cor.
were an extreme sect of the Reformation. They 3: 14). The word is used in com|)osition with
considered that the teaching of the Holy Spirit at least nine prepositions in the NT.
was all that was necessary. As a result they re- The examination of a concordance (MG)
jected all human teachings and even refused to will show that 7"e7?o- is used around one hun-
learn to read or write. Hence, they were dred eighteen times, especiall}' b}' the apostle
named for the A 8 C D they rejected. John, where there are forty occurrences in the
SHERMAN ROI)DY Gospel and twenty-six occurrences in the Epis-

m
ABILITY 16

tles. With this preponderance Of usage it is texts conveys the idea Of "strength." (The RSV
needful to examine the use Of our word by the has rendered combinations Of ¢okmd, for-
great apostle. It is crucial to the teaching in merly rendered "wisdom," and hay;I, formerly
the .fifteenth chapter of the Gospel of John. rendered "valor," by "ability" in fifteen addi-
On .the way to Gethsemane, Christ taught the tional instances.) (2) "Ability" may indicate
disciples the imperative need Of remaining in material capacity, where "to give" is always
him by using the figure Of the vine (a.v.) and mentally added (Neh. 5:8; Lev. 27:8; Ezra
branches. With the vine, the organic union 2:69; Acts 11:29; cf.11 Cor. 8:3, "means").
with the trunk means life for the branches. In later theology "ability" denotes man's
This speaks of the essential union that must power to do the will of God. Pelagius affirms
exist between Christ and believers. In 15:4 the doctrine, while Augustine, Luther, and
we have a divine imperative when Jesus said, the Reformed creeds deny. JACK P. LEwls
"abide in me." Of course, there is a distinction
between the natural order and the spiritual. ABLUTION. As a ceremonial act washing
The natural branch does not exercise its own (kjz7Z7gs, lottej", etc.) is a regular religious
will to choose whether or not to abide in the feature. There were three kinds of ablution
vine. It either remains in the vine or dies. But recognized in biblical and rabbinic law. The
in the spiritual sense there is a definite act of first is the washing of the hands. As a means
the will on the disciple's part. The sense of Of cleansing this is not explicitly prescribed in
urgency can be seen in the Saviour's impera- the Bible but is to be inferred from Lev.
tive statement me;«ate ew emoj. This imme- 15: 11. In the NT its significance has become
diately shows any disciple that there is respon- largely sacial (Mark 7:3; Matt. 15:2). Feet
sibility on his part. Jesus' simple statement is were washed in the same way (Gen. 18:4;
true that in him there is fruitbearing but with- John 13:5). The second is the washing of
out him there is barrenness ( 15 : 5). This sense both hands and feet with a view to the per-
of dependency is found throughout the NT. formance of priestly functions (Ex. 30:19;
Christ had taught earlier of a mutual responsi- 40:31). In the tabernacle and temple a laver
bility which describes a true and genuine rela- was provided for this purpose. The third is
tionship (6:56; 15:4). The Master not only the immersion of the whole body as a sym-
sustains life so ag to produce fruitful branches, bolic cleansing of the entire man for admission
but he is also the very source and origin Of or readmission to the sacred community or to
life ( I : 3). the discharge of special functions within it,
In the First Epistle of John the author e.g., the high priest on the Day of Atonement
speaks Of this vital union with Christ by the (Lev. 16:24), Aaron and his sons before their
words "in him remaining" (2: 5). This expres- consecration (Lev. 8:6). Lepers and those
sion is similar to Paul's thought e% Chrjsto- who had been in contact with an unclean per-
ei"ai. By the end of the first century, with the son or thing were bathed (Lev.14:8; 15:5-10,
second coming so long delayed, this vital rela- 19-27; Num.19:19). So tco were proselytes
tionship of ``abiding in Christ" needed to be from the gentile world; this may be a protcr
interpreted in terms of long duration rather type of Christian baptism. Vessels, houses, and
than tarrying for a short time. So today, this clothes were also subjected to ritual cleansing
abiding is the pulse beat Of the believer. (Mark 7:4; Lev.14:52; 15:6-8; Ex.19:14).
BIBLIOGRAPHY See also CI,EAN, UNCLEAN.
L. E. H. STEPHENS-HODGE

TE:Hff7`#9¥#§.SasGSffSRE#:i:v;2:2:.5f±#.
ABOMINATION. "Abomination" (that
ROBERT V. UNMACK which is to be abhorred) is the common Bible
translation of t6`G9d (Heb.) and I?dezygm¢
ABILITY. The word ability occurs seven (Gk.), applying on the secular plane to cer-
times in the AV and ASV, rendering phrases lain contacts with and customs of foreigners.
which represent two ideas: (1) It may refer If performed by the wicked, that which is
to physical, moral, or intellectual capacity otherwise good is judged by God as abomina-
(Dan. I:4; Matt. 25:15; I Pet. 4:11; cf. ble. He labels as abominations unethical prac-
Wisd. 13: 19). The word k6a¢, in Greek rep- tices: use of false weights and measures, dis-
resented by dy.Cam;s or jsch%s, in other con- semination of untnie information, false judg-
17 ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION

ing, bringing improper sacrifices. Repugnant to The passages in the NT are, of course, not
Jehovah are sexual abnormalities and heathen exhausted by the historical fulfilment of the
religious practices. inter-testamental period, and they must be
Other OT words, pjgg¢l and 5eqes, have studied in their own right. The Greek phrase
been translated "abomination," ref erring to bdelygowc] te-s ere-"o-seo-s may be rendered "a
that which was ceremonially unacceptable to detestable thing that brings desolation." The
God. The word 3jqq4S was used particularly of emphasis appears to be more on the first word
the gods of lsrael's neighbors. That Z7delyg#¢¢ than on the last and draws attention to the
is the regular LXX translation of Hebrew objectionableness of the thing denoted. The
words for the abominable supports the English word Z7delyg7"cz refers to that which causes
version renderings of all these various words as nausea and abhorrence: see the use of the
"abomination." word in Luke 16:15 and Rev.17:4. It is a
BIBLIOGRAPHY frequent LXX rendering of S;qqrfes in the sense
of an idol or false god, but it was not limited
s.BD:]€;er¥nnd£;D¥.cF}.ceE=tgeerr£±nnTs¥gHipp.598-600;
to that. Anything which outraged the religious
BURTON L. Col)DARD feelings of the Jewish people might be so de-
scribed (Swete).
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION. The attempt to understand our Lord's al-
In this precise form these words are found in lusion in the use of this expression seems
the AV in Matt. 24: 15 and Mark 13: 14, but
partly involved in the view taken about the
there is an interpretative expression in Luke apocalyptic nature of the passage. If it is
21 :20. The phrase is undoubtedly taken from merely predictive and apocalyptic, then some
Dan.11:31 and 12:11, where the AV reads idolatrous image may possibly be intended; but
"the abomination that maketh desolate"; it is
if our Lord's words are to be construed as
possible also that Dan. 8:13 and 9:27 con- prophetic in style, displa}'ing that spiritual in-
tribute to the conception. Most expositors have sight which belongs to true prophecy, then it
been of the opinion that the passages in Daniel may not be necessary to look for such an image
allude to the idolatrous desecration of the tem- but rather for something having a vital bearing
ple by Antiochus Epiphanes. On Dec. 15, on the behavior of the Jewish nation. Lnterpre-
168 B.a., a pagan altar was built on the site of tative guidance is given in the record I)reserved
the great altar of burnt sacrifices, and ten days by Luke, which reads: "When yc shall see
later heathen sacrifice was offered on it. The Jerusalem compassed with armies, then know
Alexandrian Jews interpreted Daniel's I)roph- that the desolation thereof is nigh" (Luke
ecy in this way. I Mace. 1 : 54 reads: 6kodo7"G- 21:20). Writing for Gentiles, it would seem
san bdelygina erem6se6s epi to thusiasterion. that Luke has replaced the obscure and mys-
The altar was erected to Zeus Olympios, the terious word Z7dezyg7i®a by a term more intelli-
Hebrew rendering of which name was bo`c}Z gible to his readers. This is not, as some have
S¢t"4!yjow. S. R. Driver points out that the title said, to alter the Lord's meaning, but to ex-
Z7a`¢Z `€¢i%czy;t% is often found in Phoenician plain it. On the princi|)le of inter|)refing Scrip-
and Aramaic inscriptions. By a change of the ture by Scripture, therefore, the "abomination
first word and a pun on the second this of desolation" must mean the Roman troops.
Aramaic title for ``Lord of Heaven" was con- Matthew's reference to the abomination stand-
temptuously reduced to `€;qqrfu$ 5dt„g7", mean- ing "in the holy i]lace" does not require to be
ing "abomination of horror" or "abomination understood of the temple, but may equally indi-
of desecration." Moffatt renders it "appalling cate the holy "land." The historical fulfilment
horror," but this seems to represent only one of the prophecy occurred first under Cestius
side of its significance. The term 5jqqtl§ stands (Callus) in A.D. 66, then under Vespasian (A.I).
for that which is foul, disgusting, and hateful; 68), then under Titus (A.D. 70). It is possibly a
567#e7" signifies that which descrates or de- superficial mistake to associate the abomina-
stroys what is good. The phrase therefore tion with the eagles of the Roman standards,
stands for that which utterly desecrates a holy for these had already been in the ``land" long
thing or place. It can thus refer to the idola- enough. It was the encirclement (kt4k]ott-
trous image set up by Antiochus Epiphanes or t"e"6#) of Jemsalem by besieging forces of the
to any other abhorrent object, person, or event Roman army that constituted the sign. The
which defiles that which is holy. participle is in the present tense and shows
ABRAHAM 18

that the Christians were to flee when they lished in Gen.15: 1-20, it is not Abraham but
saw the city "being compassed" with armies. the theophany representing God who passes
The presence of the Roman army was thus a between the divided pieces of the animals to
bdelyg7#¢ of the worst kind and one that pre- confirm the covenant. Hence this covenant
saged coming ruin. The word bde!yg7#¢ was must be understood not as a pact or contract
not too strong an expression to describe this in- between equals but rather as a disposition or
vasion, for it was detestable indeed that testament in which God declares his gracious
heathen feet should defile the holy land and intentions for man (cf. Gal. 3:15,17). The
that the ungodly should come into the heri- promises show that redemption will ultimately
tage of the Lord. (The participle ``standing" is be universal in scope, because all nations will
masculine and possibly points away from the find blessing in Abraham's seed (Gen. 12:3;
thought of an altar or image and might sug- 18: 18; 22: 17-18).

gest "the abominable o"e.") Some thirteen years after the covenant of
Alford rejects the view that the encirclement Gen. 15, God instituted the rite of circum-
of Jerusalem with armies is identical with the cision, not as a condition for entry into cove-
Z7delygma and argues that Matthew and Mark, nantal blessings, but as a sign for Abraham,
writing for Jews, give the j7i7®er or domestic
his household, and his posterity to indicate the
sign Of the coming desolation, this being some claim that such blessings were already being
desecration of the holy place by factious Jew- enjoyed (Gen. 17:9-14). Thus Paul con-
ish parties, and that Luke gives the otitw¢rd cludes that circumcision or any work by which
state of things corresponding to this sign. Con- men seek to distinguish themselves is of no
value in gaining the blessings of the c`ovenant
ceiving of the "abomination of desolation" as
one thing and the encircling Roman armies as of grace (Ron. 4: 1-12). It therefore follows
another, he nevertheless unites them in the that the seed Of Abraham to whom such bless-
event which occurred at the historical moment ings belong is not coextensive with Abraham's
of which the Lord speaks. The question is an physical posterity who receive circumcision
open one, of course, and Alford's view has (Ron. 9:6-8) but rather with those who,
much to commend it; but it seems preferable whether circumcised or not, imitate Abraham's
faith (Gal. 3:7). It is proper to term these
to take the simpler view, which explains the "the seed of Abraham" because the faith they
abomination in terms of the Roman army.
It would appear that Jesus intends to foretell exhibit stems from their union with Christ,
a desecration Of the temple and c.ity in a
who, according to his human nature, was o£
Abraham's physical posterity (Gal. 3: 16, 29).
manner not unlike that brought about by An-
tiochus Epiphanes. The words of Daniel The Genesis narrative shows how God
seemed to find a second fulfilment, and Rome worked to develop Abraham's faith to the ex-
has taken the place o£ Syria. tent that he became confident that God would
See also ANTlcHRlsT. fulfil his promises even though it meant over-
BIBLIOGRAPHY coming the deadness of his and Sarah's bodies
(Ron. 4:17-22) and the death decreed for
A.A+.BkoB::seojr£#£9E'£c%::g.;„W'tjgzj°:;A|£.st';"in:%;
Isaac (Heb.11: 17-19). Since the incarnation
¥!:.k;.§MLi?i:S::;#sfng„€;:#„ats:;:.:e.,gt£.rsfrha,ik?±S.B£,: the elect have faith which is qualitatively the
same as Abraham's in that they believe in God
ERNEST FREDERICK KEVAN
who raised up Jesus from the dead (Ron.
4:23-25). The works of love are a necessary
ABRAHAM. God's promises to Abraham concomitant to such faith (Gal. 5:6; James
contain some of the first outlines of the cove- 2: 14-26), and thus it is not surprising that, in
nant of grace, on the terms of which redemp- the reiteration of the covenantal promises in
tive history is carried forward and consum- the later parts of the Abraham narrative, the
mated. Rather than stressing the conditions blessings are expressed as conditioned upon
Abraham must meet in order to enjoy the Abraham's obedience (Gen.18: 17-19; 22: 15-
18; cf. 26:3-5). Hence Abraham's life showls
promised.blessings, the earlier statements of
these promises stress what God will do in ful- how the grace o£ God works to bring both the
filling his promises (note the repetition o£ "I blessings of redemption and the fulfilment of
will" in Gen.12:I-3, 7; 13:14-17; 15:5-6,18- the conditions necessary in order to receive
20). When the covenant is formally estab- these blessings.
19 ABSOLUTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY rogative of God. This is basic in the whole

conception Of absolution.
But man's sin affects his fellow men as well
as offending God, and in particular the sins
§g§S:§o;i'§:;:y;::%:;;;;;i;;;7;;i:i:,?#¥:i::;t}j;:;::a!i§:h7:e;i£!i;i.:;;;I; of a Christian affect the whole church and his
No. 4.
relationship with the church. We find this
DANIEI, P. Fur,I.ER
fact revealed in our Lord's teaching concern-
ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. In Luke 16:22 ing forgiveness. He links the disciples' forgive-
f . Lazarus is carried by the angels into Abra- ness of one another with God's forgiveness of
them: "Forgive us our debts, as we also have
t:rh'S#rh.o:tgistmei::wn£:::a]toantifinnkk::P.::: forgiven our debtors." Several of his parables
heavenly banquet to which Lazarus is now ad- teach the same lesson (e.g., the un forgiving
mitted. Reclining at table at Abraham's side servant). And in our Lord's words (spoken first
(cf. John 13:23), Lazarus is thus enjoying the
to Peter and afterwards to all the disciples),
"Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound
privileges of a guest of honor (cf. Matt. 8 : 11 ).
Rabbinic Judaism used the expression also in in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth
a different sense, namely, that of rest from the shall be loosed in heaven" (Matt. 16: 19, and
toil and neediness of earthly life in intimate 18:18), he clearly gives them their share in
fellowship with the father Of the race, who is the matter of forgiveness of sins. Finally, the
still alive and blessed in death. words spoken to the disciples in the upper
Hades and Abraham's bosom are distinct room af ter the resunection give unmistakable
expression to the fact that the church has a
places, not two compartments of the same
place. If Abraham's bosom was intended to part to play in conveying the sense of forgive-
have reference to one of the divisions o£ ness to a penitent soul: "Jesus . . . said to them
Hades, then the other division would have again, Peace be unto you: as the Father hath
been mentioned with equal precision. Hades sent me, even so send I you. And when he
is mentioned in connection with Dives only; had said this, he breathed on them, and saith
the other place is "afar off." Hades is asso- unto them, Receive ye the Holy Spirit: whose
ciated with be;"g j7® tormetet,. the latter appears soever sins ye forgive, they are forgiven unto
to be t7ce co"seqwe"ce of being in Hades. If them; whose soever sins ye retain, they are
Hades were a neutral concept here, then the retained" (John 20:21-23).
contrast with the rich man's former sumptuous Thus we conclude from Bible teaching that
state would not have been expressed. absolution comes from God alone; but, in that
BIBLIOGRAPHY his church on earth is concerned with the sins
R. Meyer on kolpos in TWNT; SBK, 11, pp. 225 ff. of its members, it too has a ministry and com-
MARTEN H. WoUDSTRA mission in this matter, being given a special
"inspiration" Of the Holy Spirit for the pur-
ABSOLUTION. The word comes from. the l)ose. How, then, has this been carried out by
Latin, ¢ZJsoZvo, "set free." It is used in theology the church through history?
to denote the forgiveness of sins, being spe- 11. There is ample evidence to show that in
cifically used by Roman Catholics of the re- the early church the practice was for the peni-
mission given through or by the church. It is tent to make public confession of his sin be-
a suitable word in that the truly free man is fore the congregation, whereupon he was re-
one against whom no accusation of sin can be ceived back by the congregation as a whole
made. with prayer and the imposition Of the hands
I. The Bible teaches God's willingness to of the bishop. As time went on, a natural
forgive human sin and his provision whereby alternative to such public confession was for
justice and inercy are reconciled in the trans- the penitent to confess before a minister of the
action. This study is properly made under the church in private, the bishop or a presbyter.
subject of the atonement (a.v.). Here we sin- In both of these methods a prayer for ab-
ply note the Bible teaching that all sin is sin solution was used, asking God to forgive the
against God ("Against thee, thee only, have I sins so confessed and to restore the penitent
"to the bosom Of thy holy church" (from the
sinned," Ps. 51:4), and therefore sin can be
forgiven only if it is forgiven by God. In the Apostolic Constitutions.)
last analysis, then, absolution is the sole pre- In the eighth century and later, when the
ABSTINENCE 20

Eastern and Western Churches were beginning ABSTINENCE:. The word abstinence re-
to fall apart, we find a development taking fers to a refraining from various extemal ac-
place in the Latin church whereby the presby- tions, such as drinking, ea`ting, marriage, and
ter (priest), hearing confessions, assumed more participation in human society. In its wider
and more the position Of a judge, inquiring in- meaning it includes the whole negative side Of
to every department of the penitent's life and biblical spirituality and morality, but its usual
finally giving absolution in a declaratory form sense involves abstinence from food or drink.
as distinct from the earlier precatory form. Many instances of both directed and volun-
Thomas Aquinas (1227-74) was the first for- tary abstinence are to be found in the OT,
mally to defend this type of absolution, which e.g., the prohibition Of eating of the tree of the
is now used in the church Of Rome as follows: knowledge Of good and evil (Gen. 2:17), Of
Ego te absotvo a peccatis twis in nomine Patris blood (Gen. 9:4), of unclean creatures (Lev.
et Filii et Spiritus Sanct3. 11), and the fasting of Elijah (I Kings 19:8).
The Reformers of the sixteenth century Although Jesus' entry upon his public min-
sought to restore the matter to its scriptural istry was preceded by forty days Of f asting dur-
teaching and early church usage. The confes- ing the temptation in the wilderness, he can-
sional with its declaratory form of absolution not be viewed as an ascetic in either his prac-
was abolished by all the Protestant churches. tice or his teaching. He did not withdraw f ron
Differences of procedure sprang up in the dif- society -weddings, feasts, etc. -nor subject
ferent denominations, but the same basic idea himself to austere practices. He was accused by
may be found in all, namely, to stir the con- the meticulous Pharisees Of . being "gluttonous
science to an inner acknowledgment Of sin, so and a winebibber" (Matt. 11 : 18-19). The joy-
that on confession to God it may be absolved ful inner attitude of devotiori to Christ pre-
directly by God himself . This stirring of the eluded mouming and fasting by Jesus' follow-
conscience is mainly effected by preaching and ers (Matt. 9: 14-15).
prayer, and if there is any declaration of for- In the early church, fasting of the Jewish`
giveness it has the form of a proclamation Of type continued for a time (e.g., Acts 13:3;
the gospel promises. In most cases opportunity 14 :23), but the Spirit-guided conscience came
is given for a public confession in divine wor- to be the determining factor in abstinence
ship, whether representatively by the minister (Ron. 14:6), governed always, not by ex-
or corporately by the whole congregation. ternal regulations, but by concern for the
Protestant thought in general, however, dces weaker brother. Paul advised the Corinthians
not overlook the need sometimes for the con- that food offered to idols was suitable for the
f ession of a sin which is burdening the con- Christian's use except when it offended the
science of an individual. In Anglicanism, prcr weak (I Cor. 8).
vision is made for this by invitation to come to Various types of abstinence crept into the
"a learned minister o£ God's Word''; and in
post-apostolic church as ascetic tendencies
other bodies, and often in evangelistic mis- played their part in the development of the
sions, opportunity is given for private consulta- Catholic Church.
tion with a "counselor" or other Christian See also AscETlclsM, FAST.
friend. In each case the Scriptures are the BIBLIOGRAPHY
HDAC,I, pp. 6-11; Mst,I, pp. 38-39.
basis of instniction, and prayer is used to bring
DONALI) G. DAvls
peace to the troubled mind and to kindle re-
mewed faith in Christ.
To conclude, absolution is primarily identi- ABYSS. The word abyss is not found in
cat with the divine remission. It is used es- the AV at all but it occurs nine times in the
pecially of the declaration of forgiveness, i.e., RV as the regular translation Of the Greek
the assuring of a penitent sinner that he is word abyssos. The RSV uses it twice (Luke
forgiven. It is received on the confession Of sin 8:31; Rom. 10:7). The AV translators ren-
to God, and its declaration is an integral I)art dered the word "deep" in Ron.10:7 and Luke
of the evangelical ministry Of the church. 8:31, and in the remaining places by "bottom-
See also PENANCE. less pit.„
BIBLIOGRAPHY Plummer shows that az7yssos in the classical
M. H. Seymour, The Cotlfessio#al. Greek is always an adjective and means bot-
W. C. G. PRoCTOR tomless or boundless (A. Plummer, A Critjcoz
21 ACCOMMODATION

and Exegedcal Cormmentary of the Gospel of proach (intrans.), is found in six places
St. Lwke, p. 231). Its thirty-five occurrences 18:24; Luke 9:41; Acts 12:6; 16:20;
in the LXX reveal that there it refers some- I Pet. 3:18). The Petrine use of the
times to the depth of the sea or earth while its only use of doctrinal significance, bu
at other times it describes the abode of the of the uses of the noun is of interest.
dead (Ezek. 31 : 15). The chief problem concerns the rendering
The NT uses the word to describe the of the Gr`eek noun. Some give it the intran-
dwelling place Of demons (Luke 8:31) as well sitive sense Of access, while others prefer the
as the place Of torment (Rev. 9:1). Godet transitive sense Of introduction, which early
shows that Paul uses it in Ron. 10:7 to de- was given it by Chrysostom. ``The reference of
scribe the abode of the dead. (F. Godet, Com- all to Christ is further seen in the word in-
"e"£¢ry o# Rot„a#s, Vol.11, pp. 201-2). adequately rendered `access': it describes not
HOWARD Z. CLEVELANI) our act, but Christ's, not our coming, but His
bringing us" (E. H. Gifford, The Epjstbe of St.
ACCEPTANCE. Although the noun form Pool to the Rott®a7is, John Murray, London,
is found only once in the AV (Isa. 60:7), the 1886, p. Ilo). Gifford is followed in the tran-
verb and adjective, representing a number of sitive sense by Sanday and Headlam, Godet
Hebrew and Greek words, occur often. Most and others. On the whole the transitive sense
frequently in both the OT and NT "accept- Of introduction is to be preferred, and I Pet.
ance" refers to the favor and approval of men 3: 18 affords further support.
by God. Under the old covenant the basis for The verb was used in the LXX of the
this acceptance is sometimes ritualistic and bringing of sacrificial victims to God (Lev.
3: 12; 4:4), of men to God to be ordained as
ceremonial (Lev. 22:20) and sometimes ethi-
cal and moral (Prov. 21 :3). The latter is par- priests (Ex. 29:4), and in secular Greek Of
ticularly emphasized in the prophetical writ- the introduction Of a speaker into the presence
ings (cf. Isa.I:12-15; Jer. 6:20; Mic. 5:21-
Of the assembly, of the bringing of a person
24). before a judge, or of the introduction of an
In the NT, acceptance by God is clearly re- individual into the presence of a king (Xeno-
vealed as resting squarely on the redemptive phon Cyrop¢edfa 1:3.8; 3.2.12; 7.5.45). The
work of Christ (Eph.I:6; I Pet. 2:5). This general thought is that Of introducing one into
acceptance man does not merit; it is due en- the presence of some higher authority and
tirely to God's grace. In both the OT and NT power. While it is impossible to prove that the
it was predicated on faith (Heb. I I). However, NT writers had any of these figures in mind,
the regenerate man is exhorted to ethical liv- they do, nevertheless, afford suggestive illus-
ing by the apbeal to live his life "well pleas- trations of the spiritual fact that believers in
ing" to God. Thus to present one's body as a Christ have been brought into the presence Of
living sacrifice (Ron. 12: I), to be careful not a royal and almighty Father by means Of the
Cross.
to place an occasion for stumbling before one's
BIBLIOGRAPHY
brother (Rom. 14: 18), to care for a widowed Arndt; William Barclay, A Neov Testame#t Wordbook,
mother (I Tim. 5:4), and to endure patiently
g:a ]£.4-Z;. #¥a'ai.in?.E;;s,3:u:;ayt,.ion RHo%Ba';sYics6,:clap?
undeserved suffering (I Pet. 2:20) are all 121'
instances of conduct acceptable to God. Such
```well pleasing" ethical living is perfectly ex- S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR.

hibited in the life of our Lord, of whom the

Father said, "This is my beloved son, in whom ACCOMMODATION. The word accom-
I am well pleased" (Matt. 3: 17). modation as used in this article designates that
characteristic of biblical literature which al-
WALTER W. WESSEL
lows a writer, for purposes of simplification, to
adjust his language to the limitations Of his
ACCESS. The English word access (found readers without compromising the truth in the
only in the NT in the AV) is the rendering process. Our concern will be to discriminate
of the Greek word prosc}go-gg, which occurs in between the legitimate and the illegitimate ap-
only three places (Ron. 5:2; Eph. 2:18; plication of this principle.
3: 12). The related verb prosag6, meaning to The following illustrations indicate the le-
bring forward (trams.) or to come near, ap- gitimate use of accommodation: (I) In the
ACCOUNTABILITY 22

realm of theology proper God is often de- even those who knew not law are responsible;
scribed as having physical properties (hands, and they are to render an account to God since
eyes, etc.). This feature is called anthropomor- God has revealed himself to them in con-
phism (q.v.). It serves a useful purpose. (2) science.
In the realm of cosmology the facts Of nature Naturally those who live under the light of
(the sun sets, etc.) are often pictured in the the gospel have a far greater responsibility; and
language Of appearance rather than in the hence on that day when all men render their
language of exact science. This feature is account before God, their obligation will be
called phenomenalism. It allows the Bible to greater and in direct proportion to their privi-
speak in ordinary language. (3) In the realm leges. The Lord Jesus expressed the same senti-
of ethics a stronger brother may, in matters in- ment when he said, ``And that servant who
different, accommodate himself to the scruples knew his lord's will, and did not prepare him-
Of a weaker brother (I Cor. 8; Gal. 2:3-5). self or do according to his will, shall be beaten
(4) In the realm Of didacti¢s pafabolic lan- with many stripes; but the one who knew not,
guage may be employed to accommodate the and did things deserving of stripes, shall be
deeper mysteries to the minds of the unen- beaten with few stripes" (Luke 12:47-48a).
lightened (Matt.13: 10-17). The Scriptures are rather outspokenly clear
The following illustrations indicate the il- about accountability as far as individuals are
legitimate use Of accommodation. (1) The concerned. The subject becomes vastly compli-
claim that Christ accommodated himself to the cated, however, when we think of Scripture
prejudices and erroneous views of the Jews is passages which speak of accountability Of
a false use of accommodation. The scholars groups of persons or nations. Precisely what is
who make this claim practically nullify Christ's the responsibility - hence accountability - that
authority on critical questions. (2) The claim the individual has to society in general? To
that the early church invested OT prophecies what extent does the individual iDcur guilt for
with a meaning they cannot bear is another the moral depravity of society? No one can
false use of accommodation. The scholars who say categorically what Paul's answer would be.
advance this claim practically empty the OT There is surely a responsibility somewhere
of real messianic prophecy. (3) The claim that in the actions of groups of people and Of na-
the writers Of Scripture adopted ideas from tions which are guilty of planning and execut-
pagan religions and then, after some purging, ing moral outrages on the world. Any uncer-
accommodated these ideas to the religion Of tainty about Paul's precise meaning in Ron.
Israel or to the theology -of the nascent NT 5: 12-21 is more than offset I)y the obvious gist
church is another erroneous use Of accommo- of the whole section, namely, that sinful man-
dation. God's revelation cannot be inter- kind (regardless of how it got that way) is
mingled with man's errors. now offered redemption full and free in Christ
BIBLIOGRAPHY Jesus, the Lord. And now it is the responsi-
bility of every man to repent and believe the
gospel of Jesus Christ, bef ore whom every sin-
gfr#8¥S:erg;'t3£o:i:::I;I,¥%mgJ:S::2#S;HT;RLKa;dr!;:R£]€TD::tg;ifcfa:
gle man will one day stand to render an ac-
WICK BROOMALL count.
ACCOUNTABILITY. This word dues not BIBLIOGRAPHY
HDAC.
actually appear in the formal English versions
of the Scriptures, but its cognates are found in ROBERT F. Boyl)
several places (e.g., Ron.I:20; 14:12; Luke
16:2; Matt.12:36; Heb. 4:13; 13:17; I Pet.
ACCURSED. See ANATHEMA.
4: 5).
The classic Scripture reference on the sub- ADAM. The Hebrew word occurs about
ject is Ron. 14: 12, "So then each Of us shall 560 times in the OT, nearly always meaning
``man" or ``mankind." However, in the opening
give to God an account about himself ." Ob-
viously this text implies that there is a supreme chapters of the Bible it is plainly used as the
moral Ruler of the universe to whom all crea- proper name of the first man, who was created
tures are ultimately responsible and account- by God in his image, given dominion over the
able. This same sentiment is expressed by the animals, placed in the Garden o£ Eden with
apostle in Ron. 2: 12 where he indicates that the task Of dressing it and commanded to
23 ADAM

multiply and fill the earth. Although like other Adam is therefore a larger and more inclusive
animated creatures he is a living soul (%epe5 category than the ``all" who are in Christ. Paul
¢ay7d), because Of his superior endowments-he apparently assumed no one would infer uni-
finds no real companionship with the animals versal salvation from his language in the light
but only with the woman who is bone of his of his general teaching about sin and salvation.
bone and flesh of his flesh. This primal pair The point that he is making is that both alike
is put on probation by the Creator and their acted in a representative capacity and he finds
obedience tested through the instrumentality in the fall Of all mankind through Adam's
of the tree Of the knowledge of good and evil. transgression an illustration of the way in
Under the duress of temptation, they fail to which the sinner is justified by the righteous-
sustain the test, are overcome with a sense of ness outside himself and one that he cannot
guilt and shame, and hide from God their perfect by his own personal obedience.
Maker. Having been found out, they are A perennial question for the contemporary
cursed to live a life of sonow, pain, and hard- Christian man is how to understand this teach-
ship, which shall end on a tragic note as they ing of the Scripture in the light of modern
return to the dust whence they were taken. science. In the older liberal tradition it was
It is, however, for our first parents a curse big assumed that the narrative had no historical
with benediction, since it couches the promise value and many regarded it simply as a com-
of a Deliverer who shall cnish the serpent's posite of myths calculated to answer questions
head. After they are cast out Of the Garden, intriguing to the I)rimitive mind, such as why
a brief account of their family life underscores snakes have no legs, why weeds grow, why
the tragedy of their sin as Abel is murdered women have pain in childbirth, why people
by his own brother Cain. wear clothes, and so on. Others argued that
With Gen. 5:5 (in the canonical books of whereas the narrative was obviously mytho-
the OT) almost all allusion to the first man logical, yet it deei)ly probes those inward
ceases, and it is not until we come to the spiritual movements of man's being in order
Apocrypha, but especially the NT, that the that he may discern the intrinsic nature of his
theological significance of his transgression for spiritual heritage. Hence we have a parable in
the whole race is drawn out. A review of the the form of simple narration. In keeping with
NT data makes,it very plain that the writers a thoroughgoing evolutionary approach, it was
assumed Adam to have been an historical per- frequently argued that we have in the story an
sonality and that the record which we have account of how man matures from the child-
just reviewed involved events in history. Luke like innocence of moral neutrality to the full-
3:38 traces Jesus' ancestry up to Adam. In I blown character of one whose spiritual sensi-
Tim. 2:13,14, Paul refers to the creation Of tivity has been awakened by a responsible
man and woman in his argument for the sub- choice. This development of character was not
ordination of woman to the man, making the without its risks, and the uprise of the spirit of
statement that Adam was not beguiled. In man betrayed him (necessarily) into self-as-
Jude 14 we read of Enoch who was the sev- sertion in a way involving both good and evil
enth from Adam. The most significant pas- as necessary corollaries. In keeping with the
sages, however, are Ron. 5:12-21 and I Cor. optimism of religious liberalism, it was as-
15:22, 45. Here Paul institutes a contrast be- sumed that the good in man and in human
tween Adam and Christ. Sin with all its dire nature would ultimately triumph over the evil
consequences for the race as a whole is traced and that we have in Christ, the Second Adam,
back to Adam. By the one man's disobedience the high point in the evolution of the religious
the many are made sinners. In contrast to this and moral consciousness of the race.
principle of solidarity in evil is the principle With the nco-orthodox reaction toward a
of solidarity in life. By the obedience of the serious attempt to interpret man's life in terms
one man, Christ, the many are made righteous. of the biblical doctrine of the fall and sin, the
Hence Paul can argue, "As in Adam all die, exegesis of the fall narrative becomes more
so also in Christ shall all be made alive." wholesome. The nco-orthodox interpretation of
There are, to be sure, certain significant dif- the meaning and significance of the story of
ferences. We are by nature born in the first Adam is fundamentally Augustinian, in that
Adam; only by grace, through faith, are we en- the stress is laid properly upon the fact that
grafted into Christ. The ``all" who are in man was created upright and fell from a state
ADIAPHORA 24

of integrity. The neo-orthodox school, however, human form, being sufficiently evolved, was
has been plagued with the problem Of how to informed with a human soul. Aside from the
take the narrative seriously in its theological fact that there is no specific evidence which
import without being involved in what is con- biological science offers that this was the case,
sidered a hopeless scientific obscurantism by it should also be noted that the narrative
acknowledging its historical character. It has represents the Deity as shaping man out of the
been commonly argued that the loss of the dust Of the ground; that is to say, the clay from
historical form does not involve the loss Of the which he is formed is as it were manipulated
theological teaching; this historical form is but by the hand Of the Creator, so that there is a
the alphabet Of the doctrine. No one who has special divine intimacy even on the physical
sought seriously to interact with the evidences side implied in the creation of man. Whereas
of modem science can fail to appreciate the we read in the rest of the narrative, ``God said,
Let the earth sprout, let the seas swarm," etc.,
problem. This solution, however, must be pro
nounced a failure, for a Christianity which is in the case of man it dues not read, "Let the
divorced from history becomes a Christianity earth bring forth man." Rather, we read, "And
of timeless ideas which is no Christianity. 1£ God fomed man out of the dust of the
we must believe that the Second Adam was ground." It should be noted further that the
cnicified under Pontius Pilate -and the neo- divine inbreathing, which would be the point
orthodox party is emphatically convinced of at which the human soul infomed the b`ody in
this - then it would seem we must also believe the narrative in Genesis, seems to be simul-
that the first Adam fell not into history but taneous with the animation of the physical
in history. We can hardly existentialize the form. When God breathed in him the breath
first Adam and at the same time insist on the of life, then he became a #e.peg ZMyya, that
historicity Of the Second. In the reasoning of is, an "animated creature." It appears difficult
Paul, in Ron. 5 especially, the disobedience of to harmonize this point in the account with
the f irst man and the obedience of the Second the view that man was already an animated
Man constitute the two foci in the one elipse creature, perhaps for long millennia of geo-
of salvation. If one be canceled out, Paul's en- logical time prior to his receiving a distinc-
tire structure falls to the ground. This is not tively human soul capable of rational and more
to say that we must suppose that the events particularly ethical and religious judgments.
recorded in Gen. I through 5 transpired some See also MAN.
6,000 years ago. Neither the chronological BIBLIOGRAPHY

data which are yielded by a literal interpreta-

tion of the text, nor even the cultural accoutre- fe.:#::et:.T%ise:,.;sd,?:;!e:,i?i.?aF!se:(eei:.!g::,i?n;.'psiB.E:
149.
ments of the narrative, are theologically signifi- PAUI. K. JEWETT
cant to an understanding of the biblical view
of Adam. But though he may have been a ADIAPHORA. In Greek ad5¢phoros means
stone age man living in an antiquity much indifferent. Adiaphorists may teach: (1) that
more remote than has been traditionally sup- certain c}ctjo7.s are indifferent because they are
posed, yet Adam must have been a complete neither commanded nor forbidden by God and
man, possessed of all the moral and spiritual can be done or not at pleasure; (2) that cer-
capacities and resources to have acted as a fully tain rites a7®cl cere"o";es may be admitted to
responsible agent and representative of the the church or not for the same reason; (3)
race, that certain doctr;72es are Of minor importance
It has been argued by many who thus take and may be taught or denied without injuring
the narrative as both theologically and his- the foundations of faith.
torically rehable, that we need not bother our- In 1548 Emperor Charles V got three theo-
selves with the development of man on the logians to construct the Augsburg Interim, a
empirical side, and that it may very well be creed for all Germany until a general council
that biological evolution along lines suggested could come to final decisions. It taught the
by Darwin and his successors is the way in Roman view of transubstantiation, the seven
which the first man, the first human form, sacraments, the Virgin Mary, the adoration Of
was created. All that is necessary is to sup- saints, medieval ceremonies, and the headship
of the pope. It tried to appease the Lutherans
pose that God divinely superintended the de-
velopment and that at the appropriate time the by adopting a modified and vague doctrine o£
25 ADOPTION

justification by faith, permitting the marriage 23; 9:4; Gal. 4:5; Eph.1:5). In Gal. 4:5 it
Of priests (with reservations), and permitting is used of the mature sonship secured for all
the oap to the laity. The Interim was enforced believers (c£. 3:26) by the redeeming work of
by authority but bitterly opposed by both Christ and is contrasted with the nonage of
Catholics and Protestants. In consultation with Israel under the old covenant (c£. 4:3). That
Melanchthon, Maurice of Saxony made the this contrast does not mean the exclusion of
Leipzig Interim for his dominions, conserving Israel from an adoptive relation to God is
certain Protestant essentials, but still strongly shown by Rom. 9:4, where ``the adoption" is
tinged with Romanism. These ordinances were stated to be one of the privileges of Israel in
vigorously opposed by Matthias Flacius, a pro- accord with the witness of the OT (cf . Ex.
fessor at Wittenberg who removed to Magde- 4:22; Deut. 14:I; Isa. 43:6; 63:16). The
burg. He and the stricter Protestants strongly contrast of Gal. 4:3, 5 is comparative, not ab-
attacked the overpliant Adiaphorists, especial- solute. The difference is in line with the dif-
ly Melanchthon. The latter confessed his mis- ference in general between the OT and the
take, but much strife ensued between his fol- NT. The Old is preparatory, the New is con-
lowers and the "Flacianists." It is widely con- summatory. The grace Of adoption in the NT
ceded that Flacius saved the Reformation. appears in this, that by redemption accom-
Adiaphorism was definitely contrary to the plished and by faith in Christ all without dis-
principles of the Reformed (or Calvinistic) tinction are introduced into the full blessing
church. Melanchthon and his friends deliber- of sonship without the necessity of tutelary
ately veiled difficulties under vague expres- preparation corresponding to the pedagogical
sions and treated the concessions to Rome as discipline of the OT period. (See CovENANT
non-essential or indifferent (ad;ap7iora). and TESTAMENT.) There is now no recapitula-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tion in the individual sphere of what obtained
in the realm of dispensational progression. In
5.]eHsseE]h:::i,.dc:#c.#¥:5s;jL;o##,4tto#.¥ovi]#,I.K:8£: Ron. 8:15 and Eph.I:5 nothing less than
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK the mature status o£ Gal. 4:5 is in view. But
it is not apparent that the contrast is reflected
ADMONITION. The Greek word #ot4-
on as in Gal. 4:5. In Ron. 8:23 we have an
thes;cl, found three times in the NT (I Cor.
eschatological use of the term to designate the
10: 11; Eph. 6:4; Titus 3: 10), denotes "a put-
grace bestowed at the resurrection; in Eph. I : 5
ting into the mind." Its verbal cognate, "to put
the same use ma}r appear (cf. Rom. 8:29).
in mind," appears four times (Ron.15:14;
This does not restrict the privilege of adoption
Col. 3: 16; I Thess. 5: 12; 11 Thess. 3: 15). In
to the future. Rom. 8: 15 has a present privi-
admonition what is put into another's mind is
lege in view and Gal. 4:5 is even more ex-
God's expectation. It can and often has degen-
plicit to this effect-the succeeding clause
erated into the church's expectation, assumed "because ye are sons" is equivalent to saying
to be God's as well. In its formal sense ad- "because ye have received the adoption" (cf .
monition is a first-stage procedure in the dis-
also I John 3: I, 2). Rom. 8:23 indicates that
ciplining of a church member. The intention
consummated bliss is the full realization Of the
is the individual's recovery. But the Pauline
filial privilege (cf. the same use of the terms
injunction was: "A man that is an heretic "redemption" and "salvation" in Luke 21 :28;
after the first and second admonition reject"
Eph. I:14; 4:30; Ron. 13:11; Phil. 2:12;
(Titus 3:10). If the person's offense was I Thess. 5:9; I Pet.I:5).
private, the admonition was given privately; if
Adoption is a specific act of God's grace dis-
public, it was done openly, before the church.
tinct from calling, regeneration, and justifica-
But even if it was a private offense, Jesus
taught that it was to go to the entire church tion. It is that act by which we become sons
if the offender would "hear" neither the one of God, and the term in Greek clearly ex-
offended nor a committee consisting of the i)resses this notion of instatement in the filial
relation. The status is constituted by the be-
offended party and one or two witnesses
stowment of authority or right (John I:12),
(Matt.18:15-17).
a right belonging only to those who believe in
See also DlsclpLINE. J. KENNETH GRIDER
Jesus' name. This action is specifically that o£
ADOPTION. The Greek term is 7i"jothesja God the Father-"Behold what manner of
and occurs five times in the NT (Ron. 8: 15, love the Father hath bestowed upon us that
ADOPTIONISM 26

we should be called children of God," and we part of the second century. According to this
are (I John 3: 1; cf. also Eph. I :5, where God view Christ was originally a man who, by a
the Father is the subject of the verb "pre- special decree of God, was born of a virgin
destinated"). (See FATHER, FATHERHooD oF and who, after having been thoroughly tested,
GOD.) As a result it is to God the Father that was given supernatural powers by the Holy
the filial relation is sustained. The evidence Spirit at the time of his baptism. As a reward
supporting this conclusion is copious (c£. John for his sterling character and his achievements,
20:17; Ron.I:7; I Cor.1:3; 11 Cor.I:2; 11 he was raised from the dead and adopted into
Thess. 2: 16, etc.). the sphere of the Godhead. He was thus a
The Spirit of adoption is the Holy Spirit man who became God.
(q.v.) (Roin. 8: 15; Gal. 4:6). The act of adop- This doctrine was a rather crude attempt to
tion is necessary to the filial status, the Spirit explain the two natures of Christ to those who
of adoption to the cultivation of the privileges came into the Christian church from paganism.
accruing from the status, particularly the con- It sought to make allowance on the one hand
fidence expressed in the cry, "Abba, Father." for the human career Of Christ and on the
The standard terms by which the adopted other for the miraculous powers and attributes
are designated are hwz.oj and tek72c!. John uses of deity ascribed to him in the NT. Its tend-
tek"ci almost exclusively; onl)' in Rev. 21:7 dency was to lead in the direction Of Nestorian-
does hwjos occur. Paul uses both terms, and ism, which also taught an abnormal separation
Ron. 8:14-17 is an example of the facility between the human and the divine nature in
with which he can change from the one term Christ.
to the other without any apparent distinction The most prominent advocate of adoption-
in respect of import. There is not sufficient ism in the early church was Theodotus o£
evidence to indicate that tek7.o", because of its Byzantium, although the doctrine appears to
derivation, points to regeneration (q.v.) as the have been centered in Rome. Theodotus was
act of God by which we become the sons o£ excommunicated by Pope Victor (A.D. 190-
God; and the considerations set forth above 98), and Adoptionism was condemned as a
would indicate otherwise. Regeneration is heresy. It later had a revival in Spain near the
closely related to adoption; it prepares for the close of the eighth century, at which time it
new life in the family of God and for the was put forward in an attempt to make Chris-
exercise of the privileges of adoption. But it is tianity more acceptable to Mohammedans, who
by the distinct act of adoption that sonship is placed strong emphasis on the unity Of God.
constituted. Adoption is the kind of action that But it was again condemned in Rome in A.D.
has affinities with justification (q.v,) rather 800, after which it gradually disappeared.
than with regeneration or sanctification (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adoption bestows the acme of privilege ac-
t7,€AdFr.;s!; pRpa.W2]£n5S.%ngt; €hDeEry" Testament Doctri% of
corded to the people o£ God. By regeneration
they are made members of God's kingdom LORAINE BOET"ER
(John 3:3, 5); by adoption, members of his
family (Gal. 4:5-6). No other approach to ADORATION. Such acts as bowing the
God is characterized by the confidence and head (Ex. 34:8), raising the hands (I Tim.
intimacy expressed in ``Abba, Father." (See 2:8), kneeling (I Kings 8:54), and prostra-
ABBA.) And the glory that awaits believers is lion (Gen. 17:3; Rev. I:17) manifest out-
the revelation of their sonship (Ron. 8:19), wardly the soul's internal adoration of the
when they will be conformed to the image of Godhead.
God's own Son as the firstborn (q.v.) among In many of the Psalms (e.g., 93, 95-100)
many brethren (Ron. 8:29). God is adored for his majesty and power, his
See also SON. providence and goodness, his righteousness and
BIBLIOGRAPHY holiness,
Jesus received adoration at his birth (Matt.
2: 11), during his ministry (Matt. 8:2; 9:18;
ifo:*;:jg:rd:E8b|3.fff?;en;:I;j¥;;s"*;is,i.;,s::.,;;a,'sa:,;;:ttsLZo:'peg:# 14:33; 15:25; 20:20), and after his resurrec-
JOHN MURRAY tion (Matt. 28:9,17). Men (John 9:38), an-
ADOPTI0NISM. Adoptionism was one of gels (Heb. 1:6),. and even demons (Mark
the christological errors that arose in the latter 5:6) engaged in this adoration. Truly, there
27 ADULTERY

is no peril in worshiping Jesus, for he is God could not be rooted out, but both men and
incarnate (Phil. 2:5-11). women were often found guilty of this grave
The adoration of material objects is sternly offense (Job 24:15; 31:9; Prov. 2:16-19;
forbidden (Ex. 20: I-6; Isa. 44: 12-20). Adora- 7: 5-22). Even David became guilty of adultery
tion rendered to angels (Col. 2:18; Rev. and, as a result of this sin, of murder (11 Sam.
19:10), the man of sin (11 Thess. 2:I-12; 11:2-5), of which, however, he earnestly re-
Rev. 13), or Satan (Luke 4:7 f.) is likewise pented (Ps. 51 : 1 ff.). Adultery filled the land
condemned. especially through the influence of profane
Heaven's holy citizens revel eternally in prophets and priests (Jer. 23: 10-14; 29:23).
adoration (Rev. 4:8-11; 5:9-14; 7:11 f.). While the penal laws in the Scriptures con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY sider only the actual transgression Of the com-
]. T. Marshall in HERE,. D. M. Edwards in JSBE.
mandment of chastity, the moral law condemns
WICK BRoOMALL
also adulterous practices committed with the
ADULTERY. In Scripture "adultery" de- eye and the heart (Job 31:1, 7). Emphasis
notes any voluntary cohabitation Of a married on this kind of transgression was urged es-
person with any other than his lawful spouse. pecially by Christ in the Sermon on the
But at times the Bible designates this sin also Mount (Matt. 5:28), where he pronounced
by por7®e;¢, ``for#jcatiotc" (I Cor. 5: I), though the person guilty of adultery who merely
this properly designates the offense of volun- looked upon a woman to commit adultery with
tary cohabitation between an unmarried per- her, he having committed adultery with her
son and one of the opposite sex. Where the already in his heart. Equally severe was our
two kinds of wrongdoing are to be distin- Lord's rebuke of the offensive hypocrites who
guished, Scripture designates them by different condemned adultery while they themselves
terms: por"oj, "fornicators" and t.¢oichoj, - were guilty of unchastity (John 8:7). How-
"adulterers" CI Con. 6:9).
ever, while he reproved the wicked accusers
Adultery is forbidden in the Scriptures es- he did not condone the sin of the adulteress
pecially in the interest of the sanctity of the when he dismissed her with the command to
home and family (Ex. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). go and sin no more (John 8:11). His words
More specifically the sin is described in Lev. must be regarded rather as his solemn absolu-
18:20: "Thou shalt not lie camally with thy tion of a sinner who was penitent.
neighbor's wife to defile thyself with her." When our Lord testified against the lax
The wrong is regarded as so great that its divorce practices of the Jews who followed the
penalty was death (Lev. 20:10; John 8:5). loose interpretation of Deut. 24: 1-3 advocated
While the law o£ Moses did not specify how by Hillel, he excepted adultery as the only
this penalty was to be executed, it is explained cause justifying divorce (Matt. 5:12; 19:9),
in the NT as stoning: "Moses commanded us su|)porting in this the stricter school of Sham-
to stone such" (John 8:5). In Deut. 22:22 mai, whit.h likewise limited divorce to adul-
the mode of punishing an adulteress is not tery. As a prevailing vice of perverted man-
prescribed, though in Ezek. 16:40; 23:43-47 kind, adultery will alwa}'s be one of the con-
stoning is mentioned as the proper punish- tinuing offenses among men. For this reason
ment. So also in Deut. 22:23 f. an adulterous the NT so earnestly warns against it (I Cor.
young woman betrothed to a man, should be 6:9; Heb. 13:4; James 4:4). In view of the
stoned together with her guilty partner. Vari- corruption of the human heart it behooves also
ous indications in Jewish tradition suggest that every Christian daily to pray with great seri-
at times the punishment was inflicted by ousness David's penitential prayer (Ps. 51 :2,
strangulation. 10-12).
Since the death penalty could be inflicted Paul does not contradict Chr;st, who in
only upon a person "taken in adultery, in the Matt. 5:32; 19:9 permits the putting awa}J of
very act" (John 8:4), the woman suspected by the wife because of fornication, when in his
her husband of having committed adultery had directions on marriage in I Cor. 7:10-13 he
to undergo an ordeal to establish her innocence commands the faithful Christian spouse to be
or be made manifest as a sinner by a divine at peace in case the unbelieving husband or
judgment (Num. 5: 11-31). wife should break the marriage union by mali-
Though adultery was condemned in the di- cious desertion. In vss.10 and 11 he forbids
vine law as a heinous crime (Job 31 :9-11), it Christians to break the marriage union, and
ADVENT 0F CHRIST 28

that as a word of the Lord, the reference being a midrashic character. To such objections it
very clearly to Matt. 5:32; 19:9, with Christ's has been replied that textual and literary criti-
express statement "e,xce|)t it be for fornication" cism do not lend support to theories of in-
clearly understood. In vss. 12 and 13 Paul ad- terpolation. Scientists are more hesitant now
dresses to Christians, joined in mixed marriages than formerly to rule out the possibility of
to unbelievers a new i]rovision, which Christ miracle. Beginning his narrative where he
had not considered when addressing Jews, does, Mark had no occasion to mention the
namely, that if the unbelieving si)ouse desires birth of Jesus. John, who was probably ac-
to break the marriage bond by deserting the quainted with Luke's narrative, if not with
Christian, the latter is not bound, but is free Matthew's also, makes a general statement
to marry. about the incarnation (John 1 : 14) which cer-
See also FORNlcATloN, DlvoRCE. tainly does not stand in contradiction to either
BIBLIOGRAPHY of these. No statement in the NT can be
LC; ISBE; NSBD; SI-IERK; LS|., `VDB. shown to be at variance with these Gospel
stories of the manner of Christ's birth. On the
J. THEODORE MUELLER
other hand, if he came from God in a unique
sense, there is nothing improbable in the view
ADVENT OF CHRIST. The word advent that he came also in a unique way. The re-
is derived from the Latin ¢dt7e7ttws, which in peated witness of the NT to his sinlessness is
certain contexts corresponds to the Greek best accounted for by accepting the reliability
pal-ottsja. The latter term, however, occurs in of the story of the virgin birth (q.v.) The ob-
the NT only with reference to the second ad- jections raised by Schuerer and others to
vent. But in second century Christian litera- Luke's account of the census have been
ture it is applied to both comings of Christ. largely met by the evidence` adduced by Sir
Thus Justin Martyr distinguishes between the William M. Ramsay, Adol£ Deissmann, and
first and second i7a7.oiisia in the DZ¢logwe other scholars of repute. It is now known that
¢gfli.7tst Ti-yp7to, chaps. 52 and 121. A NT a census was held every fourteen years in the
word used in connection with both advents is first century, in Egypt at any rate, and that
epiphcz7¢ejfl, which denotes the first advent in all absent from home were instructed to re-
11 Tim. I : 10. Two words referring to the first turn for purposes of enrolment. Since Herod
advent only are eJet4s;s (Acts 7:5) and eisodos was only a vassal king and Augustus is known
(Acts 13:24). The OT and the NT alike fos- to have required an oath of allegiance from all
ter a forward gaze to an anticipated coming of Jews during the latter part of his vassal's reign,
the Lord. In this article we are concerned with Schuerer's objection that his kingdom would
the first advent alone. have been exempt from the taxation order has
The sources of our knowledge of the cir- no weight. Epigraphical evidence points to two
cumstances of the Saviour's entrance into the periods of tenure of official office in Syria in
world are limited to the birth and infancy mar- the case of Quirinius. The earlier of these
ratives in the first and third gospels. The would appear to correspond with the last years
whole NT witnesses to the fact of the in- o£ Herod's reign or the years immediately fol-
carnation, but only in Matt. I : 18 -2:23 and lowing his death in 4 B.a. If the latter be as-
Luke 1:5 -2:39 are we told how and when sumed, Luke may be understood to mean that
it took place. The historicit}7 of these passages a census begun in Herod's reign was brought
has been challenged on several grounds since to completion during the time when Quirinius
the beginning of the twentieth century, chiefly held office. Vincent Taylor, while expressing
on account of the supernatural element which the opinion that the difficulties o£ Luke's mar-
they include, the fac`t that no mention of the rative have not yet been overcome, points to
`Jirgin birth api)ears in the second and fourth the vindication of his accuracy in the case of
gospels, the lack of evidence from secular Lysanias (Luke 3: 1) as a warning against too
sources to support the description of the en- hastily concluding that Luke has erred in this
rollment, and not least, the statement placing matter CV. Tay\or, The Life and Ministry of
it within the period when Quirinius was Gov- Jestis, Macmillan Publishing Co. Ltd., Lon-
ernor of Syria (Luke 2:1-5). It has been don, 1955, p. 43). It is safe to say that the
maintained that they formed no part of the substantial support provided by archaeological
Gospels in their original form or that they have research for many Lukan passages formerly
29 ADVENT OF CHRIST

questioned makes strongly probable his relia- gle precise parallel). He also draws attention
bility in the present instance. indirectly to the fulfilment of earlier promises
The Contents of the birth narratives indi- when he traces the genealogy of Jesus f ron
cate that Jesus was born at Bethlehem in Abraham and David (Matt.I:I). Harmoni-
Judaea, of a virgin mother descended from zation of this genealogy and that given in Luke
David, in humble circumstances, in 4 B.c. Al- 3:23-38 is difficult. The most probable solu-
though the world at large and even the Jewish tion of the main problem appears to be found
world was unaware of the event, it was not in assuming that Matthew provides the legal
entirely unobserved nor unexpected. Angelic and royal descent in virtue of which Joseph,
intimation, such as had preceded the birth of and Jesus as his adopted son, would have a
Isaac and Samson in OT times and John the claim to the throne if it were continued. Then
Baptist in the NT era had been made some Luke's genealogy will represent the natural
time previously, first to Mary and later to Jo- line to which ultimately Joseph, as the hus-
seph, to whom she was betrothed (Luke 1 :26- band of Mary, belonged.
38; Matt. 1 :20-21 ). In both cases mention was The Time in the history of the world at
made of the action of the Holy Spirit in the which the advent took place is called by Paul
"the fulness of times" (Gal. 4:4). This expres-
conception of the Child, the name to be given
him, and the nature of his mission, but the sion m{iy have a twofold application, indicating
language used was not identical, though not on the one hand that it was the time foreor-
contradictory. Pious shepherds learned of the dained by God, and implying on the other that
Saviour's birth from an angel who was joined prevailing world conditions rendered that time
by an angelic choir, praising God above the the most ap|)ropriate for the Saviour's coming.
sheep pastures of Bethlehem (Luke 2:8-20). The history of the age serves to illustrate this.
A brilliant star and the ancient prophecy of Since 63 B.c. Palestine had been a part of
Micah guided a company of Magi to the place the vast territory included in the Roman Em-
where they found the infant Saviour (Matt. pire, which united under a strong and single
2: I-12; Mic. 5:2). The period was marked by rule a larger proportion of the known world
a revival of prophetic song preceding and fol- than had ever previously been so united. Wise
lowing the birth. The songs of Elizabeth, distribution of armies, discreet ada|):ation of
Mary, Zacharias, and Simeon reveal the close methods of provincial government to local cir-
familiarity with the Scriptures and the reverent cumstances, excellent roads linking Rome with
expectant I)iety that characterized the circles the most distant lands governed by Caesar, and
in which they originated (Luke 1:42-45, 46- seas swe|)t clear of piracy all helped to i]ro-
55, 68-79; 2:29-33). The composers, along long the peace enjoyed by subject peoples and
with the shepherds and Anna, represent a God- to facilitate the movements of troops, traders,
fearing minority at the time of the advent, and teachers. Recognizing that the Jews were
whose attitude is variously described as "wait- a unique people, requiring special treatment,
ing for the consolation of Israel," and "looking the Romans granted them exceptional conces-
for redemption in Jerusalem" (Luke 2:25, sions. Julius Caesar placed their religion in the
38). They realized, more than most, the need category of those officially permitted; and, in
for religious revival and prayerfully awaited 37 B.c., Herod, who, though Idumaean by
the fulfilment of prophecy by which it would birth, was a Jew by religion, was appointed to
be met. In contrast to these pleasing evidences rule Judaea for Rome as a petty king.
of sincere religious aspiration, the narratives Palestine at this time contained only a small
provide a glimpse of the incredulous indiffer- fraction of the total number of Jews scattered
ence of the official interpreters of the Scrip- throughout the empire. Dating from the fall
ture and a dark picture of the sinister hos- of Jerusalem in 586 B.c., their disi)ersion had
tility o£ King Herod. been extended through the colonizing policy of
In addition to the reference to the influence Alexander the Great and the Antiochene kings.
of Micah's prophecy in leading to the discovery They were to be found in considerable nun-
of the Child Jesus by the Magi, Matthew bers in all the great centers of commerce, and
points to several other prophecies which found wherever ten heads of families were resident a
fulfilment in the period of the advent (cf. s)'nagogue (q.v.) was usually built. There the}'
Matt.I:23; Isa. 7:14; Matt. 2:15; Hos.11:I; gathered on the day aiti]ointed by God to hear
Matt. 2: 17-18; Jer. 31: 15; Matt. 2:23; no sin- the Scriptures read, and this practice, with the
ADVOCATE 30

continued use of circumcision, became their Of forgiveness and Of reconciliation to God. It

bond and badge, securing their separate iden- demonstrated for all time the capacity Of
tity in the midst Of many peoples. But in the human nature for reflecting, within its own
providence of God the synagogue had come limits, the glory Of the divine character.
to serve a wider circle. The Greek language BIBLIOGRAPHY
had assumed a common form in all the widely
separated Greehspeaking communities. It had 5;t:;#£?t;:;:frG¥t"#::£femn¥##,#B###k;¥'''p§;
202-209.
spread gradually over the eastern part Of the
wll.LIAM ]. c^MERon
empire and to a less extent in the west, be-
coming the language Of the market place as ADVOCATE. The English word advocate
well as of the study and university. This de- is used only once (I John 2:I) in both the
velopment was reflected in the translation Of AV and RSV. It is a translation Of the Greek
the OT Scriptures into Greek at Alexandria.
prrakle-tos, which occurs four other times in
Further, the long years of war and destruction the NT (John 14: 16, 26; 15:26; 16:7).
preceding the reign of Augustus had produced Etymologically the word means "one who is
much social unrest, moral disorder, and re- called to the side Of another," especially in a
ligious bankn)ptcy. To the last-mentioned re- court of law. In the NT it has lost its passive
sult Greek philosophy had substantially con- sense and means simply "helper" 'or "inter-
tributed by undermining ancient beliefs. Adrift cessor." Thus in I John 2:I Jesus Christ is
from their former moorings and conscious of a called the advocate since he intercedes for the
new unity, whether tending to hope or despair, Christian who has fallen into sin. The efficacy
multitudes were wistfully seeking some object Of Christ's work as advocate rests on his prcr
of faith that would give meaning to life and
pitiatory sacrifice (I John 2.2).
peace to the mind. Some sought help by at- In John's Gospel parakzgtos is a title given
taching themselves to a school of philosophy. to the Holy Spirit. Although the Latin transla-
Others became devotees Of Oriental mystery tors rendered the word advocotws even here,
cults. But not a few bewildered Gentiles were the AV translates it "coprforter" in all four ac-
drawn to lean through the Scripture reading currences. This rendering gees back to Wy-
in the synagogue something Of the unity and cliffe, whose translation greatly influenced
majesty o£ God, the moral rectitude required subsequent English versions. There is good
of man, and the hopes centered in the ex- reason, however, as evidenced by recent Eng-
pected Saviour. Many Of them even accom- lish versions, to translate parakle-tos in its ac-
panied the Jews to observe the sacred festal currences in John also by "advocate" or a syn®
seasons at Jerusalem and fom a closer ac- nym, such as "counselor," ``helper," or ``inter-
quaintance with Judaism at its leading center. cessor."
But a worldly, timeTserving priesthood and a BIBLloGRAPHY
Pharisaic party, obsessed with the supposed
value of external observances, yet blind to the 8:?;?|ftich:e;,:8%e%hgrtm,.i?,.s%#p|,'.I,Fp6p5.T7,§,:?9F,s.F:n*e:t.co¥;
inward demands of the divine law, were poor
WALTER W. WESSEI,
comforters for the spiritually oppressed in Pal-
estine, not to say disconcerting examples Of AFFECTIONS. This is an old English
professed piety to the observant eye Of the in- term for any bent, disposition, or emotion,
quiring foreigner (Matt. 21 : 13; 23: 15). good or evil. The AV uses it to translate
At such a time of widespread moral corrup- sphagch%o% ("bowels," "compassionate feel-
tion, increasing pessimism, spiritual hunger, ing") in 11 Cor. 7:15; phro"eo-("to mind,"
weakening Of racial barriers, and enlarged in- "think'') in Col. 3:2; and pqthos (feeling, pas-
terest in the Jewish Scri|)tures the Saviour was sion) in Col. 3:5 and Ron.1:26.
sent. Any states of pronounced feeling may be
The Significance Of the advent can scarcely called affections, although generally only those
be overestimated. It gave new lease of life to which incline the will to action (cf. Strong,
the race and made possible a new type of civili- S}Jste..¢atjc Theology, I, p. 362). They are
zation. Religiously, it laid the foundation for usually distinguished from passions as being
less intense. Affections may be classified as
"natural" or "spiritual" in accordance with
%]odth:xi#?teendcefn°ft£:ecgr:::&nd]e8so¥|Fw°£
preparatory to the atonement, the sole basis their exciting cause.
31 AGE

The affective nature of man is regarded as antiquity or his eternity. Context alone must
one of the three fundamental aspects of con- decide.
sciousness, the others being cognition (knowl- 8. Indefinite Future Time. The word `6idm
edge) and conation (will). The older psychol- means an indefinite reach of future time, e.g.,
ogy tended to think of sensibilities or feelings as long as a man will live (Deut.15:17, I
as functioning apart from intellect and will. Kings I:31; Ps. 61:7). The "eternity" of the
Rather, all three are closely related. The af- earth (Ps.104:5; 148:6) is only relative, for
fections are "springs of action" and are an es- the earth is to be shaken in the final act of
sential part of the religious life as the basis of judgment and redemption (Hag. 2:6). An
love for God and man (Mark 12:30-31). indeterminate future is seen in Isa. 32:14; I
BIBLIOGRAPHY Sam.13:13; Ezek. 25:15. Enduring without
end are God's salvation (Isa. 51:6-8), his
ffJ3;!oth¥:h?;.,!:a,¥id|S,#:p:.a5i:-i.Z8i%:.Ejni!i:ne#giy!: dwelling in Jerusalem (I Chron. 23:25), his
WESTLAKE T. PURKISER covenants (Gen.17:7; Isa. 55:3), the Mosaic
institution (Ex. 27:21; 30:21; Lev. 3:17;
AFFLICTION. See SUFFER. 7:34; 10:9; Nun. 10:8), the passover ob-
servance (Ex. 12:24), Solomon's temple (I
AGAPE. See LovE FEAST. Kings 9:3; 11 Kings 21 :7), the Holy City (Ps.
125:I), and Messiah's rule (Ps. 45:6; Isa.
AGE. I. THE OLD TESTAMENT USAGE. 9:7). That some Of these institutions have
The Hebrew word '6leow means a long in- passed away illustrates again that the precise
definite period of time, whether past or future, meaning Of the phrase is to be derived f ron
whose limits are determined only by the con- its context.
text or the nature of the thing spoken of . When the phrase is applied to the existence
A. Undefined Past Tine. Amos 9..\\ fore- of God, the full idea of eternity emerges (Isa.
sees the restoration Of the tabernacle o£ David 40:28; Deut. 32:40; Dan.12:7).
as in "days of antiquity." Events in past his- The plural, "ages," is sometimes used to in-
tory are referred to in Isa. 63:9; Mic. 7:14; tensify the idea of an unending future: Isa.
Mal. 3:4. Jer. 5:15 speaks of "a nation of 45: 17, "everlasting salvation" (salvation of
antiquity," Isa. 58: 12 of "ruins Of antiquity," ages); Dan. 9:24, "everlasting righteousness";
and Jer.18:15 of "roads of antiquity." The Isa. 26:4, ``everlasting rock''; Ps.145: 13, ``an
expression ``from antiquity" can refer to events everlasting kingdom" (a kingdom of all ages).
in the indefinite past (Jer. 2:20; Josh. 24:2; C. Past cz7cc! Fttt"re. The indefinite past
Jer. 28:8). It can also include the whole and future, "from antiquity and unto futurity,"
sweep of human history (Joel 2:2; Isa. 64:4). are brought together, referring to the existence
The word is used of God's acts and rela- Of God (Ps. 90:2; 106:48); God's love (Ps.
tionships to Israel in the undefined past (Isa. 103: 17); praise to God (Neh. 9:5); the prom-
63:16; Ps. 25:6). It can also refer to the ise Of the land o£ Israel (Jer. 7:7; 25:5).
totality o£ God's dealings with men (Isa.
63:19); and it can also designate merely an 11. THE NEW TESTAMENT USAGE.
indefinite time (Isa. 42:14). In Prov. 8:23 it A. Ai6n as Indefinite Tine.
reaches to a point in time before the creation I. J„ the Past. The word ¢io-7¢, like `6Z6",
of the earth. The hills are called "everlasting" is used to mean an indeterminate period cf
(Gen. 49:26). This refers to their antiquity time. The age of the prophets is "from the
and not to the eternity of matter. age," i.e., from long ago (Luke 1:70; Acts
These references show that the temporal de- 3:21). God's revelation to Israel was "from the
termination of the word must be derived from age" (Acts 15: 18). The phrase "from the age"
its context. Therefore when it refers to God's in John 9:32 means from all past time. Jude
existence, as in Ps. 93:2, "Thou art from ever- 25 has a variant form, "before all the age,"
lasting," no point of beginning can be con- meaning before all time.
ceived, and the word takes on the idea Of an 2. J7? the Ft4ti4re. The expression "unto the
eternity in the past. See "God of antiquity" in age" occurs twenty-seven times. The precise
Gen. 21:33; Isa. 40:28; Jer.16:10. When meaning must be determined from the context.
the idiom is applied to the messianic ruler in In Matt. 21 : 19; Mark 3:29; John 13:8; I Cor.
Mic. 5:2, linguistically it can mean either his 8: 13, it means "never." In other contexts, the
AGE 32

idea of a future eternity is apparent (John stituted for "age" in the first member. This
6:51, 58; 10:22; 11:26; 12:34; 14:16; 11 Cor. same idiom, "this time," is found in Ron.
9:9; Heb. 5:6; 6:20; 7:17, 21; I Pet.I:25; 3:26; 8:18; 11:5; 11 Cor. 8:13.
I John 2: 17; 11 John 2; Jude 13). This age will come to its end with the
The plural, "ages," is used to strengthen paro"s;ci of Christ (Matt. 24:3). At the con-
the idea of endlessness. (a) In the past: "be- summation of this age the Son of Man will
fore the ages" (I Cor. 2:7); ``from the ages" send his angels to separate the wicked from
(Col. I :26; Eph. 3:9). In Eph. 3: 11 we have the righteous (Matt. 13:39-42). The age to
the ``purpose of the ages," i.e., God's eternal come will be the age of immortality in contrast
purpose. (b) In the future: ``unto the ages" to this age. "Those who are accounted worthy
(Matt. 6:13; Luke 1:33; Ron.I:25; 9:5; to attain to that age" will be "sons of the resur-
11:36; 11 Cor.11:31; Heb.13:8). Jude 25 rection" and will be like the angels in one
reads "unto all the ages." The parallelism of aspect: they will no longer be subject to death
ages and generations in Col. 1:26 suggests (Luke 20: 34-35).
that the plural form conceives of time as con- The age to come is the age of eternal life
sisting of a succession of many ages or genera- (Mark 10:30), when the righteous will "shine
lions and this leads to the further thought that forth as the sun in the kingdom of their Fa-
the ages are long but not unlimited periods of ther" (Matt. 13:43). Mark 10:24, 30 equate
time. the age to come with both eternal life and the
The eternity of the future is further kingdom of God; and in Matt. 25:34, 46 the
strengthened by doubling the fom: (a) in the righteous inherit the kingdom o£ God and en-
singular: "unto the age of the age" (Heb. ter into eternal life when the Son of Man
I:8); (b) in the I)lural: "unto the ages of comes in his glory (Matt. 25:31) at the end
the ages." This expression occurs twenty-one of this age (Matt. 25:41).
times, all in Paul or Revelation with the ex- The character of this age stands in sharp
ception of Heb.13:21; I Pet. 4: 11; 5: 11. contrast to the coming age. It is evil (Gal.
A number of variant expressions are Eph. 1:4) because Satan is ``the god of this age,"
3:21, "unto all the generations of the age of holding men in darkness (11 Cor. 4:4). This
the ages," and 11 Pet. 3: 18, "unto the day of age stands in opposition to the kingdom of
the age.„ God; for, when the word of the kingdom is
The lordship o£ God over all time is seen sown, "the care of the age" tends to choke it
in the expression "king of the ages" (I Tim. so that it does not become fruitful (Matt.
1:17; Rev.15:3). 13 :22). Love for this age caused Demas to for-
sake Paul (11 Tim. 4: 10). Paul describes those
8. Ai67® fls c[ seg7"e7.t of tj7"e. Theologically
who live according to ``the age of this world"
the most important usage of c}jol¢ in the NT
in Eph. 2:I, 2 as dead in sins, sons of dis-
is that which designates two distinct periods of
time: this age and the age to come. This struc- obedience following a satanic leading, pursuing
ture provides the background for the eschato- the passions of the flesh; therefore they are
logical character of the work of redemption. under God's wrath. This phrase "the age of
This idiom views redem.ptive history, not as
this world" closely associates the temporal and
the spatial words. Indeed, the expression ``this
a series of unending ages, but as two distinct
world" is a parallel expression (John 8:23;
and contrasting periods of time.
9:39; 11:9; 12:25; 13:I; 16:11; 18:36; I
Several verses reflect this two-age structure
John 4:17; I Col. 3:19; 5:10; 7:31). The de-
without emphasizing it. Blasphemy against the
bater of this age and the wisdom of this world
Holy Spirit will never be forgiven in this age are both folly to God (I Cor.1:20; 2:6) for
or in the age to come (Matt. 12:32). Christ
God can be known only by revelation, not by
is exalted above all authority both in this age wisdom (I Cor. 2:6). The rulers of this age
and in the age to come (Eph.I:21). Disci-
who in ignorance crucified the Lord of glory
I)leship o£ Jesus, even though it brings its re- are doomed to pass away (I Cor. 2:6, 8). Some
wards, often involves the loss of possessions
interpreters find in this verse a reference to
and family in this time, but it will mean
the demonic hosts of "the god of this age," but
eternal life in the age to come (Mark 10:29-
this is not proved.
30; Luke 18:28-30). This saying involves a
slight variation in form: "time" (kairos) is sub- In brief, this age is the period of Satan's
33 AGNOSTICISM

activity, of human rebellion, Of sin and death; who still live in this age. Christians live in two
the age to come, introduced by the parot4sj¢ o£ ages; they enjoy the powers of the age to come
Christ, will be the age of eternal life and while living in the end of this age.
righteousness, when Satan is destroyed and See also EscHATOLOG¥ and KINGDOM oF
evil swept from the earth. GOD.
This dualistic structure is shared by the NT C. Ai6n as a Spatial Concept. Sometimes
with contemporary Judaism (see IV Ezra aio-" refers not so much to a period of time as
6:7-9; 7:20-31, etc.); but both are derived to that which fills the time period. The crea-
from elements implicit in the OT, which sees tion of the ages in Heb.I:2 refers to all that
the world, the scene of human existence, in fills the ages-the world. In Heb.11:3 "the
need of a miraculous transformation by the ages" are further describ-ed by the phrase "that
direct act Of God before God's people can en- which is seen" - the visible world which fills
joy the fulness of the redemptive blessings the ages of time.
(Isa. 65:17 ff.). However, at one important Since c}io-" can bear spatial connotations, it
point the NT stands apart from its Jewish en- can be used interchangeably with kos"os,
vironment: in Christ the blessings of the age "world." See "the coming world" in Heb. 2:5
to come have entered into this evil age. Jesus, and "the coming age" in Heb. 6:5, "the wis-
who will come in glory as the Son o£ Man to dom of this world" (I Cor.1:20; 3:19) and
inaugurate the age to come, has already ap- the "wisdom of this age" (I Cor. 2:6). Possibly
peared on earth in humilit)' to bring to men the "care(s) of the age," in Mark 4:19 and
in the midst of this evil age the life of the Matt.13:22, is synonymous with the care for
age to come. We already taste the powers of the things of the world in I Cor. 7:33; and
the coming age (Heb. 6:5). Through the the assertion that God is the King of the ages
death of Christ we are now delivered from (I Tim. 1:17) means not only that he is
this present evil age (Gal.1:4). We are no Lord of time but of all that fills time.
longer to be conformed to this age but are to D. Aio-# czs c! Pel.so". In hellenistic religion
be transformed by an inner power (Ron. clio-7! was used of semidivine beings standing
12:2). It is I)ossible that. in I Cor.10:11, between God and the world. Some scholars
"upon whom the ends of the ages are come"
have found this meaning in the NT. Eph. 2:2
may refer to this overlapping of the two ages is said to be the cz;o-7} who rules over this world;
and mean that, while Christians live bodily in Col.I:26 and Eph. 3:9 and 2:7 are said to
this age Of sin and death, they live spiritually refer to heavenl}' si7irits from whom God con-
in the age of righteousness and life. This cealed his redemptive purpose and over whom
phrase, however, like Heb. 9:26, "the con- Christ is to triumph. This interpretation is
summation Of the ages," may mean that in highly improbable.
Christ God's purpose in the ages of redemp- The biblical concept of ``the ages" stands in
tive history has been fulfilled. In any case, the contrast to the Greek idea of the time-
NT does teach an overlapping of the ages. eternity relationship, in which eternity is quali-
Therefore, eternal life, which belongs to the tativel}' other than time. Biblicall}7, eternity is
age to come (Mark 10:30; Matt. 25:46; John unending time. The future life has its setting
12:25; Ron 2:7), is a I)resent I)ossession in a new redeemed earth (Ron. 8:21; 11 Pet.
(John 3:36; 6:47). Justification, which really 3:13) with resurrection bodies in the age to
means acquittal from guilt in the f inal judg- come. It is not deliverance from the realm of
ment (Matt.12:36, 37; Rom. 8:33 £.), is al- time and space but from sin and corruption.
ready accomplished (Ron. 3:24; 5:1). Salva- Rev.10:6 does not mean that time is to end.
tion which belongs to the future (Rom.13 : 11; See also ETERNITY and TIME.
I Pet.1:5, 9) is also I)resent (11 Cor. 6:2; BIBLIOGRAPI-IY
Ei)h. 2:8). The kingdom of God which be-
longs to the age to come (Matt. 25:34; I Cor. g,:#.t+;;;,:;,e,I?c7,::',pNPT7;'.tE2;6fl-3,,,i:eu6:;g,iat!%:l!,::'jhL':cps'T?,,,:-'.ie,
15:50) has invaded this age, bringing to men G. I. Ladtl, I.\.pT, 68:268-73.

its blessings in advance (Matt. 12:28; Luke GEORGE ELI)oN LADI)

17:20; Col.I:13; Ron.14:17). In brief, the
redemptive realities are eschatological; they are AGNOSTICISM. In the year 1869, at a
the blessings which belong to the age to come, meeting of the Metaph}'sical Societ}7, Thomas
but in Christ they have been gi\'en to believers Huxle}' (1825-95), invented the term ag7?ostj.c
 34
AGONY

as a play upon the ancient party name g7costjc,

The Gnostics (q.v.) in the ancient church ia:cfos[eTj:,:iec:?g:s:ts%:h%:c-::i,'?et:::;I:,:i;;,Aa::i:s;aj,cfs,oe£:!hdaog.o%
Agnostics.
claimed esoteric knowledge, g"os;s, in matters J. OI,IVER BUSWELL, JR.
not open to public investigation. By the term
agnostic Huxley intended to cover the nega- AGONY. The word ¢go-7¢icl has three mean-
tive philosophical religious views which he ings: (I) contest or struggle for victory, (2)
shared with Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) gymnastic exercise, and (3) when used of the
and others. mind, "anguish" (LSJ, p. 19). As with its
Robert Flint's Agt!ostic;s7" (C. Scribner's cognate ¢go-7®, the idea of a contest or struggle
Sons, 1903) is an elaborate refutation. Flint is the most frequent meaning.
strongly criticizes the lexicographical formation The word is found three times in the LXX
of the word, agnostic, which Huxley used (11 Mace. 3:14,16; 15:19).
loosely, and, it seems, somewhat playfully. Only in Luke 22:44 does it occur in the
Flint and others have pointed out that the NT. Whether Luke 22:43-44 was in the text
ancient term skepticism would have been ac- Luke originally wrote is questioned. Some
curate and suitable. scholars believe the scribes added it to the
The ancient Greek Skepticism of Pyrrho narrative as a scrap of historical tradition not
(365?-275? B.c.) and others was mainly di- found in any of the Gospels. The historicity of
rected against assumed knowledge of the physi- these verses is not in doubt-only their au-
cal world. The same was largely tine of the thenticity as part of L-iiTke's original text.
Skepticism o£ Hume (1711-76). The more Matt. 26:36-46 records that Christ prayed
nearly contemporaneous Skepticism o£ Sir Wil- three times in Gethsemane. The first time he
liam Hamilton (1788-1856) and H. L. Man- assumes that the cup can pass from him but
sel ( 1820-71 ) was pro-theistic. Hamilton's posi- adds "Not as I will but as you will." The
lion was one o£ "denying that God can be second and third times he assumes that the
known while affirming that God ought to be cup cannot pass from him and adds again:
"Let your will be done." The agony or anguish
believed in" (Flint. op. cit., p. 604). This is
very similar to much that is found in con- Of Jesus during this time shows his inward
temporary Barthianism. struggle.
Spencer consciously adopted the negative What does this experichce o£ Jesus mean?
side of the Skepticism o£ Hamilton and Man- Not that he feared death. When Iierod Anti-
sel. Flint says, "His [Spencer's] agnosticism, pas wanted to kill him, he showed no fear, but
as he has always candidly stated, was almost a firm conviction that he would die in Jerusa-
entirely derived from the teaching of Hamilton len (Luke 13:31-35). To be sure, Jesus was
and Mansel" (op. c;f., p. 630). But Spencer's keenly and fully conscious of his role as sin-
Agnosticism, like that of Huxley, was anti- bearer. For a sinless being to be "made sin"
theistic. It is interesting to note that, whereas (11 Col. 5:21) would certainly involve an in-
Huxley regarded the conservation of matter ward struggle. Stauffer suggests (TWNT, I,
and of energy, and the law of the inverse p. 140) that Tesus' agony lay in his deep con-
square, as matters of positive knowledge, these cern for victory (compare Luke 22:44 with
are matters about which some modem phys- Luke 12:49-50). One thing is certain: the
icists are very skeptical. experience is more than human mind can
It must be remembered that the Agnosticism fathom,
of Huxley and Spencer does not imply "I do A. BERKEI.E¥ MICHELSoN
7¢ot know," but, "07¢e ca%%ot know." It is
strictly a universal negative judgment, which ALBIGENSHS. The Albigenses, inheritors
would require universal knowledge for its veri- of the dualistic heresies of the Bogomils and
fication. Paulicians, centered in Albi, a town in south-
em France. They flourished also in northern
See also UNBEI.IEF.

I?TiihS£:RE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Spain and northern Italy during the twelfth
century and were known also as the Cathari
or Patarini.
The Cathari dualism taught a spiritual
world made by a good power and a material
creation made by an evil force. They rejected
35 ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL OF

part of the OT, while emphasizing the Gospel world to come. An allegorical exegesis Of
of John. They formed an antisacerdotal protest Scripture supported these views.
against the evils of the medieval church. Clement was succeeded in the Catechetical
The Albigenses were divided into two School (ca. 202) by the much abler Origen
groups, the perfecti and the crede#tj. The lat- (ca. 186-ca. 255). A biblical student and exe-
ter were the lower order, who could marry, gete of great ability, Origen produced the
hold property, and share in the sacraments of He#ap!¢ text Of the OT. He wrote commen-
the Roman church. These looked forward to taries, scholia, or homilies on all the biblical
the consolmentum which would provide full books; but they were based on three senses of
salvation for them. Many postponed experienc- Scripture, the literal, moral, and allegorical.
ing the consolmentum until just before death. The Bible was inspired, useful, true in every
The perfectj were those who had experienced letter, but the literal interpretation was not
the consolmentum. They had been forgiven necessarily the correct one. Indebted, like
all their sins and hence must remain celibate Clement, to the Greeks, Origen was not as
or separate from their wives. They were pro- admiringly dependent upon them. His con-
hibited from eating meat, milk, or eggs, since ception was of a great spiritual universe, pre-
these resulted from sexual activity. They could sided over by a beneficent, wise, and personal
not wage war or hold real estate. being. Alexandrian Christology makes its be-
Though protected by William IX, Duke of ginnings with Origen. Through an eternal gen-
eration of the Son, the Logos (q.v.), God com-
Aquitaine, Innocent Ill ordered the Cister-
cians to preach a crusade against them in municates himself from all eternity. There is
1209, but it failed. In 1229 the war ended a moral, volitional unity between the Father
with the Albigenses still in existence. The In- and the Son, but an essential unity is ques-
tionable. The world Of sense provides the
quisition of the fourteenth century succeeded
in stamping them out. theater of redemption for fallen c.reatures who
BIBLIOGRAPHY
range from angels through men to demons. By
the incarnation the Logos is the mediator of
#5€s;o;::acehE::i:',VI:£j:,;e°:i;'£e]oT:he#ige£;'£e::ij:s.%ae:rhfas:?ei2:#:: redemption. He took to himself a human soul
Medieval Manicee. in a union that was a 7.e"6sis. It was, there-
SHERMAN RODDY fore, proper to say that the Son of God was
born an infant, that he died (De pr;"c. 11. vi.
ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL OF. It is 2 f.). By teaching, by example, by offering
probable that Christianity came to Alexandria himself a propitiatory victim to God, by paying
in apostolic tilpes, though the tradition that it the devil a ransom, Christ saves men. Men
was first brought by John Mark cannot be gradually free themselves from the earthy by
verified. The indications are that Christianity meditation, by abstinence, by the vision o£
was well established in middle Egypt by A.D. God. A purging fire may be needed in the
150. (H. I. Bell, HTR xxxvii, p. 204) and process. Although this world is neither the first
that Alexandria was its port of entry and sup- nor the last of a series, there will ultimately
porting base. come the restoration of all things. Flesh, mat-
Clement o£ Alexandria became head of the will disappear, spirit only will remain, and
Catechetical School about 190. A philosopher will be all in all. How long human free-
throughout his life, Clement saw Greek phi- will retain the power of producing an-
losophy as a preparation for Christ, even as a r catastrophe is not clear, but ultimately
witness to divine truth. Plato was a cherished ill be confirmed in goodness by the power
guide. Sin is grounded in man's free will. En- of God's love.
lightenment by the Logos brings man to knowl- After Origen's departure from Alexandria
edge. Knowledge results in right decisions. his disciples diverged. One group tended to
These draw a man towards God until he is deny the eternal generation of the Logos.
assimilated to God (Stro7". iv. 23). The Chris- Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (247-265),
tian lives by love, free from passion. His life sympathized with this party and declared the
is a constant prayer. Clement set forth its pat- Logos to be a creation of the Father, but the
tern in minute detail in the P¢;d¢go-gos. He future in Alexandria belonged to the opposite
took an optimistic view of the future of all wing, which emphasized the divine attributes
men, but knowledge would be rewarded in the of the Logos. The Sabellian party was strong
ALLEGORY 36

in Cyrenaica and Libya, and this influence af- tion was to the end of salvation. God became
fected Alexandria. When the presbyter Arius man that we might become God. Cyril sup-
be.gan, perhaps about 317, to proclaim that ported this by allegorical exposition Of the
th.e Logas (q.v.) was a creation in time, differ- Scripture Of both Testaments, especially those
ing from the Father in being, he attracted dis- Of the Pentateuch. The phenomenal allegory
ciples, but Bishop Alexander opposed Arius. of the facts is designed to yield the noumenal
As Emperor Constantine found it impossib)e meaning. His most famous writing is his series
to restore harmony by exhortation and influ- Of twelve anathemas against Nestorius, attack-
ence, he called for a general meeting of bish- ing what appeared to him to be denials Of the
ops. The resulting Council Of Nicaea in 325 unity and full deity of Christ and of the cm-
was attended by an Alexandrian delegation cifixion and resurrection Of the Word. In 433
which included the deacon Athanasius. For the Cyril accepted, with the Antiach leaders, a
remaining years of his life Athanasius was to profession of faith which declared that a unity
champion the Nicene conclusion that the Son of the two natures of Christ had come into
was 7.omoowsios with the Father. The adop- existence (be716sis gego"e) and used the term
lion of this term in spite of its chequered for which Cyril had so vigorously contended
Gnostic and Sabellian background was a work against Nestorius, theotokos (see MOTHER oF
of providential genius. GOD) as a description of the Virgin Mary.
In 328 Athanasius succeeded Alexander as Dioscurus continued the Cyrillian emphasis
the Alexandrian bishop. In spite of some dic- on unity in the persot` r)f Christ but pushed it
tatorial tendencies, he possessed a superb com- to an extreme. At the Council.of Chalcedon
bination of the talents of a successful ad- (451 ) the Alexandrian radicals suffered defeat
ministrator with great de|)ths of theological in- with the adoption in the D?fj7.;tjore of the
sight. From this time on, Alexandria empha- phrase e# dwo physesi". The final Alexandrian
sized vigorously the identity in being Of the tendencies produced schism after Chalcedon.
Father and the Son. Athanasius presented, in The great bulk Of Egyptian Christendom re-
his 0" the J#car"t;o" of the Logos, the in-
dispensability of the union Of true God with {e=teedM:£:[pC::::Tisa:S.kcoanmo:he#t:::Ph(a:;t.e)
true man for the Christian doctrine Of salva- proved to be only a temporary enthusiasm in
tion through the life and death of Christ. Alexandria. The arrival of Islamic rule ended
Wholly God and wholly.man the Saviour must it.
be. Through many false charges and five The Alexandrian sehcol with its Platonic
periods of exile Athanasius maintained his in- emphasis was the popular school of its time.
sistence upon one God, Father and Son Of the In its more moderate form it set the christologi-
same substance, the church the institute Of cal pattern for many centuries. The love of al-
salvation, not subject to the interference of 1egorical interpretation was characteristic. The
the civil state. Athanasius also set forth the intervention Of the divine in the temporal was
view that the Spirit is homoo%sjos likewise with stressed, and the union of the natures Of
the Father and the Son, thus preparing the Christ with overriding emphasis on the divine
way for the formula in;a o"sin, trejs 7iy- component was dangerously accented.
pestaseis. See also CHRlsTOLOG¥.
That Christ need not be wholly divine and BIBLlacRAPHT
wholly human was a view which Apollinaris
Of Laodicea did not succeed in fastening upon
Alexandria in spite Of his efforts in that direc-
lion. His view that the p"ewt„a Of the Logos
replaced the human spirit was rejected. His
emphasis upon the unity Of the personality of
Christ, however, became increasingly an Al-
exandrian emphasis and was strongly stressed
by Cyril, who became bishop in 412. The
Logos took a full human nature upon him-
PAUI. WcOLLEY
self , but the result was he"6sjs phys;k6,
and Cyril loved the formula mid physjs, one ALLEGORY. An allegory, sometimes
even though originally ek duo. The incama- called a prolonged metaphor, is a rhetorical de-
37 ALPHA AND OMEGA

vice which represents a sense higher than the times. From Sedczqcs, the rabbis developed
literal. It differs from a metaphor in being ge"£haj dy¢'sad£7„, ``performing acts of loving-
longer and more detailed. Bunyan's P;Zgrho's kindness" and declared such actions to be one
Progress is a classical religious allegory. Bibli- of the three fundamentals of social economics
cal examples include Ps. 80, which describes (Aboth I :2). Talmudic teaching interpreted
Israel as a vine, and Gal. 4:24, which Paul "righteousness" by almsgiving in, e.g., Gen.
specifies as an allegory. Developed in the sixth 18:19; Ps.17:15; Isa. 54:14. By expanding
century B.c. in Greece, this system of interpre- Prov. 10:2, the rabbis infused into almsgiving
tation invaded biblical scholarship through an intense religious connotation. The messianic
Philo of Alexandria (20 B.c.-A.D. 42). Origen era will be expedited by the universal practice
(182-251) postulated three levels of truth in of sedaq£ (Baba Bathra loa). Systematic and
Scripture: (I) the literal or fleshly sense; (2) even enforced almsgiving were developed in
the moral sense; and (3) the pneumatic sense. post-captivity times, even though pure motiva-
Allegory was widely employed in the A]exan- tion was recognized as of importance (Suk.
drian school (See AI.EXANDRIA, ScHool. oF) to 49b). The personality of the beneficiary must
remove anthropomorphisms and crude literal- be respected, and the bestowal of charity
isms which offended the Greek mind. Augus- should not be performed in such a way as to
tine adopted a modified allegorical system on humiliate or embarrass the recipient. Ostenta-
the basis of 11 Cor. 3:6. Jerome is chiefly re- lion in dispensing alms was deplored; but, be-
sponsible for introducing allegory into the Ro- ing overzealous in religious performance, cer-
man church, and this subsequently became one tain of the Pharisee sect yielded to this unbe-
of the great issues of the Reformation. Luther, coming manifestation (Matt. 6:2).
Melanchthon, and Calvin rejected allegory be- Born of the early association of charity and
cause it is subjective and uncontrolled. righteousness, noble Jewish institutions c`ame
See also INTERPRETATloN (BIBLlcAL). into existenc`e whic`h made monetary loans free
DAVID H. WALLACE of interest and without tangible security, i`on-
ducted burial services, and even I)rovided dow-
ALMIGHTY. See GOD.
ries and trousseaux for poor girls. Ci`re of` the
ALMS, ALMSGIVING. The Mosaic law poor was a messianic injunction (Mi`tt. 6: I-4;
enjoined beneficence in both action and atti- Luke 14: 13) and a Christian itractii`c (Gal.
tude toward the poor and afflicted (cf . Deut. 2:10; Acts 11:27-30; Ron. 15:26; I Cor.
I 5 : 7; 24: 13). It bestowed rights and privileges 16,I-4).
which included gleaning (Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. BIBLIOGRAPHY
24:19, 21), sabbatical and jubilee year bene- JclwEnc; LXX.
LAWRENCE DUFF-FORBES
fits (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:6, 25-30, 39-42, 47-
54; Deut.15:12-15), tithe portions (Deut. ALPHA AND OMEGA. The phrase, Al-
14:28; 26:12, 13), prompt wage I)ayment pha and Omega, is the rendering of the Greek
(Lev. 19: 13), freedom from usury and reten- expression to c][pha kai to a-, which is found in
tion of pledges (Lev. 25:35, 37; Ex. 22:25- three places in the NT (Rev. I:8; 21:6;
27), and beneficial particii)ation in joyous 22: 13). It is also found in the Textus Recep-
festivals (Deut.16:11,14; cf. Neh. 8:10). tus of Rev. I : 11, but modern scholarship large-
The ethical concept of sed¢qd is biblically as- ly regards it as not genuine in this I)lace.
sociated with all who express the enjoined atti- In this |>hrase there is probably a reference
tude and activity (Deut. 25:13). No single to the Jewish employment of the first and last
word in the English exactly conveys the mean- letters of the Hebrew all)habet to indicate the
ing of sed4!44, which is derived from a Hebrew totality of a thing. "The symbol !' was regarded
root meaning justice, righteousness. The blend as ini`luding the intcrmediatc letters, and stood
of ideas between almsgiving and righteousness for totality; and thus it fitly represented the
is illustrated where the LXX translated the Shekinah . . ." (H. 8. Swcte, The Apoccilypse
word as "alms" in Deut. 25: 13 and Dan. 4:24 of St. Jo777?, Eerdmans Publishing Company,
(27, AV). The same association is manifested Grand Rcl|)ids, Michigan,1951, p.10). It is
at Matt. 6:I where the Vulgate and some a natural transition to the thought of eternity
Greek manuscripts read djkaj.osy#G7€, "right- when the exi)ression is rclatcd to time.
cousness," instead of elee-i"osy7tg#, "alms." The The expression is essentially the same as
latter word appears in the N7 at least fourteen Isaiah's words, "I am the first, and I am the
ALTAR 38

last; and beside me there is no. God" (Isa. distinguished from the "brazen altar" in that
44:6). Thus, it is a claim that the one to it was intended only for the offering up Of in-
whom it refers is the Eternal One. cense (although blood might be smeared upon
The expression in Rev.I:8, due to the ex- its horns). This stood right before the inner
veil or curtain in such a position that the
planatory phrases that modify the subject, re-
fers to the eternity and omnipotence of the smoke of the incense might cover over the ark
Lord God. In 21 :6 it is further defined by the of the covenant inside the holiest place. The
words, "the beginning and the end," and in NT word for the;se altars was tbysiflstgrio"
22:13 by the words, "the first and the last." (from t7iyo- ``to sacrifice"). Only once is an-
The thought conveyed in the second and third other word used for altar: I?o-t#os in Acts
occurrences is the same. 17:23, where a reference is rna.de to a pagan
In patristic and later literature the expres- altar.
G. L. ARCIIER, JR.
sion was referred to the Son. It seems clear,
however, that the first two Ci=currences are to
AMAZEMENT. Expressions of amazement
be referred to the Father (1:8; 21:6), while
(thamz7ej7®, Mark I :27; exjsta"a;, Mark 2: 12)
the third properly refers to the Son. On its last
and its related emotions, astonishment
occurrence (22:13) Swete remarks, "The
(ektJbe-..sestJia;, Mark I:22), wonder (that4-
phrase is applicable in many senses, but per- troze;7®, Mark 5:20) and fear (phoz7ejsthai,
haps it is used here with special reference to
Mark 4:41), appear frequently in the Synop-
our Lord's place in human history. As creation
tic Gospels as a description of the reaction of
owed its beginning to the Word Of God, so.
varied groups to the words and works of Jesus.
in I-Tis incamate glory He will bring it to its
Such words emphasize the revelatory character
consummation by the Great Award" (op. cit„
of these words and works.
p. 307). Wonder is attributed to Jesus twice (Matt.
See also FIRST AND LAST.
8: 10; Mark 6:6). The word used, thaw7"azei#,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arndt; Charles in HDB; H. 8. Swete, The Apocalypse emphasizes a reaction not so much to the un-
of St. Joh#, pp. 10, 279-80, 307. expected as to the extraordinary. In Mark's ac-
S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR. count Of Gethsemane (Mark 14:33) Jesus'
emotion is described with the word ekt77a7»beis-
ALTAR. The Hebrew term for altar in the thai (only in Mark 9:15; 16:5, 6). In the
OT was "izz7Gab ("place of blood-sacrifice," light of the LXX use Of this word and its cog-
derived from z6gfl!® "to slaughter" or "slay a nates, which emphasizes dread or fear (see I
victim"). Yet it was also used for the presenta- Sam.14:15; 11 Sam. 22:5), the source Of the
tion of the bloodless meal-offering (7#j7i}..d) and emotion is to be found in the awful aware-
the libations of oil and wine, as well as for ness of the implications of the cross.
burning sacrificial animals. Prior to the con- See also EMOTloN.
CHARLES A. HODGMAN
secration o£ Moses' tabernacle, the altar usually
consisted of one or more unhewn stones, and
Ex. 20:24-26 allowed the continued erection AMBASSADOR. The word ambassador is
of such "lay" altars in the holy land after the the rendering of three IIebrew words in the
Israelite conquest. But the general rule after OT: (1) „za!'6k, meaning messenger, or an-
the inauguration Of the tabernacle (Ex. 40) gel (11 Chron. 35:21); (2) sfr, meaning en-
was that Israelite believers were to present voy, or messenger (Josh. 9:4); (3) mglis,
their blood-sacrif ices only upon the bronze meaning interpreter, or ambassador, as a hi-
altar installed before the door of the tabernacle phil particle of Jtis (11 Chron. 32:31). Gen-
itself. This was constructed according to the erally speaking, they were temporary officials
exact measurements (five cubits square and chosen from court attendants to represent a
three cubits high) revealed to Moses on Mt. king or government.
Sinai, an.d it was fashioned of acacia wood The chief interest of the word centers
overlaid with bronze, and equipped with a around the NT usage. It is the rendering of
horn at each Of the four comers. the Greek word presz?ewo-, which occurs in two
There was also a smaller (one cubit square places (11 Cor. 5:20; Eph. 6:20). A related
and two cubits high) altar constructed of word, presz7eja, meaning ambassage, occurs in
acacia wood and overlaid with gold. This Luke 14:32. The Greek words presz7e"6 and
"golden altar" (likewise called t"izz7edky) was gresbewte-s were used for the emperor's legate.
39 AMYRALDISM

Paul's words, therefore, in 11 Cor. 5:20, "Now distance from Jerusalem, or simply neglect, did
then we are ambassadors for Christ," set forth not observe the laws of ritual purity. The
`cz" Ji6-67'es were uninstructed in their religion
the Christian minister as a representative of
the King of kings, delivering a message which and thus negligent in the performance of its
is the very voice of God. obligations. The Pharisees sincerely believed
BIBLIOGRAPHY that such folk were outside the pale of true
Arndt; Deiss LAB, p. 374; MM. religion. Hillel remarked: "A brutish man
S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR. dreads not sin and the ignorant man (`cim
h¢--6re5) cannot be pious" (AZ7of77 2:6).
AMEN. This Hebrew word originally was an
Strack-Billerbeck attempts an identification
adjective meaning "reliable, sure, true" or an
of `fl7" 77d-67.c>` with the poor of Luke 6:20 and
adjectival verb, "It is reliable or true." The re-
Matt. 5:3, but the fact that there were in-
lated verb 67"c}7¢ meant "to support, sustain";
cluded in their number city dwellers and
in the niphal stem: "prove oneself steady, re-
farmers, rich and poor, even kings (SBK, 11,
liable, loyal"; in the hiphil stem: "to regard
someone as reliable, trustw_orthy or truthful," p. 495), makes this unlikely.
In all probability Jesus and his disciples
and hence, "to believe." A7"G7& by itself was
were considered by the Pharisees to be `cm
used as a formula (``Surely!" "In very truth!")
hG-ares because they ate with unwashed hands
at the end Of (a) a doxology, such as: "Blessed
(Mark 7: I-15) and picked grain on the Sab-
be Jehovah forever" (where the A7"e7t signi-
bath (Lul`e 6: 1-15). The Pharisees were un-
fies: "Yes indeed!" or, "May it be so in ver}'
doubtedly referring to the `¢7" h6-d7.es in John
truth!") c£. Pss. 41 : 13; 72: 19; 89:52; 106:48;
7:49: "This crowd, who do not know the law,
also I Chron.16:36 and Neh. 8:6, where the
are accursed."
audience assents to and adopts their leader's
The climax of the mutual bitterness between
praise of God; (b) a decree or expression of the Pharisees and the `cz7" 7i6-6res was reached
royal purpose, where the obedient listener in-
in the early second centur}7 A.i). One rabbi
dicates his hearty assent and cooperation (I
taught that an `c{"1 Jcfl--Gi-e5 could be killed on
Kings I:36; Jer.11:5). The one who prays
the Day of Atonement, even if it fell on the
or asseverates or joins in the prayer or as-
Sabbath! R. Akiba said of himself : "When I
severation of another, by the use of ``Amen"
was an `c}t" hd-6J.e5 I used to say, I wish I had
puts himself into the statement with all earn- one of those scholars, and I would bite him
estness of faith and intensity of desire. The
like an ass" (Pes. 49b). After the Bar Kochba
usage is the same in the NT. Isa. 65 : 16 speaks
revolt (A.D. 132-35) these animosities disai)-
Of Jehovah as the God of Amen, meaning that
he speaks the truth and carries out his word. peared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The same is implied by the Lord Christ when Montefiore, Rabbiwjcal Ljtcrattire ¢ttt! Gospel Teac7}-
he calls himself "The Amen" in Rev. 3: 14.
i?c8S+ToPsPp.c|:,-[]5];,[jp4Br4a6h_%g;SiF[#:Fet:fi:reiswTk'i;S2;r°£:
G. L. ARCHER, JR.
3i#,]nppJ.ac]kgso°_ng2:n]d],Lpapk.el+984C_85';"ott.i"gsjltpp.439-45;
`AM HA-ARES. The term `a" h6-jires, WALTEn \V. WESSEL
"people of the land," is used in the OT o£:

(I) the native inhabitants of Palestine in con- AMILLENNIALISM. See MILLENNluM.

trast to the Hebrews (Gen. 23:7, 12, 13:
Num. 14:9); (2) the mixed population who AMYRALDISM. The doctrine of "h}'poul
resisted the resettlement of Palestine after the thetical universalism" held and taught b}7
Exile (Ezra 9: I, 2; 10:2,11; Neh.10:28-31): Moses Amyrald, Mo}'se Am}'raut ( 1596-1664),
(3) the Israelite people as a whole (11 Kings at the French Reformed theological school in
]5:5; Ezek.12:19; 33:2; 39:13); and (4) Saumur. A staunch defender of the Calvinist
the common people distinguished from the articles of the S}'nod of Dort (1618-19),
king, princes, priests, and prophets (11 Kings Am\'rald felt that a sort of Protestant scholasti-
11 : 14; Jer.1 : 18; Ezek. 7:27; 22:29; 46:3, 9). cism; had emerged, and hc desired to get back
In all of the pre-exilic references the term to the si)irit o£ Calvin's lrtstz.£?ifes.
carries with it the idea of possessing land and Amvrald also feared that the Lutherans
has sociological significance. In the rabbinic might.be rei)elled by the Dort articles, feeling
literature it becomes a purely religious term that they were being classed as Arminians
and refers to those who, because of poverty, along with the Dutch Remonstrants. IIolding
ANABAPTISTS 40

that the will alwa}'s follows the intellect, he external word of the Scriptures. Denying such
taught that God wills the salvation of all, but doctrines as the toti`l depravity of man, original
man's intellect is incapable of causing the will sin, election, and etemal damnation, they held
to believe £`part from the operation of God in that inan possesses freedom of the will and is
the elect. capable of a direct and mystic commun:on
Thus Am}7rald explained double predestina- with God. I-Iucbmaier and Denk preached a
tion while softening its harsher aspects. "H}Tiio- moderate communism along with a radical
thctical universalism" is a confusing term, for i`hiliasm, which brought upon them persecu-
it sccms to favor Arminianism, which it ac- tion by both the Roman Catholics and the
tuall\7 condemns. Lutherans. Menno Simons became the leader
Am}'rald was acquitted of heres}' by two of the Anabaptists after 1536 and brought
French Protestant synods, but the Swiss Re- them into the evangelical tradition of the Re-
formed condemned his doctrine in the Foi-"ittlcz formers.
Cot?se„st.s He!vetjc¢ (1675), which denied BIBLIOGRAPHY

universal atonement and the notion that God

desires the salvation of all. Amyraldism lives ;;hEe!;cz[,:fa%s!:;,,gig:;g:;I:a:i:ttiF:"'±`::fr:1,*::';:'r.;,`;i!R:ttrEeac,oBv::f;tfi:;
on, however, in much of modern Calvinism. GREGG SINGER
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HERE, I, pp. 404-6. ANALOGY. In logic, a form of inference.
DONALD G. DAvls When an object resembles another in a certain
number of points, it will probably resemble it
ANABAPTISTS. A religious group which in others. The Scholastics developed reasoning
api]eared in Germany and other countries o£ from the finite to the infinite by analogy to a
Europe as an aftermath of the Lutheran Ref-
precise science. Aquinas, using as his founda-
ormation but which was not an essential i]art tion the metaphysical scale of being, reasoned
of it. However, the fact that Luther shook the that if both creature and Creator are a part
foundation of the political and ecclesiastical of the same scale of being, then there must be
order in German}r made this movement i]ossi- between them an analogy of proportion. Thus.
ble. The seeds of economic and political I.e- if man has wisdom, by analog}7 God also has
volt had been well planted in the German wisdom.
mind, and only an upheaval of major propor- William of Occam pointed out the fallacy
tions was needed to bring them to life. The in reasoning thus by analogy from the known
Anabaptist revolt, while essentially religious in finite to the unknown infinite. So long as the
nature, combined religious with social, eco- differences between the creature and the Crea-
nomic, and I)olitical radicalism, The term it- tor are indeterminable and infinite this type of
self designates the opposition of this group to reasoning can have very little meaning. This
the prevailing practice among the Lutherans was ignored by later Protestant apologetes,
and Roman Catholics of infant baptism and such as Butler, who wrote his classic A7!¢!ogy
their own insistence upon adult immersion. of Rezjgjo7€, in which he sought to make a rea-
Reiiudiating both the Roman Catholic and the sonable use of reason to show that God proba-
Lutheran conception of the church and its gov-
bl), exists.
ernment, the movement represented a distinct The proper place of analogical reasoning is
break in the churi`h as an historic organism.
seen when it is recognized that God is the ul-
Ritschl found its origin in the Spiritual Fran-
timate source of all truth. Thus when man dis-
ciscans of the later Middle Ages while other
covers the truth in any realm of knowledge, he
scholars have felt that it can be traced back is thinking God's thoughts after him. His
to the Waldensian movement. The Anabaptists knowledge is analogical o£ God's. This fact is
were not a coherent group and represented of basic importance for apologetics. All non-
\'iirious degrees of orthodo,xy, ranging from the Christian s}'stems assume that man reasons
evangelical position o£ Conrad Grebel (1498- univocally, whereas only Christianity recog-
1528) to the much more radical thought of
nizes the fact that all our true reasoning is
Balthasar Huebmaier (1485-1528), and Hans analogous.
Denk (d. 1527). Their common denominator MORTON H. SMITH
was their insistence on the necessity of adult
baptism. The more radical element stressed the ANATHEMA. The Attic cl7®at7}Gt7®fl meant
importance of the inner word rather than the a thing laid by, specif ically, a votive offering
41 ANGEL

set apart to a god, wh].ch was hung in his tem- ANCHORITE. The English term is de-
ple or in a public I)lace. The LXX employs it rived from the Gri`ck H"ac7®o-i.eo-, to separate,
as the rendering for ¢e-re7", ¢7®d in time it came withdraw, retire, and denotes one of the class
to have the force o£ "anything devoted to de- of early ascetics who withdrew from the society
stniction" (Lev. 27:29; Josh. 6:17 ASV). of men, hoping to please God by living in
That which was "devoted" to God was forbid- solitary isolation while seeking victory over
den for ordinary uses. In the NT the AV "ac- the flesh and the devil in meditation and
cursed" in Rom. 9:3, I Cor. 12:3, and Gal. prayer. Extreme ascetic practices characterized
I:8, 9 is a72¢t7ie7#c}. It became a strong word the anchorites, and they gave little evidence of
of execration implying moral worthlessness. a sense of mission to mankind.
Ezra 10:8 is supposed to be the starting point Anthony of Egypt (250?-356?) became the
Of the theory that ¢7®at7iei„a could mean ex- first Christian anchorite, and he soon had
communication (JewE#c, I, p. 559). In the many imitators. The F.gyptian desert and the
Talmud, ¢gre7" is undoubtedly used Of excom- caves of the Middle East were favorite re-
munication. The Greek Fathers employed treats. Western Europe produced few an-
arot7!e"c! also to denote excommunication chorites, probably because of the less favorable
(q.v.). climate. Anchoritism did not prove to be a sat-
Ron. 9: 3 cannot signify excommunic.ation isfactory way of life, and the communal type
because of apo fott Chrisfot4, but rather separa- of monasticism was initiated by Pachomius
don (q.v.) from Christ and eternal bliss (292?-349?), who had been disa|)pointed in
Crem, p. 547). If was explained as excom- the solitary life.
unication by the Church Fathers because of BIBLIOGRAPHY
desire to avoid the appearance of profanit}' Herbert 8. Workman, The Et7o!tttiow of the Mo#astjc
Ideal,
the wish (JCC, i7® Zoco). Though convinced
DONALD G. DAVIS
at nothing celestial nor terrestrial could sep-
arate him from Christ, Paul was moved to the
ANGEL. The term ¢ggezos, from which
desire because of voluntary self-sacrifice.
angel derives, is in itself a fairly colorless word,
In I Cor.12:3 Paul may have had in mind
like its Hebrew equivalent, which can be used
the days of his opposition to Christian truth
equally for human or heavenly messengers.
(Acts 26:11). He now declares that no one
But in the NT it is used almost exclusively
can be motivated by the Spirit Of God and
for angelic beings in the latter sense, and the
still utter this execration. In later years dur-
Vulgate rightl}' introduces a distinction be-
ing the persecutions of Christians they were
tween a7®gez"s and ""#fiws which has been
put to this crucial test, that is, to blaspheme maintained in modern renderings and usage.
Christ.
The term which the Bible uses to describe
Perhaps Gal.1:8, 9 is the strongest use of
angels gives us the clue to the function by
the word. Paul places first himself, then even
which they are primarily to be known and
the angels, and lastly any man under a curse
understood. They are the ambassadors of God.
should any one of them presume to preach
They belong to his heavenly court and service.
another (different) gospel than the one al-
Their mission in heaven is to praise him (Rev.
ready delivered to the Galatians.
4, 5) and to do his will (Ps.103:20), and in
Armf7®e7%¢ is joined with the Aramaic Mczr-
a"thfl ("Our Lord comes" or ``Our Lord, this mission they behold his face (Matt.
]8:10). But since heaven comes down to
come'') in I Cor. 16:22. The use of the
earth, they also have a mission to earth, ac-
Aramaic has been explained as an expression
companying God in his work of creation (Job
in common use like our "Hallelujah" and
"Amen." The usual interpretation is that he 38 : 7), providence (Dan.12: I), and especially
reconciliation (Gen.19:1 £. and pass:"1). In
who loves not, even more, has not any affec-
fulfilment of this mission their task is to declare
tion for, our Lord Jesus Christ will be ac-
cursed at the coming of the Lord. the word Of God (e.g., Luke I :26 f.) and to
do his work (e.g., Matt. 28:2).
See also CuRSE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The function of angels is best seen from
their part in the saving mission of Jesus Christ.
It is natural that they should be present both
rs#bE:S=5xp;s7;=5££fy:£#BpaF3ER%gE®az£#FEC3:c£=L:£R£:
when he came to earth and at his resurrection
and ascension. They are also to accompany
ANGEL 42

him at his return in glory (Matt. 24:31). fulness. He, too, saw three hierarc`hies, but his
They do not do the real work of reconciliation. main interest was in the nature of angels as
But they declare and accompany, and they individuals, spatial spiritual substances engaged
stimmon man to participate in their work o£ primarily in the work of enlightenment and
capable of rational demonstration (S. c. Ge7ct.
1)raise. (cf. Luke 1:46). It is interesting that
between the nativity and the resurrection there ii. 91; S. t'¢. i. 50-64).

seem to be only two angelic appearances in As Calvin saw, the error in so much an-
the ministry of Jesus, at the beginning of his gelology was to treat the angels in abstraction
way to the cross in the temptation and at its from the biblical witness. Even in respect of
culmination in Gethsemane. This is perhaps the function of angels there was a tendency
due to the fact that Jesus must tread this way to rationalize or a concentration of interest on
alone, and that in his humiliation he is made the idea of the guardian angel. The inevitable
a little lower than the angels (Heb. 2:9). result came in the age of the Enlightenment and
The Bible gives us only a few hints con- liberal Protestantism, when angels were either
cerning the nature of angels. Belonging to the dismissed as fantastic or subjected to a thor-
sphere of heaven, they cannot be proi)erly con- oughgoing process of neologization.
ceived in earthly terms. They are almost al- Yet there are perhaps certain legitimate de-
ways described in relation to God, as "7tjs an- ductions from the biblical evidenc`e. The an-
gels" (e.g., Ps. 104:4). Even the two angelic gels ai`e non-cortioreal. They form an ordered
names Michael and Gabriel emphasize this re- unity. The fact that they arc plural means
1ationship. In rleb. I : 14 they are described asthat they are multiple, and multi|)licity entails
"ministering spirits," in a conflation of the two
the existence of individuals within the totality,
parts o£ Ps. 104:4. Elsewhere, in Job and the with a possible gradation in function if not in
Psalms, they arc called the "heavenly ones" nature. They seem not to have an autonomous
(Ps. 29:I), the "saints," i.e., set apart for will, but to give God the`perfect service in
God's service, (Job 5:1), the "sons of God" heaven for which we are to |]ray on earth
(Ps. 89:6) and even "gods" (Ps. 82: 1). Since (Matt. 6: 10). In relation to man, they have
Christians can also be called the "sons of God," the advantage of belonging to heaven and of
we need not infer from the latter phrases, as having the majesty and privileges o£ God's
did some of the apologists (cf . Athenagoras ambassadors. But when man responds [o the
Leg. pi-o C74i.ist. x and xxiv), that they are saving work of God in Jesus Christ, he is
lesser deities. Indeed the Bible clearly warns raised above them, enjoys their ministry (Heb.
us not to worship them (Col. 2: 18). I:14), and will finally judge them (I Cot.
Among the heavenly creatures mention is 6: 3).
made of the seraphim (Isa. 6:I), and more Two detailed problems call for brief men-
frequently the cherubim (Gen. 3:24). Of the tion. The first concerns the angel of the Lord,
angels named, Michael is described as "the who often, as in Judges 13:2 f., seems to be
great prince" (Dan.12:I), and in Rev.12:7 identical with God himself . From the days of
the other angels seem to be led by him. Again, the Fathers many have concluded that in the
we are told that the angel who appeared to OT at least the reference is to the preincarnate
Joshua is the captain of the host of the Lord Logos. Libera]s explain it as the softening of
(Josh. 5: 14). Further distinctions seem to be theophany to angelo|>hany, though without
indicated in Rev. 4 and 5, with the references showing why this does not apply in other
to the beasts and elders, but the exact significa- cases. Another possible exi)lanation is that
tion of these terms is disputed. (See LlvlNG through the angel God speaks so clearly and
CREATURE). fully that he himself can be said to speak. At
From the various statements about the na- any rate, the angel of the Lord in Luke 2:9
lure of angels, early and medieval theology cannot be identified with Christ.
built up a complex speculative description of Second, the Bible si)eaks of the devil's an-
the angelic world. Pseudo-Dionysius proved gels as well as the angels of God, and seems
already the most original and constnictive to suggest in verses like Jude 6 that there has
thinker in this field, arranging the angels in been a fall of angels. This was the deduction
three ascending or descending groups of nine o£ Irenaeus (A.h¢er. iv. 37.1) and many Fa-
choirs each. Aquinas, the angelic doctor, thers; and, while we cannot press too dog-
treated the question with great acuteness and matically a subject on which the Bible is so
43 ANNIHILATIONISM

reserved, we must reckon with the fact that of God, or through the corrosive effect of evil
in grotesque and finally impotent caricature of (annihilationism proper). The distinction be-
the angels there are real principalities and tween conditionalism and annihilationism, as
powers (q.v.) (Eph. 6:12) in a kingdom of indicated above, is frequently not observed and
evil. These angels and their leader were de- these two terms ai-e commonl}J used as prac-
feated at the cross (Col. 2: 15) and will finally tical synonyms. A fourth form o£. advocac}7 of
be brought to condemnation (Matt. 25:41). the ultimate extinction of evil is the view that
BIBLIOGRAPIIY God will fina]l)' I.edeem all rational beings
K. Earth, Chtirc7t Dog7t`tatjc`s, Vol.Ill, part 3, § 51;
(universalism). Over against all the abo`Je posi-
tions, historic orthodoxy has alwa}'s maintained
Fi:::Le.:f:,D::,,::ij.pnTKaf|?,:;.nb|:,",p:..???:,:k6.d:3T,E:?,?:r,":;,cp:;
Sc',t„c,j=, pp.18' 19. both that human souls will eternally endure and
that their destiny is irrevocably sealed at death.
GEOFFREy W. BROpiillLEY
The question whether or not man is natural-
ANGHR. See WRATH. ly immortal I)ertains to the subjec`t of J77}-
7"oJ't¢Zify (q.v.). In the present article wc shall
ANGLO-CATHOLICISM. See TRACTARI- limit ourselves to stating and appraising \'ci.)'
-+NISM.
briefl}' the main evidence advanced in su|)I)ort
of the cessation of the wicked.
ANIMISM. This term is used to cover
I. God alone, it is urged, has immortalit}.
three varying conceptions: (I) that iih}7sical
(I Tim. 6:16; 1:17). This argument, if it
objects I)ossess a life or si)irit of their own (cf .
children with their toys, and some I)rimitives proves anything, I)roves too much. In fact, God
who alone has immortality in himself may and
and occultists); (2) that physical objects are
does communicate it to some of his creatures.
indwelt by spirits, which may survive if the
2. Immortalit}', it is urged, is rcprcsentcd as
objccts` ai.e destroyed; and (3) that spirits
a spcc`ial gift connected with redemi)tion in
manifest themselves sporadically through peo-
Jesus Christ (Ron. 2:7; I Cor.15:53-54; 11.
I)les, objects, or I)laces, whether they be pure Tim. I : 10). The same ma}' be said of life, or
s|)irits (e.g., Jinns) or s|)irits of the departed
eternal life (John 10:28; Rom. 6:22-23; Gal.
(cf. anc`estor worshii); spiritualism). In (2) 6:8; ctc.). It is frcel)' granted that in all such
and (3) the spirits are I)ersonal and may be
fe.ircd or venerated though they are less than passages life iind immortalit}' arc rcpresentcd
£1s the I)ri\'ilcgcd 1)()ssc`ssion ()f thl` rcdi`cmcd,
gods. Generally a class of men or women can but it is claimed that in these c()nnei`ti()ns
contact tind control them (e.g., the Shaman,
these terms do not rei)resent mL`rel}' i`ontinued
u'itchdoctor, or medium). Animistic pcoi)les
cxistcnce, but rather connote existence in joy-
arc found in many 1)clrts of the world. Their
ful fulfillment of mai-i's high destin)I in true
religion is largel}r one of fear. Some hold that
fellowship with God (John 17:3).
all religions arose f'rom animism, animism it-
self having arisen from dreams. See h'IONo- 3. Cessation of existence, it is urged, is im-
THEISM. plied in various scriptural terms applied to the
destiny of the wicked, such its death (Rom.
J. STAFFORD WRIGHT
6:23; James 5:20; Rev. 20;14; ctc.), destruc-
ANNIHILATI0NISM. The word is from tion (Matt. 7:13; ]0:28; I Thcss.I:9, etc.),
the Latin 7t;7?jz, "nothing" and expresses the I)erishing (John 3: 16, etc.). But these expres-
position of those who hold that some, if not sions do not so muc`h impl}7 annihilation as
all, human souls will cease to exist after death. complete deprivation of some eleinent essen-
As observed by Warfield, (in SHERK, I, i]. tial to normal existence. Ph}'sical dc`ath (q.v.)
183) this point of view may take three main does not mean that bod}7 or soul vanishL.s, but
forms: (a) that all men ine\'itab]y ce£`sc to rather that an abnormal set)£`ration takes I)lac`e
exist altogether at death (materialism); (b) which severs their natural relationship until
that, while man is naturally mortal, God im- God's ai)pointed time. Spiritual death, or the
"second death" (Rev. 20:14; 21:8), does not
parts to the redeemed the gif t of immortality
and allows the rest of humanity to sink into mean that the soul or personality lapses into
nothingness (conditional immortality); (c) nonbeing, but rathi`r that it is ultimtel}' and
that man, being created immortal, fulfills his finally depri\'ed of that I)resence of God and
destiny in salvation, while the ref)robates fall fellowship with him whic`h is the chief cnd ol`
into non-existence either through a direct act man and the essential condition of worthwhile
ANNUNCIATION 44

e,xistence. To be bereft of it is to perish, to bc i.e., Zechariah (Luke 1:13), Joseph (Matt.

reduced to utter insignificance, to sink into I:20), and Mary (Luke I:26 ff.); but the
abysmal futility. An automobile is said to be term normall)' denotes the latter. Luke's in-
wrecked, ruined, destroyed, not only when its formation must derive originally from Mar}7,
constituent parts have been melted or scat- possibly through Joanna (see Sanday); his
tered away, but also when they have been so account shows a dignity and delicacy absent
damaged and distorted that the car has become from parallel pagan myths (cf. Enoch 15:86).
i`omi)letel}7 unserviceable. Luke relates the annunciation by Gabriel
4. It is inconsistent with God's love, it is to Mary in her Nazareth home. Matthew
urged, to allow any of his creatures to endure gives an. account of the announcement of the
for e`'er in torment. Furthermore, the continu- birth and name of Jesus to Joseph in a dream.
ance of evil would si]ell some area of perma- The message is threefold: (I) CJ]cl;;-e
7{ecJtc]r!.lo-tiieJqG. This is translated Ai7e, gi-cit7.!z
nent defeat for the divine sov€reignt}', a dark
corner marring I)crpetually the glor}' of his p]e7!a by the Vulgate, as if Mar}' were full of
universe. These considerations are not without grace and dispensed gifts. But the context por-
weight, and a complete answer ma}' not be pos- tra}'s Mary as merely a recipient o£ God's fa-
sible in the present state of our knowledge. vor, "highly favoured`" sa}'s Bengel, "not as
The}7 .are not adjudged by traditional ortho- mother of gi.ace but daughter of grace." For
vs. 28b (c£. Judg. 6: 12) the RV rightl}' omits
doxv as sufficient to overthrow the substanti.`l "Blessed art thou among women" which bc-
weight of scriptural evidence to the effect that
the wicked will be consigned to endless con- longs to vs. 42. The unassuming Mar}' is much
agitated but has recourse to meditation (cf .
scious sorrow. This is apparent from the ex-
2:19). (2) Vss. 30133. "Fear not" (cf.
pressions "fire unquenchable" (Isa. 66:24;
Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17), or "that never shall
Zechariah in vs.13). The name Jesus (=
be quenched" (Mark 9:43, 45), the worri.I Joshua), meaning "The Lord saves," was given
that "dieth not" (Isa. 66:24; Mark 9:44, 46, frequently by I)arents hoping for a Messiah.
48), "the wrath o£ God az7;det}I on him" (John son; it is now given b}' God's command to him
3: 36), as well as from the use of "everlasting" who fulfils Ps. 2:7 and Isa. 9:7. Basi!eja
or "forever", appl}7ing to chains, contempt, de- means "so\7ereignty." The old Latin MS "b"
struction, fire or burning, punishment, tot.- omits vs. 34; but Creed rejects the contention
ment (Isa. 33: 14; Jer.17:4; Dan.12:2; Matt.
of Streeter that such slender evidence proves
the virgin birth an interpolation. Gi7.o-s/.'t7
18:8; 25:41, 46; 11 Thess.1:9; Jude 6-7; Rev.
14:11; 19:3; 20:10). It is worth}7 of note (Heb. yddr`) is used of sexual intercourse (c£.
that, in the biblical record, those who spoke Gen. 19:8); but the tense is not future, as
most about future punishment in its irrevoca- though Mary took oath of perpetual virginity,
ble finalit}i are Jesus and the apostle John, the but present. (3) Vss. 35-37. The Gospel ac-
`7er}7 ones who also presented most glowingly cording to the Hebrews also ascribes the
the supreme glor}' of God's love and the ur,- pregnanc)' to the Spirit. Jesus does not Z7ecottie
shakable certainty of his ultimate triumph. the hol}7 Son o£ God (cf. Luke 3:22) by the
supernatural conception, but 1.s ack74owledge6!
For a discussion of the history of the doc-
as such. The sign (cf. Isa. 7: 14) is Elizabeth's
trine of annihilationism, one may consult with
pregnanc}'. Mary's submission is made in face
profit the article of 8. 8. Warfield referred to of public disgrace and Joseph's dilemma.
above.
The Feast of the Annunciation is a "red let-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ter day" (March 25) in BCP, dated on the
basis o£ December 25 for the Nativity, or in
adaptation of the pagan festival o£ Cybele.
Some claim an early origin from references in
Athanasius or Gregory Thaumaturgus. The
earliest certain mention is at the tenth Synod
o£ Toledo (A.I). 656). In the Ethiopian Calen-
dar it is called the "Conception o£ Christ."
ROGER NICoLE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HDCG,. N. Geldenhuys on Luke, pp. 74-80; ODCC,.
ANNUNCIATION. Three people receive Exp., April, igo3, p. 297.
DENIS H. TONGUE
an ¢7t"[t"tiatj.o (euaggelismos) in the Gospels,
45 ANTHROPOMORPHISM

ANOINTING. The practice of applying oil 3:18;Dan. 10:3), which practice is associated
or perfumed oil upon persons or things. In the with excess Of luxury in Amos 6:6. This is
OT two roots are mainly used: "®d5;a¢ and the NT usage of ale;pho-(Matt. 6: 17). Jesus'
edE (the latter only nine times); in the NT, feet were so anointed with myrrh (Luke
4Zel.pho- and cZ.rjo- with its compounds (frotn 7:38), with nard (John 12:3). Anointing
which is derived the name Christ). The refer- with oil was apparently a household remedy
cnces are most common to the anointing of- (cf. Mark 6:13; James 5:14; and Luke
hngs and priests. Olive oil was mainly used. 10:34). Al ford argues for a sacramental use of
mrections are given for compounding it witli the oil in James 5: 14. The Meyer commentary
perfumes for holy use (Ex. 30:22-25). ascribes the healing to prayer, remarking that
"James does not state" the purpose Of the oil.
The first mention of anointing is Gen.
31:13, where Jacob anointed the pillar com- The Roman Catholic use of this passage to
memorating the si]ot of his dream. In Exodus, support extreme unction is, as Al ford shows,
Ifviticus, and Numbers detailed instructions quite farfetched.
ac given for anointing the tabernacle, its fur- BIBLlcoRAPHY
8. 8. Warfjeld, Collttl.irf.c..it ^4jrac].s,. Amdt, "Anoint"
nishings, and Aaron and his sons. The}' were
thus sanctified, and the priests so set apart :`roif,",hJi,Sis;;`,I;'g.'}`ostDP£!o,:£, 0;p.Jagm7:;;o 8Y. E. Biedcr.
mere not to profane themselves for the dead or R. LAIRD HARRIS
in any other way.
In Samuel the anointing for the kingship is ANTHROPOLOGY. See MAN.
common (though it is referred to earlier, in ANTHROPOMORPHISM. The term (not
Judg. 9:8 and I Sam. 2:10, 35). Samuel found in the Bible - derived from Greek
anointed Saul and the Spirit of the Lord came a#thro-pos, man, and t#orphG, form) designates
upon him. When Samuel later anointed David, the view which conceives of God as having
the Si)irit of the Lord came upon David, de- Jitt"Ifl# forrm (Ex. 15:3; .Nun. 12:8) with
parting from Saul. From these circumstances feet (Gen. 3:8; Ex. 24:10), h¢"ds (Ex.
the meaning of the anointing is clear. It s}'m- 24:11; Josh. 4:24), mot{t/i (Num.12:8; Jer.
bolized the coming of the Holy Spirit upon 7: 13), and heqrt (Hos. I I :8), but in a wider
God's servant for his work, be he priest, king, sense the term also includes jztitiia7I atfrjz7i.fas
or prophet (I Kings 19:16). The Messiah in and e"iofjo7cs (Gen. 2:2; 6:6; Ex. 20:5; Has.
lsa. 61:I is said to be anointed by the Si)irit I I,8)'
of the Lord; and, indeed, when Jesus entered This tendency toward anthroi.omori)hism,
upon his messianic` ministr}', the Spirit de- common to all religions, found such full ex-
scended upon him visibly (Luke 3 :22). pression in Greek pol}'theism that the common
Following the establishment Of the mom- man thought o£ the gods "s „.ortal mc".
archy, references to the anointing of kings Xenophanes (about 570-480 B.c.) reacted
predominate. As messianic prophecies pointe(1 strongly, accusing man of making the gods in
ever more clearly to David's seed, "the his (man's) own image. Later developments in
anointed," rna-5z.a!t, became first a description, Greek thought considered 77te« ds w®o7.tczz gods
then a title of the Messiah (q,vJ to come. In- (an earl}' form of humanism) or viewed God
stances are seen in Ps. 45:7 and especiall}' in the metaph}'sii`al sense of pure, absolute
ham. 9:25, 26. Whether the word t"d5jab here Being. The transcendentalism of the latter in-
is a title or description ("the anointed") is I.er- fluenced the hellenistic Jews of Egypt so that
haps less important than it is [o realize that in the translators Of the Greek OT, the Sep-
either case it is a prophecy of the coming king tuagint (LXX), made during the third and
of David's line (cf. John 4:25). The title is second centuries B.c,, felt compelled to alter
widespread in the intertestamental literature some Of the anthroi)omorphisms. For example,
and Dead Sea material. where the Hebrew reads "they saw the God o£
Oil was also used for anointing in non-re.. Israel" (Ex. 24:10) the LXX has "the}' saw
Iigious contexts. Isa. 21:5 and probably 11 the place where the God of Israel stood"; and
Sam.I:21 speak Of anointing a shield. The for "I will speak with him mouth to mouth"
purpose is not stated. Perhaps it would serve (Num. 12:8) the LXX translates "I will speak
as a preservative if the shield were Of leather to him mouth to mouth apparently."
or iron. Anointing with oil or perfumed oil However, the OT, if read with empath}' and
was also practiced for cosmetic purposes (Re`J. understanding, reveals a spiritual development
ANTICHRIST 46

which is a corrective for either a crude, literal- pletely like us" (D. Elton Trueblood, Ph;Zoso-
istic view of anthropomori)hism or the equall}' phy of Re]jgJ.o7z, Hart)er, 1957, p. 270). Para-
false abhorrence of an}' anthropomor|)hic e<\-- doxical as it may seem, there is a mediating
pressions. The "image of God" crcdted in man I)osition which finds the answer in the incar-
(Gen.I:27) was in the realm of personalit}, nation of Jesus the Christ, who said, "He who
of spirit, not of human form. Because the Is- has seen me ht`s seen the Father" (John 14:9).
]aelites "saw no foi.in" (Deut. 4: 12) at Sinai,. Finite man will ever cling to the anthropomor-
they vvere I)rohibited images in any form: male phism of the incarnation and the concept Of
or female, beast, bird, creel)ing thing, or f ish God as Father (Matt. 7: 11), but at the same
(Deut. 4:15-19). The NT declaration o£ time he will realize the im|)ossibility of ab-
solute, complete comprehension o£ God, for
Jesus, .`God is si)irit, and those who worship "my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither
him must worshi|) in s|)irit and tl.uth" (John
4:24), is anticipated by Job 9:32, Ps. 50:21, are }'our ways my ways, says the LORD" (Isa.
and Hos.11:9. 55:8).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The anthropomorphism of the Israelites was
an attempt to e,xpress the non-rational aspects
of religious experience (the 7ri}'stel'jti77¢ Ire-
tice%c{i.77?, "aweful majest}7," discussed by Ru-
dolf Otto) in terms of the rational, and the `:-------::---I-:----.---::

earl}7 expressions of it were not as "crude" as DEWE¥ M. BEEGLE

so-ccilled enlightened mcln would have one
think. The human characteristics of lsrael's ANTICHRIST. Although the term anti-
God were alwa}7s e.xalted, while the gods of christ occurs onl}r in the Johannine letters, the
their Near Eastern neighbors shcired the vices concei)tion o£` an archopi)onent o£ God and his
of nien. Whereas the representation o£ God in Messiah is found in both testaments and in
Isri`el ne`'er went be}'ond :`nthroi)omorphism, the intertestamental writings. Opposition is re-
the gods of the other religions i`ssumcd forms flected in a7?fj, which here probably means
"against," not "instead of," although both ideas
of animals, trees, stars, or e\'en £` mi.`ture of
elements. Anthropomori)hic concei)ts were .lab- ma}7 be 1)resent: I)osing as Christ, Antichrist
solutel}' necessary if the God o£ Israel was to o|)I)oses Christ.
remain a God of the individual IsrLielite as I. OLI) TESTAMENT BACKGRouND. Because
well as of the people £`s a whole .... For the Christ is not full}' revealed, the OT offers no
average worship|)er . . . it is \'cr}' essential that complete I)ortrait of Antichrist but furnishes
his god be a divinit}7 who can s}'mi)£ithize with mi`terials for the picture in descriptions of per-
his human I.eelings and c`motions, a being sonal or national opposition to God.
whom he can love and fear altermitel}7, and to A. Be[J.¢J. Certain individuals, infamous foi.
whom he can transfer the holiest emotions wickedness, are cfilled "sons of [or men o£]
connected with memories of fi`ther and mother Belial" (Z7€li.y,v¢`az, probably "without worth,"
"useless"). Idolatr}' (Dcut. 13:13), sodom}J
and friend" (William F. Albright, Frotl} t7!e
Sto7?e Age fo OtJ-istJ.fl%jt,i', 2d ed„ 1946; Johns and rat)e (Judg.19:22; 20:13), drunkenness
Hoi]kins Press, p. 202). (I Sam.1:16), disregard of God (I Sam.
It is precisel}' in the area of the perso7ta! 2: 12), sacrilege (I Sam. 2: 17, 22), disrespei.t
that theism, as expressed in Christianity, must for authorit)' (I Sam.10:27; 11 Chron.13:7),
ever think in anthropomorphic terms. To re- lack of hospitality (I Sam. 25:17, 25), per-

gard God solely as Absolute Being or The jury (I Kings 21:10,13), and evil speech
Greclt Unknown is to refer to J?i?7t or ].i, but to (Prov. 6:12; 16:27) are cimong the sins of
think o£ God as literally personal, one with these "empty men" (11 Chron. 13:7), whom
whom we can fellowship, is to sa}7 T7!o?t. Some the good shun (Ps.101:3).
object to this view, calling it anthro|)omorphic, 8. Forejgw E77et7cjes. Opposition to God's
but they are at a loss to explain how the kingdom is opt)osition to him. The nations'
creatures of an im|]ersonal force became I)er- vain plot against the Lord's anointed king in
sonal human beings conscious of their pez- Ps. 2 may be a foreshadowing of thetintichrist
sonality. idea. Similarly, the taunt songs against the rul-
"To say that God is completely different ers o£ Babylon (Isa. 14) and Tyre (Ezek, 28)
from us is as absurd as to sa}7 that He is com- vividl}7 describe the calamitous fall of mom-
47 ANTICHRIST

archs who usurp divine prerogatives. Gog's de- disciples are warned that false Christs will at-
feat (Ezek. 39:I-20; Rev. 20:7-10) seems to tempt to deceive even the elect (Matt. 24:24;
culminate the fmitless struggle of nations to Mark 13:22). Similarly, Christ speaks of one
frustrate God's purposes by harassing his peo- who comes in his own name, whom the Jews
ple. receive (John 5:43). This may be a veiled
C. The Ljftle Ho7'7¢. This rebellion is sym- reference to Antichrist or to any false Messiahs
bolized in Daniel's little horn. Chapter seven, who present themselves to Judaism. Even the
the more eschatological, seems to depict the mention of the abomination of desolation
defeat of God's final enemy, while eight de- (Matt. 24: 15; Mark 13: 14), recalling vividly
scribes Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163 Daniel's prophecy, is in.ade with remarkable
B.c.), the foreign ruler most hated by the restraint. A single evil personality may be in
Jews because of his personal wickedness and view, but his portrait is not even sketched.
ruthless persecution of their religion. 8. JJ T7tessc!Zo7c;cz7t``. Paul gives a clearer
The portrait of this "king of the north" I)icture of Christ's archenemy, whose outstand-
(Dan. 11), the personification of evil, has ing characteristic is contempt of law. Two
helped significantly to shape the NT figui.a names - "man of lawlessness" (preferable to
"man of sin") and "the lawless one" (11 Thess.
Of Antichrist: (1) he abolished the continual
burnt offering and erected the abomination of 2:3, 8-9) -stress this attitude, recalling Dan.
desolation (q.vJ in the temple (Dan.11:31, 7:25, where the little horn tries to change the
Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14; Rev.13:14-15); times and law. Furthermore, Antichrist makes
(2) he exalted himself to the position of deity exclusive claim to deity (11 Thess. 2:4) ill
(Dan.11:36-39; 11 Thess. 2:3-4); (3) his terms reminiscent of Dan. 7:25,11:36. Paul
helpless death points to Christ's slaying of "the does not picture a pseudo Messiah posing as
lawless one" (Dan. I I :45; 11 Thess. 2:8; Rev. God's messenger, but a pseudo God viciousl}J
19:20). Whatever the antecedents of Daniel's opposing all other religion.
beasts (W. Bousset, A7?tjchrjst Lege72cZ, holds He deceives many b)7 wonders (11 Thess.
that the battle of Antichrist and God stems 2:9-10). Christ worked miracles by God's
from the Babylonian legend of Marduk's strug- power, and the Jews attributed them to S-tan
gle with Tiamat), they are clearly nations op- (Matt. 12:24 ff.): Antichrist will work mira-
posing God and his people. The beast from cles b)' satanic power, and many will worship
the sea in Rev.13:I recalls Dan. 7:3, 7 and him as God.
strengthens the link between Daniel's prophec}' One of Antichrist's names - "son of perdi~
and the NT account o£ Antichrist. tion" (11 Thess. 2:3; c£. John I.7:12) ~ rel
11. INTERTESTAMENTAL ELABORATION. TWO veals his destin}.: Christ will slay him by his
emphases appear in the Ai)ocrypha and breath and the brightness of his appearing (11
Pseudepigrapha: (I) Rome replaces Syria as Thess. 2:8; Rev.19: 15, 20; c£. Isa.11 :4).
the national enemy, and Pompey supplants Antichrist is the personal culmination of 3
Antiochus IV as the epitome of opposition to principle of rebellion already working secretl}-
God; (2) Belial (Beliar) is personified as a - "the in)'ster}' of lawlessness" (11 Thess.
satanic spirit. 2:7). When God's restraining hand which
The "lawless one" (11 Thess. 2:8) has been preserves law and order is withdrawn, this
connected with Beliar, which rabbinic tradi- spirit of satanic lawlessness will become incar-
tion interpreted iis "without yoke" (belt `o|), nate in "the lawless one."
i.e., refusing the law's yoke. This connection C. TJze /o7t#7t7w.7ic L€fte7.s. Though John
seems strengthened b}' the LXX translation of recognized the expectation of a single anti-
beljflz by p¢].cl7®oi7ios, "lawbreaker" (Deut. christ, he turns his attention to the man}'
13: 13, etc.). However, though Paul's descrip- antichrists who hal.e come denying that Jesus
tion may partiall}' reflect the Beliar tradition, is the Christ and thus den}7ing the true nature
he distinguishes Beliar fi.om the lawless one: of both Father and Son (I John 2:18, 22;
Beliar is a synonym of Satan (11 Cor. 6: 15), 4:3). Contemporar}' Docetists discredited
while Satan and the lawless one are differ- Christ's humanit}' (11 John 7), claiming that
entiated (11 Thess. 2:9). he seermed to have human form. To John they
Ill. NEW TESTAMENT DEVELoPMENT. were the embodiment o[` the antichrist spirit.
A. The Gospezs. References to Christ's op- Their view taught that man was divine apartL
ponent are neither numerous nor specific. The from God in Christ and lef t God and the
ANTILEGOMENA 48

world ununited (Westcott, Ep;sf !es of Jo7®7i, Floris (ca. A.I).1190); (3) Wycliffe (ca. A.I).
1360). Luther, Calvin, the translators of the
p. 70).
AV, and the Westminster Confession con-
Tohn's account complements rather than con-
tradicts Paul's. Following Daniel, Paul de- curred in this identi`fication. Roman Catholic
scholars retaliated, branding Rome's opponents
picts a single archenemy, who claims the right
to personal worship. John stresses the spiritual Antichrist.
elements in these claims and the spiritual lie In the ideal or symbolic view, Antichrist is
which made Antichrist seemingly strong. an ageless personification of evil, not identifia-
ble with one nation, institution, or individual.
D. Reve!c}t!`o7c. The Apocalyptist's beast
This idea gains support from the Johannine
(Rev. 13), dependent in spirit and detail on
letters and has value in emphasizing the con-
Daniel, combines the characteristics of all four
stancy of the warfare between Satan's mani-
OT beasts. Fulrther, the NT beast has an au-
fold forces and Christ`s.
thority belonging only to the little horn o£
Futurists (e.g., Zahn, Seiss, Scofield) hold
Daniel's beast. John seemingly implies th{\t
that idealists fail to stress sufficiently the cul-
the savage impiety o£ Antiochus will be em-
mination of this hostility in a personal adver-
bodied in a kingdom; for the beast, although
sary. They believe that Antichrist will usher
he has some personal characteristics, is more
in a period of great tribulation at history's
than a person: his seven heads are seven kings
close, in connection with a mighty empire like
(Rev. 17:10-12). The beast himself is an
a revived Rome, and will dominate politics, re-
eighth king, springing from one of the seven.
ligion, and commerce until Christ's advent.
This complicated picture suggests that the
See also ABOMINATloN oF DEsoLATloN.
beast symbolizes worldly power, the anti-God
BIBLIOGRAPHY
spirit of nationalistic ambition (in Daniel's
prophecy personified in Antiochus and in
John's day in Rome) which will become ir`.- a::isl{;l±{a§j:E;E¥fi;:}§:;a?°:.e!?a:ftdy#:?afl!;£tt:`t;¥"::?%j;:i',i:¥|i
carnate in one great demagogue - Antichrist. i#e fscJiatology, pp. 94-135.

To Paul's account John adds at least one DAVID A. HUBBARD

important element - the false prophet, a see- ANTILEGOMENA. The ancient ecclesi-
ond beast who works under the authority of astical term, apparently used first by Origen,
Antichrist, as Antichrist gains his authority for the disputed books claiming to be part c`f
from the dragon, Satan (Rev.13:2,11-12).
the NT. These Origen identified as Hebrews,
Af ter directing Antichrist's political and re-
11 Peter, 11 and Ill John, James, Jude, Barna-
ligious enterprises, the false prophet shares his
bas, Shepherd o£ Hermas, the Didache, and
fate at Christ's advent (Rev.19:20).
the Gos|)el of the Hebrews, and contrasted
IV. CHRlsTIAN INTERPRETATloN. The Fa- them with the 7tot#ozogo#7#e7c¢, the books uni-
thers generally believed in a personal anti- versally accepted. Origen himself regarded as
christ. His identity hinged on whether the Scripture a number of the ¢7®tj!egot"e7c¢.
"mystery of lawlessness" was interpreted poll-
Eusebius divided the disputed books into two
tically or religiously. Politicall}', the most likely groups: (I) the books which he acce|)ted, and
candidate was Nero, who, legend held, would (2) those which he considered spurious. In
reappear in resurrected form (1.edjv;vt4s) to con- the former group were included James, Jude,
tinue his terrible reign. This interpretation, pro- 11 Peter and 11 and Ill John; in the latter the
pounded by Chrysostom and others, has gained Acts o£ Paul, Shepherd o£ Hermas, Apocalypse
prominence in this century through pretei.jsti.c o£ Peter, Barnabas, and the Didache.
interpreters of Revelation like R. H. Charles WALTER W. WESSEL
and C. A. Scott. Irenaeus and others who held
that Antichrist would emerge from a religious ANTINOMIANISM. The word comes
context traced him to Dan on the basis of Gen. from the Greek c!7?t;, against, and 7?otwos, law,
49:17; Deut. 33:22; Jer. 8:16 (cf. the omis- and signifies opposition to law. It refers to the
sion o£ Dan in Rev. 7:5 f£.). doctrine that the moral law is not binding
The reformers equated Antichrist with the upon Christians as a rule of life. In a wider
sense it is applied to the views of fanatics who
papacy, as had some medieval theologians: (I)
Gregory I (ca. A.D. 600), who taught that refuse to recognize any law but their own
whcever assumed the title "universal priest" subjective ideas which they usually claim are
was Antichrist's forerunner; (2) Joachim Of` from the Holy Spirit.
49 ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF

Antinomianism was so called by Luthei' self as erzcrgejc}. Jesus was not to bc wor-
when his old friend John Agricola (1492- shi|)ed though his enduement with the Logos
1566) taught that Christians are entirely free `v:is qucintitativel}r unusual. rlis unity with
from the law, i.e., the moral law as laid down God is one of purpose, of will, of love. While
by Moses. I-Ie argued that they are not re- it is possible t'or Paul to speak of one pi-oso-pc»c
quired to keep the Ten Commandments. He of God and the Logos, and to use the tcrin
took this ground for fear of works-righteous- /7o7"ootls!.os of Christ and the Father, yet the
ness, wrongly thinking that "justification by Logos and the Son were not b}J i`n}J mci`ns
faith alone" demanded this. The Reformation identical. Paul was excommunicated and, af ter
teaching was: "Good works make not a good the Roman recapture of Antioch, wellnigh
man, but a good man doeth good works." completely lost his influence. Paul's opponents
(Patrick Hamilton). did not approve the term J2o"oot4sjos, later to
BIBLIOGRAPHY become a touchstone of orthodoxy.
HERE; SHERK.
Shortly after P:`ul's fall from I)ower, i`
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK schoolmaster, Lucian, c`:`mc to I)romincncc in
ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF. The Book of Antioch. Lucian conceived of` Christ on a
Acts indicates that the term Christian was first higher plane than did Paul. Whether he con-
used at Antioch and that there was a church sidered him as equ:`l with the Father in his
there at the time of the early ministry of the deity is questionable. His work on the text of
Apostle Paul (11:26). It was from Antioch the Greek Bible was extensive, £md he favored
that Paul began his three missionary journe}'s. the historical and critical interpretation of the
1! might be called the nearest approach which Sc`rii)[ures.
be had to a headquarters base. The decisions In the dec{`des following the Counc`il of
Of the Apostolic Council at Jerusalem were Nicaea, Antioch exhibited wide differences of
published there (Acts 15:30 f.). opinion on the Arian question (see ARI-
The first monarchical bishop to secure no- ANlsM), but in this atmosphere John Chr}'sos-
tice was Ignatius o£ Antioch. He held the post tom grew to maturity with his e.`tr:`ordinary
in the early second century. In his seven ability as a' preacher. Emphasizing the moral
epistles he shows himself to be a man eager values of Christianit}'` hc i`ontinued the strc`ss
[o defend the full deity and full humanity of on historical exegesis. One of Chrysostom..s
Christ. He particularly warns against docetism teac`hers, the I)rcsb}'ter Diodorus, bec`dme, in
/q.v.), and here appears an emphasis which is due course, Bishoi) of Tarsus and was recog-
increasingly to characterize the school of An- nized as a "normal" theologian by the Coun-
tiach. God came into flesh, was born of the cil of Constantinoitle in 381. But he did not
Virgin Mary. Christ died to deliver men from find an adcqucite c,\'i)ression for the rek`tion-
ignorance and from the devil. He rose again shii) between the divine and human natures
from the dead for us. The believer is not only o£ Christ. There seemed almost to be a dual
in Christ, he is also chr;sfopJioros. The Supper personality in his concei)lion. Another I)rcsby-
is the flesh and blood o£ Christ, though there ter, Theodore, later Bishoi] of` Mt)psucsti:`, de-
is no suggestion of a substantial change. Broth- veloped historical cril].i`ism muc`h f£`rthcr. He
erly love is a cardinal emphasis in Ignatius. failed to find the doctrine o[` the Trinity in
Theophilus of Antioch, in the latter part of the OT, and he minimized the messianic in-
the second century, developed the Logos (a.v.) (imations in the Psalms. But he I)ut heav}J
dcetrine, referring to the logos prop7!orjkos stress upon the importance of textual and his-
brought forth to create. The word tl.I.czs is used torical study as a basis for exegesis. Theodorc
to apply to the Godhead first by Theophilus. emphasized the difference between God and
Three-quarters of a century later Paul ot` man. The Logos humbled himself and bec`amc
Samosata occupied the episcopal throne in An- man. The proso-pot? of the man is com|)lL`tc
tirh. The emphasis on the human nature of and so is that of the Godhead. His disi`ii)lc,
Christ that was to characterize the later An- the church historian Theodoret (d. 457), cai.-
tirh makes a clear appearanc:. With a mon- ried on his work. Theodoret's exegesis is in the
alchian (see MONARCHIANlsM) stress, he found best historical tradition, his apologetic writing
de Logos, a divine force, part of the mind of clear and well orgimized. He stressed the in-
the Father, dwelling in Jesus from his birth, finite difference between God and man. His
b-lt apart from the Virgin. He manifested him- christological views were unquestionably in-
 50
ANTITYPE

fluenced by his friend Nestorius, the most NT realities are the antitypes. Thus Hebrews
3 and 4 draws the relation of type and anti-
prominent representative of the Antiochan
school. Impetuous, self-conf ident, full of en- type between the Canaan rest and the heaven-
ergy, Nestorius was not a scholar. He em- ly rest. As most divinely intended types of the
OT point forward to Christ, he is the anti-
phasized the humanity o£ Jesus but it is rea-
type of the tabernacle, its priests, and its of-
sonably clear that what he intended to express
ferings.
was not a view that is heretical. The union of`
R. LAIRD HARRIS
Godhead and manhood in Christ is voluntary,
but it can be said that there is one pros6po„ ANXIETY. See CARE.
of Jesus Christ. Nestorius campaigned against
APOCALYPTIC, APOCALYPSE.
the term t7teotokos (see MOTHER oF GOD) as
applied to the Virgin Mary, yet he agreed that, I. DEFINITloN. The word apolcalypse (un-
if properly understood, the term was unob- veiling) is derived from Revelation I : 1, where
it refers to the re,velation to John by the
jectionable. It was the violence of his em-
ascended Jesus of the consummation of the age.
phases, with their stress on the separateness
of the human and the divine in Christ, whicli The word has been applied by modern scholars
was dangerous. to a group of Jewish books which contain silni-
lar literary and eschatologjcal characteristics,
Justinian's Edict of the Three Chapters in
543 was unfair to the School of Antioch in its not all of which are really apocalypses. An apo-
condemnations of the writings o£ Theodore o£ calypse is a book containing real or alleged
Mopsuestia and o£ Theodoret. The Council Of revelations of heavenly secrets or of the events
Constantino|)le o£ 553, ca.lled the Fifth Ecu- which win attend the end of the world and
menical, condemned writings of the Antioch the inauguration of the kingdQm o£ God.
school, but on the basis of falsified and mu- 11. HlsTORlcAL BACKGRouND. Many apo-
tilated quotations. calypses were produced by unknown Jewish
The separation from the lm|]erial church ot authors between 200 B.c. and A.D. 100 in imi-
the bishops who led the Nestorian schism and tation of the book of Daniel. (Daniel is often
the capture of Antioch in 637 by the rising described as the first of such apocalypses, but
power of Islam checked the further distinctive numerous traits linking Daniel closely to the
development of the school o£ Antioch. Its prophetic writings lead to the conclusion that
Aristotelian emphasis on- rationality, on ethical Daniel stands between the prophetic and
quality, and on man's f ree agency was not apolcalyptic types. There are also other reasons
popular. Yet it is to be valued for its stress on for dating Daniel earlier than Maccabean
the genuine continuance in the Second Person times.) The apocalypses arose out of an his-
of the properties of each nature and for its torical milieu involving an historical-theological
insistence upon the importance of grammatico- problem consisting of three elements.
historical exegesis. A. T1.e ermergence of a "F\ighteous Rervt.
See also CrlRlsTOLOG¥ and INTERPRETA- 7ta72t." In the prophetic period Israel continual-
TION, BIBLICAL. ly lapsed into idolatry, forsaking the law Of
BIBLIOGRAPHY God. After the restoi.ation, there emerged cii.-
cles of Jews who were loyal to the law. When
Antiochus Epiphanes, in 168 B.c., attempted
i::::P:£„£;;i=e::io:cr#jt:e:s#ee¥:i::;;i;%i;:::hv:a:::t;es;:s°:f:sj~s'rsg;::I:;;; a forcible assimilation of the Jews to Greek
culture and religion, these righteous, called
Chasidim or Hasideans, refused to submit,
choosing death rather than disobedience to the
!h;';:a:c§,:'S;::g!;:;£#s§;;r;i;.;;;°°J£S6:%,e;:?::.i]::#efn'.:s,Npis¢c?;;:;
PAulj Wool.LEY law. This spirit was preserved in their succes-
sors, the Pharisees. Another group, called the
ANTITYPI]. The word, not used in the Qumran community, withdrew from the main
English Bible, is the Greek word translated stream o£ Jewish life to seek a monastic re-
"figure" in I Pet. 3:21 and Heb. 9:24. The treat in the desert, giving themselves in com-
word seems only to refer to an illustrative cor- plete devotion to the study and observance Of.
respondence of meaning. the law.
In common usage, certain OT items and 8. The Proz7Iewi of Evil. The prophets
practices are called types o£ NT truth. The promised that a repentant, restored Israel
51 APOCALYPTIC, APOCALYPSE

would inherit the kingdom. Now Israel was tory to the coming of the kingdom. The his-
restored to the land and was faithful to the tory can be followed down to the days o£
hw. According to the Jewish definition of Herod the Great. First century A.D.
righteousness, the conditions laid dovin by the S;Z7y!j!.7€e Or¢c!es. A composite apologetic
prophets were satisfied; but the kingdom did work with both Jewish and Christian ele-
not come. Instead came unprecedented suf- ments. Oracles are put into the mouth of the
fering. Antiochus Epiphanes (168 B.a.) at- Greek Sibyl, and the book thus has the form
tempted to destroy the Jewish faith, inflicting of pagan prophecy. A few sections embody
tortures and martyrdoms upon the faithful. eschatological expectations of an apocalyptic
The religious liberty won by the Maccabean sort.
rebellion did not bring the kingdom of God.
Fourtl. Ezi-a (Second Esdl.as). Seven visions
Instead of God's rule came the rule of the
which Ezra saw in Babylon, after the fall of
secular, worldly Hasmoneans, and after 63
B.c. Rome's native pu|)pets and procurators. A Jerusalem. The book reflects the despair of :`
devout Jew af ter the destruction o£ Jerusalem
righteous Israel which merited the kingdom
in A.D. 70. The most profound of the apocal}'p-
met only suffering and political bondage.
ses, embod}'ing much theolog)7 as well as
a. The Cessation of Prophecy. Thioug,hout
ai)ocal}'i)tic eschatolog}'. Late first century A.D.
these times of unparallelel evil, God did not
speak to explain this historical enigma. The Tile Apoctllypse of Baruch. F\eve\ations
`'oice of prophecy was stilled. No prophet ap- given to B,1ruch in the da)Js of Jeconiah of the
coming of God's kingdom. Important for thc-
peared to announce "Thus saith the Lord" and
to interpret to the afflicted people of God the olog}T. Late first century A.D.

riddle of the suffering of the righteous. Second Enoch or Slavonic Enoch. This is
The apocalypses arose out of this milieu to an ai)ocal}7i)sc but is probably much later in
date.
provide an explanation of the sufferings of
the righteous and the delay of the kingdom Of IV. LITERARy CHARACTEnlsTlcs.
Cnd. Ai)oc£`lyi)tic is a gc74re of literature which
Ill. DESCRIPTloN. I ENOCH oR ETHIOPIC suc`ceeded the I)rophetic. At some points
ENocH. A composite book of five parts consist- apocal)7i)tic is a development of clcmcnts in
ing of Enoch's visions and journeys through I)rt)I)hccy; i`t other points it dei)arts from the
the heavens. The Similitudes (chaps. 37-71, pro|lhctic i`himlcter. No sharp line i`an be`
containing visions, etc.) are of outstanding im- drawn between the two t}7i)cs; £`nd chiiractcri-
portance because of the figure of the heavenly ziitions of ai)oi`£`l} I)tic diff`cr considerably.
Son of Man. First two centuries B.c. A. Rei'ejflt].o"s. The I)rophcts often received
/"Z7jzees. A revelation given to Moses of the their message by rc`7elation, but their main
history of the world from creation to his day. concern wcls "the word of the Lord." Often
History is divided into Jubilee periods of fort}.- the word of God came to the I)rophcts £`s an
nine years each. Only a few portions of the ovcrwhcllning inner conviction apz`rt from vi-
book have to do with eschatology. Second cen- sions or dre'ams. In the apocfil}'i)scs, the word
tury B.C. of the Lord hi`s given wa}J to rcvclations i`nd
The Testament of the Twehoe Patriarchs is visions. God does not si)eak b}' his Spirit to
a book, not of apocaly|)ses, but of imitations his servants. The seer must learn the solution
Of prophetic writings. Each patriarch outlines to the problems of evil and the coming of the
his life and gives a moral exhortation and a kingdom through dreams, visions, or heavenly
prophecy of the future of his descendants. The journc}'s with angelic guides.
book is thus cschatological but not apocalyptic. 8. J"?1.tclt;ve Lifei'ary Cha]-ac!er. The i7roi)h-
It has been heavily interpolated by Christian ets, out of experiences in which God disclosed
uTiters. Second century B.c. his will, announi`ed the divine will to the
The Psalms of Sol.omon. E±chteen Psalms peoi)le. Si`holars who rcjec`t any sui)ernatural
witten in imitation of the OT Ps£`lms. The}7 elcmcnt i`dmit real I)s}'chological exi)eriences
are not apocalypses, but the last two Psalms by the I)rophets. Possibly IV Ezra reflects real
contain important eschatological materials. First subjective exi]eriences, but usually the revela-
century B.C. tions of the ai)ocalyi)fists are only a literary
Assw7#ptz.o7c of Mo`ses. Moses' final charge form. The visions are literary fictions imitating
[o Joshua, in which he traces the course of his- thc. visions of the prophetic writings. General-
APOCALYPTIC, APOCALYPSE 52

ly, therefore, prophecy was first spoken, while 11:6-9; 65:17; 66:22). This transformation
apocalypses were written. will be accomplished only by a divine visita-
C. Pset4do"y7"jty. The prophets spoke ill tion, when God will shake the present order
the name of the Lord directly to the people. in judgment (Isa.13:13; 34:4; 51:6; Hag.
However, in the Maccabean period, the voice 2:7) and will cause a new order to emerge
of prophecy was stilled and the apocalyptists from the old.
attributed their revelations to OT saints as a Apocalyptic dualism is a development Of
means of validating their message to their own this basic prophetic view of the world and re-
generation. In this matter, Daniel stands alone, demption. The new order is usually described
for Daniel is unknown apart from his appear- with Isaianic features of a new earth (Enoch
ance in the apocalypse ascribed to him. 45:4 f.: 51:I-5). Assumption o£ Moses 10:I
D. Sy„ibol7.st". The prophets had often used looks forward to a manifestation of God's
symbols to convey the divine message. In the kingdom "in all his creation." Sometimes more
"transcendental" terms are employed (Enoch
apocal}'pses, symbolism becomes the main stock
in trade, particularly as a technique for outlin- 62: 16).
ing the course of history without employing Some OT passages describe the new order
historical names. This technique appears first in terms very similar to the present order,
in Daniel and was imitated with bizarre pro- while others (Isa. 65, 66) see a complete
liferation in later a|)ocaly|)ses. transformation involving new heavens and a
E. Rewritte74 History. The prophets took new earth. Some apocalypses put together
their stand in their own historical situation and these two expectations and anticipate a ten-
proclaimed the word of God to their gener.1- poral kingdom in this age followed by an
tion against the background of the future etemal kingdom in the new order (IV Ezra
kingdom o£ God. The apocalyptists sometimes 7:28, 29). The age to come in Baruch is pie-
took their stand at a point in the distant past tured as a new earth (32:6). The language o£
and rewrote history as though it were proph- IV Ezra is difficult to interpret (7:36,113).
ccy down to their own day, at which time the 8. Hjsfoi.;cclz Pe7-spective. The pr`')phets took
c`oming of the kingdom is expected. In some their stand within a specific historical situation
instances apocalypses can be dated by the and addressed their message to their environ-
latest events reflected in the alleged prophecy. ment. On the horizon .was God's kingdom,
V. RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS. and the future stands in a constant tension
The word apocalyptic is used also to de- with the present. Isa. 13 describes the histori-
scribe the eschatology f ound in the apocalyp- cal judgment of Babylon against the back-
ses. ground of the eschatological visitation as
A. Di4¢[is77¢. Apocalyptic eschatology sees a though they were one and the same day. His-
contrast between the character of the present torical judgments are seen as realized eschat-
time of su££ering and the future time of salva- ology.
tion which is so radical that it is finally de- The apocalyptists have lost this tension be-
sc`ribed in terms of two ages: this age and the tween history and eschatology. They do not
age to come. This age is characterized by evil; view the present against the background Of
the age to come will see the kingdom o£ God. the future, but their viewpoint encompasses
The transition from this age to the coming the entire sweep of history f`or the purpose of
i`ge can be accomplished only by a super- interpreting history theologically. The
natural inbreaking of God. This dualism is not apocalypses are theological treatises rather than
truly historical documents.
metai]hysical or cosmic but historical and ten-
c. pess;7"ism. It is not correct ultimately
poral. While this terminology of the two ages
appears in the NT, it is found in the apocalyp- to call the ai)ocalyptists pessimists, for they
tic literature in fully developed form only in never lost their confidence that God would
IV Ezra and the Apocalypse of Baruch. I.ina]ly triumph and bring his kingdom. How-
Many c;itics attribute this development to ever, they were pessimistic as to the |>resent
the influence of Persian dualism; but it can age. The problem of the suffering of the right-
also be explained as an historical develo|)ment eous had led to the conclusion that God had
of ideas alread}' implicit in the OT prophets. withdrawn his aid f ron his people in the
The prophetic expectation of the future king- I)resent age and that salvation could be ex-
don includes a redeemed earth (Isa. 32: 15-18, pected only in the age to come (Enoch 89: 56-
53 APOCALYPTIC, APOCALYPSE

75). IV Ezra sees the present age as hopelessly treatment of the future. The latter retraces his-
evil and the solution lying altogether in the tory under the guise of prophecy. John takes
future (4:26-32; 7:50; 8: 1-3). The righteous his stand in his own environment, addresses
can only patiently suffer while waiting a fu- his own contemporaries, and looks prophetical-
ture salvation. ly into the future to depict the eschatological
D. Detert#i73..s". The course of this evil consummation.
age is predetermined and must run its course. Fourth, John embodies the prophetic ten-
The kingdom does not come even though the sion between history and eschatology. The
righteous deserve it, because fixed periods beast is Rome and at the same time an
must intervene before the consummation. The eschatological Antichrist which cannot be fully
lingdom must await its appointed time. God equated with historical Rome. While the
bimself is pictured as waiting the passing of churches of Asia were facing persecution,
the times which he has decreed rather than there is no known persecution in the first
bringing aid to the righteous (IV Ezra 4:36, century A.D. which fits that portrayed in the
37). This idea often led to the dividing of the Apocalypse. The shadow of historical Rome is
course Of time into determined periods of so outlined against the darker shadow of the
weeks or years. eschatological Antichrist that it is difficult if
E. EtJiic¢Z Pczssivity. The apocalyptists lack not impossible to distinguish between the two.
moral or evangelical urgency. Their problem History is eschatologically interpreted; evil at
rests in the very fact that there js a righteous the hands Of Rome is realized esi`hatology.
remnant which is overwhelmed by undeserved Fifth, John shares the optimism of the gos-
evil. The prophets continually waned Israel pel rather than the pessimism of apocalyptic
Of the penalty of faithlessness; the apocalyptists thought. While John prophesies that the sa-
comfort the faithful who need no correction. tanic evil of the age will descend in concen-
Therefore there is very little ethical exhorta- trated fury upon God's people in the end time,
tion in most of the apocalyptic writings. Such he does not see an age abandoned to evil. On
tiocks as Th,e Testarment of tl.e Twel,ve Pa- the contrary, history has become the scene of
rrinrc7®s and E"oc7i, 92-105, which have con- the divine redemption. Only the slain Lamb
siderable ethical exhortation, are least apocalyp- is able to open the book and bring history to
tic in character. its eschatological denouement. The redemp-
VI. THE NEW TESTAMENT APoCALypsE. tion which will be apocalyptically consum-
The Revelation o£ John shares numerous mated is rooted in the event of Golgotha. Fur-
traits with Jewish apocalypses but at other im- thermore, it is probable that the first seal
|rortant points stands apart from them. Al- (6:2) represents the victorious mission of a
though the similarities are usually stressed, the conquering gosi)el in a world which is also the
differences will be here emphasized. ne of war, famine, death, and martyrdom.
First, the author designates his book as a d has not abandoned the age nor forsaken
prophecy (1:3; 22:7, 10, 18, 19). The peoi]le. The saints conquer the beast even
apocalyptic writings lost a prophetic self-con- martyrdom and I)raise him who is the King
sciousness; indeed they were written to fill the the ages (15:2, 3).
Toid caused by the absence of prophecy. Primi- Finall}', the Apoc`al}'pse possesses prophetic
ti`'e Christianity witnessed a revival of the moral urgency. It does indeed promise a future
prophetic movement when God once more salvation but not one which can be taken for
spoke directly through men. The Apocalypse, granted. The seven letters strike a note of
trngether with other NT books, is the product warning and a demand for repentance (2:5,
af the revival of the prophetic spirit. The vi- 16, 21, 22; 3:3,19). The outpourings of the
sins given John were the means of conve}Ting divine wrath `ire not merel}7 punitive but em-
de word of God (1 :2). body a merciful purpose whose intent is to
Second, John is not pseudonymous. The bring men to repentance before it is too late
author merely signs his name: "John to the (9:20; 16:9,11). The Revelation draws to
seven churches that are in Asia" (I:4). He its close with an evangelical invitation
appeals to no ancient saint for authority but (22:17). Thus the book as a whole has a
whtes out of the authority residing in him great moral purpose: judgment will fall upon
from the Spirit of God. a lax sleeping church, and the door is held
Third, John differs from the apocalyptic open for the wicked to turn to God.
APOCRYPHA 54

In summary, there is a prophetic and a non- were translated from the Greek Bible, and so
prophetic apocalypse, and the Apocalypse of included the Apocrypha. Jerome's Vulgate dis-
the NT stands in the first type. tinguished between the ]jz7ri ecc]esj¢stjc; and
BIBI.IOGRAPHY the I;ZJr; c¢7!o7®jci with the result that the
Apocrypha were acc.orded a secondary status.
However, at the Council of Carthage (397),
which Augustine attended, it was decided to
g;pj2§;o:p:b:S;i,;p§;P[¥„g§r:5±;:i:::p;a7::i,;:;a:c:,,e;¥:5:;:;;
402-4.
accept the Apocrypha as suitable for reading
despite Jerome's resistance to their inclusion
GEORGE EI.DON LADI)
in the Vulgate. In 1548 the Council Of Trent
APOCRYPHA. The word apacrypha is recognized the Apocrypha, excepting I and
from the Greek t¢ apocryp7}¢, ``the hidden 11 Esdras and The Prayer Of Manasses, as hav-
things," although there is no strict sense jn ing unqualified canonical status. Moreover,
which these books are hidden. Some thirteen anyone who disputed this ecclesiastical deci-
books comprise the Apocrypha: I and 11 Es- sion was anathematized. The Reformers repu-
dras, Tobit, Judith, The Rest of Esther, The diated the Apocrypha as unworthy and con-
Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus which is tradictory to the doctrines of the uncontro-
also entitled The Wisdom o£ Jesus the Son of verted canon; however, Luther did admit that
Sirach, Baruch, The Letter o£ Jeremiah, The they were "profitable and good to read." The
Additions to Daniel, The Prayer of Manasses,' Coverdale and Geneva Bibles included the
and I and 11 Maccabees. Both the status Of Apocrypha but set them apart from the canoni-
these books and the use Of the term apocrypha cal books Of the OT. After much debate, the
have been in confusion since the early days British and Foreign Bible Society decided in
of the church. In the restricted sense the word 1827 to exc.lude the Apocrypha from its Bibles;
denotes the above-named books in coutradis- soon af terwards the American branch con-
tinction to the pseudepigrapha, or false writ- curled, and this action generally set the pat-
ings; but in the broader sense the word refers tern for English Bi.bles thereafter. Among Prot-
to any extra-canonical scripture. Sometimes the estant communions only the Anglican church
term takes on a disparaging meaning, especial- makes much use of the Apocrypha today.
ly when used of the "apocryphal" gospels; this Many literary genres appear in the Apocry-
is to say they are spurious or heterodoxical. A pha: popular narrative, religious history and
further difficulty attending the restricted use philosophy, morality stories, poetic and didac-
of apocryp7?fl is that some of the Apocrypha are tic lyrics, wisdom literature, and apocalyptic.
pseudonymous, whereas some of the Pseudepi- Most of these books were written in Palestine
grapha are not pseudonymous. R. H. Charles between 300 B.a. and A.D. 100, and the lan-
broke the accepted order by including Ill Mac- guage of composition was either Hebrew or
cabees in the Apocrypha and transf erring 11 Aramaic, and occasionally Greek. They gen-
Esdras to the Pseudepigrapha. The ancient erally reflect the Jewish religious viewpoint of
rabbinic practice was to regard all such writ- late OT times with certain additidns which
ings as. ``outside books," and this designation were emphasized. Almsgiving became an ex-
was continued by Cyril of Jerusalem, who used pression of good works meritorious to salva-
Apocryp7!¢ in the same sense, i.e., scriptures tion; see Tobit 12:9. The Apocrypha, and to
outside the canon. In modern times C. C. Tor- a greater extent the Pseudepigrapha, evince an
rey has revived this signification so that all amplified doctrine of the Messiah (q.v.) be-
such books, including the Pseudepigrapha, are yond what the OT reveals. Two types Of mes-
called Apocrypha. Therefore to use the tern sianic expectation predominate: the heavenly
Pseudepigrapha is a concession to an unhappy Son o£ Man, taken from Daniel and embel-
usage. . lished by Enoch, and the earthly Davidic king
How did the Apocry|)ha secure a place in described in the Psalms of Solomon. The doc-
some Of our English Bibles? The Jews uni- trine of resurrection of the body, so seldom
formly denied canonical status to these books, mentioned in the OT, is ubiquitous in the
and so they were not found in the Hebrew Apocrypha and shows an advance over the
Bible; but the manuscripts of the LXX include OT idea Of Sheol. The hope for immortality
them as an addendum to the canonical OT. In was greatly influenced by Greek thought.
the second century A.D. the first Latin Bibles Throughout the Apocrypha is a highly de-
55 APOLOGETICS

veloped angelology which is a natural conse- natural imprimatur upon Christianity and its
quence of the impact of dualism upon Jewish congruity with all types of facts.
religious thought after the Exile. The NT There is no standard set of topics which
cites none Of the books Of the Apocrypha, al- comprises Christian apologetics, but certaj7®
though there are frequent parallels of thought queshons are fundamental to its discussion.
and language as in the case of Eph. 6: 13-17 1. What Is the Character of Revelehon?
and The Wisdom of Solomon 5:17-20, and Revelation may be stressed as absolutely
Heb. 11 and Ecclus. 44. But to admit these unique and thereby excluding natural religion
parallels is not necessarily to admit deperLd- (Barth). Or the uniqueness Of revelation
ence by NT authors upon the Apocrypha, and may be stressed while admitting the validity
even if a clear case Of dependence can be of a natural theology only in the light of spe-
made, it does not follow that the NT author cial revelation (Calvin). Or there may be a
regarded these books as authoritative. natural religion which gives rise to a natural
REII0GRAPHY theology, which forms the preamble to special
revelation (Thomas).
2. What Is the Relationship of Phhosophy
§f¥H#:?#„;:a;„°:¥oe:I:£¥„¥?ai#%:%i¥;e:a:;£#¢i§rssd,#!i:t ¢#d Revehat;o7®? This is usually and inappro-
DAVID H. WALLACE priately put as the issue of faith and reason.
However, faith is the reception of knowledge,
APOLLINARIANISM. The doctrine held and not its c.reator; and reason is not an
by Apollinaris the Younger, Bishop of Laor unambiguous notion but is to be defined
dicca (310?-390?), and his followers during within an accepted philosophical position.
the christological controversies Of the fourth An apologist may consider philosophy the
century. A stalwart defender of Nicene orthcr product of an unregenerate mind and thereby
doxy, Apollinaris opposed both the Arian view deny it any status in Christian theology (Ter-
Of the mutability of the Logos and the com- tullian). Or he may consider that there is a
plete union in Christ of full human and divine valid place for philosophy in scientific mat-
mtures' ters but not in the Christian religion (Pascal).
He maintained that in the incarnation "the Or he may believe that a philosophical cri-
Logos became flesh" (John I:14) literally, terion (or criteria) is possible for testing a
the Logos thus taking the place of the rational revelation but that no philosophy as such apart
human soul in the person o£ Christ. After sev- from Christianity is possible. Or he may be-
eral local synods had condemned Apollinarian- lieve that a true philosophy may be achieved
ism, it was declared heretical by the Second by the human reason, which, in turn, sup-
General Council at Constantinople in 381. ports revealed religion (Thomas). Or he may
BIBLIOGRAPHY believe that the Christian faith rests upon
revelation but, in explicating that revelation,
#EL:r5#coFREREgue.n;deF±Ete%#e,,eys philosophy is a useful handmaiden (Augus-
tine). Within this context is the debated issue
DONALD G. DAVIS whether a Christian philosophy as such does
or does not exist.
APOLOGETICS. In that the subject mat- Coupled with this problem is the task Of
ter of religion is God, the crucial issue Of re- assessing the damage done to the human mind
ligion is whether or not it possesses a knowl- by sin. Catholic and Arminian theologians
edge Of God. It is the task of Christian apolo- (semi-Pelagian in doctrine of sin) do not ad-
geties to show on what grounds the Christian nit a radical disturbance of the rational pow-
religion possesses such a knowledge of God. ers of man through sin, and are inclined to
Since a knowledge o£ God is imparted by believe that the Human reason can create a
revelation, however defined, the concept of valid philosophical system, or at least c.ii be
revelation is central to Christian apologetics. adequately trusted in testing the tnithfulness
Christian apologetics differs from an ¢poJo- of a proposed religion. Some Calvinists believe
g}r, which is a reply to a specific accusation; that the doctrine of common grace (q.v.) suf-
from a tJ.eoc]!.cy, which is an attempt to alle- f iciently restores the radical disturbance of the
viate the problem of evil; and from Christjcz# human mind to the point where the theistic
evide7®ces, which attempts to show the super- proofs are possible and valid and wherein
APOLOGETICS 56

Christian evidences can establish Christianity of a natural theology. Extremely critical here
as the true religion o£ God (War field). Other is the interpretation of Ron. 1 and Acts 17,
Calvinists emphasize the helplessness of the and also the grounds upon which God holds
hu]n?n mind in sin and emphasize the renew- men to be inexcusable. Also pertinent here is
ing power of the Holy Spirit (Kuyper, Van the Warfield-Kuyper debate, the latter teach-
Til). The nco-orthodox school emphasizes the ing that the human logical faculty cannot be
foolishness and the scandal of Christianity to tmsted in a sinner and therefore great em-
the unregenerate mind, so that Christianity phasis must be laid upon the apologetic value
comes to it as a shock (Kierkegaard, Brunner, Of the inner witness of the Spirit, and the
Barth). former (in the McCosh-Greene tradition)
3. What ls the Status of the Theistic holding to the cogency of the human reason
Proofs? The empirical tradition accepts the in constructing the theistic proofs and charg-
validity of the a posteriorj proofs as demonstra- ing Kuyper with subjectivism.
tions (Thomas) or as credible evidences (Mul- 2. F¢jf7.. What is pre-eminent in faith?
lins, Hodge). The Pascal-Kierkegaard-Brunner The Christian intellectualist believes that faith
tradition considers them as part Of man's ine- resides in truth, and, since it is the function of
ligion and rebellion against God. Others be- the intellect to determine truth, we are neces-
lieve that the proofs are logically invalid, and sarily committed to a robust Christian intellcc-
still others accept the validity of the proofs tualism. Others believe that there is in faith an
based upon some inward property or possession indispensable, ethical, emotional or intuitional
of the human mind which usually turns out ("of the heart") ingredient of existential na-
to be some form of the ontological (a priori) ture .

proof. 3. Co7"t7qo7¢ Grot47cd. Those who believe in

These three problems implicate each other, the cogency of the theistic proofs accept a com-
and are further implicated in the problem of mom ground of argumentatibn between be-
religious knowledge or apologetic methodology. liever and unbeliever. Others believe that a
There are apologists who stress the self-validat- common ground exists only in matters o£ fact
ing character o£ Christian experience to carry and logic, but not in basic Christian presup-
the weight of the Christian apologetics, and, positions. Or an apologist may affirm that no
without using the term pejoratively, we might common ground exists at any point between
label them the st4Z7/.ecfivists (Pascal). Others believers and unbelievers except that which
attempt to rest their apologetics in the unique- God lovingly supplies by common grace. That
ness of Jesus Christ and may be called the is to say, this last school of apologists believes
C7iristo!og!.sts (Fairbairn). Or an apologist may that all decisions Of men that are not theistical-
stress the uniqueness of revelation and assign ly inspired are sinful, i.e., that a sinner is in-
to reason a ministerial function only (the capable of an unprejudiced, unbiased, im-
outopistjcs). Others believe that Christianity is partial act of the mind.
demonstrable on empirical grounds (eowp;ri- 4. Scje72ce. Some apologists believe that
cjsfs, Thomas, Butler, and Paley). Others be- scientific "knowledge" is so partial or transitory
lieve that the human reason still bears marks or imperfect that a theologian need not take
of the i7„c}go Dei and, while not able `to create it seriously, whereas others believe that in mat-
the truth out of itself, can test the truth of a ters common to science and Scripture (or the-
revelation (rat;o7®¢lisfs, Augustine). Still oth- ology) the Christian interpreter and theolo-
ers eschew all attempts at relating Christianity gian ought to see if science can be of service
to philosophy and believe that the only apolo- to his interpretation or his theology. Still oth-
getic is that of Christian evidences, and this ers believe that there are such anticipations o£
may be called the evide"tjaz school. science in Scri|)ture that they may be ap-
Among the problems which are of particular pealed to as proving the inspiration of Scrip-
co#cer" to co"tet"porory ¢polog;sts the follow- ture,
ing may be noted. 5. Mjr¢c]e. Christian apol6gists are divided
1. Ncztt4ral T7ieozogy. Some apologists, after over the nature of a miracle, (a.v.) some hold-
Calvin, grant that there is a revelation in na- ing that it is a function of a higher law and
ture but that man in sin cannot deduce a so part of the law-abiding character of the
theology from it, whereas others maintain that universe, and others insisting that a miracle is
the revelation in nature demands the validity a de 7covo creative act.
57 APOSTLE

BuelJOGRAPH¥ The noun occtirs only once in the LXX.

Gfbcr]:Fa,=.r¥;zg:ira,„p:.;„c6p,:;;st:{„saAcrpeod[oEeht::s,,ggfi,:rE.ar,a When the wife of Jeroboam came to Ahijah
seeking information about the health of her
E£##:eT;;;P.efe°±a£#:t°get3C Systems; C. Vo,n ", The
son, the prophet answered, "I am sent unto
BERNARD RAMM
thee with heavy tidings" (I Kings 14:6). Here
APOSTASY. A word of increasing interest apostozos renders the Hebrew 56ltlc!¢, which
found twice in the NT (Acts 21 :21; 11 Thess. became a somewhat technical term in Judaism.
2:3). It comes from the Greek ciposfc}sj¢, a late A 56!t}c!dy could be one who led the synagogue
fom of flpost¢sis, originally to desert a post or congregation in worship and thus represented
station in life. It is used by Plutarch of politi- it, or a representative of the Sanhedrin sent on
cal revolt and is found in the OT in the official business. The priesthood was included
sense of revolt against the Lord (Josh. 22:22). under this term also, and a few outstanding
ADtiochus Epiphanes enforced an apostasjci personalities of OT story who acted strikingly
from Judaism to Hellenism (I Mace. 2: 15). in God's behalf. But in no case did the 5dzt}czh
In the AV it is translated "falling away" in operate beyond the confines of the Jewish
relation to the revelation of the man of sin, community. So there is no anticipation in the
or Antichrist. In this sense the thought is of .€dztici¢ of the missionary emphasis associated
religious revolt. Cremer states that ¢post¢sj¢ is with the NT aposto[os.
used in the absolute sense of "passing over to I. CHRlsT. In Heb. 3: 1 Jesus is called "the
unbelief," thus a dissolution Of the "union apostle . . . of our confession," in conscious
with God subsisting through faith in Christ." contrast to Moses, to whom Judaism ascribed
Amdt adds rebellion or abandonment in the the term 5d!i^4clzi. Jesus spoke more directly
lchigious sense. f ron God than Moses was able to do. Re-
On the nature of apostasy there are lengthy peatedly he made the claim of being sent by
articles in both the JewE7?c and the CE de- the Father. When he declared that he was
`-eloping an extensive doctrine of apostasy. A sending his chosen disc'iples into the world
`.Cry full article is also found in the E"cSocSc; even as the Father had sent him, our Lord was
(see AposTAsy and HEREsy). bestowing on apostleship its highest dignity
In the NT,11 Thess. 2:3 is a part of fi (John 17:18).
prophetic passage of apocalyptic 11. THE TWELVE. These men are most often
-falling away" invites conjecturecharacter. The
about whom
called disciples in the Gospels, for their i]ri-
and from what. The event seems future and mary function during Christ's ministr}' was to
thus related to Antichrist. The implication is be with him and learn of him. But they are
chat the apostates will welcome the man of also called apostles because Jesus imparted to
sin. them his authority to preach and to cast out
BIBHOGRAPHY demons (Mark 3:14-15; 6:30). Just because
this activity was limited while Jesus was with
#%;`,EfcEEsfcc;SEE:,i,.,.ME#am£=n#hye,ssaE3%%na:=nfacn8; them, the term apostle is rarely used. After
ROBERT WENSTON ROSS Pentecost this situation was changed.
The number twelve recalls the twelve tribes
APOSTLE. The biblical use of this word of Israel, but the basis of leadership is no
is confined to the NT, where it occurs seventy- longer tribal, but personal and spiritual. Evi-
nine times: ten in the Gospels, twenty-eight dently the college of apostles was regarded as
in Acts, thirty-eight in the Epistles, and three fixed in number, for Jesus spoke of twelve
in the Apocalypse. Our English word is a thrones in the coming age (Matt. 19:28; cf.
transliteration Of the Greek ¢postozos, which Rev. 21 : 14). Judas was replaced by Matthias
is derived from ¢posfezle;7c, to send. Whereas (Acts I), but after that no effort was made
se`'eral words for se7¢c! are used in the NT, ex- to select men to succeed those who were taken
pressing such ideas as dispatch, release, or dis- by death (Acts 12:2).
miss, ¢postezzej77 emphasizes the elements of Apostles receive f irst mention in the lists of
colnmission - authority of and responsibility spiritual gifts (I Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11).
to the sender. So an apostle is proi)erly one Since these gifts are bestowed by the risen
sent on a definite mission, in which he acts Christ through the Si)irit, it is probable that
with full authority on behalf of the sender and at the beginning of the ai)ostolic age these
is accountable to him. men who had been appointed by Jesus and
 58
APOSTLE
Cor. 9: 1; Acts 26: 16-18). Paul looked on his
trained by him were now regarded as possess-
apostleship as a demonstration of divine grace
ing a second investiture to mark the new and
and as a call to sacrificial labor rather than an
permanent phase of their work for which the occasion for glorying in the office (I Col.
earlier phase had been a preparation. They be-
15 : 10).
came the foundation of the church in a sense
secondary only to that o£ Christ himself (Eph. IV. OTHERs. The most natural explanation
2:20). o£ Gal.1: 19 is that Paul is declaring James,
the Lord's brother, to be an apostle, agreeable,
The duties of the apostles were preaching,
to the recognition James received in the Jeru-
teaching, and administration. Their preaching
salem church. In line with this, in I Cor.
rested on their association with Christ and the
15:5-8, where James is mentioned, all the
instruction received from him, and it included
other individuals are apostles. Barnabas (along
their witness to his resurrection (Acts 1 :22).
with Paul) is called an apostle (Acts 14:4,
Their converts passed immediately under their
14), but probably in a restricted sehse only,
instruction (Acts 2:42), which I)resumably
as one sent forth by the Antioch church, to
consisted largely of their recollection Of the
which he was obligated to report when his
teaching of Jesus, augmented by revelations Of
mission was completed (14:27). He was not
the Spirit (Eph. 3:5). In the area of adminis-
regarded as an apostle at Jerusalem (Acts
tration their functions were varied. Broadly
9:27), though later on he was given tbe right
speaking, they were responsible for the life
hand of fellowshi|) as well as Paul (Gal. 2:9).
and welfare of the Christian community. Un-
Andronicus and Junias are said to be of note
doubtedly they took the lead in worship as
among the apostles (Ron.16:7). Silvanus and
the death o£ Christ was memorialized in the
Timothy seem to be included as apostles in
Lord's Supper. They administered the common
Paul's statement in I Thess. 2:6. The refer-
fund to which believers contributed for the
ences in I Cor. 9:5 and 15:7 do not neces-
help of needy brethren (Acts 4: 37), until this
sarily go beyond the Twelve.
task became burdensome and was shif ted to
men specially chosen for this responsibility It is reasonably clear that in addition to the
Twelve Paul and James had the leading rec-
(Acts 6:1-6). Discipline was in their hands
ognition as apostles. Others also might be so
(Acts 5 : I-11). As the church grew and spread
abroad, the apostles devoted more and more indicated under special circumstances. But
attention to the oversight of these scattered warl.ant is lacking for making "apostle" the
equivalent o£ "missionary." In the practice of
i[r£:?sth:£g£Pte];:Vte£:££[Cytssp8[;[]t4La::i:iiat€£ the modem church, prominent pioneer mis-
through them (Acts 8:15-17). The super- sionaries are of ten called apostles, but this is
natural powers which they had exercised when only an accommodation of language. In the
the Lord was among them, such as the apostolic age one who held this rank was more
exorcism of demons and the healing of the than a preacher (11 Tim. I : 11). All disciples
sick, continued to be tokens of their divine were supposed to be preachers, but not all
authority (Acts 5:12; 11 Col..12:12). T+ey were apostles (I Col. 12:29). Curiously, at
;*k th€ I;ad in the determination of vexing one point in the church's life all were busy
problems which faced the church, associating preaching except the apostles (Acts 8:4). Paul
the elders with themselves as an expression of would not have needed to defend his apostle-
democratic procedure (Acts 15:6; c£. 6:3). ship with such vehemence if he were only de-
fending his right to proclaim the gospel. Along-
Ill. PAUL. The distinctive features of his
side the distinctive and more technical use Of
apostleship were direct appointment by Christ
the word is the occasional employment of it in
(Gal.I:I) and the allocation of the gentile the sense of messenger (Phil. 2:25; 11 Cor.
world to him as his sphere o£ labor (Ron. 1 : 5;
8:23).
Gal.1:16; 2:8). His apostleship was recog-
See also DlsclpLE, AposTOLlc SuccEssloN.
nized by the Jerusalem authorities in accord-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ance with his own claim to rank with the orig-
inal apostles. However, he never asserted mem-
- _ ---- :-: ----------- :-=- --
bership in the Twelve (I Col. 15:11), but
rather stood on an independent basis. He was
able to bear witness to the resurrection be-
cause his call came from the risen Christ (I
59 APOSTOLIC DECREE

ern knowledge of the Constitutions dates from

F*js8T;:ot;Ef;.P:ua:sTe[byfn].HRfc6o¥t.esH;nReBnjgs[:or£K;; 1546 when a Venetian, Carolus Capellus,
EVERETT F. HARRISoN printed a Latin epitome Of them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APOSTLES' CREED. See CREED, PG,. A„fe-]Vjce#e Chrisfja" Liz?ratty, Edinburgh, 1864,
CinEDS. Vol. xvii. pp. 257-69; ODCC.
M. R. W. FARRER
APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS AND
CANONS. The Apostolic Constitutions, o£ APOSTOLIC DECREE. The most criti-
Thich the Canons are a concluding section, cal problem of the primitive church was
form a corpus Of ecclesiastical law, which by whether circumcision was necessary for salva-
crmsensus of opinion is not apostolic, and is tion. The Judean church, by and large, held it
crmjecturally dated from the latter half of the to be indispensable, while the missionary
fourth century. The Trullan council (692) church, represented by Antioch, considered it
had the work under consideration but accepted unnecessary. To deal with this problem which
only the Canons as authoritative because of threatened to split the Christian movement, a
the extent to which the Constitutions as a council was called at Jerusalem. There it was
whole had been subject to unorthodox inter- decided that circumcision was neither a re-
polations. The interpolator is thought by quirement for salvation nor a condition for
some to be a fourth century compiler, belong- social intercourse. However, it was thought
ing either to the church at Antioch or to North advisable to ask the Gentile converts to abstain
Syria. The alleged Arianism of the documents from certain practices which, because of idola-
is explained by some as being due to their trous associations, would be especially abhor-
having been written bet`ore the Council of rent to the Jew and thus act as a barrier to
fellowship. These prohibitions are known as
.\Ticaea, 325, when theological precision was
hot essential. the Apostolic Decree. They are set forth by
The complete title of the Constitutions is James in Acts 15:20, written down in 15:29
-Ordinances of the Holy Apostles through and referred to in 21 :25.
Clement"; it comprises eight books. Books I-6 The main problem in connection with the
resemble the Didascalia Apostolorum, a Syrian Decree is a textual one. The Alexandrian text
book of church order of the third century, and has four prohibitions. Gentiles are to abstain
deal with: (1) Manners and habits of the from (I) pollutions Of idols, (2) unchastity,
laity, (2) Episcopacy and Worship, (3) (3) what is strangled, and (4) blood. The
Widows, the Clergy, Baptism, (4) Feeding of Western text omits .`what is strangled" and
the poor, Virginity, (5) Martyrdom, (6) adds a negative Golden Rule ("Whatever you
Schismatics. Of Book 7, Chaps. 1-32 are based do not wish to happen to you, do not do to
on the Didache; 33-49 give details of liturgical others"). This changes the Decree into a pure-
ly ethical one. Gentiles are to abstain from
practice. 0£ Book 8, Chaps. I-2 concern
spiritual gifts: Chaps. 3-27 present the Antio- three cardinal sins - idolatry, fornication, and
cbene liturgy of St. John Chrysostom; Chaps. murder.
28-46 are Canons, and Chap. 47, possibly a The Alexandrian text is to be preferred.
hter addition, contains the eighty-five Apos- Alisgermati5n ton eid616n Cexp\ained as eid6lo-
tolic Canons. Twenty of these appear to be fJ?ttt¢ by 15:29 and 21 :25) refer to meats left
based on the Canons of the Council of An- over from pagan sacrifices and not to idolatry
tioch, 341. Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian, itself . Hc]j7„ofos is understood far more readily
translated the first fifty into Latin ca. 520, as combined with p„jktot4 and referring to the
omitting the others, it is suggested, since they eating of flesh with the blood still in it (an
deviated from Roman practice. The omitted inevitable result of strangulation). To "abstain
canons deal mostly with unseemly moral be- from blood" would be a curious equivalent for
"Thou shalt not kill."
hal.ior. Through Dionysius' translation the
Canons became part of the Wes.tern Canon The Decree is best understood as a conces-
Lew and exercised great influence, e.g., with sion in the realm of Christian liberty for the
Gratian (c¢.1140), though their apostolicity purpose of effecting unity in life. It is not a
was denied. These eighty-five canons are con- summary of the Noachic precepts (Gen. 9) al-
crmed mostly with the ordination, responsi- though it is not unrelated to them. It was not
bhities and moral conduct Of the clergy. Mod- used by Paul in the case of the Corinthian
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION 60

liberals because he preferred to settle the prob- air in the second century (The Apostol;c Swc-
lem on the basis of principle rather than ex- cess;o7c, 1953).
ternal legislation. Bishop Drury affirms that the apostles left
BIBLIOGRAPHY behind them three things: their writings; the
W. Sanday, The Aposto}£c Decree. churches which they founded, instructed, and
ROBERT H. MoUNCE regulated; and the various orders of ministers
for the ordering of these churches. There
APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION. This could be no more apostles in the original sense
theory of ministry in the church did not arise of that word. The real successor to the apos-
before A.D. 170-200. The Gnostics claimed to tolate is the NT itself, since it continues their
possess a secret tradition handed down to ministry within the church of God. Their of-
them from the apostles. As a counterclaim the fice was incommunicable. Three kinds of suc-
Catholic church pointed to each bishop as a cession are possible: ecclesj¢st;caz - a church
true successor to the apostle who had founded which has continued from the beginning; doc-
the see and therefore to the truth the apostles tr;7®¢l - the same teaching has continued
taught. The bishop, as an authoritative teach- throughout; episcop#! - a line of bishops can
er, preserved the apostolic tradition. He was be traced unbroken from early times. This
also a guardian of the apostolic Scriptures and does not necessarily mean that the episcopal
the creed. In a generation when the last links office is the same as the apostolic.
with the apostles were fast dying out this eni- See also ORI)AIN, oRDINATloN.
phasis on apostolic teaching and practice was BIBLIOGRAPHY
natural. In the third century the emphasis
GiEd3ens%on##oSu°iE',DD°"OuryreEn%g]3sfHthcehs,hc'#StTiee"a£.fronugr.C'U
changed from the ope7i succession of teachers
RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN
to the bishops as the persowal successors of the
apostles. This development owed much to the APOTHEOSIS. See DEIFlcATloN.
advocacy of Cyprian, Bishop o£ Carthage (248-
58). Harnack regards this as a perversion APPI]ARANCE. See REsuRRECTloN.
rather than a development.
ARCANI DISCIPLINA. This is a seven-
The terminology is not found in the NT. teenth century term for the early Christian
Djadochg is absent from the NT and the LXX.
practice of concealing certain ceremonies and
There is little evidence for the idea in the NT teachings from catechumens and pagans,
(c£. 11 Tim. 2:2). All early succession lists through the desire to prevent misunderstand-
were compiled late in the second century. ing or ridicule. Many ancient 'writers, both in
There is also a difference between the East and West, mention the custom which
Roman- and Anglo-Catholic viewpoint. The slowly died out after the Edict of Milan.
former is a centralized despotism with a papal Theodoret, e.g., says, ``We speak obscurely of
succession traced back to Peter. The Tractarian the divine mysteries on account of the unin-
teaches that all bishops alike, however insig- itiated, but when these have withdrawn we
nificant the see, have equal power in a corpo- teach the initiated plainly." (Qt"est. XV in
ration. Thus an apostle transmitted to a bish- Nu.). In speaking to pagans, the birth, death
op, through "the laying on of hands" and and resurrection o£ Jesus Christ were ex~
prayer, the authority which Christ had con- plained, but not Baptism, Holy Communion
ferred on him. This theory Of sacramental or the Trinity.
grace is a barrier to reunion in the Reformed BIBLIOGRAPHY
churches, since the non-episcopal bodies are DCA„ ODCC.
regarded as defective in their ministry. M. R. W. FARRF.R
The weakness of the argument Of The
Aposfol3c Mi7¢jsfry (edited by K. E. Kirk, ARCHAEOLOGY. Archaeology provides
1946) was its failure to explain the absence of a new open door to the study o£. ancient civili-
the idea in the first two centuries Of the Chris- zations, which in turn helps us to understand
tian era. Dr. Ehrhardt does not supply the de- better and interpret aright our ancient his-
fect by postulating a pi-jestzy succession de- torical records, both secular and biblical. This
rived from the Judaizing church of Jerusalem archaeological investigation of ancient life in-
as it laid stress on the 7¢ew Israel and the con- cludes the study Of the monuments, inscrip-
tinuity of its priesthood. The idea was in the lions, language, literature, art, architecture,
61 ARCHAEOLOGY

implements, houses, cities, and all other re- is John Garstang, /osh¢4a, /tidges, Constable,
mains of man and his activities. Applied to London,1931.
biblical studies, every area of biblical research
Ill. ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE DATING 0F
is illuminated and brought into sharp focus by
BIBLlcAL BooKs. Certain critics have dated
the knowledge which comes f ron Near East- many of these books later than their interml
ern archaeology.
evidence would imply. Wellhausen and his
I. ARCHAEOLOGY AND BIBI.E HlsTOR¥. Our later disciples made the Pentateuch a late com-
understanding of each major period of biblical pilation (ninth to fifth centuries B.c.), a
history is broadened and deepened by ar- thousand years after the days of Abraham and
chaeological discoveries. The era of the Pa- several hundred years after the time o£ Moses.
triarchs is illuminated by archaeological woi.k Archaeological discoveries such as the Nuzi
at many cities of that time-Ai, Shechem, tablets show, however, that the background of
Bethel, Beersheba, Gerar, Dothan, Jerusalem the Pentateuch is early and need not be down-
- and by the discovery of actual literary texts
dated on the grounds of a late background.
bearing on the period - the Nuzi and Mari Many of the Psalms have been downdated
tablets. Smaller details of this era are clarified
to the time of the Persian and Greek periods
also. Why did Isaac not revoke his oral bless-
(sixth to third centuries B.c.) and even to
ing on Jacob when he found it had not been
Herodian times. Archaeological evidence from
given to Esau as hc planned (Gen. 27:34-41)? Ras Shamra has shown again and again that
The Nuzi tablets show that in patriarchal
many Psalms which have been dated late by
times an oral blessing was binding, even in a certain critics must be reassigned to an early
law court (Cyrus Cordon, BA, Ill, I, p. 8).
date (W. F. Albright, The Archc}eozogy of
Why could Laban, with authority, point to his Pdlestj"e, Penguin, Baltimore, revised 1956,
grandchildren and say, "These children are pp. 226-27). Other illustrations could be given
my children" (Gen. 31 :43)? The Nuzi tablets of dates shifted to an earlier position in the
show that in that day a grandfather exercised light of archaeological evidence.
control over his grandchildren (jz7jd.).
As a summary of the abundant light shed IV. ARCHAEOLOGy AND EvlDENCEs. The
on the kings of the Bible, we note that forty- apologetic value of archaeology is almost too
one biblical kings are confirmed in archaeologi- well known to need illustration. In every
cal discoveries (R. D. Wilson, period of biblical history we have confirmation
A Sc].e7®tjfjc
Investigation of the Old Testament, The Sun- both of broad areas and of minute detail`3,
day School Times Co., Philadelphia, 1926, pp. whether the general accuracy of the patriarchal
72-73). background (evidenced in Nuzi tablets, Marl
tablets, and others), or specific details such as
11. ARCHAEOLOGy As A CoMMENTAR¥. For
the confirmation of the existence of the oncL`-
generations Bible students have gone to com-
doubted Hittites (evidence from Boghaz-Koi,
mentaries when they needed light on a biblical
c£. Free, Archaeology and Bible History, Scr.ip-
passage. In modern times archaeolog}' has pro~
ture Press, Wheaton, Illinois, 5th ed., 1956,
vided a vast new commentar}7. Bible students
could guess at the meaning of the statement pp. 125-26), or once-mentioned indi\Jiduals,
as Sargon (Isa. 20: I ; cf. discoveries at Khorsa-
made three times in the Pentateuch, "Thou
bad, jz7jd, pi). 200-201), or doubted narrative
shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk"
records, as Sennacherib's recorded failure l.o
(Ex. 23:19; 34:26; Deut.14:21), but it was
capture Jerusalem (11 Kings 19:35-36; coil-
not until the Ras Shamra tablets were exca-
firmed by Sennacherib's failure to boast that
vated (1929) and studied (1930 to the pres-
he captured the city - he could only sa}', "I
ent) that we knew for a certaint}' that this re-
shut uii Hezekiah like a bird in a cage"). Ex-
ferred to a pagan ritual practice: one of the
amplcs of both general and specific conf'irmit-
Ras Shamra tablets indicates that if one wishc`s
tion of the historical reliability of the Bible can
to please a certain deit}', he should boil a kid
be multiplied many times over (Millar Bur-
in milk. Ancient Israel was being warned not
rows, WJtflt Mecz7? Those Sto7?es, American
to backslide into the practices of the pagan
Schools of Oriental Research, New Haven,
people around them. 941, p. 281).
In summar}', whole books have been written
from the archaeological standpoint on various V. ARCHAEOLOGY AND EXEGEsls. Archae-
periods and areas of Bible study. One example ology not only throws light on the general
ARCHAEOLOGY 62

historical situation but frequently clears up for Jacob, whom he did not want to inherit his
the exegete the meaning of particular wor(ls estate.
and phrases. The statement that Moses' "eye A thousand years after the patriarchal pe-
was not dim nor his natural force abated" riod, Solomon is reported to have received the
(Deut. 34:7) has puzzled interpreters down picturesque queen o£ Sheba, an account of ten
through the centuries. The word translated regarded as unhistorical. The air of unreality
natural force (!g(a)Z}) is similar to the word for ascribed by some to the record is removed in
jaw in Hebrew, hence some translated it by the light of Assyrian archaeological records
extension as teeth (Jerome in the Vulgate). which furnish fac.tual details of the land o£
Objective light came with the discove,ry of the Sheba in the early first millennium B.c. and
Ras Shamra tablets, where this same word oc- confirm its historical reality. As Professor.
curs twice in the sense of manly vigor or nat- James Montgomery of the University of Penn-
ural force. Jerome and the Greek translators sylvania remarked in connection with the rec-
were wrong and the King James translators ord of Solomon and the queen Of Sheba, the
correct in their rendering natural force (Al- biblical setting is "quite correct" (Arabj.a ¢"d
bright, BASOR 94). Many similar illustra- tJ7e Biz7le, University o£ Pennsylvania Press,
tions of light on words and phrases could be Philadelphia, 1934, p. 180).
given, both for the OT and t`or the NT. In the VIII. ARCHAEOLOGY AND LITERARY CRITI-
latter a whole new area of study was opened clsM. Literary criticism is concerned with the
up at the beginning of the century with the authorship, date, purpose, and integrity of the
discovery of everyday Greek papyri texts in books of the Bible. The evident authorship of
the excavations of Egypt.
a book of the Bible is often denied on the
VI. ARCHAEOLOGy AND HERMENEUTICS.
ground that the book has a background too
The interpretation Of a given passage often late for the time Of the implied author. The
depends largely on a correct knowledge of the Pentateuch, according to many critics, could
historical, geographical, and linguistic factors not have been the work o£ Moses because of a
involved. As indicated previously, archaeolog}- supposedly late background. But in the twen-
is a necessary adjunct in all of these. Further- tieth century the discovery of the Nuzi tablets,
more, a correct translation is a prime requisite, the Mari tablets, and many others, reveals just
and here the archaeological sources are a con- the reverse - an early background, thus re-.
stant help. It is necessary, e.g., to know moving this objection to the Mosaicity Of the
whether it was Moses' teeth or his natural Pentateuch. Many striking examples of simi-
force which was unimpaired to interpret cor- lar help from archaeology on the question of
rectly the passage in Deut. 34:7. date and authorship Of` other OT books could
In the NT a great number of words have be given. Again and again hypercriticism fails
been amplified and some former interpreta- to be supported (c£. W. F. Albright, Arc7}¢e-
tions definitely modified by the discovery of ozogy of P¢Zesfj7ce, p. 225).
the non-literary papyri, whose significance was
In the NT area also archaeological evidence
first pointedly brought to the attention of the
supports early dating. For example, the sup-
world by Adolph Deissmann (Lig71t fro" t7tie
A7tcie7®f Ec}st, Doran, New York, 1927). posed anachronistic use o£ "master" (djd¢shalos)
as pointing to a late date for the Gospel Of
VII. ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE HISTORICAL
John is answered by the discovery of early
SETTING. For a correct comprehension of the
ossuary inscriptions containing the same word
Scriptures one needs a knowledge of the his-
(jz,id.' p. 244).
torical milieu in which these events took place.
One is puzzled, for example, by Laban's put- IX. ARCHAEOLOGY AND THEol.oG¥. The
suit of Jacob and Rachel to recover the family theologian comes to grips with such questions
images (idols) which Rachel had stolen (Gen. as the goodness of God. Puzzling are the
31 : 19-23). This puzzling action was clarified commands of God to drive out the pagar}
by the discovery of the Nuzi tablets, which Canaanites from the promised land (Deut.
showed that if one possessed the family im- 7:I-5). How does this harmonize with the
ages of the father he could lay claim to the goodness o£ God? Concerning this very point
family inheritance. In the light of this evi- the archaeological discoveries show that the
dence one can easily understand the hurried Canaanites had a licentious and cormpt wor-
f light o£ Laban to recover the images f rom ship, as evidenced in the Ras Shamra tablets,
63 ARIANISM

which made it necessary to deal with them in continued longer and was more serious than
judgment. any other that agitated the early church.
The systematic theologian works with a In the teaching of Arius it was assumed that
body of revealed truth. If this revelation is deity could not appear substantially on the
shown to be inaccurate, historically incorrect, earth. Hence Christ was assumed to be a sec-
filled with contradictions, what has the theolo- ond essence which God had created, whicli
gian to build on? The results of archaeological came down to earth and took upon himself a
research show the firm support that exists for human body. He was assumed to be not a
``perfect man," for in his body the Logos took
the revelation Christians accept and for the
theology which derives from it. the place of the human intellect or spiritual
BIBLIOGRAPHY principle.
This error arose because Arius and his fol-
lowers misinterpreted certain Scripture state-
:%£e'?i;;(3];:)::r:ki;rcAT¥e:eo§ofgafbe#%#i:::f;3#¢t:::;:"e:i"'u£In¥oa;"°!: ments relating to Christ's state of humiliation,
What Mean These Stones; laick F±negz\n, Itght from the
A#cje#t Past . that is, certain relationships which he assumed
Fx%RE£:giy|offfd&RE3o%#eFf_3...ukg5;, in order that he might accomplish the redemp-
On the Dead Sea Scrolls: see art. in this Dictionary.
tion of his people. The result was that they
assumed that temporary subordination to the
an:orN::.mE:si:hoi.cchua=:,n.tg,?ev,i`eopFue:.t,se.|i,npbjBli::
tions BA and BASOR. Father meant original and permanent in-
JOSEPH P. FRF,E
equality. But, because of the claims that Christ
had made, the authority that he assumed, the
ARCHBISHOP. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslAs- miracles that he worked, and the glory thcit
TICAL. he displayed particularly in his resurrection
and ascension, the great majority of Christians
ARCHDEACON. See OFFlcEs, EccLEsi- held that he was truly God.
ASTICAL. In order to settle the controversy the Em-
peror Constantine called the f irst Christian
ARCHPRIHST. See OFFlcEs, Eccl.EslAs-
council at Nicaea, in Asia Minor, in the year
TICAL.
A.D. 325. It was hoped that a formula could
ARIANISM. The Arian controversy arose be worked out which would be acceptable to
in the diocese of Alexandria, Egypt, about the the whole church. The council was attended
by bishops and presbyters from practically all
year A.D. 320, and was concerned primarily
with the person of Christ. It took its name parts of the empire, and the controversy cen-
from Arius, a presbyter in Alexandria, who tered around the question as to whether Christ
taught that there js a difference between God was to be considered as truly God or as only
the first and greatest creature.
the Father and Christ the Son which makes
the latter secondary. Arius maintained that The leader Of the orthodox forces was Alex-
God the Father alone is eternal, that Christ ander, Bishop of Alexandria. The teaching of
was created out of nothing as the first and Arius was condemned. Christ was held to be
of the same substance with the Father, 7co773c;-
greatest of all creatures, and that he in turn
created the universe. Arius thus represented o"sj¢, not merely of similar substance, Jio7i®oj-
Christ as but the first and greatest of all crea- ottsj¢, and was declared to be "God of God,
tures, God's intemediary agent through whom Light of Light, very God of very God, being
all other things were created. Yet, because of of one substance with the Father."
the power and honor delegated to him, he was The defeat of Arianism, however, was only
to be looked upon as God and was to be wor- temporary. The Emperor Constantine was al
shipped. iMost of the Arians also held that the first strongly inclined to enforce the decree of
Holy Spirit was the first and greatest of the the council, but was persuaded to a more mod-
creatures called into existence by the Son. erate course. Both views wet.e tolerated in the
This, therefore, meant a God who had a bc- church, with the result that Arianism rallied
ginning and who might therefore have an and for a considerable time became the dom-
end. In demanding worship for a created inant view. Alexander died soon after the
Christ, the Arians were in effect asserting the council adjourned. He was succeeded by Ath-
central principle of heathenism and idolatry, anasius, who contended strongly and skilf ully
the worship Of a creature. This controversy for the orthodox doctrine, and to Athanasius
ARK 64

belongs the primary credit for its eventual battle begins, our Lord is designated "King Of
triumph. The controversy continued to agitate Kings, and Lord of Lords," for he is about
the churc.h until the Council of Constantinople to fulfil the title assigned to him at the be-
in A.I). 381, at which time the orthodox doc- ginning of this book, "the ruler of the kings
trine was reaffirmed. Even then the Arian of the earth" (I:5). In his commentary on
view continued to be held by small groups, but the Apocalypse, Swete, writing at a time when
finally disappeared about A.I). 650. the world seemed to be entering upon an era
In denying the true deity of Christ while of universal peace (1906), well said, "Those
at the same time demanding worship for him, who take note of the tendencies Of modem
Arianism was opening the door to polytheism civilization will not find it impossible to con-
and destroying the basis f or Christian Trini- ceive that a time may come when throughout
tarianism. Athanasius properly saw that only Christendom the spirit o£ Antichrist will, with
as the deity o£ Christ is maintained can there the support of the state, make a final stand
be established a f irm basis for the Christian against a Christianity which is loyal to the
faith. person and teaching o£ Christ" (p. 257).
BIBLIOGRAPHY The word Armageddon is often used incoi`-
rectly, as when Theodore Roosevelt, candi-
TPL:.3z,:3\E6ooystEn#,nL£.n##:,„S#d%,:,±nfTE%£oS;,,
dating for President of the United States on
LORAINE BOETTNER the Bull Moose Party ticket, said, "We stand
at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord."
ARK. See TABERNACLE. BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARMAGEDDON. This widely and vari-

ously-used word is defined in the Oxford E#g-
!jsh Djcfjo72qry as "the place of the last deci- ;.i.]i::h:::p:!!!6!;i,i!?i;fie.:Siii.;fF:,!!#:%t;;:c:?;to:c!-::!:
sive battle at the day of judgment." It is found WILBUR M. SMITH
only once in the Bible, in the phrase "the
place which is called in Hebrew, Hal-Mage- ARMINIANISM. Jacob Hermann, or in
don'' (Rev.16: 16 ASV). While in recent NT Latin Arminius, (1560-1609), was a Dutch
introductions the usually-given origin of the theologian who, af ter receiving a strict Re-
word, with specific reference, is denied, there formed training, conceived some doubts with
o reason for giving up the view o£ Al ford, respect to the Calvinistic tenets on the sov-
most other conservative NT scholars, that ereign grace of God in salvation and related
term itself means ``the mountain of Megid- themes. His followers, called Arminians or
Megiddo is located -on the southern side Remonstrants, carried matters considerably fur-
the plain o£ Jezreel, and is Of ten referred ther than Arminius had done in his writings,
to in the OT as a military stronghold (Josh. and set forth their views in a document called
"Remonstrance" and consisting of f ive articles
12:21; 17:11; Judges 1:27; 5:19; 11 Kings
9:27; 23:29, etc.). which may be briefly summarized as follows:
Though the word itself occurs only in the I. God elects or reproves on the basis of
one verse, the great, final battle of this age is foreseen faith or unbelief .
recorded in detail in Rev.19:11-21, and is 11. Christ died for all men and for every
referred to anticipatorily in 14:14-20; 16:13- man, although only believers are saved.
16 and 17:8-17. The text clearly states that Ill. Man is so depraved that divine grace is
this battle will be on a gigantic scale, that it necessary unto faith or any good deed.
will involve the nations of the east, and that IV. This grace may be resisted.
the kings going up to this battle, knowing it V. Whether all who are truly regenerate
is to be waged against the Lamb, will be will certainly persevere in the faith is a point
driven by demon powers. Several OT passages which needs further investigation.
also si)eak of a great conf lict at the end of the Af ter considerable discussion these views
age (Joel 3:9-15; Jer. 51:27-36; Zeph. 3:8). were condemned in the Synod o£ Dort (1618-
This battle o£ Megiddo should not be con- 19). They were maintained and developed in
fused with the overthrow of Israel's enemies the Netherlands by H. Uytenbogaert (1557-
in Ezekiel 37-39. 1644), S. Episcopius (1583-1643), S. Curcel-
Here in Rev. 19: 15 is the last reference to laeus (1586-1659), Hugo Grotius (1583-
the wrath o£ God, and here, just before the 1645), Ph. a Limborch (1633-1712), and
65 ARMOR

others. Under the leadership of these men 20. Love is the supreme attribute of God,
Arminianism became characterized by increas- the very essence of his being.
ing differences from the traditional Reformed 21. The goal of creation is the happiness
faith. The following tenets are commonly held of the creatures (eudaemonism).
by Arminians: 22. Man was created naturally mortal.
I. God's knowledge of the future acts of
23. The atonement is not strictly substitu-
free agents is mediate (scie"tin t"edj¢).
tionary and penal, but it is a token perform-
2. God's decrees are based on his fore-
ance designed to safeguard the interests of the
knowledge: election on foreseen faith and
moral government of God while opening the
reprobation on foreseen resistance to grace.
possibility of salvation on the ground of evan-
3. The image of God in man consists in
gelical obedience (rectoral or governmental
man's dominion over the lower creation.
theory of the atonement).
4. Adam was created in innacency rather
24. Assurance of salvation is not possible in
than in true holiness.
this life, except by a special personal revela-
5. The covenant of works was abrogated
tion.
after the Fall.
6. Sin consists in acts of the will. In the Netherlands Arminians, as well as
7. Pollution is inherited from Adam, but many other movements, were profoundly af-
his guilt is not imputed to any Of his de- fected by the rationalistic currents of the
scendants. eighteenth century. The present-day Remon-
8. Man's depravity as a result of the Fall strants still hold to Pelagian teachings and
should not be described as total. have lax views of inspiration and of the
9. Man has not lost the faculty of self-de- Trinity.
termination nor the ability to incline his will Outside of Holland Arminianism exerc.iscd
toward good ends. considerable influence in France, Switzerland,
10. The atonement was not absolutely nec- Germany, and England, and hence throughout
essary, but represents merely one way which the world. In a number of cases this point of
God chose among many to manifest his love view gained the upper hand in spite of Gal-
without I)rejudice to his righteousness. vinistic confessions of faitli.
11. The atonement is intended equally for The Wesleyan branch o[. the Methodist
all men and for every man, and it merely movement embraced vigorousl)J a ri`viscd form
makes salvation possible. Salvation becomes ef- of Arminianism, sometimes called "e\Jangelical
fectual only when accepted b)' the repentaiit Arminianism." It is characterized by a view of
believer. the themes touched upon in 3, 7, 8, and 9,
12. There is no common grace to be dis- whii`h is slightly less distant from Calvinistic
tinguished from special grace. tenets.
13. The external call of the gospel is ac- BIBLIOGR,\PI IY
companied by a universal sufficient grace 13c'si(lc the works ot' thc' authors mentioned above one
which can be resisted.
14. Repentance and faith precede regenei.a-
tion,
15. The human will is to be viewed as one
of the causes of regeneration (synergism).
16. Faith is a good work of man and a
ground of acceptance with God.
17. There is no imputation of Christ's right- Arl"iii.u.ijsi//: ,\. W. IIarrison, Aitiijitjat.;```tii; T/ic. 13{'-
giiltl!'Jig.` of ArnJiJiia}ii.``Hi; F. Platt in IIEltl3; 11. C.
eousness to the believer.
18. The believer is able to attain in this life gpo.Bg;0,;,:2§:]i=[I},K,.p;>..S:ii:£f;;cbc:cclB.OfufTi:aj::,`',"`£`:"''[5:
2+I-7+.
a state of such conformity to the divine will RoC,ER NICoLE
that he may be called perfect.
19. As long as a man lives he may fall ARMOR. For armor in general, ii!"c{(Jj`tli is
away from grace and lose his salvation alto- used (I Sam.17:38), also J'¢`'l£ (I Sam.14:I

gether. ASV); as militiiry apt)arel, (7¢e5ec|) (I Kings

Certain Arminians were led to profess f ur- 10:25); Greek )1oplo7t, with |Ja7i, thus |JaJ4o-
ther that: p!!.a, or "whole armor" onl}' twice in the NT
 66
ARTICLE OF FAITH

Defensively, armor consisted of the hel-

(Luke 11:22; Eph. 6:11,13). There are sev-
eral other words translated "armor" in the OT, met, which might be made of either metal or
coming from roots not precisely related to as a knitted cap; the shield which was in two
arms or wars, such as from spoils, etc. styles: (I) the buckler, or small, round shield
In the Bible the use of armor for military carried on the arm, and (2) the large shield
of body length. The shield also could be Of
purposes is related to Israel and her enemies.
In the battles which Israel fought, she leaned metal or of wood and leather or even Of
f ron her enemies and adapted the armor and wicker. As a rule, metal helmets were won
tactics of the enemy to her own use. That by leaders and officers. These officers would
the armor o£ Israel was typical of the times also wear a coat of mail over the body, greavcs
can be demonstrated by comparing descriptions over the shins, and leather boots on the feet.
in I Sam.17:8,11 Chron. 26:14-15 and Jer. King Ahab was slain by an arrow that pierced
46:3-4. In NT times the Pauline description between the joints of his coat Of mail (I
of armor was typical of the Roman soldier, Kings 22:34). The armor of the Roman
with whom he had every reason to be familiar. soldier was simply a more elegant and utili-
Paul adds the shoes and the girdle but dces tarian adaptation of the above.
not mention the spear (Eph. 6: 11-17). Metaphorically, the flaming circle of the
Armor was designed for both offensive and sword barred Eden (Gen. 3:24); Gideon cried
"the sword of Jehovah and of Gideon" into the
defensive purposes. The most primitive offen-
sive weapons were clubs, stones, staves and ears of the Midiarii€e= (Judg. 7:20); the
darts, all of which Israel used. Stones became Psalmist spoke of the shield, buckler, etc. But
deadly projectiles when propelled from the the classic passage is the Roman soldier -
knitted or leather twolthonged sling. Such a Christian warrior metaphor of Ephesians. Paul's
weapon in the hands o£ David s.lew Goliath description compares with that of Polybius (vi.
(I Sam. 17:40). The seven hundred Ben- 23), but without the spear. Used in the war
jaminites, 1eft~handed all, were noted for their against sin and Satan, Paul speaks of the ". . .
accuracy with the sling (Judg. 20: 16). In the armor of God."
conquest of Canaan the javelin and the sword In this way also, the sword becomes a sym-
were used. The phrase "edge of the sword" bol of God's judgment; God's armor denotes
is almost a catch phrase in the book o£ Joshua. his ability to conquer and to destroy and his
It seems to have fallen upon the Philistines to all-sufficiency, and God is spoken of as put-
provide these weapons and to control a mo- ting on his armor (Isa. 59:17). The fire-
nopoly of keeping swords and tools sharpened. tipped arrows of conquest become the "fiery
Such a factory and smelting furnace was found darts" o£ Satan. As for the soldier, so for the
by Petrie at Gerar. Christian` his weapons and his armor are his
The bow and arrow were common weapons. life.
Of several styles, the bow could be made o£ BIBLIOGRAPHY
wood, copper, or bronze. It could also be a
hunter's bow, a large battle bow, or a foot #B!Er,%dRtiLs:::;,G.#e??a?s::::gT¥hTcofi?fl#Btf?'N¥#rfiBODr;
bow. The arrows might be tipped with stone ROBERT WINSTON RoSS
or metal. The quiver was worn on the left
side. If the bowmen went to battle in chariots, ARTICLE OF FAITH. A non-biblical
then the bow was slung on the side of the term, though the terse creedal statements em-
chariot. bedded in I Cor.15:3, 4 and I Tim. 3: 16 in-
The Hittites carried daggers, and the Philis- dicate the church's early preoccupation with
tines made knives with ivory inlaid handles. concise f ormulations o£ Christian belief..
In the hands of the Philistines and the Greeks Aquinas uses ai-tjci.lt4s to denote a revealed
the two-edged sword was a deadly and much- supernatural truth distinct in itself yet form-
feared weapon. The Greeks also e££ectively ing part of the organic whole of Christian
used the spear. teaching. The Catechjs" of t7ie Cot4#cil of
Solomon seems to have added the chariot T7-e74t calls the truths of the Apostles' Creed
"articles." The great confessions of Protestan-
(long used by others) to the offensive weapons
o£ Israel. Several passages in the OT also men- tism, which define the biblical faith of the
tion the use of siege weapons such as the bat- Reformation in contradistinction both to Rome
tering-ram. and to fanatical "enthusiasm," comprise in-
67 ASCENSION, THE

dividual dogmatic assertions usually styled "ar-

ticles," e.g., the Thirty-nine Articles, the offi- :£ethaesc::?£eornwh°f:lil::t!igghtv:sTt€:;°rhyi;bd::rpfite:
cial doctrinal standard of the Church Of Eng- from that world came to an end, and the heav-
land. ens received him from their sight. Yet, through
0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON the indwelling Holy Spirit they were to come
nearer to him than ever before, and he was
ASCENSION, THE. By the ascension is to be with them forever (John 14: 16-18).
meant that act of the God-man by which he To object to the account of the ascension ot`
brought to an end his post-resurrection ap- Christ into heaven as implying a childish and
pearances to his disciples, was finally parted outmoded view of the universe is, more or less,
from them as to his physical presence, and solemn trifling. While we may agree with
passed into the other world, to remain there Westcott when he says that "the change which
until his second advent (Acts 3:21). Luke Christ revealed by the ascension was not a
describes this event in a word or two in Luke change of place, but a change of state, not
24:51 and more fully in Acts I :9. Even if the local but spiritual" (Westcott, The Revehatjo7®
words "and he was carried up into heaven" of the Rise# Lord, M.1cmillan & Co., London,
are not part of the true text in Luke 24:51, ]898, p. 180), on the other hand, we are not
we have good reason for saying, in the ligli[ unscientific when we think of the land where
``the king in all His glory without a veil is
of Luke's clear and unambiguous words in
his second treatise, that :he doubtful words in seen" as the upper world of light and glory,
Luke 24:51 express wlhat was in his mind. In high above us as good is above evil and
accordance with the oral testimony of the blessedness above misery.
apostles, he carries on his story of the life o£ The Heidelberg Catechism suggests three
Jesus as far as "the day that he was taken up" great benefits that we receive from the ascen-
(Acts I:22). sion. (I) The exalted Lord in heaven is our
According to the Fourth Gospel, our Lord Advocate in the presence of his Father (Ron.
referred on three occasions to his ascending in- 8:34; I John 2:I; Heb. 7:25). As our High
to heaven (John 3:13; 6:62; 20:17). Paul Priest he offered on the cross the one per-
speaks of Christ ascending far above all heav- fect and final sacrif.ice for sins for ever (Heb.
ens in order to permeate the whole universe 10:12), and now, having sat down on the
with his presence and I)ower (Eph. 4:10). right hand of God, he has entered on his
Such phrases as "received up in glory" (I Tim. priestly ministry in heaven. As our King-Priest
3: 16), "gone into heaven" (I Pet. 3:22), and he communicates, through the Holy Spirit,
"passed through the heavens" (Heb. 4:14)
to all believers the gif ts and blessings which
refer to the same event. Paul exhorts the he died to win for them. "Christ's` intercession
Colossian believers to "seek the things that are in heaven," said the old Scottish preacher.,
above, where Christ is, seated on the right Traill, ``is a kind and powerful remembrance
hand of God" (Col. 3: I, ERV), and the nu- of His people, and of all their conc.erns, man-
merous references in the NT to the session at aged with state and majesty; not as a sup-
the right hand of God presuppose the ascen- pliant at the footstool, but as a crowned prince
sion, on the throne, at the right hand of the Fa-
In Eph.I:20 ff.. Paul passes directly from ther." (2) We have our flesh in heaven, so
the resurrection to the e,xaltation of Christ to that, as the subtle Scottish thinker, "Rabbi"
the place of supreme power and authority in Duncan, said: ``The dust of the earth is on the
the universe. In passages like Rom. 8:34 and throne of the majesty on high." In that, as the
Col. 3: I the session might seem to be thought Heidelberg Catechism says, we have ``a sure
Of as the immediate result of the rising from pledge that He, as our Head, will also take us,
the dead, thus leaving no room, as some have His members, up to Himself." (3) lie sends
argued, for the ascension as a distinct event; us his Spirit, as the earnest of the promised
but it is difficult to see that there is any inheritance.
force in any argument derived from Paul's That third benefit is of supreme importance.
silence in such passages when in Eph. 4: 10 he The Holy Spirit was not given, in the fulness
states so emphatically his belief in the ascen- of his gracious working in the souls of men,
sion. Our Lord's post-resurrection appearances until Jesus was glorified (John 7:39). "Being
had, no doubt, shown that he belonged already by the right hand of God exalted, and having
ASCETICISM 68

received of the Father the promise of the Holy ff.) and had to forego the normal humm
Ghost, hc hath poured forth this, which ye see rights of I)ro|)erty, marriage, and even fclmily
and hear. For David ascended not into the relationships (Mark 3:33 f.) for the sake of
hc'avens" (Acts 2:33, 34, ERV). Thus was his ministry. If he did not teach his disciples
it demonstrated to thc` universe that, as Zahn to fast, he indicated itlainly that they must do
has put it, "the risen Lord lives in heavenly so after his dei]arture (Matt. 9:15) and ob-
communion with His and our Father, and that viously requirL`d that some should be cclibale
Hc ti`kc`s an active part in the working of the and renounce ordinary relationships for his
I)owcr as well as of the grai`e of God in this sake (Matt.19:12, 29). In the Eitistlcs Paul
wttrld" (Zahn, TJze Apos!jes' Creecz, Eng. sees a value in celibficy for the better pleasing
tnms.; Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1899, i]. of the Lord (I Cor. 7:32), and his own prac-
162). "There can be no doubt," James Den- tice is one of rigorous self-discipline in order
ne)' wrote, "that in this I)assi`ge Peter looks that he may bc a good soldier and servant ot`
upon Jesus in His ex.1lti`tion as forming with Jesus Christ (I Cor. 9:27; 11 Tim. 2:3 f.).
God His Father one Divine causality at work The consistent biblical cmphi`sis uiton a
through the Si)irit for the salvation of men" i]roiicr asceticism is impressive, yet three points
CDcnney, Jesus and the Gospel, Hodder & are to be carefully noted. First, there is no
Stoughton, London,1913, p.19). suggestion of i`nything intrinsic`ally evil in that
The ascended Lord is with us in the strug- which is foregone, e.g., food, marriage, prop-
gle here (Mark 16: 19-20), and we know that erty, or ordinary re]a{innships. Second, thei.e
he has gone to heaven, "our entrance to se- is no universal or even permanent rule of
cure, and our abode I)repare" (John 14:2; asceticism in the majority of cases. Third, as-
I-Ieb. 6:20). ceticism is not an end in itselt` but is under-
BIBLIOGRAPHY taken with a view to something positive, e.g.,
rei)cntance, hearing God's word, or, more par-
ticularly, service.
#:I:;TEj`:v;i;i;;,i;:r,.;?ci::::?,oA?:#T"`J'#`i::;,;?::t;:.sa:n;f,C;?:a;::;: Asi`ctic witni`ss was i]articularly valuable in
ALEXANDER RoSS the early I)agan world with its lax standards of
ASCETICISM. From the Greek c}skGs;s i]hysical morality, and in measure most Chris-
tians had to accept a new level of abstemious-
(exercise or training), asceticism denotes the
ness, and many were I)rei]ared to go to greater
practice of self-discipline, more particularly in
relation to the body. It normally takes the form extremes f`or the sake of their new life and
witness. Hence it is not surprising to find the
of renunciation, e.g„ £asting, celibacy, but has
swift development of an eremitic and monastic
sometimes been given a more active form in
movement designed to facilitate or foster as-
such excesses as self-flagellation. It is ca|)able
cetic I)ractices. Nor is this wholly to be con-
of extension to many spheres of life, especially
the surrender of possessions or withdrawal demned. It accei)ted literally the biblical state-
from various aspects of intellectual or cultural
ments which far too often are evaded by
life in the interests of s|)iri[ual edification or
spiritualization. It maintained a witness to
service.
higher standards than were achieved by the
The Bible allows a I)lace for the right kind majority. And many of the early monks were
of asceticism. Thus Israel was to abstain from foremost in the work of evangelism or prac-
tical service.
marital intercourse prior to the giving of the
law (Ex. 19:15). The Nazaritic vow in- Unfortunately, however, the general tend-
volved abstention from wine and strong drink ency of the church has been to lose sight of
and strictness in relation to unclean meats the three distinctive and indisi)ensable char-
(Judg.13 : 5). Elijah undertook a forty-day fast acteristics of genuine biblical asceticism. Un-
on his journey to I-1oreb (I Kings 19:8), and der pagan influence, dominant especially in
fasting in particular played an important part Gnosticism (a.v.), there has been a continuing
in penitential humiliation before God (Joel suspicion that the physical is essentially evil
2: 15 ff.). and therefore to be necessarily renounced as
Nor is asceticism excluded by the NT. John such for the attainment of true sanctification
the Baptist practiced great severity in respect and in full obedience to Christ. Again, at-
of food and clothing (Matt. 3:4). Jesus en- tempts have been made to impose definite
tered on his ministry with a fast (Matt. 4:1 rules of asceticism as an indissoluble obliga-
69 ASSURANCE

tion, as in the Roman insistence upon celibate would incur the wrath of Almighty God and
clergy or the permanent character Of monastic the holy apostles, that the Blessed Virgin
vows. Third, it has been supposed that there Mary, having completed her earthly life, was
is a merit in asceticism as such, the ascetic in body and soul assumed into heavenly glory.
attaining to a higher level of Christian life CMunificentissimus Deus, \950, Acta Apos-
and acquiring merit in the bid to escape pur- tozjccie Sed;s, XLII). Before that date the belief
gatory. In this way the evils of dualism, eccle- was held as a pious and probable opinion.
siasticism, and legalism have perverted a true Benedict XIV declared in 1740 that the tra-
asceticism, avenging themselves either in a dition is not of such a kind as to be sufficient
reversion to laxity on the one side (cf . cleri- for the elevation of this doctrine to the rank
cal concubinage) or a self-centered Pharisaism of an article of faith (Opera, Vol. X, p. 499,
on the other (Luke 18: 11 £.). There could be ed. 1751). Scripture is silent about the cir-
no greater caricature of genuine asceticism cumstances of the death of Mary, and the
than Simon Stylites on his pillar, the celibate tradition of the assumption is unknown in t`ne
priest with his "housekeeper," or the monk early church.
pursuing private edification in isolation from The story is first found in some apocryphal
the world. writings of the late fourth century bearing the
Yet the best antidote to perverted asceticism titles The Passing of Mary, The Obsequies of
is the biblical and evangelical view. It rests Mary, and Th,e Book of the Passing of the
on the fact that salvation is in Christ alone. It Blessed Vjrg;". The writings are condemned
sees no superior merit or virtue in asceticism as spurious in the decretals attributed to Pope
as such. It does not regard the physical as in- Gelasius at the end of the fifth or beginning
trinsically evil. It c.annot accept a binding or of the sixth century (Migne, P¢trologjae Lc]-
permanent rule of abnegation. But it is pre- fj7®c}e, pp. 59, 162). Gregory of Tours (d. 594)
pared for various measures of self-discipline is the first orthodox writer who accepts them as
and self-denial in obedience to the specific authentic. A passage in Co7®cer#j7®g t7®e Divi7ce
demands o£ Jesus Christ, out of overruling and Na"es (attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite
singlehearted love for him and for the sake Of but actually dating from the fifth to the sixth
greater effectiveness in the ministry of evan- century) was taken by Andrew of Crete (d.
gelism and edification. 740) to imply that Dionysius had witnessed
See also FAST, CELIBAcy. the assumption. John of Damascus (eighth
BIBLIOGRAPHY century) presente(I the assumption as an an-
K. E. Kirk, The Vision of God,. 0. Zceckler, in HERE.
cient Catholic tradition. Since the sixteenth
WILLIAM KELLY century, passages from a homily of his have
provided some of the lessons used in the Ro-
ASEITY. See ATTRIBUTEs, DrvlNE.
man Breviary during the Feast of the Assump-
tion. Festivals observing the death of Mary,
ASH WEDNESDAY. The first day o£
but not necessarily her bodily assumption, have
Lent, the traditional forty fast days befole
been observed in the East from the Fifth
Easter. The title derives from the discipline in
Century and in the West from the end of the
the ancient Roman Church of sprinkling ashes
Seventh. The doctrine, it is said, is recom-
on the heads of penitents with a view to their
mended by its intrinsic reasonableness. Our
being restored to Communion at Easter. The
Lord would not permit the sacred body in
Sarum Missal contained a service for the bless-
which he himself dwelt to become a prey to
ing of the ashes, which were intended to be a
cormption.
mark of humiliation, contrition, and mourn-
ing (see, e.g., Isa. 61:3; Dan. 9:3; Matt. See also MARlol.AIRY.
11 :21). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Giovanne Miegge, The Vjrgjt. Mar);: the Rot.iati Cat7i-
FRANK COLQUHOUN alic Marian Doctrine.
RICHARI) J. COATES
ASHERAH. See GODs.
ASSURANCE. The doctrine that those
ASHEROTH. See GODs.
who are truly saved may know without a
ASSUMPTION OF MARY. On Nov. I, doubt that they are saved is often described as
1950, Pope Pius XII defined it as an article assurance (Col. 2:2; Heb. 6: 11; 10:22). This
of the faith revealed by God, to deny which certainty of salvation the Reformers referred to
ASTROLOGY 70

as certtwho gratiae or certitudo salut3s, both to date in our day - is that no known forces
of which terms imply the certainty or assur- of nature can separate us from our Father's
ance of personal salvation. love.
The doctrine of assurance is predicated in BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Westminster Confession o£ Faith (Chap- Th?. R€;aTLe:' o7hzsts,:a7:-gcy|°Ssed Re~ajssa%ce; R. Eis|er,
ter XVIII), which teaches that although be- R. E. D. CLARK
lievers may have the assurance of their re-
demption sorely tried and shaken, yet they ATHANASIAN CREED. See CREEI),
are never utterly deprived of saving faith and CREEDS.
hence have their assurance of salvation revived ATHEISM. The term atheism is frequent-
and re-established by the work of the Holy ly employed to designate a condition of being
Spirit. Both Calvin and Luther held this posi- without the true God. Thus Paul says that
tion. The Arminian position would predicate
gentile Christians had been "atheists" afheo£
certainty of salvation for the present only.
(Eph. 2: 12) before their conversion. See also
The NT word generally translated ``assur- Ron.I:28, "they did not see fit to acknowl-
ance" is the Greek word pke-rophor;a, which edge God." This usage obviously depends on
literally means "full conviction," and is used the point of view of the speaker, for the early
in such passages as Ron. 4:21; 14:5 (verb); Christians themselves were called atheists by
and in I Thess.I:5; Col. 2:2; Heb. 6:11 and the pagans.
10:22 (noun). In its strictest definition, the term desig-
The grounds of assurance are more objective mates the denial of the existence of any god of
than subjective; they are not so much within any kind. Paul, doul)tless referring to Dan.
us as without us. Hence the basis of assurance 11:36, says o£ "the man of sin" (11 Thess.
must rest on su££icient objective evidence. The 2:3-4) that he ``opposes and exalts himself
Bible provides the grounds of assurance : God's above everything called a god or an object o£
promise that those who come to him in Christ worship." Yet this personage "sits in the ten-
will not be cast out; the infinite and gratuitous
plc of God, demonstrating that he himself is
love o£ God; the once for all and all-sufficient
god" (author's translation).
sacrifice o£ Christ for the sins of the world; The modern naturalists (i.e., pancosmists,
the witness of the Holy Spirit that those who antisupematuralists) in their definitive vol-
believe are children of God. one, Naturalism and the Human Spirit CY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Krikorian, ed., Columbia University Press,
2 1.L2€,.; FF;NLc.o]s.;ncEafe£,c5ysfematfc Theology, V]], pp. 1944, pp. 295 f.) in the words of Harry Todd
ROBERT F. BOTI) Costello, have "at least one reductionist, or
liquidationist thesis: there is no `supernatural.'
ASTROLOGY. The doctrine that heavenly God and immortality are myths. William
bodies foretell or reflect destinies o£ (a) in-
James speaks of the relief which we experience
dividual men and/or (b) nations. when at last we give up trying to be young
Scientifically, astrology of type (b) contains or slender. We say, `Thank God, those illu-
elements of truth. Shooting stars cause wide- sions are gone.' So the naturalist now looks up
spread rain (E. G. Bowen, 1957); disease to the great white throne, where once sat great
shows peaks at sun-spot maxima and these, in Jove himself , and exclaims, `Thank God, that
turn, may be connected with the relative posi- illusion is gone.' "
tions of Jupiter and Saturn (see R. E. de Lury, The book f ron which these words are taken
/owr. Roy. Ast. Soc. Cfl7'acd¢, 1938, 32,174), might well be called the Mei7® Ka7„pf of
etc. atheism. Yet John Dewey, one Of the fifteen
The Bible does not support astrology of writers of the book, author Of the first chap-
type (a), though a few passages (Gen.1:14; ter, "Antinaturalism in Extremis," does not
Job 38:31; Matt. 2) might be astrologically wish to be called an atheist. In A Co7#7"o7¢
interpreted. It teaches, rather, that God is more Fait7t (Yale University Press, 1934) he takes
to be feared than nature or mere stargazers strong antisupernatural ground throughout. He
(Isa. 47:13; Jer.10:2-3). Paul (Ron. 8:39), even rejects Matthew Arnold's impersonal
`power not ourselves' as reminiscent o£ `an ex-
choosing astrological terms, states that neither
the ze"jth nor the 7cc!dir of the stars can sep- ternal Jehovah' (p. 54). Rejecting all reli-
arate believers from God. His point - fully up gions, and atheism also, he seeks to retain "re-
71 ATONEMENT

ligious values" (p. 28). He says, ". . . there oriental, as well as western, sources.
are forces in nature and society that generate See also NATURALlsM.
and support the ideals .... It is this czc±;ve
J. OLIVER BUSWELL, JR.
relation between ideal and actual to which I
would give the name `God.' I would not insist ATONEMENT. The atonement is the cen-
that the name owwsf be given .... personally I ter of gravity in Christian life and thought
think it fitting to use the word `God' to de- because it is the center of gravity in the NT,
note . . . uniting of the ideal and the actual as a mere census of references immediately
• . .„ (pp. 5, f.). demonstrates. According to apostolic preaching
Randall and Buchler (Pji;losop7iy, a# J"- and doctrine, the significance of Jesus Christ
trodwctio", Bames and Noble, 1942) very does not lie supremely in his person or minis-
neatly cze/j7®e the supernatural out of court: try or teaching: it lies supremely in his death
". . . `event' is by definition `natural event,'
upon the cross. In the NT, to be sure, that
what test could possibly establish a given one event is never viewed in isolation from his
as having `supernatural' origin?" (p. 170). person, his ministry, and his teaching; nor is
Nature is defined as ``a term which repre- it viewed apart from his resurrection (q.v.). His
sents all possibilities and all actualities . . ." death exegetes his teaching, and together with
(p. 177). Yet these philosophers would avoid his sin-free, miracle-working ministry of love,
the label "atheist." They frequently (see "God" constitutes the active obedience of life (to use
and "Theism" in their index) refer to a con- the Calvinistic formulation) without which
cept Of a god contained within nature. the passive obedience of suf`fering would have
The above data indicate the difficulty of been nugatory. Yet it is the event of Christ's
identifying atheism under the strict definition. death which the NT consistently underscores
Even the explicit denial of every being tradi- as all-important, and his death interpreted not
tionally called God or a god in western culture as a martyrdom, brought to pass by a miscar-
does not compel the acceptance of the label. riage of justice, but as the offering of a re-
That there are atheists who classify them- demptive sacrifice ep72flpax (Heb.10: I-14).
selves as such in the strictest sense of the word This event, this saving deed, in the whole
cannot be denied. Robert Flint (A"ti-Thejsf..c range of its results, is commonl}' called the
Theories, Win. Blackwood and Sons, 5th ed., atonement.
1894, chap. I, passjt") says, ". . . Feuerbach But precisely why was the atonement neces-
(1804-72) fully meant what he said when he sary? Precisely what were its effects upon God
wrote, `There is no God . . .' " (p. 7). A group and man? Precisely how does the sacrifice of
centering around Baron P. H. D. d'Holbach the cross avail for human redemption? Con-
( 1723-89) in France vigorously professed athe- cerning the rationale of Christ's saving act
ism. An American Association for the Advance- there has been and continues to be the widest
ment o£ Atheism was organized in New York difference of belief. William J. Wolf's remark
in 1925. The second annual report of this that today "there is great confusion about the
association, 1927, is the latest report available place of the Cross" (No Cross, No Crow7c:
in the Library o£ Congress. The League Of A Stt/dy of f72e Ato7?e7"e7.t, New York, 1957,
Militant Atheists, communistic, was organized p. 17), can be applied retrospectively. The
in 1929. A# Atheist Ma";festo by Joseph cross has always been central in Christian
Lewis was published by the Free Thought theology because it is central in the NT, yet
Press Association, New York, in 1929. E. T. the ground of its centrality has been fiercely
`^1ctant in Sources of Modern Mass Atheism debated. A survey of the theories which have
i." A"ssjci (published by the author, 1953) proliferated across the centuries will show that
calls attention to ``a state which has been the biblical data have been hammered into many
founded on the conscious premise that there conflicting shapes, of ten in forgetfulness of
is no God" and gives valuable historical back- the mold which the word of God itself pro-
ground. vides.
Atheism in theological and philosophical dis- I. SOME HISTORIC THEORIES OF SOTERI-
cussion has called forth an enormous litera- oLOG¥. How best to classify this theoretical
lure. HERE gives seventeen quarto pages of proliferation is no trifling problem. Three
double column fine print on the subject and in- rubrics may be set up, 8. 8. Warfield suggests,
eludes materials from a variety of ancient and according to what is regarded as man's funda-
ATONEMENT 72

mental need: is it deliverance from ignorance and so opened up the possibility of an incor-
or misery or sin? If ignorance, then, essentially, ruptible life for mortal sinners. "The ransom
the demonstrative view o£ Abelard obtains; if theory of Irenaeus," Hastings Rashdall tells us,
"became, and for nearly a thousand years con-
misery, some modification of the rectoral idea
of Grotius holds the field; if sin, then An- tinued the dominant, orthodox, traditional
selm's satisfaction (q.v.) concept furnishes the theory on the subject" (T)7e Jczea of Afo7®e-
ground motif . A fourth theory - Schleiermach- 7#e7ct j" Chrjsfja" TJteozogy, London,1919, p.
er's mystical notion of a germ implanted by 247). Tertullian (c¢. 160-cc}. 220), Clement
Christ which savingly leavens the mass of o£ Alexandria ( 150-.215), and Origen (c¢.185-
humanit}' - Warfield dismisses as a curious c¢. 254) added nothing of particular value to
side-edd}7 in the main stream of theology what Irenaeus had set forth. The ransom pro-
("Modern Theories of the Atonement," Sttldjes vided by Christ was paid, Origen argued, not
I.% TJ.eoJogy, New York, 1932, pp. 283-5). In to God but to the devil. In his great defense
his stud}', C7t7-f.sttis Victor (London, 1931), of orthodox Christology, 07€ fJ7e J77c¢r7®fltjo# of
Gustaf Aul€n also suggests three dominant in- t7te Word of Goc], Athanasius (c¢. 296-373)
terpretations. There is, first, the "dramatic" moved within the same general framework,
or, as he calls it, the "classic" theory which sees emphasizing man's deliverance from ignorance
man's liberation from the t}'rants of sin, law, and corruptibility b}' the triumph of the cross.
death, wrath` and the devil, as the heart o£ Gregory o£ Nyssa (c¢. 330-cfl. 395) introduced
Christ's work. Advocated by the earl}' Fathers, some novel modifications, particularly the fan-
it was stressed especially and originally by ous notion that our Lord's humanity (a.v.) was
lrenaeus. This formulation, which can be de- a sort of bait concealing the fishhook of his
nominated Greek or patristic, construes the deit}', a lure by which the devil was caught
atonement as a triumphant warfare against for our saving good and ultimatel}' for his own
evil. There is, second, the "Latin" or "objec- as well. Gregor}' o£ Nazianzus (329-89) raised
ti`'e" concept; Latin is the preferable designa- a strong protest against the accepted doctrine
tion, however, since the Greek Fathers like- that Christ's death was a ransom paid to either
wise recognized the objecti`'e nature o£ Jesus' God or the devil. Augustine (354-430) dis-
redempti\'e deed. Stated initially and defini- cussed the atonement in his E77cJiz.ri.czi.o" and
tivel\' bv Anselm, it holds that Christ's death 07z tJ!e Tr!./i;fy, incorporating all the tradi-
was a piacular sacrifice by which God's honor tional emphases (e`'en `'enturing in his ser-
was satisfied and his hol}r judgment pro- mons to picture the cross as a mousetrap baited
pitiated. There is, third, the "subjective" or with the Sa`'iour's blood!), but he stressed too
"moral" concept eloquently advanced by Abe- the `ralue of Christ's death as a satisfaction
lard, ``'hich considers the cross to be primarily o££ered to God's justice, and he decisively in-
a mo`'ing demonstration of forgiving lo`'e, mag- fluenced the vocabulary o£ Western Christen-
netizing and eliciting man's love in response dom b}' his f ree use of terms like the fall
to God's aga|]aic self-oblation. In Aul€n's opin- (q.v.), original sin (q.iJ.), and justification (q.v.).
ion, under one of these three interpretations, Cave points out that there {ire distinctive ele-
\`'ith inevitable o`'erlapping, of course, all other ments in Augustine's treatment of soteriology
attempted constructs of the atonement may be since he relates the work of our Lord to the
subsumed. Howe\'er, we prefer the temporal church, argues that the cross was not the sole
principle of classification, denoting the periods conceivable mode of redemption but the mode
as Patristic, \Iedieval, Reformation, and Mod- most congruous with the total human situa-
ern. tion (an idea Thomas later appropriated), and
A. T;]e P.ifrjsf;c Pert.oc!. The speculations fi,`ed attention on the reality of Jesus' man-
ad`'anced b}' the Greek Fathers were indeed hood which enabled him to function as Saviour
profound, though the metaphors they em- (op, cjt., pp. 121-22). John o£ Damascus (cfl.
plo}.ed may impress us as grotesque and un- 675-c¢. 749) summed up this whole era in
£ortuncite. Irenaeus (cfl. 130-ca. 200) in his
his Exposition of the Orthodox Faith as he
t`\'o worts, Agfli."st Hei-es;es and T}}e De7izo77-
chronicled the old interpretations o£ Chri.st's
sti-a!7.o7! of t7]e Aposto]j.c Pre#c7r;"g, taught that
death as a ransom to God, as a kind of fish-
Jesus Christ as the second Adam recapituh`ted
human experience, died as a ransom (q.v.) ing-expedition which snared the devil, and as
wrested man free from the grasp of the devil, a victory which destro}'ed death, liberated cap-
73 ATONEMENT

five sinners, and brought to light life and im- frees us from the fear of wrath that we may
mortality. serve him in love. While Abelard retains the
According to the Greek Fathers, whose over- traditional concepts and speaks of Christ's
riding interest lies not so much in soteriology death as a sacrifice offered to the Father, he
per se as in the cosmic issues of the incarna- subordinates everything to the controlling idea
tion (a.v.), Christ is Saviour not simply be- that the cross, by demonstrating God's love,
cause he is Victor and Conqueror; he is Sav- draws out man's love almost automatically.
iour because he is also Revealer, Benefactor, Vital as this truth is, when magnified dispro-
Physician, Victim, and Reconciler. portionately it sentimentalizes that divine love
8. The Medjeva] Period. With respect to which is indubitably the source of the atone-
the atonement one man stands out in this ment. Instead of holding fast to the NT in-
epoch as a creative theologian, Anselm of Can- sistence that the death of Christ changes po-
terbury (1033-1109), whose Cur Detis Hot„o tentially the relationship between God and
is a soteriological milestone. This work at- man, a potentiality actualized by faith, Abelard
tempts by sheer ratiocination to establish the reduces the saving event to a tragic martyrdom.
necessity o£ Christ's death. Man owes God A heart-rending spectacle, undoubtedly, the
complete obedience: when he fails to render cross as interpreted by Abelard has no inexora-
this, he sinfully robs the sovereign Creator of ble necessitatedness undergirding it. In the
the honor which is his due; because sin is an moral universe it is an epiphenomenon.
infinite affront to the divine glory which can- A fierce opponent of Abelard, Bernard Of
not be remitted simply by the exercise of Clairvaux (1090-1153), revived the idea of
mercy, God must vindicate himself in keeping the atonement as a means of ransoming man
with demands of his own holy nature; hence from the power of the devil. Thomas Aquinas
an adequate satisfaction must be offered. But (ca. 1225-74) in his S"tiii.I¢ Theo]ogjc¢ added
an infinite affront necessitates an infinite sat- little that wits significant. Building on all his
isfaction, and the satisfaction must be offered predecessors, he worked out a comprehensive
by the disobedient race. Thus the question, s}'nthesis which included the pa[ristic com-
C?.r Deils Ho7wo, is answered with a logical ponent of release from bondage to the devil
coerciveness which Anselm considered over- (excluding, howe`Jer, the more questionable
whelming. His critics have stigmatized his notions which c€`rried Greek sanction), the
logic as illusory, his concept of sin as quan- Anselmic component of si`tisfaction (though
titative, his view of the divine human rela- Thorn.is held with Augrustine that the death of
tionship as impersomlly mechanical, his isola- Christ was the most suitable mode of redemp-
tion of our Lord's life and resurrection from lion, not a mode intrinsically necessary), the
his death as a misreading of the NT, and his Abelardian component of an ethical impact
slighting of God's love as an unchristian (not exaggerated of course to the point of un-
travesty of the gospel. Yet, even Anselm's truth), and even a penal component, since
critics recognize that his theor}7 is funda- Thomas held th.it cls our Substitute Jesus
mentally, even penetrt`tingl}' biblical. It stresses Christ bore our punishment. Mere ri|)ples on
the magnitude of sin ("7!o"dtltit co7}sl.c!erastj the ri`'er o£ Christian theolog}' were the views
qi.anti ponderis sit pcccut.nit'.). 1t fecogniz,es of the medie`'i`1 nominalists, Scotus (c¢. 1264-
that either satisfaction or punishment is man- 1-308), Occam (c¢. 1300-c". 1349) €`nd Biel
datory when sin has been committed. It seeks (ca. 1420-95). No rational vindication of the
a rationale of the atonement in the very given- cross, the}' maintained, could be projected:
ness of God's nature. Anselm's formulation has God arbitraril}' decreed his Son's de€`th .1s the
supplied the matrix for both Roman Catholic ground of forgi`'cness ((i.v.,). A few centuries
and Protestant orthodox}' and his satisfaction later Bishop Butler iidopted, with modifica-
theor}' in its essentials continues to find tions, to be sure, the .1gnostic idea of a divine
``acceptilation.`' Scripture plainl}' re\'ct`1s that
staunch protagonists wherever Scripture is ac-
cepted as the authoritative word o£ God. the de{`th of Jesus s{i`'es; how it does so is not
Antithetical to the Anselmic theory is that disclosed (c£. \\7olf, op. ci.f., iti]. 133-3+).
of Abelard (1079-1142), who in his Epjtot»e C. 'I-1.e F\eforination Period. "'itL\ some de-
of Christian Theology and his Commentary on gree of validit}' Martin Luther (I+83-1546)
Roma"s, advocates the view that our Lord's has been claimed as an exponent of the drama-
passion, exhibiting the great lo\'e of God, so tic theor}'. Certainl}' his catechetical writings
ATONEMENT 74

and his commentaries, notably that on Gala- has been continually assailed. It is charged
tians, lend support to Aul6n's interpretation. that Calvin denies God's spontaneous love,
Yet Luther - unsystematic, paradoxical, anti- apotheosizes the principle of retributive justice,
scholastic - regards the atonement as a pro- and imprisons sovereign grace in a legalistic
strait-jacket. But, persuasively espoused by
?[tela:or::ssaacsrifpif`.e:a,Tnnghe.s:t,ahti:E`eyiewsE:adks,i: modem Protestants like R. W. Dale, James
wrath o£ God and thus setting love at liberty Denney, Hermann Bavinck, 8. 8. Warfield,
to do its work. "Christ," he asserts, "is pun- and Louis Berkhof, the satisfaction theory can-
ished on our account (propfer 71os pw7zjtwr)'',. not be written off as anachronistic. Nor will it
and typically, he asserts again: "The righteous ever be possible to write off this theory as
and innocent man must tremble and fear as anachronistic until the Bible itself is so ad-
a poor damned sinner, and in His gentle and judged.
innocent heart feel God's wrath and judgment Theologizing a philosophy of law, Hugo
against sin, taste for us eternal death and dam- Grotius (1583-1645) in his Defe7tse of £J.e
nation, and, in sum, suffer all what a damned CcitJioz!.c Fc}!.fJz construed the atonement as
sinner has earned and must suffer eternally" administrative necessit)r laid upon God if in
(cf. Cave op. c!.t., pp. 154-55). In brief, his benevolence he would forgive human sin.
Luther assigns priorit}7 to God's justice rather As ruler of the moral universe, God must see
than his love, an assignment which negates to it that sin's pardon will not prompt man
Aul6n's claim. While def}'ing neat categoriza- to think it a matter of indifference, a thing
tion, Luther aligns himself with Anselm rather to be engaged in with impunity. So God had
than with Irenaeus. Jesus Christ die not to expiate his justice but
In the hands of Philip Melanchthon ( 1497- rather to manifest it, furnishing a penal ex-
1560) Protestant soteriolog}7 begins to assume ample which served I)rospectivel}7 as a deter-
its characteristic shape. He explains in his Loci rent from sin. Once the safety of the ethical
Cc>7izrt.tines that b)7 Christ's death the just de- order was thus assured, God could forgive sin
mands of the law (q.iJ.) have been met, the on the ground of his clemency.
wrath of God has been appei`sed, and the soul D. T}}e Moder7? Perl.od. In his 7"&g7cim®
of the sinner liberated from the curse. But it optis, Tj!e CJ]ii.st].Hw Fal.r]i, Friedrich Schleier-
is John Calvin (1509-64), who with his re- macher (1768-1834) affirmed that Jesus re-
markable logic and lucidit}7 definitivel}' formu- deems the members of the pistic community by
lates the Protestant doctrine in his J7!sfjftites arousing within them a God-consciousness
of fJie C7irjsf!.¢7t ReJ;gJ.o". Agieeing with An- ``'hich is the counterpart of his own. Accord-
selm that the atonement is rooted in the nciture ing to Albrecht Ritsc`hl (1822-89), whose
of God, he contends that not the di`-ine honor Justification and Recoticiliation exerted an
but the di\'ine justice must be sLitisfied. If enormous influence, Jesus Christ suf`£ered
man is to be redeemed from the curse of sin death in fidelit}' to his unique `'ocation as the
and death, and more especiall}' from the wrath Founder of God's kingdom. In so doing he
of his Creator, a sac`rifice must be oft`ered. And took awa}' man's guilt, which is essentiall}' and
the sacrifice has been offered! "Christ took simi)l}' mistrust of the divine love. Emil Brun-
upon himself and suffered the punishment ncr (1889- ) in Tj}e i\Jediflfor and Karl
which b}' the righteous judgment o£ God im- Barth (1886- ) in TJ}e Doctri.tte of Reco7l-
pendcd o\'er all sinners, imd b}' this expiation ciliation, Vchume lv oE t\is Church Dogmatics,
the Fiither has been satisfied and his wrath ha\'e broken with an immanental liberalism
appeased" Clnstitiites of the Christian Religion which shriveled the `7alue of the atonement to
Book 11, chapter 16, Philadelphia, n.d.). In a subjecti`'e influence. Pushing contemporar}'
explicating the ``'ork of Christ Cal`'in a\'ails Protestantism in the direction of a theocentric
himself` o£` the three rubrics, Prophet, Priest Christianit}', the}7 have restored objective sig-
and King. Jesus Christ saves us b}. performing nificance to the death of the cross; indeed,
on our behalf the functions proper to each of Brunner even interprets it as "the expiatory
these offices (q.i7.). As Pliest, specificall}', he peml sacrifice of the Son of God" (Tj}e
appeases God by his self-oblation, and follow- .\recJi¢for, p. 473). While historic orthodoxy
ing his i\scension, intercedes pcrpetuall}' for takes issue ``i'ith nco-orthodoxy (q.v.) at a nun-
his people. This, in stark i`bridgment, is the ber of crucial points, it is nevertheless grateful
normative Reformation `'ie\\', a `'iew which that some of the post-liberal theologians (c£.,
75 ATONEMHNT

e.g., W. J. Wolf op. cjt.) insist upon the in- princi|>le in our thinking about the atonement
dispensability of biblical categories for an un- as well as abo.ut everything else.
derstanding of the central event of the Bible. 2. Personal relationships constitute the es-
In the recent past, works on the atonement sence and furnish the meaning of reality.
ve |>roliferated to such a degree that even a These personal relationships include the 1-
re enumeration of titles is impossible here. Thou relationships between the Creator and
H. Hughes has helpfully summarized most his human creatures together with the I-Thou
the relevant literature, except from Con- relationships among the members of the Trin-
tinenta-I sources, in T1.e Atonement: Modern ity themselves. James Denney is therefore un-
Theories of the Doctl-ine CLondon, \949). impeachabl}' right when he contends that
Christianit}', "the highest form of religion,"
11. SoME PoSTULATES OF NEW TESTA- teaches "the existence of a personal God and
MENT SoTERloLOGT. Debates between Calvin- of personal relations between God and man";
ists and Arminians concerning the scope and moreover, Denne}T sa}.s. "Christianit}' is unique
application of our I.ord's sa\7ing work are un- in its doctrine of reconciliation through atone-
doubtedly warranted, but in this context apol- ment," and "the heart of the reconciliation lies
ogy must supersede polemic. Let us therefore in the readjustment or the restoration of a true
highlight those factors which are imperative
personal relation between God and the crea-
if we are to interpret the atonement biblically. ture which has lapsed into its own act of
1. The atonement cannot be interpreted alienation against Him; in other words, it con-
biblicall}' unless we are prepared to examine sists in the forgi`'eness of sins" (T7ic C)in.st]."7.
our own presuppositions and retain those Doctrj77e of Rec`o7zc7.liczt;o7t, New York, 1918,
which undergird the apostolic concept. Hence
pp. 5-6). If` this is steadil}7 remembered, bibli-
it is highl}. encouraging to witness among cal soteriolog}r will be spared from the charge
scholars a sustained attempt to gc "Back to the that it is sub-personal.
Bible" in formulating their theories about the
3. While God is loving, he is likewise hol}':
atonement. (Cf. T. H. Hughes, op. cjt., p.
his self-integrit}' requires that he maintain and
164). For, if Scri|)lure is the word of God,
assert himself as self-deri\'ed, self-sufficient,
then once its teaching has been determined by
and self-giving. And his glor}7 lies in the crea-
a proper hermeneutic, we are faced with a
ture's voluntar\' adoration of the Creator's holi-
choice between submission or disobedience.
ness. Ultimatel}', then, it is God's intrinsic na-
That teaching mat- seem irrational and un-
ture which explains the atonenlent. So, af ter
ethical to the man ``'ho mo`.es outside the
quoting the statement in Matt. 16:21, "From
revelational orbit; but precisel}7 because of
that time forth began Jesus to shew unto his
that he ma}' be challenged to examine the
disciples, how that he must go unto Jerusalem,
validit}7 of his own presuppositions. Of course,
and suffer man}' things," W. J. \Volf com-
he ma}' ignore so drastic a challenge. Thus ments, "It is in the myster}7 of that word
Canon Vcmon F. Storrs in The Pi-obl,em of `must' that all subsequent Christian doctrines
t7ie Ci.oss agrees with Hastings Rashdall that
"it is impossible to get rid of the idea of sub- of the atonement are rooted" (oiJ. cjt., p. 64).
God's holiness alone accounts for the necessit\'
stitution or of \'icarious punishment from an}'
of the cross.
faithful representation o£ St. Paul's doctrine'';
4. Yet, while God is hol}', he is also lo\'ing.
}7et Storrs immediatel}' adds, ``We are in no
And in his love he wills to bear the suffering
way bound to accept Paul's interpretation of
which man's sin has produced. Consequently,
Christ's death. I dismiss from m}' mind all
far from negating the basic truth of divine
ideas of substitution, or of the innocent pay-
lo`'e, the death o£ Jesus Christ discloses it.
ing the penalt}' of the guilty because these
The death of Jesus Christ discloses that "The
ideas offend m}7 moral consciousness" (Hughes,
last reality is be}'ond sin. It is a love which
jz};cZ., p. 61). But one who accepts the Scrip-
submits to all that sin can do, }'et does not
tures in faith is bound to accept Paul's inter-
den}' itself, but loves the sinner through it all.
pretation o£ Christ's death, sut>missively allow- It is a lo`'e which in Sc`ripture language bears
ing his sin-distorted moral consciousness and sin, }'et recei`res and regenerates sinners"
mental functioning to be corrected by the (James Denne}7, op ct.t.,. p. 20). Thus, Denney
divine norm. "Back to the Bible!" must be no avers, it is to the atonement that "we owe the
empt}7 shibboleth but rather an all-controlling very idea that God is love" (;Z};d., p. 186).
ATONEMENT 76

CC£. Lean Nlorris, T1.e Apostolic PI-eaching of through its instruments. The wrath of God is
(Jie Cross, Grand R.ii)ids, Michigzm, 1955, I). the wrcith of di`'ine i]ersonality" (Rede7"pf7.o#
180). "7cZ Ret7e!ofj.o7i, London, 1942, p. 269).
5. Man is a sinner, the creature who We must purge from the concept of wrath
through the misuse of his love-bestowed free- all admixture of human limitation, sinful vin-
dom alienates himself from God and incurs dictiveness, and unethical pique. At the si`me
both guilt and wrath. The human predica- time we must refiise to hide behind the smoke-
ment crei`ted by sin is vi`'idl)r set forth in tlie screen of anthropoi)athism. Wrath is no less
metiii)hors which the NT authors employ in anthropopathic th.in love. There is no irre-
describing the work of Jesus Christ. As a sin- concilable antithesis between love and wrath.
ner, mm is .1 slave who inust be redeemed, an As Wolf points out, such an antithesis "springs
enem}7 who must be reconciled, a corpse which from the poverty of our imagination" (oI). cjt.,
must be resurrected, a captive whose powerful p. 187). God's love is not akin to the me-
oi)prc`ssors must be overthrown, a criminal who chanical gushing forth of a fount{`in. It is a
must be justified. These metaphors, as Wolf personal attitude which is prssiomtel}' con-
remarks, are nothing less than "startling" (op. cerned about genuine reli`tionshii]. When love
ci.t., p. 82); taken together, they unveil the does not elicit love, there is, as even I)arental
NT understanding of our human predicament affection on the human level reveals, a reac-
no less than the amazing deed which our Lord tion of pain, anger, and estrangement. Elimi-
has performed. For by the cross he has ex- mate the I)ossibility of wri`th and God's love is
tricated man from this predicament. (Cf. on flattened out into a sub-i]ersonal indiffer-
this point Leon Morris, op. c;f .; Eric Wahl- entism. Retain this concei)t, on the other hand,
strom, T7?e Neu7 Life ;" ChJ.I.st, Philadelphia, and the grace (q.i7.) of God hi`s mc{`ning. Emil
1950; Adol|)h Deissmann, P¢ttz, New York, Brunner for one I)erceives the involvement of
1926., Light from the Ancient East, Now York, love and wrath when he si7eaks o£ "the divine
1927.) mystery of love in the midst of the reality of
It is man's sin which poses God's dilemma: wrathJ' (7.jhasfgrjo") (oi]. cit., p. 520).
can he I)ossibly be just to himself and yet 7. In resolving what man sees as a dilemma
justif}T his disobedient creature (Ron. 3:26)? and in rescuing man from his dire predica-
Wolf phrases the problem strikingly: "How mcnt, God by the detlth of Christ carries out
can a God of holy love accept sinners without an action which is bewilderingly vast and
dc'stroying His holiness or sentimentalizing manysided, an action which has cosmic and
love into an immoral indifference to wrong? eternal effects. Hence all the startling biblical
This question is the fundamental one for every metaphors are esssential, whether drawn from
theory of the atonement" (op. cjt., p. 84). market place, slave trcide, military campaign,
6. When the concepts of holiness and sin temple sacrifice, or law court. But Warfield is
are brought together, they call irrei)ressibly incontestablv correct when he maintains that
for the concept of wrath (cz.v.). The legitimacy the writers bf the NT "enshrine at the center
of this concept has been hotly disputed, how- of this work its efficacy tis a itiacular sacrific`e,
ever. Latel}7, e.g., Anthon)7 Tyrell Hanson has securing the foTgiveness of sin; that is to say,
attempted to prove that in Paul's teaching relieving its beneficiaries of `the penal conse-
references to divine wrath are merely the apos- quences which otherwise the curse Of the
tle's semcintic equivalents for the impersonal broken law inevitably entails" (Ato7ceme#t,
proi`ess by which the consequences of human op. c/.t., I). 262). Wolf is simply buttressing
sin work themselves out in history (The Warfield's I)osition when he declares that
W].at)? of t77e Lcz7"Z?, London, 1957). But this Paul's "chief metaphor for atonement . . . is
deistic notion can scarcely be squared with the the law court, used by him in a very complex
NT which dei)icts divine wrath no less than way" (op. c;f., p. 84). In other words, the
divine mercy as a personal activity of God, an piacular sacrifice of our Lord is interpreted by
activity which springs from an attitude. Per- its greatest exegete in legal categories. Vehe-
tinent and devastating is H. Wheeler Robin- ment objection has been leveled, as one might
son's judgment: "This wrath of God is not expect, against the apostolic teaching on this
the blind and automatic working of abstract score. But the use of legal categories is not to
law - always a fiction, since `law' is a con- be confounded with legalism; and the edge of
ception, not an entity, till it finds expression this very common criticism is blunted once we
77 ATONEMENT

grasp, as Forsyth does, that "the holy law is doubt, too, there are theologians who believe
not the creation Of God but His nature" (The that any such theory implies a transfer Of
Atonement and Modern Retig3ous Thought: A guiltiness both unethical and impossible (e.g.,
T72eofogicaz Sy7mposiwro, London, 1903, p. T. H. Hughes, op. cit., pp. 69-70). But even
69), and once we grasp, as E. A. Knox dues, Barth, who thinks the concept Of a wrath-
that lawlessness is ``antagonjsm to that princi- placating satisfaction foreign to the Bible, nev-
ple of law which is of the very essence of the ertheless declines to exclude the idea of sub-
niitule o£ God" CThe Glad Tidings of Recon- stitutionary punishment from the NT, an idea
cj]ietjo7c, Lo#do~, 1916, p. 127n). With these which in his opinion rests back upon Isa. 53:
"If Jesus Christ has followed our way as sin-
ii.isights securely grasped, we can insist that
the concept of justification bears no legalistic ners to the end to which it leads, in outer
taint. darkness, then we can say with that passage
But Wolf states that Paul uses legal cate- from the Old Testament that He has suffered
this punishment of our`s" (op. c;t., p. 253).
gories such as justification solely to undercut
them; he uses the language of the law court Leonard Hodgson likewise refuses to relin-
to show that God does what no good judge quish the penal aspect of the atonement, ar-
would think of doing as in grace he nullifies guing that in Jesus Christ the punisher and
his own law. But does he? Abraham asked long the punished are one (TJie Doctrj7te of the
before Paul, "Shall not the judge of all the Ato"eme#t, London, 1951, p. 142). James
earth do right?" (Gen.18:25). And in justifi- Denney also holds fast to this view (op. cit., p.
cation God does right. God does what the su- 273). And, i£ Hastings Rashdall may be
preme Judge ought to do. He refuses to waive quoted against himself , it is instructive to no-
the demands of the law. Rather than that, in tice his comment on |1 Cor. 5:21: "This can
love he himself meets the law's demand hardly mean anything but that God treated
through the vicarious sacrifice of Jesus Christ.the sinless Christ as if He were guilty, and
Thus instead of making void his law, God es- inflicted upon Him the punishment which
tablishes it (Rom. 3:31). Justification cer- our sins had deserved; and that this infliction
tainly embodies paradoxical elements, but it is made it possible to treat the sinful as if they
not quite the irrational paradox C. H. Dodd were actually righteous." To be sure, Rashdall
construes it to be (Cot"7t¢e#tary o" the adds that only a mere handful of such pas-
Ro7"a7cs, ed. J. Moffatt, London, 1932, p. 52). sages are discoverable in the Pauline corpus,
8. Woven inextricably into the NT doc- yet almost ruefully he confesses, "There they
are, and St. Paul's argument is unintelligible
trine of the atonement is the fact of substitu-
without them" (op. cit., p. 94). With J. K.
tion. Here again objection has been raised.
Mozley, then, "We need not shrink from say-
Bishop G. Bromley Oxnam protests in his A
ing that Christ bore penal suffering for us in
Testainent of the Faith, "We heiir much of the
our stead" CThe Doctrine of the Atonement,
substitutionary theory of the atonement. This
London, 1947, p. 216).
theory to me is immoral. If Jesus paid it all,
or if rle is the substitute for me, or i£ He is 10. The objectivity of the atonement is
the sacrifice f or all the sin of the world, then taken for granted in the NT. It is a work done
why discuss f orgiveness? The books are closed. outside man, wrought for him at a point in
Another has paid the debt, bone the penalty. history and only after that applied to him, a
I owe nothing. I am absolved. I cannot see work which possesses value for God and which
forgiveness as predicated upon the act of some reconciles him to man before it reconciles man
one else. It is my sin. I must atone" (Boston, to God. The atonement, to state it otherwise,
1958, p. 144). This autosoteric criticism fails is objective actually and subjective potentially.
to appreciate that, according to the NT, Jesus "Reduced to its simplest expression," Denney
Christ in love identified himself with us and writes, "what an objective atonement means is
we in faith identify ourselves with him. that but for Christ and His Passion God would
9. If we are faithful to the NT data, we not Z7e to us what He is .... The alternative
cannot deny that the atonement o£ Jesus Christ
has a penal aspect. He became the object of £,ht;:hsaghtrT:tt::£te±:sd;paes:£€:nth:;eaFoyrv3[oud:
retributive justice and hence bore our punish- God would still be to us what He is. But this
ment. No doubt some formulations of this is really to put Christ out of Christianity alto-
truth have been untruth fully distorted. No gether, and needs no refutation" (op. cit., p`
ATTRIBUTES, THE I)IVINE 78

239). Though the atonement did not alter conversation, simply the characteristics or qual-
God's nature, it assuredly altered his relation- ities o£ God. As water is wet and fire hot,
ship to his sinful creature. But in magnifying so God is eternal, immutable, omnipotent, just,
the Godward side of the atonement, the NT holy, and so on. Perhaps these divine charac-
does :not minimize the manward side in the teristics are quite numerous; but usually it is
least. Granted that the apostolic authors are only the more comprehensive terms that are
one with Vincent Taylor in their diffidence discussed.
concerning "the psychology Of man's response" Beneath this simplicity lurk some of the
CForgiveness and Reconciliation, London, most intricate problems and some Of the most
1946, p. 108), yet that very response -made futile discussions ever attempted by theolog}..
possible by sovereign grace, illumination, and Taking their start from Aristotle's confused
power, a response of understanding, faith, theory of categories, theologians have analyzed
gratitude, obedience, and love - looms large God into an unknowable substratum, called
in their proclamation Of the gospel. Nor does his substance or essence, on the surface of
the NT ignore such factors as our union with which lay the knowable attributes, much like
the living Christ, our enablement by the in- a visible coat Of paint on a table-top that
dwelling Holy Spirit, and our incorporation could never be seen or touched. Luther and
into the church of which our Lord is the Calvin made a great advance when they buried
Head. And all these factors render biblical this scholastic rubbish, though it has been dug
soteriology profoundly ethical. up more than once since.
11. When we have done our utmost to ASEITv is a barbarous Latinism to indicate
fathom the meaning of the cross, we must still God's absolute independence. He depends fl
confess that it embodies unfathomable mys- se, on himself . He is self-existent. Sometimes,
tery. Hence there is an element of truth in on the assumption that every reality must have
Alan Richardson's assertion: "The atonement a cause, God has been said to be the cause Of
in the New Testament is a mystery, not a himself. In this case he would also have to be
problem. One can construct theories and offer the effect of himself ; but the terms cot4se
them as solutions of problems, but one cannot and effect must be stretched beyond any or-
theorize about the deep mystery of our re- dinary meaning, if only a single reality is in
demption. The New Testament dces not do view. It would be more intelligible to say that
so; it offers us not theories but vivid meta- God is the necessary Being - a phrase used in
phors, which can, if we will let them operate the ontological argument for God's existence.
In some imaginary polytheistic system there
:nm3fro:moaug:nraet£:nrip::Ee^br;atLori:t:st:ee]f::#:r€ might be several self-existent beings and no
ing in our behalf" (A# 17®trod„ctio# fo tJie creation ex #;hl.fo,. but in its biblical context
Theology of the Now Testai,rent, London, the aseity of God and the doctrine of creation
1958, pp. 222-3). Yet in that statement there are inseparable. Certainly creation ex 731.Jtjzo
is also an element of untruth; for the NT does
presupposes God's self€xistence.
contain a theory in the sense of rational ex-
The ETERNiTv of God also seems to be in-
planation, an interpretation which we mu`st volved in his aseity. The two appear to be in
enter into imaginatively no doubt and which
reality the same thing. 1£ God does not exist
docs not light up all the deep depths of mys-
in virtue of some external cause, but is self-
tery but which at any rate enables us in ador-
existent, he could not have come into being;
ing love and wonder to sing:
for it is inconceivable that a pure nothing
Bearing shame and scoffing rude,
should suddenly generate a self-existent God.
In my place condemned He stood;
Furthemore, if time is a function of the
Sealed my pardon with His blood:
created mind, as St. Augustine said, or a func-
Hallelujah! what a Saviour!
tion of moving bodies, as Aristotle taught, and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In the works referred to in the body of this article- is therefore an aspect Of the universe, it fol-
lows that God transcends temporal relation-
;¥£?ist:-?|cim:i!fivhe:,i,s.Tai!::id.'tnh:oE:g:e:s:nc:xmin:i:s'f.:i- ships.
ancient and modern sources alike is available.
IMMUTABII.ITV follows upon aseity and
VERNON C. GROUNI)S
eternity. Time and change are together denied
ATTRIBUTES, THE DIVINE. The di- Of God. "They shall be changed, but thou art
vine attributes are, in the language of ordinary the same" (Heb.1:12). If self-existence
79 AUGSBURG CONFESSION

should change, it would become dependent ing to such a vague exitression. The short ac-
existence; eternity would become time; per- count above might suggest that the attributes
fection imperfection; and therefore God would are not only the same in God, but with a
become not-God. C£. Nun. 23: 19; Ps. 33: 11; little thought they a|)pear to be the same to
Mal. 3:6; James I : 17. us too.
INFINITy is hardly different from the pre- Distinguished from these previous attributes,
ceding. Infinite means unlimited. What is sometimes awkwardly named the natural at-
self-existent must be unlimited. Infinite has tributes, is a second set called the moral at-
sometimes meant indefinite or imperfect, from tributes: WlsDOM, JusTlcE, HOLINEss, GooD-
which it has been concluded that an infinite NEss, and the like. Neither group has a logi-
God could not have the limitation or definite- cal princii]le of derivation, and therefore there
ness of personality. This ancient usage is not is no fixed number. The moral attributes are
what is intended. God is not the vague not too easily defined, but are better described
``boundless" o£ Anaximander; he is thoroughly
by the scriptural I)assages that refer to them.
definite. Etymology to the contrary, his de- With respect to wisdom one might cite: "The
finite attributes are in-finite. Nothing limits Loi-d is a God of knowledge" (I Sam. 2:3);
his power, wisdom, justice, and so on. and "His understanding is infinite" (Ps.
OMNlpoTENCE means that God can do all 147:5). As for justice: "All his ways are
things. See the entry on GOD. Sophistic o-b-
judgment, a God of truth and without in-
jections are sometimes brought against divine iquity, just and right is he" (Deut. 32:4); and
omni|]otence by raising pseudo-problems. Can "to declare at this time his righteousness, th{1t
God create a stone so heavy that he cannot lift he might be just and the justifier of him
it? Can God draw a square with only three which believeth in Jesus" (Ron. 3:26). Holi-
sides? These questions involve self-contradic- ness is sometimes thought of cis a synonym
tions, are therefore meaningless, and `set no for justice and righteousness; it has also been
real problem. With omnipotence should be given a root meaning of se!7¢rc}te, from which
joined sovereignty. God is the Supreme Being. the inference has been drawn that holiness is
OMNlpRESENCE, Ubiquity, and Immensity not an "attribute" but an effect of the £`ttri-
refer to God's relation to all space. To put it butes: the attributes separate God from all else.
simi]ly, God is everywhere. C£. Ps. 139:7. In- At first sight these moral attributL`s sccm
stead of saying God is everywhere in the more distinguishable among themsclvcs than
world, it might bc better to say that every- the mturi`1 attributes arc` and still more dis-
where in the world is in God; for "in him we tinguish{ible from the natural attributes. Yet
live and move, and have our being" (Acts justice is e:isily interpreted as a I)articular form
]7:28). The difficulty is that God is not {1n of wisdom, and this merges with omniscience.
extended, s|)atial being; God is a Spirit; and Similarly righteousness is an ex|)ression of
the i]reposition I.7c cannot be used in its spatial God's sovereignty in maintaining the divine
sense. There are non-s|]atial senses: note the legislation, and this is an exercise of power
second j7¢ in the I)receding sentence. Omnii)res- and knowledge. The unity of the attributes
ence therefore means that God knows and con- therefore is a thesis that cannot be thoughtless-
trols everything. It hardly differs from omni- ly dismissed.
potence. See also GOD, KNowLEDGE.
OMNlsclENCE means that God knows all CORDON H. CLARK
things. Why should he not? He made all
things and decided their history. He works "all AUGSBURG CONFESSION. The first
things after the counsel of his own will" (Eph. great Protestant symbol, or statement of belief,
I : 11). read in German before, the Diet of Augsburg
Theologians have argued whether these at- on June 25, 1530, by Christian Beyer, Vice-
tributes are really distinct and different in Chancellor of Saxony. The document was
God, or only seem different to us. Both posi- draf ted by Melanchthon with the approval of
tions have been defended. Some theologians Luther and signed by seven princes. The Con-
have tried to straddle the question by saying fcssion is divided into two |]arts, the first con-
that the attributes are not rec!!Zy different, nor taining twenty-one articles of faith and the
merely czpp¢re#f]y different to us, but are vzr- second listing the seven principal abuses call-
tt"lly different. It is hard to attach a mean- ing for reform. It was incorporated in the
AUGUSTINIANISM 80

Book of Concord in 1580 and is thus still revival of Augustinianism within the Roman
authoritative for the Lutheran body. For text, Catholic Church of the later Middle Ages and
see P. Scha££, Creeds of CJ7risfe#c!oow, Ill, pp. the ensuing conflict with the decaying Schcr
3-73. lasticism.
A. SKEVINGTON Wool) BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUGUSTINIANISM. A term applied to

g:i::,::I;c"s;,.¥¥¥a:,#!19r.;:?Aanug:ii:::;1::i:ne.aH"fRf,.'as`Sjcaar!
both the philosophy and the theology o£ Au-
GREGG SINGER
gustine (354-430), Bishcip of Hippo.
Augustinianism as a philosophy has been AUTHENTICITY. As applied to a book
regarded by some as a Christianized Platonism,
of the Bible, authenticity indicates the state Of
an attempt to bring Plato into the stream o£
possessing authority on the basis of being the
Christian thought by making certain necessary
production of its professed author. It is to be
changes and by using Christianity as the
distinguished from genuineness, which denotes
means of answering the questions raised by the quality of being uncorrupted from the
classical I)hilosophy against a Platonic back- original. An authentic document is one writ-
ground. By others the Augustinianism philoscr ten by the hand from whom it professes to be
phy has been regarded as the greatest attempt (Jerome C.o77.w¢. /.7¢ Ep. ¢c] Tjtt#" iii. 9), but
in the history of the church to offer a Chris- a genuine writing is one whose received text
tian world and life view, a biblical philosophy is not corrupt. Thus the Epistle to the Romans
which would clearly show the futility of all is authentic since Paul wrote it, but Ron.
philosophic application apart from Christian 8:lb is not a genuine text because of the
doctrine. Augustinianism as a philosophy fre- manuscript evidence against it.
quently used Platonic terms to set forth Chris- WALTER W. WESSEL
tian concepts, and for this reason Augustine
has been suspected of Platonic leanings. Its AUTHORITY. The word exottsia, usually
distinguishing characteristics were its empha- translated "authority," or "power" in the sense
sis upon the will rather than upon the intel- of authority (potest¢s,\, is employed in many
lect, and its doctrine of the divine enlighten- different references in the NT. It may indi-
ment of the soul as the source of human cate the power to forgive sins (Luke 5:24),
knowledger. In his De Cjt7;t¢f e Dej he brought the power to drive out spirits (Mark 6:7), the
forth the first Christian philosophy of history. privilege of divine sonship (John 1:12), the
As a theology, Augustinianism represents the authority of civil rulers (John 19:10), the
supreme achievement of the early church in control of possessions (I Cor. 9:4), marital
the realm of theological advance. Augustine rights or responsibilities (cf. I Cor. 7:4),
brought tci completion the doctrinal achieve- apostolic privilege (I Cor. 9:6), the general
ments and aspirations of the first four cen- kingship o£ Christ (Matt. 28:18), or, more
turies of Christian scholarship. He gave to the Specifically, the authority of the word and
Western church, in his De TI.;74jtcite, a mas- work of Christ (Matt. 7:29 and parallels) as
terful exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity. compared with that of the scribes. The
In other writings he set forth, with clarity and thoughts of right, privilege, and compulsive
a faithfulness to the Scri|)Cures, the doctrines power are all gathered up in the concept.
of the sovereignt}7 of God, the total depravity The Bible makes it plain that the true
of man, and election and predestination. In source and seat of authority is in God. This is
his emphasis on man's inability to achieve true even of civil power (Ron.13: 1), though
righteousness and the truth that man is saved on earth and especially in heaven there are
by sovereign grace alone, Augustine made his usurped powers which God defeats and de-
stroys (cf. Eph. 3:10; Col. 2:15). But it is
greatest contribution to the church through
the ages, and directly influenced Calvin, Lu- even more true in relation to the spiritual
ther, and the other Reformers, but his doctrine sphere. God alone can forgive sins (Mark
of the church and baptismal regeneration was 2:7), reveal absolute truth, and speak with
a contributing factor, in the hands of late the note of absolute command (cf. Luke 7:8).
theologians, to the growth of the Roman No human authority can stand unless it de-
Catholic conception of the church and its rives from God and is subservient to him.
sacraments. However, in a very real sense, the The divine authority, however, is exercised
Reformation was essentially the result of the in and through the Son o£ God. If he resists
81 AWAKENING

the temptation to receive worldly honor from decisions and canons of early councils, is not
the devil, it is because he is already ``the head without a certain weight. To this extent, prop-
of all principality and power" (Col. 2:10) er account must be taken of the various claims
and is destined to be exalted as such by God. to authority advanced in contemporary discus-
Thus even civil government will finally re- sion.
vert to Christ as it derives from him. But he In the Bible itself , however, there seems to
also has the power to forgive sins (Mark be no clear warrant for assuming that the apos-
2: 10), to liberate from demonic forces (Matt. tolic authority has now been inherited by
9:8), to vanquish sickness and death (c£. Johtl others. The apostles alone are primary wit-
10:18), and to teach and command with all nesses to Christ, and mediate authority is
the right and compulsion o£ God himself ascribed onl}T to them. Hence, if the apostolic
(Mark I :22, 27). The divine authority itself authority has not la|)sed altogether, it is pre-
is embodied in Jesus Christ, and it is by this served in their writings as the inspired and
absolute authority that every relative civil or normative testimony through which Christ
ecclesiastical authority must be measured. hjmself still speaks and works by the Spirit.
Yet Jesus Christ does not exercise his au- In other words, it is through the Bible that
thority directly between his comings. Hence Jesus Christ now exercises his divine authority,
it is right and proper that there should be rela- imparting authoritative truth, issuing authori-
tive authorities with a valid claim to human t.ative commands and imposing an authoritative
obedience. The forces of law and order con- norm by which all the arrangements or state-
stitute such an authorit}7 in the civil sphere, ments made b}' the church must be shaped and
and are thus to bc honored not in virtue of corrected.
their inherent validity but in virtue of their BIBLIOGRAPHY
divinel}' given function and commission. A +vaJ:h:NL.,Sf,]ede%t,:,ys:'ja„S"£:;#]C;,4";i;:rj:rf`i'.od!.„,G{#,.3£
similar though less equivocal position is occu- pp. 73-86; W. 11. hlcpheeters in HDCG; F. L. Patton,

I)ied in the ecclesiastical s|)here by the apostles

as the primary and authoritative witnesses to i;::i':fls,;,`?:f:::i:?:I,'o:i:,;;:,:;t:;;.p:.E.e.,igef-e|,:g:s;,:?,.cofsAa;E::et'e;,p,?i?;
the word and work o£ Jesus Christ incarnate, W. C. G. PRoCTOR
crucified, and risen.
AVARICE. See CovETousNEss.
But how is apostolic authority exercised in
the |]ost-apostolic period? This is the critical AVENGE. While b}7 Semitic custom it
issue in modern discussions of spiritual or ec- was the dut}' of the g6G! (next-of-kin) to
clesiastical authorit}., which rest on the com- a`'enge a relati\'e's murder b}7 procuring the
mom assumption that absolute authority be- sla}'er's death, justice concerned the whole
longs to Christ alone and secondar}7 authority clan (11 Kings 9:26; Num. 31:2). Hebrew
to the apostles, but then see this authority legislation sought to limit the vendetta to the
exercised today in a variet}' of wa}'s. Thus actual criminal (Deut. 24:16), to provide
some argue that the apostles have transmitted as}Tlum (Dent. 19:2-7), and to exempt acci-
their authorit}' to e|)iscopal successors, or that dental homicide. Fkc!?.J{eo- is used o£ (a) pro-
the church itself is authoritati`'e, or that there curing justice: e.g., for the widow in Luke
is an authoritative apostolic tradition in addi- 18:5; (b) di\'ine \'engeance for the blood of
lion to the written testimony of the NT, or mart}Trs (Rev. 6:10) or at the last judgment
that the first interpretations and decisions of (11 Thess.1 :8; c£. 7tgttter¢i e7cc{;J€eseo-s, Luke
the early church have a distinctive authority, 21:22); and (c) avenging oneself (Ron.
so that there is at least a continual interplay 12:19). (Although justice may be obtained
of authorities in the church under the direc- from the authorities as God's avengers (Rom.
tion of the Holy Spirit. 13:4), Christians are required to leave ven-
Now it may be admitted that there are geance to God, who has become the ultimate
spheres o£ life in the church where the church 96G! in Rev. 19:2).
itself, whether local or universal, has a cer- BIBLIOGRAPHY
.\mdt; HDB,. HERE,. \V. i\1. Thomson, TJie I.atld
tain right to take order, e.g., in the regulation ai.tl tJ}e Book, pp. 289-92.
of worship, the exercise of discipline, and even DENls H. TONGUE
the closer definition of doctrine. It may also
be allowed that what has been done by past AWAKENING. The theological concept is
ages in fulfilment of this right, e.g., in the based on passages likening spiritual death to
BAAL 82

sleep (I Thess. 5:6; Ron.13:11; Eph. 5:14). aware of his condition and of God's claims
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary de- upon him. Heb. 6:4-6 and 10:26 indicate that
fines "awaken" in theological usage as "to awakening is not yet full regeneration and the
arouse to a sense of sin" ( 1603), quoting Wes- awakened person may subsequently reject God.
ley: "Just awakening, and darkly feeling after An "awakening" in modem usage is a syno-
God." It is the beginning of the divine work nym for a mass spiritual revival.
of conversion, whereby the sinner, previously J. CLEMENT CONNELI.
indifferent and inactive towards God, is made AWE. See FEAR.

BAAL. See GODs. times of the Church Fathers. Called a harlot

repeatedly (17: 1, 5,15,16), she is said to be
BABYLON. Babylon, like Jerusalem, has seated on many waters, which are defined as
a three-fold significance in Scri|]ture - his-
peoples (vs. 15). She is also portrayed as sit-
toric, prophetic, and symbolic (or typical). ting upon a scarlet colored beast, who repre-
Historically, it may refer to the great city on sents worldly powers arrayed against the Lamb
the Euphrates River, to the kingdom of Baby- of God. The beast ultimately turns upon the
lon, or to the plain referred to as Babylonia. harlot to destroy her. In Rev. 18 Babylon is
The empire of Babylon was used by God in given prominence as a commercial power.
the f inal defeat o£ Judah and the destruction
What is the meaning o£ Babylon in these
of Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar begins the
passages? The older commentators tended to
times of the Gentiles (Jer. 27:1-11; Dan.
make it a prophecy of the evil world. Others
2:37-38). The final and complete destruction
have insisted on a specific geographical refer-
of Babylon is foretold in the prophets (Isa.
ence, such as Jerusalem. But the mention of
13: 17-22; Jer. 25: 12-14). The city fell to the
rivers and ships and extensive commercial ac-
Medes in 539 B.a., but the vast desolation
tivity does not fit the holy city. Others have
spoken of by the prophets has not yet come to identified Babylon with the city o£ Rome,
Pass. basing the identification largely on the men-
Three primary passages (Isa. 13, 14, 47; tion of seven hills (Rev. 17:9). The funda-
Jer. 50, 51; Rev.16: 17 -19:5) predict Baby- mental objection to this interpretation is that
lon's ultimate destiny. The universal sweep, the persecution of the Christians by the Ro-
particularly in Isaiah's prophecy, exceeding the man empire stopped at the advent of Con-
scope of Babylon even in the days of its great- stantine, whereas Rome was only taken by the
est glory, suggests that many aspects Of this barbarians a century later. Still another view
prediction have not yet been fulfilled. God refers the passage to literal Babylon on the
did not change the whole earth when Babylon Euphrates, which is now a heap of sand and
fell; in fact, the city was not destroyed at that ruins (so Seiss, Pember, et ¢1). Others believe
time. that the reference is symbolical, that Babylon
Our chief concern is with the significance is not to be defined geographically but ec-
of Babylon in the Book of Revelation. The clesiastically. Some in this group interpret
characteristics of the people of the land o£ Babylon of the papacy, which through the
Shinar - rebellion against God, self-suffi- centuries has persecuted multitudes of the
ciency, lust for power and glory (Gen. 8: 10; saints of God. The Reformers shared this view.
11 : I-9) - have marked the history of Babylon Others of this group understand the passage
through the centuries and are basic in the as a description not so much of the Roman
Babylon passage of the Apocalypse. Church at the end of this age as of` apostate
The exact meaning of the term Babylon in Christendom as a whole. One may consult
the Revelation has been disputed from the Aubeden, The Prophecies of Daniel and the
83 BAPTISM

ReveJcztio" and the notes of Craven in the sary that there should be a preaching and con-
Lange Commentary. fession of Christ as integral parts of the ad-
Whatever be the f inal conclusion on the ministration (c£. Acts 8 : 37). Other ceremonies
identity o£ Babylon, the following factors are may be used at discretion so long as they are
clear: (I) at the end of this age two powerful not unscriptural and do not distract f rom the
forces, a federation of nations and an ecclesi- true action, like the complicated and rather
astical apostate body, will unitedly exercise superstitious ceremonial of the medieval and
modern Roman Church.
jurisdiction over the world; (2) there will be
a persecution Of the saints of God; (3) a god- Discussion has been raised concerning the
less, economic, commercial world-wide activity proper ministers and subjects of the action. In
will hold sway; (4) a dual judgment will the f`irst instance there may be agreement with
bring this condition of abomination to an end; Augustine that Christ himself is the true min-
ister ("he shall baptize you," Matt. 3 : 11). But
(5) the ecclesiastical power will be tom to
Christ does not give the external baptism di-
pieces by the federation of nations; and (6)
the whole ungodly system, staggering in the rectly; he commits this to his disciples (John
drunkenness of Babylonian pride, power and 4:2). This is taken to mean that bar)t:sin
wealth, will be destroyed by an act of God, should be administered by those to whom
which will bring rejoicing to the people of there is entrusted by inward and outward
God (Rev. 18:20). If there is any chronologi- calling the ministry of word and sacrament,
cal sequence in these last chapters of the though la}'men have been allowed to baptize
Book of Revelation, this judgment on Babylon in the Roman Church (cf. LAY BAPTlsM), and
will soon be followed by the battle of Ar- some early Baptists conceived the strange no-
mageddon (q.v.). tion of baptizing themselves. Normally bap`tism
WILBUR M. SMITH belongs to the public ministry of the church.
As concerns the subjects, the main differ~
BAPTISM. Deriving from the Greek Z}ap- ence is between those who practice the bap-
t;s7"a, "baptism" denotes the action of wash- tism of the children of confessing Christians
ing or plunging in water, which from the ear- and those who insist upon a personal confes-
liest days (Acts 2:41) has been used as the sion as a prerequisite. This point is considered
rite of Christian initiation. Its origins have in the two separate articles devoted to the two
been variously traced to the OT purifications, positions and need not detain us in this exi)osi-
the lustrations of Jewish sects and parallel tion of positive baptismal teaching. It may be
pagan washings, but there can be no doubt noted, however, that adult baptisms continue
that baptism.as we know it begins with the in all churches, that confession is everywhere
baptism of John. Christ himself, both by prece- considered important, and that Baptists often
dent (Matt. 3 : 13) and precept (Matt. 28: 19), feel impelled to an act of dedication of chil-
gives us authority for its observance. On this dren. Among adults it has been a common
basis it has been practic`ed by almost all Chris- practice to refuse baptism to those unwilling
tians, though attempts have been made to re- to leave doubtful callings, though the attempt
place it by a baptism of fire or the Spirit in of one sect to impose a minimum age of thirty
terms of Matt. 3: 11. years did not meet with common a|)proval.
In essence the action is an extremely simple In the case of children there has been mis-
one, though pregnant with meaning. It con- giving concerning the infants o.f parents whose
sists in a going in or under the baptismal profession of Christian faith is very obviously
water in the name of Christ (Acts 19:5) or nominal or insincere. The special \case of the
more commonly the Trinity (Matt. 28:19). mentally defective demands sympathetic treat-
Immersion was fairly certainly the original ment, but there is no warrant for prenatal or
forced baptisms, and even less for baptism of
practice and continued in general use up to
the Middle Ages. The Reformers agreed that inanimate objects such as was practiced in
this best brought out the meaning of baptism the Middle Ages.
as a death and resurrection, but even the A clue to the meaning of "baptism" is given
early Anabaptists did not think it essential so by three OT types: the Flood (I Pet. 3: 19 f.),
long as the subject goes under the water. The the Red Sea (I Cor.10: I f.) and circumcision
type of water and circumstances of administra- (Col. 2:11 f.). These all refer in different
tion are not important, though it seems neces- ways to the divine covenant, to its provisional
BAPTISM 84

fulfilment in a divine act of judgment and baptism, which is irrespective of the time or
grace, and to the coming and definitive ful- manner of baptism, is the primary theme
filment in the baptism of the cross. The con- which ought to occupy us in baptismal dis-
junction of water with death and redemption cussion and preaching. But it must be em-
is particularly apt in the case of the first two; phasized continually that this personal accept-
the covenantal aspect is more particularly em- ance or entry is not independent of the once
phasized jn the third. for all and substitutionary work of Christ,
When we come to the action itself , there which is the true baptism.
are many different but interrelated associations It is forgetfulness of this point which leads
which claim our attention. The most obvious to misunderstanding of the so-called grace Of
is that of washing (Titus 3:5), the cleansing baptism. This may be by its virtual denial.
water being linked with the blood of Christ Baptism has no grace apart from its psychologi-
on the one side and the purifying action of cal effects. It is primarily a sign of something
the Spirit on the other (see I John 5:6, 8), so that we do, and its value may be assessed only
that we are brought at once to the divine work in explicable religious terms. The fact that
of reconciliation. A second is that of initiation, spiritual gifts and even faith itself are true
adoption, or, more especially, regeneration gifts of the Holy Spirit, with an element Of
(John 3:5), the emphasis again being placed the mysterious and incalculable, is thus de-
on the operation of the Spirit in virtue Of the nied.
work of Christ. On the other hand, it may be by distortion
These various themes find common focus or exaggeration. Baptism means the almost au-
in the primary thought of baptism (in the tomatic infusion Of a mysterious substance
destructive, yet also life-giving, power Of water) which accomplishes a miraculous but not very
as a drowning and an emergence to new life, obvious transformation. It is thus to be re-
i.e., a death and resurrection (Ron. 6:3 f.). garded with awe, and fulfilled as an action
But here again the true witness Of the action of absolute necessity to salvation except in
is to the work of God in the substitutionary very special cases. The tnie mystery of the
death and resurrection of Christ. This identi- Holy Spirit yields before ecclesiastical magic
fication with sinners in judgment and renewal and theological sophistry.
is what Jesus accepts when he comes to the But, when baptismal grace is brought into
baptism o£ John and fulf.ils when he takes his proper relationship to the work of God, we
are helped on the way to a fruitful understand-
place between two thieves on the cross (Luke
12:50). Here we have the real baptism o[. the ing. First, and above all, we remember that
NT, which makes possible the baptism of our behind the external action there lies the true
identification with Christ and underlies and baptism which is that of the shed blood Of
is attested by the outward sign. Like preach- Christ. Baptismal grace is the grace of this
ing and the Lord's Supper, "baptism" is an true reality of baptism, i.e., of the substitution-
evangelical word telling us that Christ has died ary work of Christ, or Of Christ himself. Only
and risen again in our place, so that we are in this sense can we legitimately speak Of
dead and alive again in him, with him, and grace, but in this sense we can and must.
through him (Ron. 6:4,11). Second, we remember that behind the ex-
Like all preaching, however, baptism carries temal action there lies the inward operation
with it the call to that which we should do of the Spirit moving the recipient to faith in
in response or correspondence to what Christ Christ's work, and accomplishing regeneration
to the life of faith. Baptismal grace is the grace
has done for us. We, too, must make our
movement of death and resurrection, not to of this internal work of the Spirit, which can-
add to what Christ has done, nor to complete not be presumed (for the Spirit is sovereign)
it, nor to compete with it, but in grateful ac- but which we dare to believe where there is a
ceptance and application. We do this in three true calling on the name Of the Lord.
related ways constantly kept before us by our Third, the action itself is divinely ordained
baptism: the initial response of repentance and as a means Of grace, i.e., a means to present
faith (Gal. 2:20); the lifelong process Of nor- Christ and therefore to fulfil the attesting
tification and renewal (Eph. 4:22 f.); and work Of the Spirit. It does not do this by the
the final dissolution and resurrection of the mere performance Of tlie prescribed rite; it does
body (I Cor. 15). This rich signification Of it in and through its meaning. Nor dues it do
85 BAPTISM, BELIEVERS'

it alone; its function is primarily to seal and sponded to the word in penitence and faith,
confirm, and therefore it does it in conjunc- and it is to be followed at once by a course
tion with the spoken and written word. It of more detailed instruction.
need not do it at the time Of administration; That the apustles understood it in this way
for, under the gracious sovereignty of the is evident from the precedents which have
Spirit, its fruition may come at a much later come down to us in Acts. On the day of Pen-
date. It does not do it automatically; for, tecost, for example, Peter told the conscience-
whereas Christ is aways presented and his stricken people to repent and be baptized, nor
grace remains, there are those who respond did he mention any special conditions for in-
neither to word nor sacrament and therefore fants incapable of repentance (Acts 2:38).
miss the tnie and inward meaning and power. Again, when the Ethiopian eunuch desired
When we think in these terms, we can see baptism, he was told that there could be no
that there is and ought to be a real, though hindrance so long as he believed, and it was
not a magical baptismal grace which is not on confession of faith that Philip baptized him
affected greatly by the detailed time or mode (Acts 8:36 ff.). Even when whole house-
of administration. The essentials are that we holds were bar)tized, we are normally told that
use it (I) to present Christ, (2) in prayer to they first heard the gospel preached and either
the Holy Spirit, (3) in trustful dependence believed or received an endowment of the
upon his sovereign work, and (4) in conjunc- Spirit (cf. Acts 10:45; 16:32 f.). In any case,
tion with the spoken word. Restored to this no mention is made of any other type Of
evangelical use, and freed especially from dis- baptism.
torting and unhelpful controversy, baptism The meaning of baptism as developed by
might quickly manifest again its power as a Paul in Ron. 6 supports this contention. It is
summons to live increasingly, or even to begin in repentance and faith that we are identified
to live, the life which is ours in Christ cruci- with Jesus Christ in his death, burial, and
fied and risen for us. resurrection. To infants who cannot hear the
BIBLIOGRAPHY word and make the appropriate response, it
thus seems to be meaningless and even mis-
I h9a*`'e££'i:Sft#tee„S;5Vo'ctpi:.e'o?-[85a;ptt¥;;FriE]#Tgj:::
G. W. Bromiley, Baptism and the Angzjcan Flcformers,. leading to speak of baptism into the death and
t]i§T;';f.Reports on Baptism in the Church of Scotland, resurrection o£ Christ. The confessing believer
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEy alone knows what this means and can work it
out in his life. In baptism, confessing his I)eni-
BAPTISM, BELIEVERS'. Where the tence and faith, hc has really turned his back
gospel is first preached, or Christian profession on the old life and begun to live the new life
has lapsed, baptism is always administered on in Christ. He alone can look back to a mean-
confession of penitence and faith. In this sense ingful conversion or regeneration and thus re-
believers' baptism, i.e., the baptism of those ceive the confirmation and accept the chal-
who make a profession of faith, has been an lenge which comes with baptism. To introduce
accepted and persistent phenomenon in the any other form of baptism is to open the way
church. Yet there are powerful groups amongst to perversion or misconception.
Christians who think that we should go fur- To be sure, there is no direct prohibition of
ther than this. Believers' baptism as they see infant baptism in the NT. But in the absence
it is not merely legitimate; it is the only tnie Of direction either way it is surely better to
baptism according to the NT, especially, carry out the sacrament or ordinance as ob-
though not necessarily, in the form of im- viously commanded and practiced than to rely
mersion. on exegetical or theological inference for a
This is seen first from the precept which different administration. This is particularly
underlies its institution. When Jesus com- the case in view of the weakness or irrelevance
manded the apostles to baptize, he told them of many of the considerations advanced.
first to make disciples and said nothing what- Christ's blessing of the children, for ex-
ever about infants (Matt. 28:19). In other ample, shows us that the gospel is for little
words, preaching must always precede bap- ones, and that we have a duty to bring them
tism, for it is by the word and not the sacra- to Christ, but it says nothing whatever about
ment that disciples are first made. Baptism can administering baptism contrary to the acknowl-
be given only when the recipient has re- edged rule (Mark 10:13 ff.). Again, the fact
BAPTISM, BELIEVERS' 86

that certain characters may be filled with the achieves its signif icance as the mark of a step
Spirit from childhood (Luke 1:15) suggests from darkness and death to light and life.
that God may work in infants, but it gives us The recipient is thus confirmed in the decision
no warrant to suppose that he normally does which he has taken, brought into the living
so, or that he does so in any given case, or company of the regenerate, which is the true
that baptism may be given before this work church (see BAPTlsTs), and encouraged to
f inds expression in individual repentance and walk in the new life which he has begun.
faith. Again, the children o£ Christians enjoy This means that in believers' baptism faith
privileges and perhaps even a status which is given its proper weight and sense. The need
cannot be ascribed to others. They are reck- for faith is recognized, of course, in infant
oned in some sense "holy" by God (I Cor. baptism. It is contended that infants may be-
7: 14). But here too there is no express con- lieve by a special work of the Spirit, or that
nection with baptism or the baptismal identi- their present or future faith is confessed by
fication with Jesus Christ in death and resur- the parents or sponsors, or that the parents or
rection. sponsors exercise vicarious faith, or even that
Reference to the household baptisms of faith is given in, with, or under the adminis-
Acts is of no greater help. The probability may tration. Some of these notions are manifestly
well be that some of these households included unscriptural. In others there is a measure Of
infants, yet this is by no means certain. Even truth. But none of them meets the require-
if they did, it is unlikely that the infants were ment of a personal confession of personal faith
present when the word was preached, and as invariably fulfilled in believers' baptism.
there is no indication that any infants were
actually baptized. At very best this could only Again, believers' baptism also carries with
be a hazardous inference, and the general it a genuine, as opposed to a spurious, baptis-
drift of the narratives seems to be in a very mal grace. The expression of repentance and
dift'erent direction. faith in baptism gives conscious assurance of
forgiveness and regeneration and carries with
Nor does it serve to introduce the OT sign
it an unmistakable summons to mortification
of circumcision. There is certainly a kinship
and renewal. Properly understood, this may
between the signs. But there are also great dif-
also be the case with infant baptism, as in
ferences. The fact that the one was given to
the Reformed churches. But a good deal of
infant boys on a fixed day is no argument for
embarrassed explanation is necessary to make
giving the other to all children some time in this clear, and there is always the risk of a
infancy. They belong, if not to different cove-
false understanding, as in the medieval and
nants, at least to different dispensations of the
Romanist view of baptismal regeneration (q.v.).
one covenant: the one to a preparatory stage,
Baptism on profession Of faith is the only ef-
when a national people was singled out and
fective safeguard against the dangerous notion
its sons belonged naturally to the people of
that baptism itself can automatically transfer
God; the other to the fulfilment, when the
the graces which it represents.
Israel o£ God is spiritual and children are
added by spiritual rather than natulal regen- To the exegetical and theological considera-
eration. In any case, God himself gave a clear tions there may also be added some less im-
command to circumcize the male descendants portant but noteworthy historical argumc`nts.
of Abraham; he has given no similar command First, there is no decisive evidence for a corn-
to baptize the male and female descendants of mom Jewish practice ot` infant baptism in
Christians. a|)ostolic times. Second, the patristic state-
Theologically, the insistence upon believers' ments linking infant baptism with the apostles
baptism in all cases seems better calculated are fragmentary and unconvincing in the
to serve the true significance and benefit of earlier stages. Third, examples of believers'
baptism and to avoid the errors which so easily baptism are common in the first centuries and
threaten it. Only when there is personal con- a continuing, if suppressed, witness has always
fession before baptism can it be seen that been borne to this requirement. Fourth, the
personal repentance and faith are necessary to development of infant baptism seems to be
salvation through Christ, and that these do not linked with the incursion of pagan notions
come magically but through hearing the word and practices. Finally, there is evidence of
of God. With believers' baptism the ordinance greater evangelistic incisiveness and evangelical
87 BAPTISM, INFANT

purity of doctrine where this fom of baptism of the Holy Spirit. The Baptist, too, is filled
is recognized to be the baptism of the NT. with the Spirit from his mother's womb, so
BIBLIOGRAPHY that he might have been a fit subject for bap-
tism no less than circumcision very early in
life. Later, Christ receives and blesses the little
*:i&S:!y'::1§p':£B#E;:!£:;ja:a:a::!°'#e;:¥o]:#:||(?:9::8:£');:S'°"i; ones (Matt.19:13 f.) and is angry when his
disciples rebuff them (Mark 10: 14). He says
GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥
that the things of God are revealed to babes
BAPTISM, INFANT. In a missionary rather than the wise and pmdent (Luke
situation, the first subjects of baptism are al- 10:21). He takes up the statement of Ps. 8:2
ways converts. But throughout Christian his- about the praise of sucklings (Matt. 21:16).
tory, as attested already by Irenaeus and Ori- He warns against the danger of offending
gen with a reference back to the apostles, it against little ones that believe in him (Matt.
has also been given to the children of pro- 18:6), and in the same context says that to
fessing believers. This has not been solely on be Christians we have not to become adults but
grounds of tradition, or in consequence of a to become as children.
perversion, but for what have been regarded In the first preaching in Acts it is noticeable
as scriptural reasons. that Peter confirms the covenant procedure of
To be sure, there is no direct command to the OT with the words: "The promise is un-
baptize infants. But there is also no prohibi- to you, and to your children." In the light of
tion. Again, if we have no clear-cut example the OT background, and the similar procedure
of an infant baptism in the NT, there may in proselyte baptisms, there is little reason to
well have been such in the household baptisms doubt that the household baptisms would in-
of Acts, and there is also no instance Of the elude any children who might belong to the
child of Christians being baptized on profes- families concerned.
sion of faith. In other words, no decisive When we come to the Epistles, we find that
guidance is given by direct precept or prece- children are particularly addressed in Ephe-
dent. sians, Colossians and probably I John. We
Yet there are two lines of biblical study also have the important statement in I Cor.
which are thought to give convincing reasons 7: 14 in which Paul speaks of the children Of
for the practice. The first is a consideration of marriages which have become "mixed" by con-
detailed passages or statements from the Old version as "holy." This cannot refer to their
and New Testaments. The second is a con- civil status, but can only mean that they be-
sideration Of the whole underlying theology long to the covenant people, and therefore
of baptism as it comes before us in the Bible. will obviously have a right to the covenant
To begin with the detailed passages, we sign.
naturally turn f irst to the types of baptism It will be noted that in dif ferent ways all
found in the OT. All these favor the view these statements bring before us the covenant
that God deals with families rather than in- membership of the children of professing be-
dividuals. When Noah is saved from the flood, lievers. They thus introduce us directly to the
his whole family is received with him into the biblical understanding of baptism which pro-
ark (cf. I Pet. 3:20-21). When Abraham is vides the second line of support for baptizing
given the covenant sign of circumcision, he infants.
is commanded to administer it to all the male As the Bible sees it, baptism is not primarily
members of his house (Gen. 17, and c£. Col. a sign Of repentance and faith on the part of
2: 11-12 for the connection between baptism the baptized. It is not a sign of anything that
and circumcision). At the Red Sea it is all Is- we do at all. It is a covenant sign (like cir-
rael (men, women and children) which passes cumcision, but without blood-shedding), and
through the waters in the great act of redemp- therefore a sign of the work o£ God on our
tion which foreshadows not only the sign of behalf which precedes and makes possible our
baptism but the work o£ God behind it (c£. own responsive movement.
I Cot. 10: I-2). It is a sign of the gracious election of the
In the NT the ministry of our Lord is par- Father who plans and establishes the covenant.
ticularly rich in relevant statements. He him- It is therefore a sign of God's calling. Abra-
self becomes a child, and as such is conceived ham no less than his descendants was first
BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD 88

chosen and called by God (Gen.12: I). Israel The possibility arises, of course, that they will
was separated to the Lord because he himself not make this confession, or do so formally.
had said: "I will be your God, and ye shall But this cannot be avoided by a different mode
be my people" (Jer. 7:23). Of all disciples it of administration. It is a problem of preaching
must be said: "Ye have not chosen me, but I and teaching. And even if they do not believe,
have chosen you" (John 15: 16). The elective or do so nominall}r, their prior baptism as a
will o£ God in Christ extends to those who sign of the work of God is a constant witness
are far off as well as nigh, and the sign of it to call or finally to condemn them.
may be extended not only to those who have On the mission field adult baptism will
responded, but to their children growing up naturally continue. In da}'s of apostasy it can
in the si)here of the divine choice and calling. and will be common even in evangelized lands.
But baptism is also a sign of the substitu- Indeed, as a witness to the fact that our re-
tionary work of the Son in which the covenant sponse is really demanded it is good for the
is fulfilled. As a witness of death and resur- church that there should always be a Baptist
rection, it attests the death and resurrection section within it. But once the gospel has
of the One for the many without whose gained an entry into a family or community,
vicarious action no work even of repentance there is good scriptural and theological ground
and faith can be of any avail. It preaches that infant baptism should be the normal prac-
Christ himself as the One who is already dead tice.
and risen, so that all are dead and risen in BIBLIOGRAPHY
him (11 Cor. 5: 14; Col. 3: 1) even before the
movements of repentance and faith which they
are summoned to make in. identification with i::ai::;;,s:;i;5:!i;fgjiery;:£Ti!;:;::sp:i'g:c.;;:f;#;,:;;:e:I:.i,!n;lire:iv:::;
tjs1'l,
him. This substitutionary work is not merely
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
for those who have already believed. It may
and must be preached to all, and the sign and
seal given both to those who accept it and to BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD. The prob-
the children who will be brought up with the lem of baptism for the dead arises out of the
knowledge of what God has already done for question asked by Paul in I Cor.15:29: "Else
them once for all and all-sufficiently in Christ. what shall they do which are baptized for the
Finally, baptism is a sign of the regenerative dead, if the dead rise not at all? Why are they
work of the Holy Spirit`by which individuals then baptized for the dead?" Various interpre-
are brought into the covenant in the responsive tations have been suggested for this verse.
movement of repentance and faith. But the Some take it that the Apostle refers to a prac-
Holy Spirit is sovereign (John 3:8). He works
tice of vicarious baptism as later reported
how and when and in whom he pleases. He among the Marcionites and Novationists. On
laughs at human impossibilities (Luke I :37). this view, he is not necessarily approving it,
He is often present before his ministry is
but using it for the sake Of the argument.
The Cataphryges seem to have derived from
I)erceived, and his operation is not necessarily
coextensive with our apprehension of it. He it a baptizing of corpses. Others construe it as
a baptism of the dying, or the administration
does not disdain the minds of the undeveloped
as fit subjects for the beginning, or if he so Of the sacrament "over dead men's graves."
disposes the completion, of his work. So long
Most commentators try to avoid any connec-
as there is prayer to the Spirit, and a readi- tion with an actual practice, and there is again
ness to preach the evangelical word when the a wide range of suggestion. Baptism is to fill
opportunity comes, infants may be regarded up the ranks lef t vacant by the dead, or under
as within the sphere of this life-giving work the inspiration of their witness, or with a view
which it is the o££ice of baptism to sign and to death and resurrection in Christ, or more
seal. specifically in token that we are dead but may
Where infant baptism is practiced, it is right seek our new and true life in the Resurrected.
and necessary that those who grow to maturity Whatever the exact signification, the wider
should make their own confession of faith. But meaning is undoubtedly that baptism is a wit-
they do so with the clear witness that it is not ness to the resurrection.
this which saves them, but the work of God BIBLIOGRAPHY
already done for them before they believed. H. A. W. Meycr, I Corinth;at.s, 11, p. 271 £.; A.
89 BAPTISTS

as emerges in the famous Gorham controversy

£]eurTrc%, g.D385'9lJ P. 245; A. Robertson and A. plum.
GEOFFREY W. BROMILET in England. Hence the actual phrase ``bap-
tismal regeneration" is much better avoided.
BAPTISMAL REGENERATION. Twice But in the long run the best antidote to per-
in the NT a connection is made between version is the true and positive doctrine.
water, or washing in water, and regeneration. BIBLIOGRAPHY
In John 3:3 we are told that a man must be
born of water and of the Spirit to enter the gr;:;::?e':s,B:.;?,n.:L'fts:B8aff;:;I,"JGa?;`,I,::I:;2.¢e,?.#i:eg"g,a:?`i.i;,::#
Excte,.
kingdom of God. And in Titus 3:5 we read
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
that we are saved "by the washing of regen-
eration, and renewing of the Holy Ghost." In BAPTISTS. It is a popular misunderstand-
view of these passages, of the interrelationship ing about Bar)tists to think that their chief con-
of baptism with Christ's resurrection, and of cern is with the administration of baptism. The
the fact that it is the sacrament of initiation, convictions of Baptists are based primarily on
it is inevitable that there shou]d be some equa- the spiritual ni`ture of the church, and the
tion between baptism and regeneration. This practice of believers' baptism arises only as a
equation is most strongly made in the phrase corollary of this and in the light of the NT
"baptismal regeneriltion."
teaching. The theological I)osition taken up by
The phrase as such is not wholly objection- Bar)tists may be I)resented as follows.
able so long as the following points are kept I. THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE CHURCH. AC-
clearly in view. The new life of the Christian cording to the belief of Baptists, the church is
is in Christ born, crucified, and risen for us. composed of those who have been born again
Incorporation into Christ is the work of the by the Holy Si)irit and who have been brought
Holy S|]irit. The true baptism behind the to personal and saving faith in the Lord Jesus
sacramental rite is this saving action of Christ Christ. A living and direct acquaintance with
and the Holy Ghost. The rite itself, in con- Christ is, therefore, held to be basic to church
junction with the word, attests this work and membership. Negatively, this involves a re-
is a means used by the Holy Spirit to its out- jection of the concept that equates a church
working in the believer. Baptism is not regen- with a nation. Membershii) of the c`hurch of
eration, however, nor regeneration baptism, ex- Christ is not based on the accident or 1)rivilege
eel)t in this deeper sense and context. of birth, either in a Christian counti.}' or in a
Unfortunately, medieval theology was Christian famil}'. Bai)tists, therefore, repudiate
tempted into a twofold isolation, that of the the Anglican and Presbyterian view by delet-
believer's regeneration from the substitutionary ing the phrase ``together with their children"
work of Christ, and that of the rite from bap- from the definition of the church. Positively,
tism in its full and basic sense. In these cir- this view of church membership indicates that
cumstances the relationship between baptism the church is entered voluntarily and that only
and regeneration was necessarily misunder- believers ma}T participate in its ordinances. All
stood. "Regeneration" became the supernatural members are equal in status although they vary
transformation of the believer and "baptism" jn gifts.
a divinely appointed means of operation auto- 11. THE NATURE oF THE CHURCH. In dis-
matically efficacious so long as no bar (e.g., of tinction from churches of the institutional or
insincerity) is opposed. The presuming of an territorial kind, the Baptist conviction is ex-
absolute necessity of baptism, the emptying of pressed in the concept of the ``gathered church."
regeneration of any true significance, and the The members of the church are joined to-
whole problem of post-baptismal sin were evils gether by God into a fellowship of life and
which resulted from this perverted doctrine. servic`e under the lordship of Christ. Its men-
The Reformers clearly saw and rejected this bers are I)ledged to live together under his laws
perversion. But they did not make the mis- and to cuter into the fellowship created and
take of breaking the relationship and treating maintained by the Holy Spirit. The church
baptism only as a symbolic rite with psychcr conceived of in this way is perc`eived the most
logical effects. Rather, they tried to work back clearly in its local manifestation. Thus, al-
to the true and biblical understanding cor- though the church invisible consists of all the
rupted in the Romanist scheme. This certainly redeemed, in heaven and in earth, past, 1)res-
involves the danger of fresh misunderstanding, ent, and future, it may be truly said that
BAPTISTS 90

wherever believers are living together in the ance is c.oextensive with the Baptist com-
fellowship of the gospel and under the sov- munity.
ereignty of Christ there is the church. IV. THE ORDINANCES OF THE CHURCH.
These are normally spoken of as two, namely,
Ill. TIIE GOVERNMENT OF THE CHURCH.
believers' baptism and the Lord's Supper,
Christ is the only Head of the church, and
though it would be more I)roper to speak of
the early Baptist pioneers earnestly contended
three and to include the ordinance of preach-
for what they called "the crown rights of the
ing. Baptists have normally preferred to use
Redeemer." The local church is autonomous,
the word ordinance rather than sacrament bc-
and this principle of government is sometimes
cause Of certain sacerdotal ideas that the word
described as the "congregational order Of the
sacrament has gathered to itself, The word or-
churches." Baptists believe in the competence
dinance points to the ordaining authority Of
of the local fellowship to govern its own af-
Christ which lies behind the practice. Baptists
fairs, and because of the theological importance
regard the Lord's Supper somewhat af ter the
of the local church in contradistinction to con-
Zwinglian manner. The bread and the wine
nectional systems (episcopal, presbyterian, or
are the divinely given tokens of the Lord's sav-
methodist) of church government, Baptists do
ing grace, "but the value of the service lies far
not speak of the denomination as "the Baptist
more in the symbolism of the whole than in
church," but as "the Baptist churches" in any
the actual elements" (Dakin). Henry Cook
given area. The congregational order of the writes: "Being symbolic of facts that constitute
churches, that is to say, the government of
the heart of the Gospel, they (the ordinances)
the church through the mind of the local con-
arouse in the believing soul such feelings of
gregation, is not to be equated with the hu- awe and love and prayer that God is able by
manistic concept of democracy. Democracy is
His Spirit to communicate Himself in a vital-
too low and too small a word. The Baptist be-
ising and enriching experience of His grace
lief is that the church is to be governed, not
and power." Baptists acknowledge that the or-
by an order of priests, nor through higher or
dinances are thus a means of grace, but not
central courts, but through the voice of the
otherwise than is also the preaching of the
Holy Spirit in the hearts of the members in
each local assembly. Whereas in a strictly den- gospel. The position has been epitomized by
saying that the ordinances are a special means
ocratic order of church government there
of grace but not a means of special grace. It
would be a government of the church Z7y the
is also part of the Baptist position on this sub-
church, the Baptist position makes recognition
ject that believers' baptism and the Lord's Sup-
o£ Christ's rule in the church throt+gh the
church. From the equality of status of every per are church ordinances, that is to say, they
are congregational rather than individual acts.
church member and the recognition of the di-
Priestly mediation is abhorrent to Baptists and
`'ersity of gifts, two things follow. First of all,
derogatory to the glory Of Christ, who is the
it is acknowledged that each member has a
only Priest. For a detailed discussion of be-
right and duty in the government of the local
lievers' baptism, see the article under that
church, and secondly, that the church gladly
title'
accepts the guidance of its chosen leaders.
Baptist churches ai.e usually regarded as inde- V. THE MINlsTR¥ oF THE CHURCH. The
pendent in their government, but they do not ministry is as broad as the fellowship of the
glory in independency for its own sake. The church, yet for the purposes of leadership, the
independence of a Baptist church relates to term ministry has been reserved for those who
state control, and the Baptists of the seven- have the responsibility of oversight and instruc-
tion. Baptists do not believe in a ministerial or-
teenth century in England were in the fore-
der in the sense of a priestly caste. The Baptist
most rank of those who fought for this free-
minister has no "more" grace than the one who
don. Baptists have always recognized the great is not a minister: he does not stand any nearer
value of association between churches, and as- to God by virtue Of his official position than
sociations o£ Baptist churches have been char- does the humblest member of the church.
acteristic o£ Baptist life down the centuries. All There are diverse gifts, however, and it is rec-
such association is voluntary, however, and the ognized that the gift of ministry is by the
mistake must not be made of assuming that grace o£ God, as Paul himself intimated in
the Baptist Union or the Baptist World Alli- Eph. 3:8. Pastors and deacons are chosen and
91 BEATIFIC VISION

appointed by the local church, though their munity of Christian believers, tthe ordinance of
appointment is frequently made in the wider baptism is administered among us to those
context of the fellowship of Baptist churches. only who make a personal confession of re-
A Baptist minister becomes so by virtue of an pentance and faith .... In our judgment the
inward call of God which, in turn, receives baptism of infants incapable of offering a per-
confirmation in the outward call of a church. sonal confession of faith subverts the concep-
Public acknowledgment o£ this call of God is tion of the Church as the fellowship of such
given in a service of ordination, which ordina- believers....
``The Lord's Supper is observed regularly
tion, it is held, does not confer any kind of
superior or ministerial grace but merely recog- and devoutly by our churches. Its value for us
nizes and regularizes the ministry within the depends upon both the presence of our Lord
church itself. The importance of ordination and the faith with which we receive the bread
lies in the fact that the church itself preaches and wine that show forth His redemptive sac-
through the minister; and, though ordination rifice; but not upon the official position of a
is not intended to imprison the activity Of the celebrant or upon any change in the elements
Holy Spirit within the bounds of ecclesiastical- due to words of consecration. It seems to us
ly ordained preachers, there is, nevertheless, contrary to the simplicity that is in Christ that
considerable importance attached to the due the full effect of the Lord's Supper as a means
authorization of those who are to speak in the of grace should be held to depend on Episcopal
name of the church. ordination."
VI. THE ECUMENICITY 0F THE CHURCH. BIBLIOGRAPHY

The "Appeal to all Christian Believers" issued

by the Lambeth Conference in 1920 was pray- %*;}i;;e:]%:[£t§#4:i#t%;as:P:r:l}.Ci°p:1:s?B"#;:ts=:rty:C::Po;i:tosy#:a!
erfully considered by the Baptist churches. In ERNEST FREDERICK KEVAN
1926 these churches published a reply in the
course of which the position o£ Baptists in re- BARBARIAN. Barz7al.os is an onomatopoeic
lation to other denominations was expounded word which originated by imitating the unin-
unequivocally. This reply, which was adopted telligible sounds of people who spoke a lan-
by the Assembly of the Baptist Union at Leeds guage foreign to Greek. It thus became a desig-
during that year, contains the following para- nation for those who spoke in such a tongue
graphs. or possessed a foreign culture.
"We associate ourselves with our Anglican
The word is used in f our different places in
brethren in longing and prayer for a larger the NT: in Acts 28:2, 4 of the natives (so
unity among all who follow and serve our Lord rendered in the RSV) of Malta without de-
and Saviour Jesus Christ .... rogatory overtones; in Rom. I : 14 o£ Greeks to
"We reverence and obey the Lord Jesus
indicate the universality o£ Paul's apostleship;
Christ, our God and Saviour, as the sole and in I Cor.14:11 of one who speaks an unin-
absolute authority in all matters pertaining to telligible language; and in Col. 3: 11 in a bad
faith and practice, as revealed in the Scrip- sense as one of the social distinctions which
tures, and we hold that each church has liberty finds no place in Christianity.
to interpret and administer His laws. We do WALTER W. WESSEL
not judge the conscience of those who take an-
other view, but we believe that this principle BATH QOL. See VolcE.
of the freedom of the individual church under
BEAST. See ANTlcHRlsT.
Christ has the sanction of Scripture and the
justification of history, and therefore we can- BEATIFIC VISION. A term used for the
not abandon it without being false to our vision of God in himselt`. Our Lord taught:
trust. Moreover, it is plain to us that the head- "Blessed are the pure in heart, for the}7 shall
ship and sole authority Of our Lord in His see God." Absolute purity, that is, complete
Church excludes any such relations with the freedom from sin, is necessary in order that
State as may impair its liberty. one may enjoy the presence of God. Roman
"This view of the Church determines our
Catholic theology makes this one reason for
attitude towards the special issues raised by believing in purgatory (where sin is com-
the Lambeth Appeal .... pletely purged away). Evangelical theology,
"Because we hold the Church to be a com-
however, teaches that faith in Christ, as ex-
BEATIFICATION 92

hibited by the true believer, leads to accept- Far-reaching theological significance at-
ance by God, and being brought into his pres- taches to John I : I and I John I : I, in both o£
ence in Christ Jesus, who presents us "fault- which the beginning is connected with the
less before the presence of His glory" (Jude Logos. Its meaning in these contexts has been
24). The vision o£ God will be enjoyed in the much discussed, but it seems reasonably cer-
final consummation of all things in Christ. tain that the reference must be detemined by
W. C. G. PRoCTOR the berG5¢! of Gen.I:1, i.e., as a reference to
the initial moment of creation. It does not Of
BEATIFICATION. Beatification is the itself contain the notion of eternity, but this
stage next to final canonization (q.v.) of a must be implied where it is used with the im-
saint in the Roman Catholic Church. The perfect verb "was." This suggests that the
process of canonization is governed by decrees Logos was already in existence at the time of
of Pope Urban VIII in 1625, 1634, and 1642, the creation, and, as Godet remarks, "what is
and of succeeding popes since his time. The anterior to time must belong to the order of
f irst mover in the cause for the beatif ication eternity" (Comowe#t¢ry o# /oh7®, Vol.I, 1888,
must be the bishop of the diocese to which the p. 330).
candidate belonged. The Congregation of Rites A significant change in the preposition can
which conducts the examination must be as- be observed when John 1 : 1 is compared with
sured that the deceased enjoys a reputation for I John 1:1, for the ap' arches of the latter
sanctity and miracles and that no worship
points to what has already been operative in
(cw}tws) has yet been paid to him. When beati- time although looking back to an initial point,
fication has been declared by the pope, which whereas e7® arch8 in,John 1:I looks beyond
will not normally be for at least fifty years time to that which was already existent `when
after death, the title of Blessed is accorded to time began.
the candidate, and his ct/!tt4s is permitted in a In I John 2: 13 Christ is described as "him
specific diocese, religious order, or province. that is from the beginning," the center of the
RICHARD J. COATES Christian revelation. Christian theology is al-
ways looking back to its beginning, and this
BEELZEBUB. In the OT the name is
in the Johannine sense must be sought in
Beelzebub, "lord Of flies" (11 Kings I:2 f£.),
the pre-existent Word. This conception is an
referring to a god of the Philistines. In NT
immeasurable advance on the contemporary
times the Jews used it as an epithet for the
Jewish Messianism. The pre-eminence of
prince of demons (Matt. 12:24). "It is a well- Christ is marked by the use of the same Greek
known phenomenon in the history of religions
word as a title in Col. 1 : 18.
that the gods of one nation become the devils BIBLIOGRAPHY
Of its neighbors and enemies" (T. Rees in
ISBE). Some of Jesus' contemporaries dero- (|oAh#`is.CF= . R%#Eogt`,inEPEs#e# ,Tghn#. Bemz.rd. Ice
gated our Lord by alleging that he was pos- DONALD GUTHRIE
sessed by Beelzebub and thereby wrought mira-
BEGOTTEN. This is a favorite Johannine
cles (Mark 3:22). Jesus was able to expose
term, commonly translated "born" and used
the baselessness of this charge and in so doing
metaphorically especially in the phrase "begot-
strongly assert that his works actually be-
ten o£ God' (genn6theis ek tow Theou_), or
tokened the arrival of the kingdom o£ God
usually, "born of God" (gege7¢"G"e"os ek tot4
(Luke 11:14-20).
EVERETT F. HARRISON Theot4), the latter with reference to the new
birth (John 3:5, 6), by which a person be-
BEGINNING. The Greek word arc7.G is comes a believer in Christ (John I : 12, 13). In
frequently used in the NT to mark the initial general this new, spiritual birth (begetting) is
ascribed to God (John I : 13; I John 3:9; 4:7;
point from which a series of events began. The
most important of these uses are in reference 5:I, 4,18); in particular, to the Holy Spirit
to creation (Heb.I:10; Matt.19:4; 11 (John 3:5, 6) and, indirectly at least, to
Pet.
3 :4), to the ministry o£ Jesus (Luke 1 :2; John Christ as in I John 2:29, where the words "is
15:27; 16:4, I John 2:24; 3: 11; 11 John 5, 6), born of him" (ex ¢wtow gege#"Gt¢;) refer to
the point of entry into Christian salvation our Lord, of whom vs. 28 speaks. This is in
Thess. 2: 13) and to the commencement o£ agreement with John's emphasis on the Trinity,
e devil's sin (I John 3:8; John 8:44). especially on Christ's deity, and the oneness Of
93 BETRAYAL

the divine essence (John 10:30) and operation Aaronic benediction was given to Aaron and
(John 5: 19). In I John 5: 18 the words: "He his sons as a part of their ministry in God's
who was born o£ God" (RSV; cf. AV, "is be- behalf toward the people, and is epitomized
gotten" are referred by some to the believer as a putting of God's name upon them (Nun.
as parallel with: "He that is born of God" 6:22-27). The NT parallel is the apostolic
(gege7c7tG"e7?os ek tot4 TJ3eow) though the ref- benediction (11 C,or.13:14), which reflects
erence to Christ is preferable. The aorist ge7¢- the progress of revelation by its emphasis on
#Gthejs describes the action as once for all ac- the Trinity. Other passages, notably Eph.
complished, while the perfects gege""gt¢t., 3:20-21, Heb.13:20-21, and Jude 24-25, are
gege#"G7me"os designate continuance of the of ten treated as benedictions by members of
completed action, the believer abiding in the the clergy. The question to be settled here is
faith. The metaphorical use of the verb ge#- whether these are true benedic.lions or whether
"¢o-, however, is found also elsewhere in the they are prayers. In the benediction the minis-
NT. When in I Cor. 4:15 Paul writes "dj¢ ter acts on behalf of God in pronouncing a
tow euaggeliou eg6 humas egennesa" CcE. blessing upon the congregatiol., whereas in a
Philem. 10), he is speaking of the new, spirit- prayer he is the representative of the people,
ual birth by God. voicing a supplication to God on their behalf.
See also REGENERATloN. It appears that in the strict application of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY term there is only one benediction in the OT
Arndt; MM; Vincent; Meyer, First Epistle of Jo7®7i, pp. and one in the NT. Even more sharply is the
437-625.
benediction to be distinguished from the salu-
J. THEOI)ORE MUELLER
tation, which is a common feature of the open-
BHLIAL. See ANTlcHRlsT. ing portion of the NT epistles (e.g., Gal. 1 : 3).
BELIEF. See FAITII. Such salutations are the counterpart of the
greetings found in the everyday letters of the
BELOVED. The term czgapGtos occurs over hellenistic period, but they inject a spiritual
sixty times in the NT. In the Synoptic Cos- flavor into the greeting which lifts it above the
pels it is six times applied to Christ as God's commonplace. It hardly need be said that the
beloved Son, as also in 11 Peter 1 : 17. In each practice of inventing benedictions which are
case the declaration was made by the voice not f rained in the language of Scripture is of
from heaven in connection with Jesus' baptism doubtful propriety.
or transfiguration /q.v.). Elsewhere - it is not In Roman Catholic theor}' the virtue of the
found in John's Gospel - the adjective is ap- benediction which is regarded as quasi-automa-
plied to Christians. Occurring frequently in tic in its efficacy, increases with the rank of the
the plural in direct address, it might be trams- one who pronounces it. "The higher the bier-
lated "dear friends" (Arndt, p. 6). Eight times archical position of him who bestows the bless-
in his epistles John addresses his readers as ing, the more powerful it is" (Achelis). It is
"beloved." The same usage is I)rominent in
common practice to "bless" objects also, giving
11 Peter (5 times) and Jude (3 times). In them either a temporary or a permanent char-
Paul's epistles it is frequently translated "dear- acter of holiness. In modern times Romanism
ly beloved" (AV). D. M. Pratt writes: "The has introduced the Benediction of the Blessed
beauty, unity, endearment of this love is his-
Sacrament. The priest having taken the Host
torically unique, being peculiarly Christian" and placed it in the monstrance, then in-
(ISBE, I, p. 432). censes the Blessed Sacrament. After appro-
In the OT the word "beloved" is found in
priate singing and prayer, the priest makes the
the Song of Solomon twenty-six times out of
sign of the cross with the monstrance (still
a total of forty-two. But in the NT it is used containing the Host) over the people. This
only of divine and Christian love (q.v.). benediction is given in silence.
Though agapelos inclines strongly toward BIBLIOGRAPHY
"only beloved" (Arndt, p. 6), it is probably
I. C. Achelis in SHIRK; Bluiit; W. H. Dolbeei., I/I.J
not to be taken as synonymous with "only be- Bctic(!ictl.o",. J. W. Kapp in ISBE.

gotten (q.v.). EVERETT F. HARRISoN

RALPH EARLE

BENEDICTION. By this term is meant BETRAYAL. The word p¢r¢d!.do-7"j means

an act or pronouncement of blessing. The to hand over or give up, as in reference to the
BIBLE 94

arrest of Jesus and his deliverance to Jewish canonical writings as we now have them. The
and Roman authorities. expression t¢ Z7jz7Zjfl passed into the vocabulary
The betra}'al of Jesus plays a large part in of the western church and in the thirteenth
the Gospel narratives. Jesus predicts it (Matt. century, by what Westcott calls a "happy
17:22; Mark 9:31; Luke 9:44; Matt. 20:19; solecism" CThe Bible in the Church, p. 5),
Mal.k 10:33; Luke 18:32). Jesus knows the neuter plural came to be regarded as a
Judas' character (John 6:46, 70-71). Judas
feminine singular, and in this form the term
conspires with the authorities (Matt. 26:14- passed into the languages of modern Europe.
16; Mark 14:10-11; Luke 22:3-6). Jesus This significant change (from pl. to sing.) re-
shows that he knows one disciple will betray f lected the growing conception of the Bible
him (Matt. 26:21-25; Mark 14:18-21; Luke as one utterance of God rather than a multi-
22:21-23). In the experience itself Jesus' poise tude of voices s|)eaking for him.
and act of mercy overshadows the treachery The process by which the various books in
(Matt. 26:47-56; Mark 14:43-52; Luke 22:47- the Bible were brought together and their
53; John 18:1-11). value as sacred Scripture recognized is referred
Jcsus' being given over to Pilate is much to as the history of the canon. Contrary to pre-
more strongly emphasized than his deliverance vailing critical opinion, there existed, prior to
to Jewish authorities. It is Pilate who hands the Exile, a large body of sacred literature.
him over to death. Moses wrote "all the words of the Lord" in
The betrayal has great theological signifi- the "book of the covenant" (Ex. 21 -23; 24:4,
cance. There is the guilt of the betrayer (John 7). Joshua's farewell address was written "in
19:11); his remorse (Matt. 27:2-3); his des` the book of the law of God" (Josh. 24:26).
tiny (Acts 1:25), in spite of all his privileges Samuel s|)oke concerning the manner of the
and God's action towards him (John 15:16; kingdom and "wrote it in a book" (I Sam.
6:70; Acts I: 17; Matt. 26:24-25). How clear- 10:25). "Thus saith the Lord" was the com-
1}' this shows the sinfulness of the human mon preface to the utterances of the prophets.
heart. This revelatory literature, although not
A. BERKEI.EY MICKELSEN reaching a fixed form until late in the second
century, (B.c.) was nevertheless regarded from
BIBLE. The English word Bible is derived the very f irst as the revealed will of God and
from the Greek bjz7lio7¢, "roll" or "book." therefore binding u|)on the people. The "ora-
(While bjz7lfo7c is really a diminutive o£ Z7jz7Zos, cles of God" were held in highest esteem, and
it has lost this sense in the NT. See Rev. 10:2 this attitude towards the Scriptures was quite
where Z7iz7lczrjc{i.o7c is used for a "little scroll.") naturall}- carried over into the early church.
More exactly, a Z7;Z7Z;o7? was a roll of papyrus Few will deny that Jesus regarded the OT as
or byblus - a reedlike plant whose inner bark an inspired record o£ God's self-revelation in
was dried and f ashioned into a writing rna- history. He repeatedly appealed to the Scrip-
lerial widely used in the ancient world. tures as authoritative (Matt. 19:4; 22:29).
The word Bible as we use it today, how- The earl}T church maintained this same atti-
ever, has a far more significant connotation tude towards the OT, but alongside of it they
than the Greek 47jJ7Zjo7t. While Z7;Z7Zjo74 was began to place the words of the Lord. While
somewhat neutral - it could be used to desig- the OT canon had been formally closed, the
nate books of magic (Acts 19: 19) or a bill of coming of Christ had, in a sense, opened it
divorcement (Mark 10:4) as well as sacred again. God was once again speaking. Since the
books - the wold Bible refers to f 7ie Boo)€ par cross was the central redemptive act of God
excezze7tce, the recognized record of divine in history, the NT became a logical necessity.
revelation. Thus the voic`e of the apostles, and later their
Although this meaning is ecclesiastical in writings, were accepted as the divine com-
origin, its roots go back into the OT. In Dan. mentary on the Christ event.
9:2 (LXX) tc} Z7iz?Zjc! refers to the prophetic Viewed as a historical process, the forma-
writings. In the Prologue to Sirach it refers tion of the NT canon occupied some 350
generally to the OT Scriptures. This usage years. In the first century the various books
passed into the Christian church (11 Clem. were written and began to be circulated
14:2) and about the turn of the fifth century through the churches. The rise of heresy in
was extended to include the entire body o£ the second century - especially in the form of
95 BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

Gnosticism with its outstanding si]okesman, exegesis and exposition; and, quite aitart from
Marcion - was a powerful impulse towards inter|)retation, the positive light shed on so
the formation of a definite canon. A sifting man}7 important biblical words and phrases is
process began in which valid Scripture distin- a great cind lasting gain to every form of bibli-
guished itself from Christian hterature in gen- cal theology.
eral on the basis of such criteria as apostolic Hand in hand with this I)atient, positive
authorship, reception by the churches, and work there is the criticism and rejection of the
consistency of doctrine with what the church liberal misunderstanding of the Bible, and es-
already possessed. The canon was ultimately pecially the NT, which came to a head in the
certified at the Council of Carthage (397). writings o£ Weiss and especially Schweitzer.
The claim of the Bible to divine origin is No one c£`n take seriously the extreme sugges-
amply justified by its historical influence. Its tions of the latter, but the startling form in
MSS are numbered in the thousands. The NT which he put his criticism revealed the utter
had barely been put together before we find futility of pretending that the liberal Jesus was
translations in Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian. really the historical Jesus of the NT. Exr>osi-
Today there is not a language in the civilized tion was thus redirected to its true task of re-
world that does not have the word of God. No discovering, so far as possible, what Jesus and
other book has been so carefully studied or the ai)ostles, and, indeed, the OT writers,
had so much written on it. Its spiritual in- retill}r did say rather than what we think they
fluence cannot be estimated. It is pre-eminent- said or ought to have said.
ly t7?e Book - God's word in man's language. To do this, however, it has been seen that
BIBLIOGRAPHY we must interpret the detailed sayings and
ISBE; F. F. BIuce, T1.e Books ancl the Parchmeuts; books of the Bible in terms of their own back-
HE+tE; HDB; `Westcot\, ThcJ B'ible in tl.e C1.urcl..
ground and presupi)ositions rather than those
ROBERT H. MoUNCE
drawn from other sources. This is the I)oint
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY. Although it is I)articularly made by Hosk}7ns and Davey in
their pregnant bock, The Riddle of the New
often used today in a more specialized sense,
Test¢7#e7tt, and it has been followed up by
the phrase "biblical theology" is one which
such scholars as William Manson and Mat-
has more general meanings that call for notice.
thew Black in I)enetrating studies. But it has
In the first instance, its primary reference
led to a new sense of the interrelationship of
should obviously be to the actual theology of
the Testaments, and of the books within
the Old and New Testaments in the form
them, so that the il.nalytical studies of the past
of direct exposition. More generally, it may be
century are yielding to a richer synthetic ap-
said that any theology which draws its rna-
terials from the .Bible and attempts to be faith- proach as stated and attempted, for example,
bv A. N4. Hunter.
ful to the biblical norm is a biblical theology.
To be a biblical theologian one does not have The movement of exegetical and expository
to take part in a particular movement which study is an essential and basic part of the new
rna)' adopt this title. Biblical Theology. But it is accompanied by a
At the same time, we have to recognize that theological reorientation directly linked in its
there is, in modern theology, a distinctive origins and development with the work of Karl
trend which, while it does not consist exclu- Barth. Barth, of course, makes extensive use
sively in exposition nor have any formal con- of more directly biblical study, but he does so
stitution as a school nor rejec`t all others as as a dogmatic theologian. In place of the older
non-biblical, is usually self-described as the and fundamentally mistaken liberalism, he at-
Biblical Theology. It is this trend or movement tempts a reconstruction of theology on gen-
which calls for particular evaluation. uinel}' biblicfil foundations both of content and
Its origins are diverse. One of the most im- method. And while the different theologians
who have given themselves to pursue the new-
portant contributory factors has been the de-
veloping concentration upon lexical studies, er Biblic;il Theology are far from agreed in
from experimental beginnings early in the cen- their general or detailed conclusions, it may
tury to the flood of detailed investigation be said that they share with Barth this gen-
which is producing such valuable works as eral a|]proach and I)urpose.
Kittel's great Theological Dictionai-y of the A word must be said about the genuine
New Test¢7#e7¢t. This is really a form of direct gains which have accrued to all biblical and
 96
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY
many of the expositions indicate plainly that
theological work in and through this general
there is an evasion at this point of the Bible's
movement. We have referred already to the
own claim for itself.
importanc`e o£ lexical study, and this need not
Again, there is confusion concerning the
be labored. But all future exposition and the-
historical reliability of the Bible. It may be
ology must surely take into account the new
agreed that the Bible does not profess to write
understanding which has come through these
the kind of history attempted by some nine-
detailed investigations.
teenth century historians and that much of
Again, it is an obvious gain to have exposed
its material is poetical, etc. But too many
the non~biblical assumptions which underlie
writers of the new trend persist in judging the
so much of our reading of the Bible. To be
Bible by a non-biblical norm, and in varying
really biblical in our theology, we must take
degrees there is a questioning Of the historicity
the Bible as it really is. We must accept it on
ot` that which the Bible plainly intends to be
its own terms. We must see and study and
regarded as real fact.
state things on its own basis and from its own
Third, there is a notable hesitation to ac-
standpoint. We must not force it into an alien
cept what is obviously the biblical view on a
philosophical scheme. We must be genuinely
historical, adopting its own approach and shap- question like miracles. The degree to which
this is the case differs very widely; but it
ing our theology in accordance with the pat-
usually emerges in some way. It is obviously
tern which it imposes.
linked with the two preceding points, especial-
A further gain is the recapture of a sense ly the latter. We cannot pursue genuinely
of the unity of the Bible for all the diversity biblical theology unless we really accept, e.g.,
which it clearly displays. This sense is more the NT view that Christ was born of a vir-
fully pl.esent in some re|)resentatives of the
gin and that his tomb was empty. It is no good
new trend than others. The.quest of a Pauline arranging spheres of inf luence between a
as opposed to a Johannine or Synoptic theology scientific world o£ fact and a theological world
still has its attractions. But the pressul.e of the of the incarnation and the resurrection. If the
Bible itself is undoubtedly towards unity, and Word was made flesh, and if resurrecticm
in the best ex|)onents o£ Biblical Theology means the resurrection of the body, the saving
there is little or no sense of handling divergent work o£ God is a work in history. At this point,
traditions. therefore, we have to choose between a rna-
A final gain, for we cannot speak of in- terialistic and a biblical understanding. The
dividual insights, is the rediscovery of the reluctance to make this choice is one Of the
relevance and power of great biblical theologies most discouraging features in so many who
of the past such as those of the Fathers and profess this way, and even when the camel is
the Reformers. Patristic and Reformation swallowed there seems to be a constant and
studies have contributed to the whole move- rather futile straining at gnats.
ment, but they have been able to do so only True biblical theology cannot be mere de-
because they themselves have been understood scrii)tion. Nor can it go hand in hand with a
in a way which was hardly possible in the very different outlook on other things. It calls
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In other t.or uncompromising commitment in those who
words, we have entered a new era of genuine
pursue it, both in the objective exegesis Of
theology, when there can be a proper evalua- Scripture in terms of itself and in the truly
tion and use of our whole theological heritage. wholehearted readiness to accept its teaching.
The movement o£ Biblical Theology is to
Failure in either or both of these respects ex-
be welcomed for these positive achievements.
plains why so much Of what is called Biblical
But there are certain less satisfactory features
Theology stands under the continual threat
in the modem trend which call for caution and of a desperate reversion such as that seen in
correction if its true aim is to be achieved. The Bultmann and his associates and disciples.
more general of these may be briefly listed.
Is there a way forward to a genuinely bibli-
In the first place, i[ may be questioned
cal theology which can revitalize our thinking
whether the movement has attained a genuine-
and action? It seems to lie in the following
ly biblical view on the question of biblical in-
direction. All theologians must come together
spiration. It is one thing to break free £Iom
in the continuance and intensif ication of
traditional formulations, or to emphasize as-
exegetical work. All must combine in the in-
pects which may have been neglected, but
97 BLASPHEMY

vestigation of the Bible and its teaching as The Council of Trent recognized the former
they are actually before us. All must combine but declared that Matt. 18: 18 applied only to
in studies in historical theology. All must be bishops and priests.
prepared for the sif ting and correction of their BIBLIOGRAPHY
SBK, I, 738 ff.; J. K. Mozley in HERE.
I)reconce|)tions in method, approach, outlook,
subject matter, and formulation by what is HERMAN C. WAET]EN
actually there in Scripture. All must be ready BIRTH OF CHRIST. See ADVENT oF
to accept the teaching which is given as it is
CHRIST.
actually given, alien and difficult though it
may sometimes appear. BISHOP. "Bishop" is our translation of the
There is much to learn from the modern Greek epjskopos, which means overseer. It was
movement as a contribution in this sphere. generally used of secular officials, though one
And the modern movement itself has much exami)le at least is known of' its ai]plication to
to learn. But on the common focus of the religious functionaries. In the NT the bishop
Bible, and in the common pursuit of a the- seems to be identical with the presbyter. Thus
ology which is genuinel}7 biblical, it is not jn Acts 20:17 Paul summons the presb}rters
im|)ossible that, with humble and patient dis- of Ephesus; but, when they come, he calls
cussion and interaction, the true end may be them bishops (vs. 28). Again, in Phil.I:I
attained. bishops and deacons only are mentioned. Pres-
Gj=or.I.REV W. BROMILEy byters, forming as they did the staple of the
local ministry, could not have been itassed
BINDING AND LOOSING. These are over in an official salutation, so they must be
technical terms for the exercise of disciplinary identical with the bisho|)s. This is also the in-
authority bestowed by Christ in conjunction ference from I Tim. 3, where the qualifica-
with the keys of the kingdom, first to Peter in tions of the deacon are given immediately after
Matt.16: 19, then to all the disciples in 18 : 18. those for the bishop. So with Titus 1:5-7.
This does not mean that they are empowered It is likely that the Christian I)resbyter was
to hand down decisions in matters of conduct; I)atterned on the synagogue model. Any ten
that is, in prohibiting or permitting specific Jewish men could form a synagogue, and the
duties or moral functions. first Christian assemblies were simply Chris-
What is im|)lied is the authority to exclude tian s}'nagogues (see James 2:2, marg.), i`om-
from, as well as to reinstate in, the community |)lcte with I)resbyters. The functions of over-
of believers. Although the e(iuivalent Greek sight discharged by these men were sui`h that
verbs czeo- and lyo- do not bear this technical they might. well bc designated "bishops" in
sense in themselves, they are translations from Greek. In course of time one presbyter in each
the Aramaic 'dsftl. and g€r6', which rei)resent church tended to becolne the leader, and "bish-
the Jewish formula for excommunication and op" was restricted to him. The process was
reinstatement. It is to be noted, however, that hcistened by the need for a strong, centralized
binding and loosing in Judaism also mean "to church organization to deal with heresies and
prohibit" and "to I)crmit" in matters of casuis- 1)ersecutions. The bishop became the unchal-
try. Ienged he£`d of the ecc`lesiastical unit. He was
Related to the Matthean sense of binding the official sitokesman for his church. He was
and loosing is John 20:23. Exclusion from the the i]astor of the faithful. He was the guardian
community is always due to some offense and, of the pure faith. Particular functions, notably
therefore, presui)poses the retaining of sins; ordination, could be carried out only by him.
while readmission includes the forgiveness of In the Catholic understanding of the church
sins. the bishop became the key f igure, as the re-
This understanding of binding and loosing positor}r of all ordaining power. The evangeli-
is found among the Church Fathers: Tertul- cal sees him rather as the chief pastor of the
lian (De P14cZ. 21), Cyprian (73, 7 ad Jt+b.), dioi`ese, responsible, in conjunction with the
Origen (Co7#. j7¢ Mf., tom. XII). In the other ministers, for the spiritual welfare of the
Reformation, Luther likewise interpreted this flock.
LEON MORRIS
power as (I) that of retaining and remitting
sins, and (2) granted to all Christians to be BLASPHEMY. To speak evil of someone.
exercised in preaching and private absolution. The Greek Z7hasp7.e7"eo- is usually translated
BLASPHEMY 98

"blaspheme," but also ``defame," "rail on," the unpardonable sin of the Pharisees is as-
"s|)eak evil of," etc. Five Hebrew roots are sociated with their charging that Christ was
translated "blaspheme": #ji4z¢fy, "curse," used the agent o£ Satan. This evidently gives the
only in Lev. 24: 11-16; g6¢Gp, ``Ievile;" ¢di-a_p, key to the nature of blasphemy against the
"reproach;" "6'¢S, "contemn, ;pun;" and Z76rob, Holy Spirit. It was, in this case, a perverse
which means either "bless" or, in sarcastic or declaration that Christ's deeds were of the
overdone blessing, "curse" (so also in other devil when they could clearly be seen to be of
Semitic languages). This latter word is used in God. For advantage, the Pharisees stifled con-
the Naboth incident (I Kings 21 : 10-13). science and denied evidence in attacking Jesus.
The law of blasphemy of Lev. 24:11-16 They had sinned against light in the most de-
termined way. The similarity to Nun.15:30
prescribed deaththeforname
"cursed" (qdw) the ofman
the in Israel
Lord who
or "blas- is usually pointed out. The soul that sins in
ignorance is charged to bring a sin offering,
phemed" /%jq¢g). It is not clear that this is a
direct interpretation of the third command- but the soul that sins presumptuously (literal-
ment. The commandment is taken by many to ly, with a high hand) is said to "reproach"
refer, principally at least, to non-fulfilment o£ (gddgp) the Lord and shall be cut off . Sinning
seriou-sly against clear knowledge of the truth
proper oaths taken in God's name. It is prot>-
ablv true that the death penalty obtained, not is evidently blasphemy against the Holy S|)irit
for' thoughtless utterance of the divine name (notice here the equivalence of God and the
as in modern swearing (evil though that prac- Holy Spirit), and this s;n, by its nature, makes
tice may be), but for a deliberate cursing o£ forgiveness impossible, for the only possible
God involving a denial of his deity and at- light is deliberately shut out. The thought of
tributes. an unpardonable sin is not uncommon in the
It should be remembered that Israel, being NT (see I John 5:16; 11 Tim. 3:8; Jude 8;
a theocracy, normally executed civil penalties Heb. 6:4-8 and 10:26-31).
for religious offenses. In the Christian era The question is much discussed - whether
where separation of church and state obtains, the Hebrews 6 passage allows that Christians
blasphemy against God is as grave an offense may thus blaspheme the Holy Ghost. It should
as ever, but the punishment to be given by be observed in any event that this passage al-
the church is only spiritual censure. Ultimate lows of no repetition of the experience. Once
judgment is in the hands o£ God. that sin is done, there is no more hope. It
The Jews later perverted the laws against therefore does not refer to any ups and clowns
blasphemy and swearing and adopted the idea of Christian experience. Much less would it
thcit the name of God was too sacred to I)ro- fillow the oscillation between a state of grace
nounce. Instead of pronouncing the name of and of mortal sin which Roman Catholics al-
Jehovah (whose correct pronunciation for this lege. Those who hold to the security of the
reason is now uncertain) they substituted the believer urge that Heb. 6:9 indicates that the
word '6d67¢, "Master." In the NT, this avoid- preceding verses are onl}r warnings for Chris-
ance of the name of deit}7 among Jews is ob~ tians, not actual experiences. Others say that
served (note Mark 14:61-62 and probably the verse 5 refers only to those of external pro-
phrase "kingdom of heaven" used in Matthew fession. Similarly, on Heb. 10:26, Stibbs in
instead of kingdom of God). This tendency is New Biz7Ze Co"iwe73tory, IVCF, Chicago,
found in the Dead Sea literature. 1955, j# loco, suggests that the reference is to
In the NT the English word blaspheme is an hypothetical case. Tender consciences
used mainly concerning offenses against the should be encouraged on this subject. It is
Deit\7. Christ was repeatedly charged with often said that those who worry about the un-
pardonable sin have not committed it. In
E]eaf:;,h::]a7tbh};sthw°asset*£rne!:C::?nF];Snc]ha±£smtsrfta: Jesus' day, it was not the deep sinners of the
before the Sanhedrin (Mark 14:64). The street who were unforgivable. It was rather
charge had been made often before (Mark the apostate clerics who made unbelief their
2:7; John 10:33).
boast (John 7:48).
The most discussed passage is the teaching BIBLIOGRAPHY
on the unpardonable sin (Matt. 12:24-32; D. W. Amran in JewE"a; Mst; J. W. Melody in CE;
Mark 3:22-30; Luke 11:15-20; 12:10). Ob- J. Massie in HDB.
R. LAIRD HARRls
serve that, in Matthew and especially in Mark,
99 BLOOD

BLESS, BLESSED, BLESSING. good designated (Gen. 27:12, 35, 36; 11

I. BLEss. The verbs so translated in the OT Chron. 5:I; James 3:10; Gen. 33:11; I Sam.
and the NT respectively are Z76rczk and ew!ogeo-. 25:27; 11 Cor. 9:5).
Both have the meaning to pron6unce blessed, WILLIAM J. CAMERON
but the primary meaning of the former is to
convey a gift by a potent utterance (Gen. BLOOD. Blood is used in both Old and
1:22, 28). When man is said to bless God, New Testaments as the designation of the red
the reference is to praise and thanksgiving, fluid that flows in the veins of men and ani-
such blessing being always preceded by some mals. It ,1lso has metaphorical uses, as when
realization of the divine blessing which the moon is said to be "turned . . . into blood"
prompts it (Ps. 145:1-2; Nch. 9:5; Luke (Joel 2:31). The most important of these is
I :64, RV; 24:53). In blessing man, God be- to denote death b}' violence, a use which is
stows good, at the time or later. It takes various undoubted. In recent times the idea has grown
forms, the direction of the blessing being up that blood is also used to denote life re-
sometimes indicated by a s}Tnon}7m (Gen. leased from the flesh. The blood of sacrifice is
12:2; Nun. 6:23; Ps. 28:9). It includes both then thought to denote life set free to be
temporal and spiritual well-being in the OT offered to God. The sacrifice of Christ on this
view was essentiall}- that of life, of a life lived
(Gen. 26: 12-13; I Chron. 4:10), but is more
in obedience to his Father. His death would
particularly associated with spiritual benefit in
the NT (Acts 3:26; E|)h.I:3; Gal. 3:8-9). accordingly not be the essence of the sacrifice,
In some passages, where the sense of the but no more than the supreme example of it.
word is either to exi)rcss a wish or to make a Obviousl)7 the evidence must be examined
with care.
prophetic utterance, men are said to bless their
fellows (Gen. 24:60; 27:4; 48: 15). In a nun- I. The OT employs the word c]¢t" 362 times.
ber of instances, such as the blessing of bread, Of these, 203 refer to death with violence and
th..nksgi`'ing is implied (Mark 6:41; 8:7; 103 to the blood of sicrifices. There are seven
1\'Iatt. 26:26; I Cor. 14: 16). passages connecting lif e and blood, with
11. BLEssED. 86rt;7_{ usually applies to God which, pei.haps, we should link seventeen
in the OT (Gen. 9:26; 24:27; I Sam. 25:32). which refer to eating meat with blood. The re-
Sometimes it describes men as blessed of God maining thirt}'-two e,\-amples re|)resent mis`L`cl-
lancous uses not important for our I)resent I)ur-
(Gen. 24: 13; 26:29; I Sam.15 : 13). Et{ZogGtos
is used only o£ God and Christ in the NT Pose.
(Luke I:68; 11 Cor.I:2; Eph.1:3). On the Statistically the word is very closely linked
other hand, 'c}5ert; and 773¢ha7ios alwa}'s refer with death (just as in our language). The
to men, or to a state. The former indicates strength of the case for linking life with blood
earthly blessing (I Kings 10:18), a state in is Lev.17:11 and related passages: "For the
which blessing is possessed (Isa. 56:2) and is life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have
the result of God's gracious favor (Ps. 32: I, 2; given it to )You upon the altar to make atone-
65:4; 94:12; 112:1). With few e,xceptions, ment for \'our souls: for it is the blood that
the word stands for si)iritual blessing in the maketh at6nement by reason of the life." Simi-
NT. In addition to the eight bcatitudcs (Matt. larl}7 Gen. 9:4 ,ind Deut. 12:23 both tell us
5 :3-10), the frequent occurrence of single sa}'- that "the blood is the life."
ings in this form shows the prominence of the These passages are held to indicate that the
thought of blessedness in the teaching of Jesus Hebrews thought o£ life as somehow resident
(Matt. 11:6; 13:16; 16..17; Luke 11:28; in the blood, so that, when an animal's blood
12:37: John 13:17, RV; 20:29). was shed, its life remained in the blood. The
Ill. BLEssmTG. BP7'ci7_cci is opposed to the ccrcmonial manii)ulation of blood in the sacri-
divine curse (Deut. 23:5; 28:2; 33:23). fices is th(`n held to indicate that a I)ure life
Sometimes it represents the good ensured by is being offered to God. It is unfortunate for
God's favor (Gen. 28:4; 45:25; Ex. 32:29). the animill that this process involves death,
Ew!ogjcz, the parallel term in the NT, generally but there is no other way for men to get the
means saving blessing (Eph.1:3; I Pet. 3:9). life in a form in which it may be I)resented to
Two exceptions occur in Hebrews (Heb. 6:7; God. (Some who hold this theory differ in
12:17). Both words ma}T also express the that the}7 think the death is not unimportant,
word of blessing pronounced b}' men or the as indicating the penal consequences of sin,
BOASTING loo

but they stress that the really significant thing miscellaneous uses, and there are the im-
is, not the death, but the presentation of life.) portant passages referring to the blood Of
No evidence seems to be adduced in favor Christ.
of this view. It is held to be self-evident from It is impossible to understand some Of these
passages like those cited and the widespread passages as pointing to life. Thus Col.1:20
reverence among primitive peoples for blood. refers to "the blood of his cross." Now a cress
The latter may be discounted, for the men of has no place in the sacrificial system, so this
the OT were far from being primitive savages. can only point to violent death. Again, Ron.
With respect to the f ormer, the scriptural pas- 5:9 speaks Of being ``justified by his blood"
sages adduced are capable Of other explana- and "saved from the wrath of God through
tions than that offered. There is a close con- him," which statements are parallel to "recon-
nection between life and blood: when the ciled to God through the death of his Son"
blood is shed, the life is ended. The ceremonial and ``saved by his life" in verse 10. There are
manipulation Of the blood may well mean no several references to death in the immediate
more than the ritual presentation of the evi- context, and this seems to be the force Of the
dence that a death has taken place in obedi- term "blood" also. Other passages which indi-
ence to the command of the Lord. cate clearly the death o£ Christ are John 6:53
In favor of the view that blood points us to ff. (note the separation of flesh and blood);
Acts 5:28; Eph. 2:13; I John 5:6; Rev.1:5;
death is the statistical evidence. The term in
an overwhelming majority of cases signifies 19:13. The passages. `i`Jhere men are said to
death. The passages which link it with life be redeemed by the blood of Christ (Acts
are exceptional. There is also the universal OT 20:28; Eph.1:7, etc.) possibly point ill the
view that sin is serious and invites the most same direction.
serious punishment. This is crystallized in the There are some passages where Christ's
dictum: "The soul that sinneth, it shall die" blood is mentioned in such a way as to show
(Ezek.18:20). The shedding of blood in the that a reference to the sacrifices is intended
sacrifices is most naturally understood as be- (e.g., Ron. 3:25 with its reference to 72jhas-
ing connected with this penalty. Indeed, most fgrjo7i, and I Pet. 1:2 where "sprinkling of
of the accounts of the sacrifices include some the blood" points to sacrificial ritual). But
mention of the death of the victim while they none of these passages disturbs our conclusion
say nothing about its life. Again, to speak of from the OT that the mention of blood in sac-
the life as continuing to exist af ter the slaying rifice is to draw attention to the infliction of
of the animal is to overlook the strong Hebrew death, and some reinforce it. Thus Heb. 9: 14
connection of life with the body (so much so f . refers to the sacrificial blood clearly enough,
that man's life after death is linked with the but there is explicit mention of ``death" as
resurrection of the body, not the continuing having taken place. So in Heb. 12:24 the
life Of an immortal soul). Where atonement is blood Of Jesus is contrasted with that of Abel.
not linked with blood it is never brought about In each case death is plainly meant.
by anything symbolic o£ life, though it may The witness of Scripture then is clear. Onfy
be brought about by death, as when Phinehas by taking isolated passages, and in their in-
slew Zimri and Cozbi (Nun. 25: 13) or when terpretation insisting upon one of the possi-
David delivered seven descendants o£ Saul to bilities as the only meaning can a case be
be hanged (11 Sam. 21 :3 f£.) made out for thinking of blood as pointing to
The OT evidence clearly points to blood as life. When the evidence is surveyed as a
indicating the infliction of death in the sacri- whole, there can be no reasonable doubt.
fices as elsewhere. Blood points not to life set free, but to life
11. The NT uses h¢i"c} ninety-eight times given up in death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
in all. As in the case of the OT, the largest
group is that indicating violent death (quite
apart from references to the blood of Christ),
there being twenty-five examples of this (e.g., ¥;f¥:;:ae;,;s;a];;;:T;;a;€e:h::E,,%:i;#o¥h:¥&rg:£;e:,:{jb§y&;g£:gr:.
Acts 22:20). On twelve occasions there are LEON MORRIS
references to the blood of animal sacrifices,
and, if our conclusions from the OT are valid, BOASTING. The Bible regards boasting as
these will point to death. There are several misplaced confidence in power, success, pos-
101 BODY

sessions (Jer. 9:23; Ps. 52:1; 49:7; Deut. 12: 1) may well mean present your selves (R.
8: 11-18), which even human wisdom sees as Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament,
false (I Kings 20:11), but which, above all, S. C. M. Press, London, 1952, pp. 194-95).
self-confidently rejects God's revealed provi- 11. RELIGlous CoNCEPTloT`Ts. In the OT,
dence (James 4:15,16), the revealed knowl- I)hysical and psychological functions are close-
edge of him (Jer. 9:24) ancl trust in his grace ly associated. Man is a psycho-physical or-
alone (Ps.118:8 £.; I Cor.I:31). It strongly ganism. Yahweh is the giver of life, of which
condemns all boasting in spiritual privilege, man |tartakes.
either in the calling of Israel (Deut. 7:7, 8; The rabbis taught that the body, being
9:4) or under the grace of God in Christ formed of dust, is frail and mortal, having life
(Titus 3:5; Eph. 2:9; I Cor.1:26-29), and becfluse the spirit of life was breathed into it;
in the church (Ron. I I : 18-20; I Cor. 4:6, 7). that man is created of two originally uncom-
Yet the Hebrew terms for boasting (hdJ¢J, bined elements - soul, coming from the
p6'¢r) are cognate with those for praise o£ higher world, and body, from the lower; that
God, while the Greek (&¢"c7tc7o7"¢i and deriva- the body is not impure, but that it is the soul's
tives) has both senses. The Christian's glory necessary agent, the one best suited to man's
is in the cross (Gal. 6:14) and its fruits in needs; that the body is the seat of the evil
experience (Ron. 5: 1-3). So in 11 Corinthians imagination (Gen. 6:5); and that the body
Paul "glories" in Christian generosity (9:2, deca}'s but will rise again, the resurrection
3), in spiritual authority (10:8) and, because body being an exact reproduction of the body
of the special circumstances, in his apostolic of this I)resent life (Emil G. Hirsch, /ewE7ic.,
calling and labors (11:5,16-30) and special Ill, pp. 283-84).
experiences (12:1-10), ?yet he is always con- Jesus taught that the body is Of secondary
scious that such boasting is dangerous (10: 13, importance in the life of man (Matt. 6:25-
15; 12:11). 34), yet he healed men's bodies and commis-
See also PRII)E. sioned his disciples to heal (Matt. 10:8).
GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT Paul held lowly views of the body. He
called it "the body of our humiliation" (Phil.
BODY. I. GENERAL USES. In the OT there 3:21) and urged discipline over the body (I
is no single term to denote the human body. Cor. 9:27; Ron. 8:13); yet he emphasized
``Body" in the English versions represents dif- that "the body is . . . for the Lord" (I Cor.
ferent Hebrew words meaning, variously, belly 6:13; cf. Ron.12:1; I Thess. 5:23); and he
or womb, back, bone, thigh, flesh, soul, etc.looked for the transformation of the body at
The most common Hebrew word is Z7ds6r, the resurrection (I Cor.15:23-54).
"flesh," which.in the LXX is generally trans-
In Heb. 10, it is said that, in his incarnate
lated s¢r#, "flesh," but sometimes so-"cz, "body." body, Christ fulfilled the will of God, and
In the NT, "body" is the translation of the that, through the offering up of his body on
single word so-ova. (Pfo-t"a in Matt. 24:28, behalf of men, believers are cleansed in their
Mark 6:29, and Rev.11:8, 9 means a dead own heart, conscience, and body.
body, a carcase). So-1?ca is used variously: of Brunner points out that jn Christian doc-
the human body; of the bodies of animals trine there is no special theology of the bod)J.
(James 3:3; Heb.13:11); of plants and the He sums up Christian teaching thus: "Body
heavenly luminaries (I Cor. 15:35-44); in and mind belong equally to the nature of
the plural, of slaves (Rev.18:13) -a com- man, neither is to be deduced from the other,
mon usage at that period (MM, p. 621); and the spirit is `from above' and the body `from
Of the church as the body of Christ. below' - and, this is the most imi)ortant, they
In some biblical passages "body" is used in are both destined f or each othe]., and in a
contradistinction to the soul or spirit (e.g., definite way adai)ted to one another .... The
Mic. 6:7; Matt. 10:28). In others the body body as well as the mind is God's good crea-
is the instrument or vehicle of the life of the tion, although at the same time the body is
soul (Deut.12:23; Isa. 53: 12; II.Cor. 5: 10). that which is intended to distinguish the be~
Sometimes "body" is used to denote man as a ing of the creature from the Being of the
person, the whole man: thus "Christ shall be Creator, unto all eternity" (Emil Brunner,
magnified in my body" (Phil. I:20) means Man in Re`iolt: A Christian Anthropology,
"in me''; and "Present your bodies" (Ron.
Lutterworth Press, London, 1939, pp. 373-75).
BODY OF CHRIST 102

Grimm, Greefe-E7.gljsh Lexicott; L. S. Thornton, Th6

Ill. THE CIIURCH AS THE BOI)Y OF CHRIST.
£f#em°B„od;£f:£j%htntyset,,P°££yT°£ec#;:;o,i;3a;roTsht:;Tt:a:
The most prominent theological use of the
by K. E. Kirk.
NT term so-t"c} is in relation to the doctrine Of
OWEN R. BRANI)ON
the church. The church is called "the body o£
Christ" (Ron.12:5; I Col.10: 16,17; 12: 12- BODY OF CHRIST. See BODY, Ill.
27; :Eph.I:23; 2:16; 4:4,12,16; 5:23, 30;
Col.1:18, 24; 2:19; 3:15). Some interpret BOLDNESS. In the OT this word is the
the phrase "body of Christ" literally. On this rendering of the Hebrew word 'o-z, meaning
view, the church is "the extension of the in- strength (Eccl. 8: I), its only occurrence. The
carnation," the "larger incarnation o£ Christ." words bold and boldly also occur once in the
In the main, this is the view of most Catholic AV, being the renderings of Z7jfa¢ (Prov.
writers. To them the term "body of Christ" is 28:1) and be!#ky (Gen. 34:25) respectively.
ore than metaphor. As once Christ mani- The verb Z76f¢h means to trust.
sted himself through a human body (i.e., in In the nit the word is the rendering of
s incarnate life), so now he manifests him- the Greek word pflrr€s;a in nine of its thirty-
1f through his body the church, and especial- one occurrences (Acts 4:13, 29, 31; 11 Cor.
in its sacraments. Most evangelical writers 7:4; Eph. 3: 12; Phil. I :20; I Tim. 3: 13; Heb.
nd to interpret the phrase less strictly, in 10:19., I Jchn 4:17). The word means out-
terms of fellowship. As the human body is spokenness, frankness of speech, openness to
one but with many members, and as it lives the public, or boldness. It is used of boldness
by the co-ordination of all its members, so be- of speech before men usually, but it may also
lievers, as members of Christ, are also mem- be used of the boldness of believers before
bers one of another. On this view, the church God (Eph. 3:12; Heb.10:19; I John 4:17).
is the body o£ Christ analogically but not by This boldness is secured by f aith in Christ.
strict equation. Christ is .manifested to the S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR.

world by the lives and service of his people;

BONDAGE. The physical bondage of the
under his leadership, and with the power of Israelites is vividly brought into focus in two
his indwelling Spirit, they do his work and im|)ortant periods of their history. The slave
thus manifest him to the world (see John 17,
conditions in Egypt with loss of independent
esp. vss. 18 f£.)
action and the forfeiture of normal human
Through the imagery of the term "body" the rights were a constant reminder of the state
dependence of the church on Christ the Head of affairs out of which they had been re-
and the concept of symmetrical growth are deemed (see Ex.I:14; 13:3,14; 20:2; Deut.
readily conveyed. 5:6). The word "bondage" was similarly used
IV. PAUL's UsE oF so-7#a. The word s6t%fl to describe the depressed conditions existing
holds a central place in Pauline theology. Rob- during the Exile (cf. Ezra 9:8; Neh. 5:18).
inson declares that it is the keystone o£ Paul's These periods of bondage supplied a natural
doctrine, knitting together all his great themes. metaphor for Christian development in a
We are delivered from the body of sin, saved spiritual sense. Those under the law are de-
through the body o£ Christ on the cross, incor- scribed as under a "yoke of 'bondage" (Gal.
porated into his body the church, sustained by 5:1, cf. 4:3, 9, 24, 25). Formalism was exer-
his body in the Eucharist; his new life is cising a power over them comparable to that
manifested in our body; we are destined to a which enslaved their Hebrew ancestors. In
resurrection. body like unto his glorified body. Ron. 8:21 the word "bondage" (dot4Iei¢) is
Thus in this term s6„7¢ are represented the used of the subjection of creation to physical
doctrines of man, sin, the incarnation and decay in strong contrast to the liberty of the
atonement, the church, the sacraments, sanc- glory of God's children. Again, the Christian
tification, and eschatology (J. A. T. Robinson, has not received the spirit of bondage, which
The Body: A Study of Pauline Theology, can result only in fear, particularly the fear
S.C.M. Press, London, 1952, p. 9). of death, which sometimes enslaves through-
BIBLIOGRAPHY out life (Hel). 2: 15), t>ut the .Spirit of adop-
tion (Ron. 8: 15). The paradox of bondage to
libertinism is one of the marks of those de-
ceived by the false teachers o£ 11 Pet. 2: 19.
DONALD GUTHRIE
`:-.:`-`..:`-.i::.`--``:i-`:..:.;i.``-----'--.-:-:-.`--.-`-:--`-i:.`:-::,I-:.
103 BREAD

BOW, RAINBOW. The rainbow was Nazareth is defended philologically by W. F.

God's bow, as the lightnings were his arrows Albright, JBL 65 (1946), |>p. 397+401.
(Hab. 3:3-11). In Gen. 9 God's bow set in Se7tiah is used seven times of a bud or
the cloud is the token of his covenant not growth. .The messianic usages are in Isa. 4:2,
again to destroy the earth by a flood. For the Jer. 23:5, 33:15, and Zech. 3:8, 6:12. Ap-
bow as a covenant token see also I Sam. 18:3, parently these N'Iessianic references become
4. When the rainbow real)pears in Ezek. I :28 more clear as revelation progresses. The con-
and Rev. 4:3, if not simply representing "the text of Isa. 4:2 is rather general, not even at-
outskirts Of his ways" (Job 26: 14), it perhaps taching the Branch of the Lord to the Davidic
recalls the mercy of God against his decree of dynasty. It foretells a time of blessing for
judgment. Jerusalem. Jer. 23:5 is more specific. A right-
DONAI.D W. 8. ROBINSoN eous Branch shall be to David. He shall reign
and prosi)er (the same word translated "deal
BOWELS. See CoMPAssloN. wisely" in the messianic passage of Isa. 52: 13).
His name is the Lord our Righteousness. His
BRANCH. The translation of over twenty days shall be the time of final deliverance for
Hebrew and Greek words, the more important Israel. Jer. 33: 15 is very similar. Indeed, if an
old vocalization be ado|)ted which is witnessed
trfr which are as follows. Hebrew: zci7io-rcsJI, es-
pecially "branch of grapevine;" y6"eqe!, "suck- to in Ugaritic and elsewhere, Jer. 33: 15 may
ling, twig;" 7®Gser, "sprout, shoot;" `67®gp, also be translated "and this is the name they
"bough or branch" of tree or vine; Se7#¢-Z®,
shall call him, the Lord our Righteousness."
"bud, growth;" qd"eh, "reed, cane;" Greek: Both passages thus foretell the messianic King.
klados, "branch" of tree; kze-~itz, "branch," es- In Zech. 3:8 and 6:12 this messianic title
pecially of grapevine. Most of these are sel£- is significantly fastened upon Joshua the son
explanatory in their contexts, referring to vari- of Josedech the high priest. Not Of David's
ous kinds of branches and shoots of different line, Joshua is not himself to be the Branch,
trees, vines, or herbs. but he and his fellows were "men wondered
The words calling for special mention are at" (Hebrew: "men of a sign"). Their crowns
7!gser and Se7„c]Zz of messianic import. NGser is were to be given, then removed for future
used literally of branches in lsa. .14:19 and days. The prophec}' s|)eaks, not of Joshua, but
60:21; figuratively, of a royal scion in lsa. of the future messianic King-Priest in line
11 : I and Dan.11 :7. In Isa. I I : 1 the parallel with the messianic Ps. I 10.
Remark should further be made of the pas-
phrase seems to refer to a humble stumi] of
the line o£ Jesse, from which root a sprout will sage in John 15 in which Christ calls his fol-
lowers to an intimate vital union with himself,
grow. The awful invasions of the Assyrians in
the days of Ahaz and Hezekiah had brought t}'pified as the union of the branch with the
the Davidic house very low. It is impossible to vine. An overliteralness has found in John
divorce Isa.11:1 from the messianic hope of 15:2 a teaching against security. Rather the
a wonderful child o£ David's line who would point of the simile is to emphasize the necessi-
bring miraculous deliverance. The child was ty of abiding in him.
called Immanuel in Isa. 7: 14, 8:8,10:8, given In Ron.11 Israel is likened to an olive
a fivefold divine name in 9:6, and promised branch cast off during this age while the gen-
the throne of David in 9:7. This could not be tile church is grafted in. There is added a
Hezekiah as he was already a grown boy when promise that the natural branch, Israel, will
Ahaz took the throne. The following passage be graf ted in again in the day when the Re-
of Isa. I I :2-16 also is clearly messianic and is deemer will come out of Zion (Ron. I I :26).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
so referred to in Rom.15:12. The similarity
E. W. G. [\lasterman in JSBE; W. E. Bie(ler``.olf,
of 7te-ser to Nazareth is doubtless alluded to in TI\e ^[tll.'nniiim Biblc3 (in loco.)
Matt.. 2:23. There is no relation to the word R. LAIRD I-IARRIS
nazarite (q.vJ. It may be questionc`d whethc.r
Matthew urges a derivation of Nazareth from BREAD. The words le¢et~, ai)itearing more
#e-5er or is only giving a play on words. The than 200 times in the OT and czrfos, found
derivation of Nazareth is uncertain (Arndt). about loo times in the NT, both mean either
The town is not mentioned in the OT. The ttread, or other food prepared from grain, such
derivation of the word Nazarene (q.v.) from as wheat or barley. Bread is a gift of God
BREAKING OF BREAD 104

(Ruth I:6; Ps.104:15); but, because Of sin, f or the broken bread which symbolizes the in-
it must be won from the earth by wearying gathering of the church.
toil (G€n. 3: 19). Jesus taught his disciples to In feeding the multitude, Christ used a
pray for daily bread (Matt. 6:11). At the peasant boy's customary lunch of barley loaves
same time, it is normal Christian duty to earn and fish (John 6:9). The seating in groups
one's bread (11 Thess. 3:8,12). Examples of by hundreds and fifties (Mark 6:40) may be
metaphorical usage are: bread of affliction (I modeled on the ranks of the Qumran banquet
Kings 22:27), of tears (Ps. 80:5), of wicked- (see Allegro, D. S. Scro!!s, p.115). The meal
ness (Prov. 4:17), of idleness (Prov. 31:27), was perhaps regarded by Jesus as an anticipa-
of adversity (Isa. 30:30). Manna is called tion of the messianic banquet` or of the Eu-
"bread from heaven" (Ex. 16:4, 22). Refer- charist (i£ John 6:53 ff. is taken sacra-
ring to this, Jesus described himself as the true mentally).
bread from heaven (John 6:32-33). Bread An ordinary meal is envisaged in Luke
used at the Passover and in worship generally 24:35 (see Zahn and P]ummer) embodying a
was unleavened, leaven being commonly sym- characteristic action of Jesus. In Acts, break-
bolical of evil, though not so in Jesus' parable ing of bread can mean (1) a Eucharist or
(Ex.12:15; 23:18; Matt.13:33). In certain
Agape, (2) a common meal. The first is un-
cases, however, leavened bread was permissi- likely in 27:35, I)ossible in 20:7, and prob-
ble (Lev. 7:13; 23:17). Twelve loaves o£ able in 2:42 with the article; Peshitta here
"presence bread," representing the su££iciency renders, "The breaking of the Eucharist." The
of God's temporal and spiritual provision for second gives a reasonable sense in all the Acts
his people, were placed each Sabbath on the passages and accounts for the absence Of ref-
golden table in the holy place (Lev. 24:5-9). erences to the cup.
The f ather of a household customarily opened In I Cor.10: 16 Christian bread-breaking
a meal by taking a loaf, giving thanks, and is called koi7z67ti¢ tott so-`mc!tos tot4 CJtrjsfot4. It
distributing it. Jesus followed this form in the is compared to Jewish ritual meals which in-
miraculous feedings and in the institution of volve a relationshi|) with the altar and amounts
the Lord's Suiiper (Jer.16:7; Matt.14:19; to particii)ation in the body o£ Christ, the com-
15:36; 26:26). Paul thinks of the sacramental munity of man}' members. In I Cor. 11 : 17-34
loaf, 1)artaken of by all communicants, as a a community meal is described e7i ekkle-sja, dur-
symbol Of the unity of the church (I Cor. ing which a Eucharist is held and bread broken
10: 17). in remembrance of Christ's death until he
WILLIAM J. CAMERON comes. 8}7 quoting Christ's word, "This is my
bod}' which is for you," Paul seems to recall
I Cor. 10: 16, adding the theme of the church
BREAKING OF BREAD. The precise
as the society of the new covenant in vs. 25.
I)hrase kz¢s7.s foi4 #rtot4 is found only in Luke BIBLIOGRAPHY
24:35 and Acts 2:42. The verbal form occurs HDB; FoakesJackson & Lake, T7!tJ Bcgjt®tii"gs of
in Mark 8:6,19; Matt.14:19 and 15:36
t:,¥;;rsc,';#f|;':`'o}7(;}ic]t76„Ptit28;`,pT:,E;RPEj.€.33T+.5.D°dd'`"-
at the feedings of the multitude; Mark 14:22
DENIS H. TONGUE
(c£. Matt. 26:26 and Luke 22:19) at the
Last Supper; Luke 24:30 (Emmaus); Acts
BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM. The prophets
2:46, 20:7 and 11, 27:35; I Cor.10:16, and
of ten use the analogy of the bridegroom and
11:24 of the Eucharist; and rarely, in the
the bride in describing the relation between
LXX (see Jer. 16:7, kz¢st7ie^ al.tos, at funeral
God and Israel (Isa. 62:5; 54:5; Hos. 2:19-
in memory of dead). In Hebrew, pdi-¢s ("to
20; Ezek. 16). Israel's unfaithfulness is bar-
break") is used of opening a meal, sometimes
lotry (Ex. 34:15; Ps. 73:27; Hos. 4:12; Jer.
without the word for bread, and is linked with
3: 1). Divorce and widowhood have been the
blessing..The bread was made from wheat or
consequences (Hos. 2:2; Isa. 54:4). The ap-
barle}', or from fine flour for ritual offerings,
peal to Israel to return in repentance is an ap-
unleavened cakes (?"¢5$6!) being used during
I)eal to forsake false lovers and to deck her-
Passover. 'The Qumran Manual orders the self in bridal attire for what is nothing less
priest to stretch f orth his hands upon the bread than a remalriage (Isa. 49:18; 69:10). The
and wine in communal blessing before the grace of God in receiving back his people is to
banquet. The Didache contains a thanksgiving be dimly pictured in the husband who goes
105 BROTHER, BRHTHREN

to the slave market to buy back and remarry ham spoke of himself and Lot as brethren
the former wif e who has sold herself to bond- (Gen.13:8). With the emergence of the na-
age in her iniquity (Hos. 3). tion Israel, the term came to mean fellow
Other OT passages describing the earthly countryman, a member of the same people
love and nuptials of bride and bridegroom, (Ex. 2:11). Occasionally it denoted one of
without any direct reference to the love of God the same tribe (Deut.18:7). It occurs also as
for his people, have been traditionally regarded a synonym for neighbor (Lev. 19:17). Ap-
as having this allegorical meaning (Ps. 45; parently it was not used of the stranger dwell-
S. of Sol.). ing in the land, although the Israelite was en-
In the NT, John the Baptist refers to Jesus joined to love him. In one passage (Gen.
as the Bridegroom, he himself being the "bride- 29:4) there appears to be a conventional use,
groom's friend" who arranges the wedding and similar to our "fellows" in direct address which
rejoices when, after standing before the bridal aims at a show of familiarity toward strangers.
chamber, he hears the bridegroom's voice an- Nothing is said about a natural brotherhood
nouncing his coming (John 3 :29). Jesus iden- of all men, even though it is recognized that
tifies himself with the divine Bridegroom in all come from one Creator. Sin had rendered
explaining why his disciples need not fast the bond of a common humanity insecure.
when he is with them for they are his wed- Fratricide in the very first family advertized
ding party (Matt. 9: 13-14). He uses the same the need for a stronger tie, which the gospel
analogy in the parables (Matt. 25: I-13; 22: 1- eventually pi.ovided.
14). Paul describes his ministry as the task of 11. NT UsAGE. In part, this is similar to
preparing the church for the final espousal at that of the OT. The word denotes a member
the second advent (11 Cor.11:2). Baptism is of the same family (Mark I: 16); a neighbor
the bridal ablution. Marriage is a true analogy (Matt. 7:3); a fellow countryman (Ron.
of the relationship between Christ and his 9:3). But the most significant use assigns it
church which is seen most vividly in the to men who are called brethren because of
Lord's Supper (Eph. 5:22-32). In the Book their membership in the Christian Group.
of Revelation the bride is not so much the They may be Jews or Gentiles. The require-
church on earth as the heavenly Jerusalem ment is not the tie of blood or of acquaintance
(Rev.19:7 ff.; 21:2, 9) finally perfected in or of nationality; it is purely spiritual.
fulfilment of prophecy (Isa. 61: 10; 62:4-5). It may be that the term "brethren" in an-
But possibly in Rev. 22: 17 the reference is to cient Israel, as used by the more pious segment
the ministry of the church on earth. of the people, contained the seeds of this NT
The analogy Bridegroom-bride is used o£ use, for the covenant relationship of the chosen
Christ and the church, not of Christ and the nation made the bond between fellow Israelites
individual soul. The use of the analogy is religious as well as natural. In the interbiblical
strongly ethical, stress being laid on the need period the term attains special significance in
for the cleansing of the church from compro- connection with the Pharisees, who called one
mise and heresy. Th? mystery of the marriage another F¢-Z7e-r€tro ("brethren") in distinction
union between Christ and his church can help
to sanctify the natural relationship which is :::I? ::e dr]?s:jkncat:odn f];]reoff t]£:ae,[Aa"ndHPGa_rAfrcei:
a sign of it. They were pledged to strict observance of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY law, with paramount concern for tithing and
the honor].ng of vows. Likewise, the members
#f.?£P;lug?::2:-#!?BfB.[Ea;?7e]3,,2;i8±.o:JjiF{e%£.:2Sh;:#„¥rh' of the Qumran community used the term for
RONALD S. WALLACE one another as bound by the New Covenant.
They were conscious of being a fellowship
BROTHER, BRETHREN. In the OT the within the larger entity of the national Israel,
word occurs hundreds of times, nearly always so the term is quasi-esoteric. Yet, one detects
as a translation of 'dh. The NT word is ¢dez- in these instances an exclusivism and detach-
p7!os, which means fr.om the same womb. ment from the common life of men which
I. UsE IN THE OT. Most common is the Christianity, with its breadth of outlook and
ordinary meaning of blood brother, as in Gen. evangelistic aggressiveness, was able to avoid.
4:2. By a natural extension, it came to express Jesus magnified two basic criteria. If one
the notion of broader blood relationship. Abra- were prepared to do the will of God, he would
 106
BROTHERHOOD

be recognized as a brother by the Lord (Mark (Acts 3 : 17). Near the end of his life Paul still
3:34-35). This tie was more meaningful to continued this practice (Acts 28:17). His
him than the bond Of natural kinship, as the copious use of the word when defending him-
context shows. Again, all those who recognize self before the Jews (Acts 22: I, 5; 23: I, 5, 6)
in Jesus their Leader and Teacher become is understandable. He was seeking to establish
brethren by that acknowledgment (Matt. rapport in every legitimate way.
23:8). Some interpreters have seen in Jesus' This double use of the word (for believers
use of the word in Matt. 25:40 a national and for unconverted Jews) finds its rationale
reference (his brethren the children of Israel); in Ron. 9:3. While Paul is careful to guard
but, if this be so, it is the sole instance Of this his language here - the brethren in this in-
usage on the lips of Jesus. Such a passage must stance are his kinsmen accoi.ding to the flesh
- he is desirous of emphasizing that the bless-
be distinguished from others in which Jesus
used ``brother" with reference to the relation ings received in the past by Israel from the
of his bearers to one another (e.g., Matt. hand of God lead naturally to the supreme
5 : 22) . gif t Of the Christ. It was at this point that be-
lieving and non-believing Jews found their
It is clear from the Book o£ Acts and from
ways parting, but they had much in common
the Epistles that ``brethren" was the common
up to this point. The passage breathes the
mode Of designation for fellow believers. It
expressed manward what "saints" expressed poignancy of desire to see these countrymen
embrace Jesus as the promised Messiah, mak-
Godward. Most frequently the term is used
ing it possible to receive them as brethren in
absolutely, but we read also Of brethren in the
the Lord, brethren in the highest sense.
Lord (Phil.1:14); holy brethren (I Thess.
Ill. LATER UsAGE. The word is common in
5:27); beloved brethren (Phil. 4: 1); faithful
the Apostolic Fathers, especially Clement, 1g-
brethren (Col. 1 :2), etc. James is fond of the
natius, and the Didache, used in the specific
phrase "my brethren." The word is found in Christian sense. By the close of the third cen-
dirc'ct address in the singular also, as by An-
tury it was passing out of currency (A. Har-
anias when he came in to see Saul of Tarsus
nack, Tfee E%p¢„s;o7G of Christja%;ty, 11, p.
(Acts 9:17). One can fairly feel in this one
10), but it appeared again in the Middle Ages
word the communication of sympathy and love
toward one who had come bent on persecu- (Brethren of the Common Life) and has been
adopted as part of the name of several groups in
tion, only to be suddenly transformed. Onesi-
the modern church.
mus the slave, because he is now a son o£ God
IV. BRETHREN oF THE LORD. On this
through faith in Christ, is to be welcomed as
much-discussed question, whether these were
a brother beloved, even by his master (Philem.
half brothers (sons o£ Mary) or stepbrothers
16).
(sons o£ Joseph by a foi.mer marriage) or
Appeal is made from time to time to the
cousins, see the article by J. 8. Mayor in
fact of brotherhood as a regulating force for HDB. It is possible that the reference in Acts
conduct. One may be compelled to go to law I : 14 includes the sisters. See Arndt, ¢delphos,
with an unbeliever, but to do so with a brother I.
is reprehensible, a virtual denial of the bond BIBLIOGRAPHY
of fellowship and love (I Cor. 6:8). The
whole relationship is so intimately bound up HDAanc:.t;I.Hri.VgEr£*,e?.BfrnotTeYh%T£;,„CriE7cGvyatkinsin
with the higher relationship to Christ that to EVERETT F. HARRISoN
sin against a brother is to sin against the Lord
himself (I Cor. 8: 12). Love is the distinctive BROTHERHOOD. See BROTHER.
token of the Christian brotherhood (John
13:34-35; I Pet. 2: 17). A special term for this BUILDING. The idea of the church (q.t7.)
love, p7ijhaczezphi¢, occurs five times in the NT. as a building goes back to the words Of Jesus
It denotes an affection for the saints as distinct himself. In Matthew 16: 18 he declared, "Upon
from that which is due all men (11 Pet. I :7). this rock I will build my church." The verb
Alongside the typical use of the word for is ojkodo"eo-, from oikos, "house." It is used
fellow believers one notes that at the inception literally of erecting a building.
of the Christian movement Jewish believers In all three Synoptic Gospels Jesus is re-
felt no inhibition in the use of the term for corded as quoting Ps. 118:22: "The stone
fellow Jews who were not followers of Jesus which the builders rejected, the same was
107 BURNT OFFERING

made the head of the corner." It is not clear Christians shared ``|)laces of rest," koz"GtGi.jc!.
whether this means the cornice or the corner- (Kojtwc]o-, I sleep; so cemetery means dormi-
stone (q.v.). But in either case Jesus is the key- tory -see I Thess. 4: 14-15.)
stone that holds the building together (cf . I The simple ceremony was carried out the
Pet. 2:7). same day (John 11:17, 39; Acts 5:6,10; c£.
Paul wrote to the Corinthians, "Ye are God's Nun.19: 11-14). The body was washed (Acts
building" (I Cor. 3:9). Jesus Christ is the 9:37), anointed (11 Chron.16:14; Matt.
only foundation (q.v.) (I Cor. 3:11). This 26:12), and wrapped in linen (John 19:39-
shows that the church is not built on Peter 40), and mourners accompanied it to the
(a.v.), as Matthew 16:18 is sometimes inter- sepulcher (Luke 7: 12; Acts 8 :2).
preted as teaching, except in the sense o£ Eph. Paul mentions the burial o£ Christ as part
2:20. Peter was one of the "living stones," of the gospel (I Cor. 15:4), since it attested
built together into a "spiritual house" (I Pet. the reality both of the death which preceded
2:5). The word ojkodot7cG is often translated and of the resurrection which followed. It has
"edifying" or "edification" (q.v.).
its place also in the Apostles' Creed from
RALPH EARLE earliest times.
For the symbolism behind burial see John
BULL (PAPAL). An apostolic letter bear- 12:24; I Cor.15:35-38, 42-49; Ron. 6:4-6.
ing in its superscription the title of the pope BIBLIOGRAPHY
as Episcopt4s, Servo/s servo7147" Dei in which
the pope speaks to the church e# cczt7.edt.cz in #Ea::B;,sh:F£,,,,£Tj:n;a:I;.;;£§:tc,:;,osfBpj:;;,,:;I:i:s:B#:SR#:,i,R:#;.
matters pertaining to faith and morals and thus pp. 316-20.
DAVID H. WHEATON
infallibly according to Roman Catholic doc-
trine. It is so named because of the leaden seal
BURNT OFFERING. One of the f ive
(Lat., bt{lha, seal) by which papal documents main offerings of the Levitical law. The He-
were authenticated during the Middle Ages.
brew name fold, "going up," probably refers
The term was at first applied to all kinds o£
to the fact that the whole sacrifice was con-
official documents which emanated from the
sumed. It is also called a kGl£!, "complete," or
papal chancery, but a much more precise defi- holocaust o££ering.
nition has existed since the fifteenth century.
These pronouncements cover a wide range of The offering, described in Lev.1 and 6:8-
subjects and may be declaratory or directive 13, could be made of either a bullock, ram,
in character, specific or general in ai]plication. goat, or (for the poor) a turtledove. The o£-
GREGG SINGER ferer placed his hand on the animal's head,
picturing transfer of guilt (see Lev. 16:21),
BURIAL. This was the accepted method then the animtil was killed and the blood
for disposing of dead bodies among Hebrews sprinkled to make an atonement. An}7one
and early Christians. The practice is first re- might bring a burnt offering, but a regular
ferred to in the case o£ Sarah (Gen. 23:4 - morning and evening sacrifice were required
Hebrew, q6bcir; LXX, thflpto-). Mention is with extra offerings on sabbaths and special
there made of sepulchers: natural or artificial feast d.i}'s (Nun. 28:2 -29:39).
caves where the dead were laid to rest (He- The Greek equivalent 77oZo7€cMifo-i„cz is used
brew, qezjel-,. LXX and NT, "¢7te-7iie2.o„ - e.g., only in the NT in Mark 12:33 and Heb.
Gen. 50: 13). This custom continued through- 10:6, 8. In the Hebrews I)assage, quoted from
out Bible times (e.g., I Kings 13:31; John Ps. 40, the offering of Christ is cited as the
19:41). Bodies were sometimes buried in the antitype to all the OT sacrifices.
earth (Gen. 35:8,19). The word for the atonement effected is
To dishonor a body it was lef t unburied often translated "cover," from an Arabic cog-
(Deut. 21:23; 11 Sam. 21:12-14; 11 Kings nate. But the Hebrew verb kjppG7-seems rather
9:10), and disposal by burning was unusual a denominative from the noun ko-per, "ran-
(I Sam. 31:12; Amos 6:10), sometimes em- som," and means give a ransom, I)ropi-tiate. The
"mercy seat," (k¢ppo-re_i) is thus the place of pro-
ployed as a climax of the death penalty (Josh.
7:25). Where possible, interment was in fan- pitiation - Greek, 7".Z¢sfel'!.o7¢, propitiation
ily burial places (Gen. 49:29; 11 Scim.19:37; (Ron. 3:25; Heb. 9:5).
11 Chron. 21:20), and from earliest times R. LAIRD HARRIS
 CALENDAR. See CHRlsTIAN YEAR. ment rests entirely on the assumption that
God's callings express determinations which
CALL, CALLED, CALLING. The de- are unconditional, irreversible and incapable of
veloped biblical idea of God's calling is o£ God fnistration (cf. Rom. I I:29). He views God's
summoning men by his word, and laying hold callings as sovereign acts, the temporal execu-
of them by his power, to play a part in and en- tion of eternal intentions.
joy the benefits of his gracious redemptive pur- In the NT, the thought of calling has to do
poses. This concept is derived from the or- with God's approach to the individual. In the
dinary secular meaning of the word (LXX and Synoptics and Acts, the term denotes God's
NT, kc!!eo-) - i.e., summon, invite (see Matt. verbal summons, spoken by Christ or in his
2.7: 22:3-9) -by the addition of that quality name, to repentance, faith, salvation, and serv-
of sovereign effectiveness which Scripture as- ice. (Mark 2:17 = Luke 5:32; Mark 1:20;
cribes to the words o£ God, as such. Divine Acts 2:39). The "called" (kzGtoj) in Matt.
utterance is creative, causing to exist the state 22: 14 are the recipients of this summons, as
of affairs which it declares to be intended (c£. such; they form a larger company than the
Isa. 55:10 £.; Gen.1:3; Heb.11:3). The "chosen" (ek!ektoi), those who respond. In the
thought in this case is of an act of summoning Epistles and Revelation, however, the con-
which effectively evokes from those addressed cept is broadened, in accordance with the
the response which it invites. The concept Isaianic development noted above, to embrace
passes through various stages of growth before God's sovereign action in securing a response
it reaches its final form in the NT Epistles. to his summons. The verb ``call," and the noun
"calling" (kle-sis), now refer to the effective
Throughout the OT, Israel regards itself as
a family which God had called first from evocation of faith through the gospel by the
heathendom, in the person of its ancestor (Isa. secret operation of the Holy Spirit, who unites
51 :2), and then from Egyptian bondage (Hos. men to Christ according to God's gracious pur-
11 : I), to be his own people (Isa. 43: I), serv- pose in election (Ron. 8:30; I Cor.I:9; Gal.
ing him and enjoying his free favor for ever. 1:15; 11 Thess. 2:13 £.; 11 Tim.1:9; Heb.
This conviction is most fully stated in Isa. 9: 15; I Pet. 2:9; 11 Pet. I :3, etc). The "called"
40-55. Here, the central thought (developed are those who have been the subjects Of this
in reference to the coming return from cap- work, i.e., elec.t believers (Ron.1:6 f.; 8:28;
tivity) is that God's gracious once for all act of Jude 1; Rev.17:14, etc.). This is the "effec-
calling sinful Israel into an unbreakable cov- tual calling" of classical Reformed theology,
enant relation with himself guarantees to the the first act in the ordo scz!tttjs whereby the
nation the eventual everlasting enjoyment of benefits of redemption are conveyed to those
all the kindnesses that omnipotent love can for whom they were intended (see Ron. 9:23-
bestow asa. 48:12 ff.; 54:6 ff.; etc.). The 26). This "upward," "heavenly" calling to
calling Of individuals receives mention only in freedom and felicity (Phil. 3:14 RSV; Heb.
connection with Israel's corporate destiny, 3:I; Gal. 5:13; I Cor. 7:22 RSV; I Thess.
either as the prototype of it (Abraham, Isa. 2: 12; I Pet. 5: 10) has ethical implications: it
51 :2), or as a summons to further it and bring demands a worthy walk (Eph. 4:1) in holi-
the Gentiles to share it (Cynis, Isa. 46:11; ness, patience and peace (I Thess. 4:7; I Pet.
48: 15; the Servant, 42:6; 49: I). The essence I:15; 2:21; I Cor. 7:15; Col. 3:15), and sus-
of the thought here is not verbal address (in- tained moral exertion (Phil. 3:14; I Tim.
deed, Cyrus, though called "by name" - i.e., 6: 12).
announced as God's ``shepherd" and "anointed" The terminology of calling has two subor-
-does not know God's voice, Isa. 45:.4; cf. dinate applications in the NT: (1) to God's
5:26 ff.; 7:18 f£.); "calling" signifies rather summons and designation of individuals to
a disposition of events and destinies whereby particular functions and offices in his redemp-
God executes his purposes. The prophet's argu- tive plan (apostleship, Ron.I: 1; missionary

108
109 CANONIZATION (of saints)

preaching, Acts 13:2; 16: 10; high priesthood, God. Lazarus lay in the tomb. He was dead.
Heb. 5:4; cf. the calling o£ Cyrus above men- Yet Jesus told him to come forth. And he did
tioned, and of Bezaleel (Ex. 31:2; (2) to the come forth. Thus Calvinism seeks to be truly
external circumstances and state of life in evangelical in stressing the free offer of the
which a man's effectual calling took place (I gospel. But this true evangelicalism is enforced
Cor.I:26; 7:20). This is not quite the sense rather than denied by relating it to the sov-
of "occupation" or ``trade" which the Reform- ereign grace Of God. Without this relation
ers supposed that it bore in the latter verse; there can be no true evangelicalism. Without
but their revaluation of secular employment as this relation to the sovereign counsel of God
a true "vocation" to God's service has too broad there would be no human responsibility, for
a biblical foundation to be invalidated by the man, granted he could then have internal co-
detection of this slight inaccuracy. herence, would then not be responsible to God.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

B.GBi:a#=i,E:|dfa&ai|nay#nrmqnadndcalE:#:#icKLraAhTamfn*;;#,
LnDAinc¥;:.:chE;i,:*;E::Tio:nsT;ifnJtFE£Gg?ernf.:.:-!:c:osl::.:
732), L. Berkhof (IV. v-vi: pp. 454-72). g::*isymGaL,#?nGieL,T|i|:f`3,u.Dgc`#.:+-?afiegc%aFv`i';I,jsg#:
JAMES I. PACKER #„6'aa,avg;i!'?'?.nHT.r%:Eeilke31,::,Tjstg';a-%'c?'tcc,::,raf:;:
j„8.
CORNELIUS VAN TIL
CALVINISM. According to Benjamin
Breckenridge Warfield, Calvinism is theism CANON. See BIBLE.
and evangelicalism come to its own. A Cal-
vinist describes his position as follows. CANON. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTlcAL.
Calvinism seeks, first and above all, to take
CANON LAW. Canon law may be simply
its "system of truth" from the Scriptures of the
defined as the rules of the church for pur~
Old and New Testaments as the self-authen-
ticating revelation of God in Christ. If it is to poses of order, ministry and discipline. At first
these consisted of czd 77oc pronouncements by
be called a "system" at all, then this system
leaders or councils in a local setting. Particu-
must be seen to be open to the Scriptures. The
larly imf)ortant were those which came from
doctrines of Calvinism are not deduced in a
the greater centers, and especially the canons
prior; fashion from one major principle such adopted at Nicaea (A.D. 325). Indeed, it was
as the sovereignty of God. On the contrary,
not long before canons were I)ut out under
whatever can, by. sober exegesis, be found to
the name of the apostles or great figures of
be taught in Scripture, that, and only that,
the first centuries, and a necessary process of
constitutes part of the "system" of Calvinism.
collection and codification continued through
With true evangelical zeal Calvinism there- the Dark Ages, with much standardization in
fore presents the unrestricted, universal offer the West under Charlemagne. Gratian was the
of the gospel. Human responsibility is a basic
man who brought this process to a virtual cul-
teaching of Scripture. But the meaning of
mination in the Roman communion with his
human responsibility must be taken f ron famous Decrett4" (A.D.1140) which under
Scripture itself, not deduced from a supposed lies the developed study Of canon law in the
"experience of freedom" taken from non-scrip-
Middle Ages and is the basis of the modern
tural philosophy. Accordingly, Calvinism re- Col.pt4s jti7.g.s ccz74o7!;ci. The Pro`testant i`hurches
lates human responsibility to the all-inclusive
have naturally disowned this whole body of
plan o£ God. Human responsibility does not legislation and generally avoid the terms canon
take place within a vacuum. It takes place
or canon law, but in so far as any church must
within history which is under the ultimate dis-
make rules for the ordering of its life and
position of God. Man is therefore responsible work various forms of canon law are naturally
as the creatt4re of God.
found in all churches.
It was only as a creature o£ God, made in GEOFFREy W. BROMILEy
his image, that man could sin. So, when a sin-
ner, and as such "dead in trespasses," unable CANONIZATION (of saints). An ec-
of himself even to stretch forth his hand to clesiastical decree regarding the public or eccle-
receive salvation, Scripture continues to deal siastical veneration of an individual. The
with him as a responsible being. He is called Roman Catholic Church claims authority for
to faith and repentance. Yet faith is a gift of this practice in the writings of St. Augustine,
CANTICLE Ilo

and affirms that it has its origin in the wor- of another kind is the Bc7cec!;cite, or hymn of
ship of the saints. At first canonization was Creation. This is an apocryphal addition to the
given only to those who were martyrs of the book Of Daniel, being found in the LXX be-
faith; later, to those who were noted for their tween verses 23 and 24 of the third chapter.
holy living and working of miracles. It re- Its use in Christian worship dates from early
quires a sufficient number of verified miracles times,
and can only be granted by the Papacy af ter BIBLIOGRAPHY
the death of the recipient.
See also BEATIFlcATloN. F:?i,.:Pa,::t;#:y¥:.;::vin:i:i:.5,¥;.cTw:,!!;.#,!y,:::I;h:;
Book.
GREGG SINGER
FRANK COLQUHOUN
CANTICLE. The woi.d is derived from the
CAPTAIN 0F SALVATION. The ex-
Latin ccz"tict/Zwt", the diminutive Of c¢"tictt7",
a "song." As used by such writers as Jerome pression "captain of salvation" is found in
Heb. 2: 10 (AV, .`captain of tlieir salvation'')
and Augustine, the word denoted that which
and is the rendering of the Greek ho flrchggos
was sung unaccompanied, in contrast with the
fgs solgrias. The word orc7}ggos is also found
Psalms, which were sung to an instrumental
in Acts 3:15: 5:31; Heb.12:2. The general
accompaniment. Liturgically, however, the
sense appears to be that of originator. The Son
term is confined to sacred songs or prayers
was the originator, or pioneer, of salvation in
(other than the Psalms) taken from the Bible the sense that he in his sufferings opened the
and used in the daily offices.
way for ``many sons" to enter glory.
In the early church, both of the East and S. LEWIS JOHNSoN, JR.
the West, the canticles chiefly employed w
the following: the two songs o£ Moses (E CARDINAL. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTI-
15:I-19; Deut. 32:1-43), the thanksgiving CAL.
Hannah (I Sam. 2:I-10), the prayer.s
Habakkuk (chap. 3), Isaiah (chap. 12), and CARE (ANXIETY). In the OT the words
Jonah (chap. 2); and from the NT the songs translated "care" include czji¢g (Ezek. 4: 16;
of the Virgin Mary, Zacharias, and Simeon, ]er. 17:8), i.e., anxious forebo-ding; Zi67'Gd (11
still lmown by their Latin titles as (respective- Kings 4:13) i.e., solicitude towards another;
ly) the M¢g7tff;cat, the Be7ted;ctt4s, and the and be.tczz1, implying childlike trust (Judg.
Nunc Dimittis. 18 : 7) and also an ill-grounded sense of securi-
These three canticles iire in common use in ty (Isa. 32:9). "Care" is mainly expressed in
the worship of the Reformed churches. The the NT as rme!ei (Mark 4:38) i.e., interest in;
M¢g#!.ficaf (Luke 1:46-55) has been sung at ep!.t"elo"twczi (Luke 10: 34 £.), i.e., taking care
evening worship since the sixth century, being of someone; and 774ej-i"7ca or 7t®erj7#73¢6 (Matt.
the canticle of Vespers in the Western church. 13:22), i.e., anxious concern.
It has certain obvious points of resemblance to The word is frequently found in warnings
the song of Hannah (I Sam. 2), though it against the spirit of anxious care (Matt. 6:25-
rises to a loftier spiritual level. The Ntt#c 34; Phil. 4:6; 1 Pet. 5:7) and its correlative,
D;t7®jttjs, or song of Simeon (Luke 2:29-32), a falsely based sense of security; for these foes
is also an evening canticle and has been so of the spiritual life are common responses to
used in the daily prayers of the church since the experience of anxiety.
the fourth century. In the Roman Breviary it Anxiety is defined as "the apprehension
formed I)art of the service of Compline. The cued off by a threat to some value which the
song of thanksgiving of Zacharias known as individual holds essential to his existence as a
the Be7eed;ctt4s (Luke I:68-79) became as- personality" (Rollo May, TJ?e Mecz#;#g of
sociated with the church's morning worship A74*;ety, Ronald Press, New York: 1950, p.
and was incorporated into the Western service 191). It is grounded in the spiritual nature of
of Lauds. man; for it involves man's capacity for creative
The noble hymn of praise known as the aspiration, moral decision, the experience of
Te Det47#, while not strictly speaking a canti- guilt and the capacity to antici|]ate death.
cle in that it is not derived from the Bible, has Some have maintained that anxiety is a result
been used in liturgical worship since the sixth of man's fall into sin and its consequent breach
century. Its origin is obscure. A song of praise of fellowship with God. Anxiety appears to be
Ill CATHOLIC

more closely tied to the broken relationship concern. It is therefore imperative that the
than the fact Of original sin; for Christ, whose character of God, as revealed at Calvary, be
nature was unaffected by original sin, ap- clearly understood.
parently experienced acute anxiety in the LARS I. GRANBERG
garden Of Gethsemane as he faced the pros-
CARNAL. See FLESH, FLESHLY.
pect of being forsaken of God while he who
knew no sin was being made sin for us (11
CASUISTRY. Derived f ron the Latin
Cor. 5:21). His anxiety lends credence to the
c¢sws, meaning "case," casuistry denotes the
suggestion that anxiety inheres in the tension
application of general principles of morality to
between freedom and finitude. It is the "in-
ternal description of the state of temptation" particular cases of conduct and conscience.
With the possible exception of Acts 15:20, no
and as such the preco7td;tio# for sin, although
casuistry is to be found in tlie NT. Subsequent
it is not itself sinful (Reinhold Njebuhr, TJ®e
church history, however, is marked by its exer-
Nature and Destiny of Man, Scribners, New
cise and influence.
York: 1941,I, pp.168,182 f.). However, be-
In common parlance the word has come to
cause man is in bondage to original sin, he
be assoriatcd with mishandling of principle in
mishandles the tension between freedom and
order to justify a position or a line of conduct.
finitude either by pride fully seeking to usurp
See also PROBABILISM, ACCOMMODATION.
God's supremacy b}' seeking to overreach
BIBLIOGR^PI]Y
his limit{1tions, or by fearfully turning away
R. ^1. Wenley in IIEJ`E.
from the creative potentialities present in the HERMAN C. WAET]EN
state of anxiety in an effort to gain immediate
and absolute security from some finite soul.ce. CATECHUMEN. A word derived from
Psychotherapy has learned to distinguish the Greek kelc-cJ3ott„ie"os, the I.assivc particii>le
two forms of anxiety. Normal (existential) of lc4tGCJ]ci", "to sound over or thr()ugh, to
anxiet}' is grounded in the tension between instruc`t," and thus in the passive "to bc in-
possibility and finitude. It has creative as well structed." In the NT the word occurs seven
as destructive potc`ntial. It leads to creativity times (Luke I:4; Acts 18:25; 21:21, 24;
and growth when the anxious |terson finds Rom. 2:18; I Cor.14:19; Gal. 6:6) and al-
courage to ftice the risk of destruction in the ways rcfers to instrui`tion in rcligit)us mi`tti`rs.
"Catechulnen" carl}' I)cci`mc a technici`l word
interest of resi)onsible moral dei`ision, i.e., is
willing to lose his lifc`, thereby saving it. The for one rccciving instruction in the Christian
Bible teaches that man's onl}' .1dcquate source ri`ligion with a `'icw to bein`g admitted into
of courage is a i`hildlike trust in God. the church thr()ugh bill)tism. This practice in
Neurotic (pathological) anxiety results Christianit)7 grew out of the churi`h`s heritage
when the person cannot muster the courage to in Judaism which cmphasizcd the thorough in-
face the I)ainful consequences that may result doctrination of its 1)roselytcs.
from decision. He seeks to detach himself from Although the carlicst l\nown oci`urrcni`c of
the anxiety-inducing demand by eliminating it kc]tgcJtcz.7i in the tcchnici`l si`nsc of catcchi'zing
l`rom awareness through ego-defense measures. is in 11 Clement 17:I, the resc`arches ot. P.
He ma}7 in`'oke such means as alcohol or com- CzLtrington CThe PI-ill.iti\'e Chi-istian Gate-
pulsive sociability or isolating himself from cJi;sw, Uni\'crsit} Press, Cambridge, 1940)
othc`rs in his effort to gain an absolute sense t`nd E. G.. Sclwyn CThe First Epistle of St.
of securit}'. His {iim is to feel c`omfortablc Pefcj., 2nd cd., MLic`millan, London, 1947),
rather than to come to a wise decision. In this hfi`'c shown that thcri` is much common i`atc-
wa}' anxiety becomes detached from its source. c`hetic`al materi:`1 in the NT Ei)istlcs, which
Its consequent "£`ree floating" character only suggcsls the c`arl)' c.`istcnce of a catcchumenate.
arouses greater dread. This c[iuses greater in- WALTER W. WESSEL
volvelnent in defensive activity; and, if correi`-
tive measures are not sought, leads to serious CATHOIjlc. A transliteration of the Greek
personality breakdown. katJ2o!Zkos, "throughout the whole," "general,"
The Bible teaches that the only way cinxiety this word h.1s been used in a variet)7 of senses
can be a source of creativit}' rather than sin during the histor}J of the i`hurch. In the earlier
is by exi)eriencing it within the context of an iiatristic itcriod it h:id the denotation of uni-
abiding relationship of trust in God's loving vcrsal. This is its meaning in the first occur-
CELIBACY 112

rence in a Christian setting - "Wherever cient significance, where universality was

Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church" coupled with precision o£ Christian belief.
(Ignatius fld Si"yr7c. viii. 2). Here the con- Historians refer to the Old Catholic church
trast with the local congregation makes the as that phase of the development o£ Chris-
meaning ``universal" mandatory. Justin Martyr tianity which followed the apostolic and pre-
could speak of the "catholic" resurrection, ceded the Roman Catholic.
which he explains as meaning the resurrection BIBLIOGRAPHY
of all men (D;¢Z. Ixxxi). When the term be- 2###6pB:c#:#3##?A£#sFo%#EE%.
gins to appear in the Apostles' Creed - "the
holy catholic church" (c¢. 450) as it had
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
earlier appeared in the Nicene - "one holy
catholic and apostolic church," it retains the CELIBACY. The English term is derived
sense of universality and thus accents the unity from the Latin cae]ebs, ``unmarried," and re-
6f the church in spite of its wide diffusion. fers to the abstinence from marriage on the
The Catholic Epistles of the NT were so desig-
part of the clergy and monastic orders of the
mated by Origen, Eusebius, et c!l., to indicate Roman Catholic Church. The latter recognizes
that they were intended for the whole church that until about the time of the Council Of
rather than a local congregation. Nicaea (325) the clergy were free to marry
A second meaning emerges toward the end (CE, Ill, p. 483), in accordance with the
of the second century, when heresy had be- practice of the apostolic church (I Tim.
come a menace. Catholic becomes the equiva- 3 : 1-12). Toward the close of this period, how-
lent of orthodox. The Muratorian Canon (ccl. ever, a double standard of spirituality crept in-
170) refers to certain writings "which cannot to the church. Notice was taken of Jesus'
be received in the catholic church, for gall words conc.eming some who "have made them-
cannot be mixed with honey." For the logical selves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's
connection between this meaning and the for- sake" (Matt. 19:12). His conclusion, ``He
mer, see Light foot on Col.I:6. Vincent of that is able to receive it, let him receive it,"
L6rins (Co7#77¢o7!jtorjtt7„, A.D. 434) in his seemed to imply celibacy as a higher voluntary
famous maxim, "What all men have at all standard.
times and evervwhere believed must be re- Paul, due to the exigencies of the day, ad-
garded as true,;' combines the ideas of uni- vised the Corinthians (I Cor. 7:32-35) that
versa]ity and orthodoxy. one might serve the Lord more fully in the
unmarried state. The increasing sacerdotalism
In Reformation times the word became a
of the early centuries transformed the excep-
badge of those churches which adhered to the
tional situation into the preferable. The Apos-
i7ai]ac}' in contrast to those groui)s which iden-
fo!;a Co„sf].£iit;o#s (ca. 400) form the basis
tified themselves with the Protestant cause.
The dcsignation Roman Catholic emerged in of Eastern Orthodox canon law and allow the
clergy and bishops one marriage contracted
connection with the controversy between Rome
.ind the Anglican Church, which insisted on before ordination. The Council of Trullo
its right to use the term catholic as linking it (692) provided that a bishop must be celibate
with the ancient apostolic church. Rome, on or separate from his wife upon consecration,
the other hand, put forth its claim as the true still the rule in the East.
church because of organizational continuity.
From the fourth to the tenth centuries in
Churches could not be regarded as properly the Roman Catholic Church various local
"G`tholic" unless they submitted to the gov- usages were determined by local synods favor-
ernment of the Roman hierarchy. ing clerical celibacy, from requiring married
candidates to put away their wives to allowing
Two modern uses should be noted. One is them to live with their partners, in some cases
the designation of an individual as a Catholic, as husband and wife, in others platonically.
a membe.I of the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope Gregory VII in 1075 initiated sweep-
word is sometimes employed also to indicate a ing reform requiring complete celibacy of dea-
breadth of spirit or outlook in contrast to that cons, priests, and bishops, which was con-
which is regarded as rigidly narrow. This firmed by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
vague use of the word, at times quite latitu- and the Council of Trent ( 1563). The Protes-
dinarian, is completely different from the an- tant Reformation of the sixteenth century
113 CHERUB, CHERUBIM

vigorously rejected enforced celibacy of the but human fathers also chasten their sons
clergy in favor of a return to apostolic free- (Heb. 12:7, 10a), and beneficial discipline
dom. can even be effected through Satan (I Tim.
See also AscETlclsM. 1 :20). The NT insists that God chastens his
BIBLIOGRAPHY people for their own spiritual good. The word
chFistiac; cT€£',c#js2'°%i§?;f cSEa,Ce]']£?ts'p. C4e8'j.b.3g i" the pciidewe;" is never used o£ God's dealing with
the unbeliever.
DONALD G. DAvls
See also DlsclpLINE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CENOBITE. One who shares the life of a
religious community under a rule and a su- as ADTvdjtje GbjsBcgi::? i£„n Szy%Tj. I:ess,::.dec„?I as„%ffep'igt€
Bivlieal I..dalsm, pp. 6-45.
perior (Greek koj72os, ``common," and Z7jo`s, WAITER W. WESSEL
``way of life"). The word first appears in use
in Egypt, third or fourth century A.D., where CHASTITY. Chastity, or moral purity, for
some hermits desired the protection and regu- the Jews in general, was consistence with mar-
lation of a communal life. riage. This also obtained for the NT writers.
M. R. W. FARRER For although hag73os, for ``chaste," is used of
virgins (11 Cor.11:2), it is used of married
CERINTIIIANS. Followers Of Cerinthus,
women also (Titus 2:5; I Pet. 3:2). But
a Jewish heretic (c¢. A.D. loo). His system, a
adultery and fornication were not consistent
mixture of Ebionite and Egyptian Gnosticism,
with chastity, which breaches Of moral purity
taught that matter was evil; that a Demiurge
made the world; and that Christ, a divine gave the church no little trouble.
J. KENNETH GRIDER
power, descended on Jesus, an ordinary nor-
tal, at baptism, leaving him before his cruci- CHERUB, CHERUBIM. Hebrew kerftg,
fixion, derivation uncertain. Cherubim were placed at
BIBLIOGRAPHY Eden's entrance after the expulsion of man
DCB, ODCC.
M. R. W. FARRER (Gen. 3:24). Poetically they are viewed as
Yahweh's chariot at his descent from heaven
CHARISMATA. See SplRITUAL GIFTs. (Ps.18:10), but note the parallelism! Two
gold cherub-figures adorned the ark (Ex.
CHARITY. See LovE. 25:17-22) and two huge replicas were made
for Solomon's temple (I Kings 6:23-28); hence
CHASTEN, CHASTISH. The Hebrew the expression yo-5gz7 hakkcn7g€7", "enthroned
ytisar (substantive 7#7^4sjir) is the principal word above the cherubim", used o£ Yahweh (I Sam.
rendered "chasten, chastise" in the OT. Its 4:4; Ps. 80: I). Ezekiel's elaborate description
basic meaning is "the learning or teaching Of is full of symbolism and based on visionary
a lesson .... The lesson may be leaned in experience (cf. Ezek.1:10 with 9:3; 10:15-
three different ways, through the experience 22). This argues against a mythological con-
of suffering (Jer. 10:24), through the accept- nection. The cherubim used in the decorative
ance of verbal instruction (Ps.16:7) . . . and art of temple and tabernacle must have aided
through observing a given situation (Jer. the worshiper rather than terrified him. Had
2..30)." CJ. A. Salndels, Suffering as Diayine they resembled the hybrid figures of mythology
Discipline in the Ol,d Testainent and Post- their function in worship would be doubtful.
B;Z}!jcfll /wc]¢jst„, Colgate Rochester Divinity Cherubim are ministering spirits in God's im-
School Bulletin, Special Edition, Nov. 1955, mediate presence, whose invisible presence
p. 4]). they manifest and whose action they sym-
The NT word is pc}jdet4ej7c (noun pc!;czejci) bolize. Their human appearance predominates
which properly means to instruct, train, edu- (Ezek. 1 : 5) but symbolical traits are added to
cate physically and mentally (Acts 7:22) emphasize spiritual excellence. Some parallel
Through its use in the LXX to translate y6s¢r, features in Assyro-Babylonian thought may be
it came to have the added sense of moral in- explained from common paradise-traditions.
struction, discipline, correction through suffer- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ing. In the NT the chastening is mostly that
of God upon his own people (I Cor.11:32; Pspr::;,2Vzaf:.##6t;ATthr#:£eBAde[,,,4#€3:,„,.T5Setg:,:ee„nt:
11 Cor. 6:9; and especially Heb.12:5-11), MARTEN H. WOUDSTRA
CHILD, CHILDREN 114

CHILD, CHILDREN. The word child is the imparting of divine life through new birth
represented in Hebrew by y€!ed and 7ta`aJ-, to those who trust in the Son of God, a shar-
either word being used for a baby or little ing in the life of the Father. John therefore
child, though 7?cz`c}r can also mean a youth. uses fc'k7?o7®, but Paul writes rather of the
Samuel is called a 7q¢`¢j. when a baby (I Sam. status and privilege of those who have re-
I:22) and at each mention of his childhood ceived the adoption of sons (J"4;ot7t€s!.c!, Ron.
until and including God's call to him (I Sam. 8: 15) and thus become heirs of God, and ac-
3:8), so that the particular word is no guide cordingl}7 he uses 7zi4z.os for this relation (Gal.
to his age on that occasion. T¢p is used only 3:26; 4:6; Ron. 8: 14). A similar use o£ Jit4jos
of little children. The very com-mom word Z7e-7c for status and privilege ai>pears in the Gospels,
indicates offspring in general and is often as "children o£ God" (Matt. 5:9), "of your
used to name a tribe or race, "the children o£ Father" (Matt. 5:45), or "of the bride-
Benjamin," "of Israel," "o£ Ammon," eti`. chamber" (Luke 5:34).
Since a child's character follows that of his See also ADopTloN, SoN.
father, Hebrew developed the use of Z7G7® in BIBLIOGRAPHY
i\rndt, s. `.. tt'ki!oi. and hwios,. 8. F. Westcott, Ep;s-
the plural, "the children o£" or "the sons of" tzcs of Jo7Jt., pp. 122-24; S. W. Green in HDB (one
to describe leading traits of character, especial- volunie edition).
ly "children (sons) of Belial" (Deut.13:13, J. CLEMENT CONNELL
etc.), or "children of iniquity" (Hos. 10:9).
This idiom is not always apparent in the Eng- CHILIASM. See MILLENNluM.
lish translation, e.g., "valiant" in I Sam.18: 17
CHOOSE, CHOSEN. See ELECT, ELEc-
is literall)' "child of valor."
TIor\,.
In the NT, apart from the variety of words
expressing the stages of normal childhood, this CHRIST. See MEsslAH AND CHRlsTOLOG¥.
Hebraic idiom is sometimes found, e.g., "obe-
dient children" in I Pet.I: 14 is "children o£ CHRISTIAN. The word Christian comes
obedience," but Alford's note ?.7t loco asserts from the Greek word CJ"`;stjcz7ios, an adjective
that the comparable phrase in Eph. 5:6 "chil- made from the noun CJ„-jsfos, "the Christ," or
"the anointed one." A Christian, then, is a
dren of disobedience" involves a far deeper
meaning than a mere Hebraistic equivalent o£ person related in some wa}7 to the Christ. The
"disobedient children." He quotes Winer:
word comes into usage first in Acts 11:26 -
"Children of ,disobedience belong to ¢pezfhei.¢ "The disciples were first called Christians in
. . . as a child to its mother, to whom disobe- Antioch." It is not known whether the term
diencc is become a nature, a ruling disposi- was invented bv the Christians themselves or
tion." On the other hand "children of wrath" their enemies. But even if it was first used as
(Eph. 2:3) does not describe their character a term of derision, the church began to use it
as wrathful: it denotes their subjection to proudly. The word was used only twice more
wrath, being the objects of wrath; for being in the NT, in Acts 26:28 and I Pet. 4:16,
sinful by nature they are inevitably under the so it seems to have taken hold rather slowly.
wrath o£ God. An OT parallel for this use is Other terms were in more common use, such
Deut. 25:2, where "worthy to be beaten" is a as "disciples," "brethren," and "those of the
"son of stripes" and the English would more
way.„
accurately be "subject to stripes." Compare 11 It is impossible to give an exact definition
Pet. 2:14, "cursed children," i.e., subject to of the word. In the strictest sense it would be
the curse. applied to one who has a true, saving faith in
In such phrases there is no di££erence of Christ, but only God himself has a certain
meaning between tek7¢o7® used in Eph. 2:3; knowledge as to who the true believers are.
5:8; I Pet.I:14; 11 Pet. 2:14 and Jtt4i.os in The word is often used of members of the
Eph. 2:2; 5:6; Col. 3:6; I Thess. 5:5, but for church; this would lead to debate about what
the concept "children o£ God" Westcott's bodies should be included in the concept of
comment on I John 3:I defines tek74o7c as the church. It is often used laxly in the sense
marking "community of nature (i.e., with of "Christlike," applicable to persons who
God) with the prospect of development" but make no pretense of being believers in Christ
7!wz.os as "the position of privilege." The em- in a religious sense but who admire and try to
phasis in John's Gospel and Epistles reveals copy some features of his character. Then it is
115 CHRISTIAN YEAR

applied to things which are appropriate to such Before that time the Eastern Church kept the
persons, with the rather vague meaning of de- feast on January 6th (now the feast of the
cent, gentle, or charitable. Epiphany); but later the Western practice of
SAMUEL A. CARTLEI)GE observing December 25th began to prevail,
the Nativity being separated from the Epi-
CHRISTIAN YEAR. The Christian Year phany. It has been remarked that ``the con-
has been describecl as ``an arrangement by troversies of the fourth to sixth centuries on
which special da}'s and seasons of the year are the incarnation and the person o£ Christ doubt-
set aside for the commemoration of particular less contributed to the growth in importance
aspects of the Christian faith" (A. A. Flem- of the feast" CF. L. Gross, Oxford Dietionary
ing, T7te C7tJ.;sf7.czft Ye¢]., Iona Community Of the Christian Church, Oxford univ. Press,
Publishing Dept., I). 8). Its adoption was of 1957, p. 277).
gradual develoi)ment in the Christian church. 07-del- cz7zcZ Mecz7€;"g. The Christian Year be-
It followed the I)attern set by the Jewish
gins on the first Sunday in Advent, which is the
church, with its ordered round of high festi- fourth Sunday before Christmas Day. The Ad-
vals and solemn days of remembrance, such as vent season bears witness to the "coming" of
the Passover, the Day of Atonement, the Day Christ, both in his humiliation at Bethlehem
of Pentecost, and so on. Some of these were and in his final glory as the Judge of Mankind.
taken over by the Christian church and Christmas Day celebrates the nativity of our
adapted for its own use. Lord. The thirteenth day afterwards (Jan.
Orjgi#. The purl)ose of the Christian year 6th) is the feast of the Epiphany - "The man-
is to celet)rate progressively the great acts o£ ifestation o£ Christ to the Gentiles." The
God in the redem|)tion of the world by our Epiphany season, which links up particularly
Lord Jesus Christ, and to stress the correspond- with the story of the wise men (Matt. 2:I.
ing duties incumbent u|)on the church in re- 12), emphasizes the world-wide character of
si]onse to what God has done. Since the two the Christian revelation. Next follows the sea-
focal points in the divine plan of salvation are son of Lent, which opens on Ash Wednesday
the incarnation and the atonement, the first /q.v.) and covers the six Sundays before Easter
part of the year is based on the two great fes- Day. The forty days of Lent (excluding the
tivals of Christmas and Easter. Each of these Sundays) are a penitential preparation for the
is I)receded by a suitable period of spiritual great Easter festival. The fifth Sunday in
prep<1ration, viz., Advent and Lent. Whit- Lent is commonly known as Passion Sunday
sunda}', which marLs the crown and climax of and the sixth as Palm Sunday. This latter ush-
the Christian revelation in the pentecostal gift ers us into Holy Week, in which we move
of the Spirit, €oncludes this first part of the day by day through the events of the last
year. The second part, consisting of the Sun- week Of our Lord's earthly life. Good Friday
days after Whitsun, and extending (according marks the day of Christ's passion, and Easter
to the date o£ Easter) from twenty-one to Sunday celebrates his glorious resurrection.
twenty-seven weeks, is concerned with the The forty days of the Easter season (see Acts
practical application of the Christian faith to 1:3) conclude with Ascension Day, which
the daily life of the church and its members. commemorates the Lord's exaltation to the
Easter was, naturally enough, the first an- right hand of God and testifies to his kingship.
nual festival to be observed by the primitive Ten days later comes the feast of Pentecost,
church, linking up historically with the Jewish or Whitsunday, with its definite stress upon
feast of the Passover. Closely associated with the ministry of the Holy Si7irit in the church.
this was the feast of Pentecost, which followed This ends the first half of the Christian Year.
forty-nine days later. In the minds of the early The second half consists of the Trinity secl-
believers, with their Jewish background, these son, beginning with Trinity Sunday, which
annual festivals could not fail to recall the bears witness to the Christian doctrine of God
mighty acts which God had wrought for their as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Sundays
"after Trinity" (or "after Pentecost," as in the
salvation in the cross, the empty tomb, and
the coming of the Comforter. Roman Catholic Church) are concerned with
The celebration of the anniversary of the the practical outworking of the great facts and
birth of Christ, now known as Christmas, did events remembered from Advent to Pentecost.
not become general until the fourth century. As it has been said, the first half of the year
CHRISTIANITY 116

answers the question, "What does a Christian dwindled into comparative insignificance, it
believe?"; the second half answers the ques- passed on its heritage to the Gentiles, who
tion, "What ought a Christian to do?" were reac`hed through Greek-speaking Jews
Vcz!t4e. The spiritual value of observing the such as Barnabas and Paul.
liturgical }'ear is receiving increasing recogni- Christianity has certain distinctives. It is
tion on the part of the non-liturgical churches historically grounded in the sense that its
in all parts of the world. It is an undoubted founder was an actual personage in history,
aid in holding the fullness of the Christian who lived at a certain period in the land of
faith and in maintaining the primary doctrines Palestine. In this it differs from religions
in due I)roi)ortion. It I)laces the emphasis, as which are built around in)'thological figures
the NT does, upon God's revelation of him- and emphasize ideas rather than facts which
self in our Lord Jesus Christ and upon those are historically verifiable as well as religiously
"once for all" events by which man's redemp-
important.
tion was accomplished. Its comprehensive char-
It is also supernatural in character, for it
acter leaves no aspec`t o£ Christian faith and
frankly depends upon revelation. Man is no
life untouched and so meets man's entire longer feeling out after God but is resting on
spiritual need. In this way it is also an anti-
the divine self-disclosure in Christ. God has
dote to modern heresies and "isms," which become incarnate in his Son, who confirmed
arise all too of ten from a neglect or under- the revelation in the OT and added to it by
stressing of specific elements in the Christian his teaching and by personal impact. To see
gosi]cl. For the pastor, the Christian Year pro- him was to see the Father. The miraculous ele-
vidcs a tcsted framework for maintaining a ment in Christianity is agreeable to its super-
balanced, all-inclusive teaching I)ro§ram and natural nature. History ceases to be a riddle.
saves him from becoming.one-sided; for the Eternity has dipped into time. Divine nature
congrcg.ition, it o££ers an overall picture of has taken human form in order to reveal it-
faith and life in which can be seen the pro- self fully and to lif t man into i.ellowship with.
portions of any particular doctrine or duty. God.
]31l}LI0GRL\PHY
I. L. Ci.oss in ODCC; A. A. MCArthur, The Et7olt4- To accomplish this latter goal, a plan of re-
demption was necessary. This is crucial to the
:'.r°'fio°of,c;J]8.C|'[';;r';;:a,Yhei?r§t€+eE3:g,'fhvi/Tiaycrhe:''(e:af;;
T/,c, Pro)Jcr BOOJ€ Djctj°"" FRANK CoLQUHOUN Christian faith. Christ came to save sinners by
the sacrifice of himself . Salvation is by grace
through faith. Works are excluded as a ground
CHRISTIANITY. Though the term Chris- for acceptance with God (Eiih. 2:8-10).
tian (`q.v.) api]ears three times in the NT, the
Christianity is trinitarian, acknowledging
time was not yet ripe for its companion word,
God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. In this
which came into use in the second century as
it is distinguished from the other monotheistic
a designation for the religion which centers in
religions.
Jesus Christ. It is found fii.st in the writings
o£ Ignatius, where it retains in one passage The Christian faith is also exclusive. It does
the NT flavor of the word Christian - op- not grant that men are saved by any other
means than the gospel of Christ. It derives this
posed and hated by the world (Ron. iii).
Twice it is contrasted with Judaism (Magn. x; conviction from the teaching of Sci.ipture, and
Phila. vi). Once it is mentioned as a system of not from partisan feeling or narrowness of out-
truth calling for a corresponding mode of life look. It does not deny good in other religions,
nor does it claim to have all truth. Rather, it
(Magn. x).
The Christian movement began on Jewish rejoices in the truth which God has been
soil and made its first converts among the sons pleased to reveal, which is sufficient for salva-
o£ Israel. Those who adhered to the new faith tion. Exclusivism only becomes offensive when
it ceases to be missionary.
differed from their fellow Jews in that they
believed that Jesus of Nazareth was the Mes- Christianity may be viewed as a creed, but
siah and that God had vindicated his clailh by behind its confession is a person;I relation to the
raising him from the dead. The ties with Ju- Saviour. It may vary from place to place in its
daism were not completely cut, but persecu- form of government, but it everywhere ac-
tion drove an ever deepening wedge between knowledges the lordship Of Christ. Its forms Of
the two groups. Before Judaic Christianity worship may differ from church to church, but
117 CHRISTOLOGY

its aim is to glorify God and to make known doubt and disappointment, surprise, etc. (Luke
his saving grace. 2:40; Mark 2:15; 14:33; 15:34; Luke 7:9)
BIBLIOGRAPHY and finally to death and burial. But elsewhere
his true humanity is specifically witnessed to,
as if it might be called in question (Gal. 4:4;
;?i::;i;:;!!z:ga'n::,;s:bg:f::!!;:::;g:;;£#a;I::::g:ri;s;?1!::!;; John I : 14), or its significance neglected (Heb.
393-444; HERE,. SHERK. 2:9,17; 4:15; 5:7-8; 12:2).
EVERETT F. HARRISoN Besides this emphasis on his true humanity,
there is nevertheless always an emphasis on
CHRISTMAS. The early Christians did the fact that even in his humanity he is sinless
not observe the festival of Christ's birth, to and also utterly different from other men and
which they did not attach the importance that his significance must not be sought by
ascribed to his death and resurrection. In the ranking him alongside the greatest or wisest
East, and later in the West, Christ's birthday or holiest of all other men. The virgin birth
was observed on .January 6th in connection and the resurrection are signs that here we
with his baptism, a day on which the pagan have something quite unique in the realm of
world celebrated the feast of Dionysus, asso- humanity. Who or what he is can be discov-
ciated with the lengthening of the days. The ered only by contrasting him with others, and
night of January 5th-6th was devoted to the it shines out most clearly when all others are
feast of Christ's birth and the day of January against him. The event of his coming to suffer
6th to his baptism. A fourth century papyrus and triumph as man in our midst is absolutely
contains the oldest Christmas liturgy in exist- decisive for every individual he encounters,
ence. The nativity festival was separated from and for the destiny of the whole world (John
the early Christian Epiphany feast and given 3: 16-18; 10:27-28; 12:31; 16: 11; I John 3:8).
its own day, December 25th, between the In his coming the kingdom of God has come
years 325 and 354. In Rome, December 25th (Mark I: 15). His miracles are signs that this
is attested as the day of Christ's birth in 336. is so (Luke 11:20). Woe, therefore, to those
It was introduced perhaps by Constantine the who misinterpret them (Mark 3:22-29). He
Great who evidently chose the day because Of acts and speaks witri heavenly regal authority.
the popular pagan feast of the sun. Gregory He can challenge men to lay down their lives
Nazianzen and Chrysostom I)opularized the for his own sake (Matt.10:39). The kingdom
new festival in Constantinople. But o|7position is indeed his own kingdom (Matt. 16:28;
to the new feast was stubborn throughout the Luke 22:30). Hc' is the One who, in uttering
East, es|)ecially in Syria (Antiach). Egypt did what is simi)l}J his own mind, at the same time
not receive it till 431, Armenia never. utters the eternal and decisive word of God.
See also CHRlsTIAN YEAR. (Matt. 5 :22, 28; 24: 35). His word effects what
BIBLIOGRAPHY it proclaims (Matt. 8:3; Mark 11 :21) as God's
0. Cullmann, The Early Chtifch, pp. 21-36; I,C.
word does. He has the authority and power
J. THEOI)ORE MUELLER even to forgive sins (Mark 2: 1-12).
8. Christ. His true significance can be un-
CHRISTOLOGY. I. NEw TESTAMENT derstood only when his relationship to the peo-
CHRlsTOLOGT. In the NT, the writers in-
ple in whose midst he was born is understood.
dicate who Jesus is by describing the sig- In the events that are set in motion in his
nif icance of the work he came to do, and the earthly career, God's purpose and covenant
office he came to fulfill. Amidst the varied de- with Israel is fulfilled. He is the One who
scriptions Of his work and office, always main- comes to do what neither the i]eople of the
ly in terms of the OT, there is a unif ied blend- OT, nor their anointed representatives - the
ing of one aspect with another, and a develop-
prophets, priests and kings - could do. But
ment that means an enrichment, without any they had been I)romised that One who would
cancellation of earlier tradition. rise up in their own midst would yet make
A. )esus in the Gospels. His hamairity (q.v.) good what all of them had utterly failed to
is taken for granted in the Synoptic Gospels, make good. In this sense Jesus of Nazareth is
as if it could not possibly occur to anyone to the One anointed with the Spirit and power
question it. We see him lying in the cradle, (Acts 10:38) to be the true Messiah (a.v.) or
growing, learning, subject to hunger, anxiety, Christ (John I:41; Ron. 9:5) of his people.
CHRISTOLOGY 118

He is the true Prophet (Mark 9:7; Luke of himself, what it signified is otherwise ex-
13:33; John I:21; 6:14), Priest (John 17; pressed, especially in Rom. 5 and I Cor. 15,
Epistle to Hebrews), and King (Matt. 2:2; where Christ is described as the "man from
21 :5; 27: 11), as e.g., his baptism (Matt. 3: 13 heaven" or the "second Adam." Paul here takes
ff.) and his use of Isa. 61 (Luke 4: 16-22) in- up hints in the Synoptic Gospels that in the
dicate. In receiving this anointing and fulfill- coming of Christ there is a new creation
ing this messianic purpose, he receives from (Matt.19:38) in which his part is to be re-
his contemporaries the titles Christ (Mark lated to and contrasted with that o£ Adam in
8:29) and Son o£ David (Matt. 9:27; 12:23; the first creation (cf., e.g., Mark I:13; Luke
15:22; cf. Luke I:32; Rom.1:3; Rev. 5:5). 3:38). Both Adam and Christ have the repre-
But he gives himself and receives also many sentative relationship to the whole of man-
other titles which help to illuminate the office kind that is involved in the conception "Son
he fulfilled and which are even more decisive of man." But Christ is regarded as One whose
in indicating who he is. A comparison of the identification with all mankind is far more
current messianic ideas o£ Judaism with both deep and complete than that o£ Adam. In his
the teaching of Jesus himself and the witness redeeming action salvation is provided for all
of the NT, shows that Jesus selected certain mankind. By faith in him all men can par-
features of messianic tradition which he em- ticipate in a salvation already accomplished in
him. I-Ie is also the image and glory of God
phasized and allowed to crystallize round his
own person. Certain messianic titles are used (11 Cor. 4:4, 6; Col.1:15) which man was
by him and of him in preference to others, and made to reflect (I Cor. 11:7) and which
are themselves reinterpreted in the use he Christians are meant to put on in participating
makes of them and in the relationship he gives in the new creation (Col. 3: 10).
them to himself and to one another. This is D. Servcz7tt. Jesus' self-identification with
partly the reason for his "messianic reserve" men is brought out in passages that recall the
(Matt. 8:4; 16:20; John 10:24; etc.). suffering servant of Isaiah (Matt. 12: 18; Mark
C. So7c of 7„¢7c. Jesus used the title, "Son 10:45; Luke 24:26). It is in his baptismal
of man," of himself more than any other. experience that he enters this role (c£. Matt.
There are passages in the OT where the 3:17 and Isa. 42:1) of suffering as the One
in whom all his people are represented and
phrase means simply ``man" (e.g., Ps. 8:5)
and at times Jesus' use of it corresponds to this who is offered for the sins of the world (John
meaning (cf. Matt. 8:20). But the majority I:29; Isa. 53). Jesus is explicitly called the
"Servant" in the early preaching of the church
of contexts indicate that in using this title
Jesus is thinking of Dan. 7:13, where the (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30), and the thought
"Son of man" is a heavenly figure, both an in- of him as such was also in Paul's mind (cf.
dividual and at the same time the ideal repre- Ron. 4:25; 5:19; 11 Cor. 5:21).
sentative of the people o£ God. In the Jewish In the humiliation of his self-identification
apocalyptic tradition this Son of man is re- with our humanity (Heb. 2:17; 4:15; 5:7i
garded as a pre-existent one who will come at 2:9; 12:2) he fulfils the part, not only of vie-
the end of the ages as Judge, and as a light to tim, but also of High Priest offering himself
the Gentiles (c£. Mark 14:62). Jesus some- once for all (Heb. 7:27; 9:12; 10:10) in a
times uses this title when he emphasizes his au- self-offering that brings about for ever a new
thority and power (Mark 2:10; 2:28; Luke relationship between God and man. His "bap-
12:19). At other times he uses it when he tism," the fulfilment of which he accomplishes
is emphasizing his humility and incognito in his earthly career culminating in his cross
(Mark 10:45; 14:21; Luke 19:10; 9:58). In (cf. Luke 12: 50), is his self-sanctification to
the Gospel of John the title is used in con- his eternal priesthood, and in and through this
texts which emphasize his pre-existence, his self-sanctification his people are sanctified for
descent into the world in a humiliation which ever (John 17: 19; Heb.10: 14).
both conceals and manifests his glory (John E. So7c of Goc!. The title "Son of God" is
3:13 f.; 6:62 f.; 8:6 £f.), his role of uniting not used by Jesus himself to the same extent as
"Son of man" (though c£. e.g., Mark 12:6),
heaven and earth (John I:51), his coming to
judge men and hold the messianic banquet but it is the name given to him (cf. Luke
(John 5:27; 6:27). I:35) by the heavenly voice at his baptism
Though "Son of man" is used only by Jesus and transfiguration (Mark I:11; 9:7), by
119 CHRISTOLOGY

Peter in his moment of illumination (Matt. 2:32 ff., Phil. 2:I-11) by the early church.
16:16), by the demons (Mark 5:7) and the They prayed to him as they would pray to
centurion (Mark 15:39). God (Acts 7:59 £.; I Cor.1:2; cf. Rev. 9: 14,
This title "Son o£ God" is messianic. In the 21; 22: 16). His name as Lord is linked in the
OT, Israel is the ``son" (Ex. 4:22; Hos.11 : I). closest association with that o£ God himself
The king (Ps. 2:7; 11 Sam. 7:14) and possi- (I Cor. I:3; 11 Cor. I:2; cf. Rev. 17:14;
bly the priests (Mal.I:6) are also given this 19: 16; and Deut.10: 17). To him are referred
title. Jesus, therefore, in using and acknowl- the promises and attributes of the ``Lord" God
edging this title is assuming the name of One (Kyrios, LXX) in the OT (cf. Acts 2:21 and
in whom the true destiny Of Israel is to be 38; Ron. 10:3 and Joel 2:32; I Thess. 5:2
fulfilled. and Amos 5 : 18; Phil. 2: 10 f., and Isa. 45 :23).
But the title also reflects the unique filial To him are freely applied the language and
consciousness o£ Jesus in the midst of such a forlnulae which are used of God himself , so
messianic task (c£. Matt.11:27; Mark 13:32; that it is difficult to decide in e.g., a passage
14:36; Ps. 2:7). This has the profoundest like Ron. 9:5 whether it is the Father or the
christological implications. He is not simply Son to whom reference is made. In John I : I;
ft son but f7®e Son (John 20:17). This con- 1:18; 20:28; 11 Thess.I:12; I Tim. 3:16;
sciousness, which is revealed at high points in Tit. 2:13 and 11 Pet.I:1, Jesus is confessed
the Synoptic Gospels, is regarded in John as as "God.,,
forming the continuous conscious background G. Worcz. The statement, "The Word be-
of Jesus' lit`e. The Son and the Father are one came flesh" (John 1 : 14), relates Jesus both to
(John 5:19, 30; 16:32) in will (4:34; 6:38; the Wisdom of God in the OT (which has a
7:28; 8:42; 13:3) and activity (14:10) and personal character, Prov. 8) and to the law of
in giving eternal life (10:30). The Son is in- God (Deut. 30:11-14, Isa. 2:3) as these are
the Father and the Father in the Son (10:38; revealed and declared in the going forth of
14: 10). The Son, like the Father, has life and the Word (q.v.) by which God creates, reveals
quickening power in himself (5:26). The Fa- himself, and fulfils his will in history (Ps.
ther loves the Son (3:35; 10:17; 17:23 f.) 33:6; Isa. 55:10 f.; 11:4; Rev.1:16). There
and commits all things into his hands (5:35), is here a close relationship between word and
giving him authority to judge (5:22). The event. In the NT it becomes clearer that the
title also implies a unity of being and nature Word is not merely a message proclaimed but
with the Father, uniqueness of origin and pre- is Christ himself (cf. Eph. 3:17 and Col.
existence (John 3: 16; Heb.1:2). 3:16; I Pet.1:3 and 23; .Tohn 8:31 and
F. Lorc!. Though Paul also uses the title 15: 17). What Paul expresses in Col.I, John
"Son of God," he most frequently refers to expresses in his I)rologue. In both passages
Jesus as "Lord" (q.v.). This term did not orig- (and in Heb.1:1-]4) the place of Christ as
inate with Paul. Jesus is addressed and re- the One who in the beginning was the agent
ferred to in the Gospels as Lord (Matt. 7:21; of God's creative activity is asserted. In bearing
Mark 11:3; Luke 6:46). Here the title can witness to these aspects of Jesus Christ, it is
refer primarily to his teaching authority (Luke inevitable that the NT should witness to his
11:I; 12:41), but it can also have a deeper pre-existence. He was "in the beginning"
significance (Matt. 8:25; Luke 5:8). Though (John I:1-3; Heb.I:2-10). His very coming
it is most frequently given to him af ter his (Luke 12:49; Mark I :24; 2: 17) involves him
exaltation, he himself quoted Ps.Ilo:I, and in deep self-abasement (11 Cor. 8:9; Phil. 2:5-
prepared for this use (Mark 12:35; 14:62). 7) in fulfilment of a purpose ordained for him
His lordship extends over the course of his- from the foundation of the world (Rev.13:8).
tory and all the powers of evil (Col. 2: 15; I In the Gos|)el of John, he gives this testimony
Cor. 2:6-8; 8:5; 15:24) and must be the in his own words (John 8:58; 17:5, 24).
ruling concern in the life of the church (Eph. Yet while his coming from the Father in-
6:7; I Cor. 7:10, 25). As Lord he will come volves no diminution of his Godhead, there is
to judge (11 Thess. I :7). nevertheless a subordination of the incarnate
Though his work in his humiliation is also Son to the Father in the relationship of love
the exercise of lordship, it was af ter the resur- and equality which subsists between the Fa-
rection and ascension that the title of Lord was ther and the Son (John 14:28). For it is the
most spontaneously conferred on Jesus (Acts Father who sends and the Son who is sent
CHRISTOLOGY 120

(John 10:36), the Father who gives and the Son are Of "one substance," and spoke of three
Son who receives (John 5:26), the Father persons in the Godhead.
who ordains and the Son who fulfils (John Origen (c¢. 185-254) had a decisive influ-
10:18). Christ belongs to God who is the ence in the development o£ Christology in the
Head (I Cor. 3:23; 11:13) and in the end East. He taught the eternal generation Of the
will subject all things to him (I Cor. 15:28). Son from the Father and used the term
11. PATRISTlc CHRISTOLOG¥. In the period 7io7»oo44sjos. Yet at the same time his com-
immediately following the NT, the Apostolic plicated doctrine included a view of Christ as
Fathers (A.D. 90-140) can speak highly of Christ. an intermediate being, .spanning the distance
We have a semon beginning: "Brethren, we between the utterly transcendent being o£ God
ought so to think of Jesus Christ, as of God, as and this created world. Both sides in the later
the Judge of the quick and the dead" (11 Clem.). Arian controversy which began ca. 318 show
Ignatius with his emphasis on both the true influences which may be traced to Origen.
deity and humanity of Christ can refer to the (See oRIGENlsM).
"blood o£ God." Even if their witness falls Arius (co. 265-336) denied the possibility
short Of this, there is a real attempt to combat of any divine emanation, or contact with the
both Ebionitism (a.v.), which looked on Christ world, or of any distinction within the God-
as a man born naturally, on whom the Holy head. Therefore the Word is made out Of moth-
Spirit came at his baptism, and also Docetism ing before time. Though called God, he is not
(q.v.) which asserted that the humanity and very God. Arius denied to Christ a human
sufferings of Christ were apparent rather than soul. The council of Nicaea c¢. 325 con-
real, demned Arius by insisting that the Son was
The Apologists (e.g., Justin ca.100-165, and not simply the "first born of all creation" but
Theophilus of Antioch) of the next generation was indeed "of one essence with the Father."
sought to commend the gospel to the educated In his long struggle against Arianism (a.v.),
and to defend it in face Of attacks by pagans Athanasius (298-373) sought to uphold the
and Jews. Their conception Of the place of
Christ was determined, however, rather by cur- rnngit|i:faersgs::ceen:fnt:,e.FnatEe:hair.ds.spoh:c:,y3=:
rent philosophical ideas of the logos than by trine of the nature of the Logas, but on the
the historic revelation given in the gospel, and nature of the redemption accomplished by the
for them Christianity tends to become a new Word in the flesh. Only God himself, taking
law or philosophy and Christ another God in- on human f lesh and dying and rising in our
ferior to the highest God. flesh, can effect a redemption which consists
Melito of Sardis at this time, however, spoke in being saved from sin and corruption and
clearly of Christ as both God and man, and death, and in b,Sing raised to share the nature
Irenaeus (c¢. 140-200), in meeting the chal- of God himself.
lenge of Gnosticism, returned also to a more After Nicaea the question was raised: If
biblical standpoint, viewing the person Of Jesus Christ be tnily God, how can he be at
Christ always in close connection with his the same time truly man? Apollinaris (310-90)
work of redemption and revelation, in fulfil- tried to safeguard the unity of the person of
ment of which ``he became what we are, in the God-man by denying that he had com-
order that he might make us to become even plete manhood. He assumed that man was
what he is himself ." He thus became the new composed of three parts: body; irrational or
Head of our race and recovered what had been animal soul; and rational soul or intellect
lost in Adam. saving us through a process of (7?ows). In Jesus the human 7®ows was dis-
``recapitulation." In thus identifying himself
placed by the divine Logos. But this denied
with us he is both true God and true man. the true reality Of Christ's humanity and in-
Tertullian (c¢. 160-220) also made his con- deed of the incarnation itself and therefore of
tribution to Christology in combating Gnosti- the salvation. The most cogent objection to it
cism (q.v.) and the various forms of what came was expressed by Gregory o£ Nazianzus: "The
to be known as Monarchianism (Dynamism, unassumed is the unhealed." Christ must be
Modalism, Sabellianism) which had reacted in true man as well as true God. Apollinaris was
different ways against the apparent worship condemned at Constantinople, 381.
of Christ as a second God beside the Father. How, then, can God and man be united in
He was the first to teach that the Father and one person? The controversy became focused
121 CHRISTOLOGY

on Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople (d. Christ, and this was made the decision of the
451), who refused to approve the use of the whole church at the sixth Ecumenical Council
phrase "mother of God" (tJieotokos) as applied at Constantinople in 680, the views of Pope
to Mary, who, he asserted, bore not the God- Honorius I being condemned as heresy.
head but ``a man who was the organ of the Ill. FURTHER DEVELopMENT. The theolo-
Godhead." In spite of the fact that Nestorius gians of the Middle Ages accepted the au-
(see NESTORIANlsM) clearly asserted that the thority of patristic Christology and allowed
God-man was one person, he seemed to think their thought and experience to be enriched
Of the two .natures as existing side by side and by Augustine's (354-430) stress on the real
so sharply distinguished that the suffering of humanity Of Christ in his atoning work, on his
the humanity could not be attributed to the importance as our example in humility, and
Godhead. This separation was condemned, and on mystical experience. But this emphasis on
Nestorius' deposition at the Council Of Ephe- the humanity of Christ tended to be made
sus (431) was brought about largely by the only when he was I)resented in his passion as
influence of Cyril in reasserting a unity of the the One who mediates between man and a dis-
two natures in Christ's person so complete that tant and terrible God. In their more abstract
the impassible Word can be said to have suf- discussion Of the person of Christ, there was a
fered death. Cyril sought to avoid Apollinarian- tendency to I)resent One who has little share
ism (a.v.) by asserting that the humanity of in our real humanit}7. The humanity of Jesus,
Christ was complete and entire but had no in- however, became the focus of m}7s[ical devo-
dependent subsistence (a#hypostasis). tion in St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153)
A controversy arose over one of Cyril's fol- who stressed the union of the soul with the
lowers, Eutyches, who asserted that in the in- Bridegroom.
carnate Christ the two natures coalesced in At the Reformation, Luther's Christology
one. This implied a docetic view of Christ's was based on Christ as true God and true mtin
human nature and called in question his con- in insepar:`blc unit}'. He si]oke of the "won-
substantiality with us. Eutychianism and Nes- drous exchange" by which through the union
torianism were finally condemned at the Coun- of Christ with human nature, his righteousness
cil of Chalcedon (451) which taught: One becomes ours, and our sins become his. He
Christ in two natures united in one person or refused to tolerate any thinking which might
hypostasis, }'et remaining "without con£`usion, lead to speculation a.bout the God-man di-
without conversion, without di`'ision, without `'orced either from the historical person of
separation." Jesus himself or from the work he came to do
Further contro`7ersies were }'et to arise be- and the office he came to fulfil in redeeming
fore the mind of the church could be made up us. But Luther taught that the doctrine of the
"communication of attributes" (coiiztl!i47t!.cc!ti.o
as to how the human nature could indeed re-
lain its complete humanit}7 and yet be without i.djo7I!¢tti7w) meant that there was a mutual
independent subsistence. It was Leontius o£ transference of qualities or attributes between
Byzantium who advanced the formula that the divine and human natures in Christ, and
enabled the mLijorit}' to agree on an interpreta- develoi)ed this to mean a mutual interitenetra-
tion of the Chalcedonian formula. The human lion of divine and human qualities or I)roper-
nature of Christ, he taught, was not an inde- ties, `7erging on the very commingling of na-
pendent h}'postasis (anh}'postatic), but it was lures which Chalcedonian Christology had
enh}'postatic, i.e., it had its subsistence in and avoided. In Lutheran orthodoxy this led to a
through the Logos. later controvers}' as to how far the manhood
A further controvers}. arose as to whether of the Son o£ God shared in and exercised
two natures meant that Christ had two wills such attributes of di`'ine majesty, how far it
or centers of volition. A formula was first was capable of doing so, and how far Jesus
devised to suit the i\Ionothelites who asserted used or renounced these attributes during his
that the God-man, though in two natures, human life.
worked by one divine-human energy. But Calvin also apt)roved of the orthodox Chris-
finall}', in spite of the preference of Honorius, tological statements of the church councils. He
Bishop of Rome for a formula asserting "one taught that when the \Vord became incarnate
will" in Christ, the Western church in 649 he did not suspend nor alter his normal func-
decreed that there were "two natural wills" in tion of upholding the universe. He found the
CHRISTOLOGY 122

extreme statements of Lutheran Christology Chalcedonian doctrine of the two natures on

guilty of a tendency towards the heresy o£ the ground that this could not be related to the
Eut}'ches, and insisted that the two natures in human Jesus portrayed in the Gospels, and
Christ are distinct though never separate. Yet that it made use of terms which were alien
in the unity of person in Christ, one nature is both to Holy Scripture and to current modes
so closely involved in the activities and events of expression. Schleiermacher built up a
which concern the other, that the human na- Christology on the basis of finding in Christ a
ture can be spoken of as if it partook of divine unique and archetypal consciousness of utter
attributes. Salvation is accomplished not only filial dependence on the Father. In Lutheran
b}' the divine nature working through the Christology there was a further important de-
human but is indeed the accomplishment of velopment, the attributes of the humanity of
the human Jesus who worked out a perfect Jesus being regarded as limiting those of his
obedience and sanctification for all men in his deity, according to the "Kenotic" theory of
own person (the humanity being not only the Thomasius. On this view, the Word, in the
instrument but the "material cause" of salva- incarnation, deprived himself of his "external"
tion). This salvation is worked out in fulfil- attributes of omnipotence, omnipresence, and
ment of the threefold office o£ Prophet, Priest omniscience, yet still retained the "essential"
and King. moral attributes. Though always remaining
There is here a divergence between the God, he ceased to exist in the form o£ God.
Lutheran and Reformed teaching. The Luth- Even his self-consciousness as God was ab-
erans laid the stress upon a union of two na- sorbed in the single awakening and growing
tures in a communion in which the human consciousness of the God-man. Ritschl, too,
nature is assumed into the divine nature. The stressed the importance of the ethical attributes
Reformed theologians refused to think of an of the person o£ Christ, and of refusing to
assumption ot` the human nature into the speculate beyond the revelation of God found
divine, but rather of an assum|)lion of the in the historic Jesus who must have for us
human nature into the divine I)erson of the the value of God and whose perfect moral na-
Son in whom there was a direct union between ture is both human and divine. Since the be-
the two natures. Thus, while keeping to the ginning of the twentieth century, modern con-
ceptions of personality and scientific and philo-
patristic conception of the co"c7ww7t;c¢tjo jcz;o-
7#czfti„., they developed the concept of the sophical doctrines of evolution have enabled
cot""t47®jc¢tjo oper¢t;o7tw7", (i.e., that the theologians to produce further variations in the
development of nineteenth centur}' Christology.
properties Of the two natures coincide in the
one person) in order to speak of an active In more recent discussion there has been a
communion between the natures without return to the use of the Chalcedonian doctrine
teaching a doctrine of mutual interpenetration. of the two natures, particularly as interpreted
The importance of the co77¢"t4#jcczf f.o opei.cz- in the Reformed tradition, and a realization
tio#t" (which also came to be taken up by that this apparently paradoxical formula is
Lutherans) is that it corrects the rather static meant to point towai.ds the mystery of the
way of speaking of the hypostatic union in unique relationship of grace set up here be-
patristic theology, by seeing the person and tween the divine and human in the person
the work Of Christ in inseparable unity, and and work of the God-man. This mystery must
so asserted a dynamic communion between the not be thought of apart from atonement, for it
divine and human natures of Christ in terms is perfected and worked out in history through
of his atoning and reconciling work. It stresses the whole work o£ Christ crucified and risen
the union of two natures fc)r his mediatorial and ascended. To share in this mystery of the
operations in such a way that this work pro- new unity of God and man in Christ in some
ceeds from the one person of the God-man by measure is also given to the church through
the distinctive effectiveness of both natures. In the Spirit. This means that our Christology is
this light the hypostatic union is seen as the decisive in determining our doctrine of the
ontological side of the dynamic action of recon- church and of the word of sacraments as used
ciliation, and so incarnation and atonement are in the church. Our Christology must indeed
essentially complementary. indicate the direction in which we seek to
Since the early nineteenth century the solve all theological problems where we are
tendency has been to try to depart from the dealing with the relation of a human event or
123 CHURCH

reality to the grace of God in Christ. In this It is the sphere of the action of the risen and
christological pattern the whole of our theo- ascended Lord. All its members are in Christ
logical system should find its coherence and and are knit together by a supernatural kin-
unity. ship. All their gifts and activities continue the
Nor must this mystery be thought of in ab- work of Christ by the power of the Holy
straction f ron the I)erson of Jesus shown to Spirit, originate from Christ, and are co-or-
us in the Gospels in the historical context of dinated by him to the final goal. Then the
the life of Israel. The human life and teaching church will appear in the age to come as the
of the historical Jesus have to be given full one people of God united in one congregation
place in his saving work as essential and not before the throne, as the one celestial city -
incidental or merely instrumental in his aton- the new Jerusalem.
ing reconciliation. Here we must give due The Mai-ks of the Church. TL\e Lord brings
weight to modern biblical stud)r in helping us and keei]s his I)eople in covenant fellowship
to realize both what kind of a man Jesus was with himself by his Spirit and his Word (Isa.
and yet also to see this Jesus of histor}7 as the 59:21). His v`oice is heard in the I)roclamation
Christ of faith, the Lord, the Son of God. of his Word and his acts arc sccm in the ad-
Through the study of his office and work we ministration of his sacraments. Accordingly,
come to understand how his humanity is not these with pra}'er and praise are the marks of
onl)7 truly individual but is also truly repre- the `risiblc church, the means the Holy Spirit
sentative. uses to bring individuals to I)ersonal faith and
See also IMAGE,. ALEXANDRIA, ScHooL oF; to nourish believers in the corporate worship
ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF. of the Christian community. As they receive
BIBLIOGRj\PHY God's I)romises, he forgives the sins of his poo-
11. R. |\lackintosh, TJie PcrsoJi o/ CJ!rjst; J. L. 1\1.
l)le and seals them with his sacraments for the
world to come.
;a,i:ij'oi:;;;[¥:,t:i:a#c:,i!,?i:i£?:s:;e£::::i;;:,`,]¥oLEIS£;u;i::::';'[£,:L'#:: Tlie Bil]lical Histoi.y of tlie C,hitrch. The
AJc'tzjator,. L. 8. Smedes, TJi.' It?camafjoii, Ti-c'il{ls I.»
Moilem Anglican Thoi.ght; +1. Re\ton, A Sti.il}' iiL cxistL`ncc of the church is a re\'elation of the
gracious heart o£ God. The FiTther chose his
es:i.',£`:{O:]i.:y€!;;':::¥};B?cfo[.¥%[;:I\:,::1!;f8n:d:'rl'¥:,'a±';ETF;cf=ra.::3:::i eternal Son to become the Saviour of sinners,
"Atonement and the Oneness of the Church," SJT, Vol.
7, lip. 245-69. the Mcssiiih of the whole Israel of God. In
RONALD S. WALLACE him God c`hosc` the I)col)1c for his own I)osscs-
sion and called individuflls into this fellowship.
CHURCH. Our word church, like its This one i>eoiilc of God tncludcs thc` ii:`tri-
note i olms, kirc.he, kei.k, kirk, comes from archs, the congregi`tion of anc`icnt Isri`el, Jesus
Greek adjective, £o /€?H.j¢7{o7c, used first o£ and his discii)les, the I)rimitive community of
house of the Lord, then of his his resurrection, and the Christian church.
NT word, e7€k!e-sj¢, is used o£' a public For the i>eop]e of God, the OT period was
semblage summoned by a herald (Acts 19 the disi)ensation of I)romise, the NT that of
39, 40). In the LXX, however, it means fulfilment. Jesus Christ revealed not a new
assembly or congregation of the Isr£`clites, God, but £` new w£`}' of worshii)ing the same
I)ecially when gathered before the Lord God. In the OT it is "the whole assembly of
religious 1)ur|)oses. Accordingl)', it is used the congregation of Israel" (Deut. 31 : 30) who
the NT for the congregation which the living hear the law (Dcut. 4: 10; 9:10; 18:16; Acts
God assembles about his Messiah Jesus. Thus 7:38), who sacri£`ice the i]assover lamb (Ex.
the church is the spiritual family of God, the 12), whom God redeems from Egypt (Ex.
Christian fellowship created by the Holy 15: 13,16; Ps. 77:15; 74:2; Acts 20:28), with
Spirit through the testimony to the mighty whom God makc`s the t_`ovenant at Sinai (Ex.
acts of God in Christ Jesus. Wherever the 33-35), for whose sins expiatory sacrifii`cs are
Holy Spirit unites worshiping souls to Christ provided (Lev. 4 and 16), who arc a holy
and to each other there is the mystery of the nation to praise God (Ex. 19:6; I-Ios. 2:23;
church. Ps. 22:22; Of. IIeb. 2:12: I Pet. 2:9-10).
The Definition of the Clntrch. ^1ore fully Other NT I)i`ssages also recognize a unit}r with
stated, the one church of God is not an institu- the OT I)eoi]le of God (hlatt. 8:11; Ron.
tional but a supernatural entity which is in 11:16-28; I Cor.10:1+4). The messianic ex-
process of growth towards the world to come. pectation of the OT includes the formation of
CHURCH 124

a faithful new Israel. In Christ the God of the larger gatherings. Thus it is not the addition
OT speaks so that the NT church is the ful- of churches which makes the whole church,
filment of the OT congregation. nor is the whole church divided into separate
The several steps in the formation of the congregations. But wherever the church meets
new Israel of God include the calling of the she exists as a whole, she is the church in that
disciples to gather as sheep about their shep- place. The particular congregation represents
herd, the confession of Peter, the Last Sup- the universal church, and, through participa-
per, the cross and the resurrection, Pentecost tion in the redemption of Christ, mystically
and the sending out of the apostles as eyewit- comprehends the whole of which it is the local
nesses of the resurrection. Jesus bound the dis- manifestation.
ciples not to the Torah of the rabbis nor to The terms "the church of God," ``the
the ideas of a Socrates, but to himself . To this churches in Christ" reach their full expression
fellowship gathered around God's saving self- in "the churches Of God . . . in Christ Jesus,"
revelation in the Messiah, Jesus gave the (I Thess. 2: 14). This phraseology indicates
keryg7"cz, the Lord's prayer, the sacraments that the significant features of the church are
with common praise following .the Last Sup- her relationship to God and to Jesus Christ.
per, a distinct code with special teachings on As to the former, the church is a fact estab-
such matters as divorce, authoritative teachers, lished by God. It is his supernatural act. Ac-
a common purse and treasurer. cording to the consentient testimony of the
God's dealings with men are marked first Old and of the New Testaments, this is not
by a narrowing Of the channel that the stream a man-made myth but a God-given fact. The
of revelation may be deepened and then there- same God who spoke the word of promise to
after that the blessing may become world-wide. ancient Israel speaks the word of fulfilment to
Thus he dealt first with the human race, then the Christian congregation. As the Father re-
with the nation Of Israel, later with the rein- veals the Son, the Messiah builds his church
nant thereof , further with the few pious fami- (Matt. 16: 17-18; 11 :25-30). At Pentecost the
lies from which John, Jesus and the first dis- three miracles manifest the direct action Of
ciples came. When the Good Shepherd was God establishing his church. The NT speaks
taken, all the disc.iples forsook him and fled of the church as God's building, his planting,
so that the Israel of God was one person, the his vineyard, his temple, his household, his
Saviour wiho died on Calvary for the sins of olive tree, his city, and his people. It describes
the world. But God raised up from the dead her ministers as the gifts o£ God (I Cor.
our Lord Jesus Christ and sent that Great 12:28), of the ascended Christ (Eph. 4: 11),
Shepherd of the sheep to gather again the or Of the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28). Paul rec-
flock. At the appointed mountain over five ognized the priority of the Jerusalem church
hundred met him at one time, three thousand not because of the personal importance of the
were converted at Pentecost, and the Lord individuals who composed it, but because this
continued to add together daily those who fellowship of men and women was the assem-
were being saved. bly of God in Christ. That is, he recognized
On the basis of the OT and the gospel prep- the fact of God's action and did not treat it as
aration Christ poured forth the Holy Spirit at a matter of human speculation which was at
Pentecost to constitute the assembled fellow- his disposal.
ship the church of God. The Spirit anointed, As the church is a fact established by God,
christened, sealed every member of the gather- so is she the place where God acts for our sal-
ing. From the exalted Christ, he came to be the vation. Here the risen Lord encounters men,
life and guide of the church until the return of changes them from rebels against their Maker
her Lord. In bringing the gospel to the gehtile into children of their heavenly Father, brings
world, God established a new missionary cen- them from enmity into peace. It pleases God
ter, Antioch, called a new voice, the Apostle by the foolishness of the keryg7"¢ to save those
Paul, and approved a new name for his people, who believe (I Cor.I:21). The gospel is the
Christian. power o£ God who saved us and called us to
The Nature of the Church. Tt\e Apostle faith (Ron.I:16; 15:16 f.; 11 Tim.1:8).
Paul speaks of the whole and of each local As we observe the outward functioning of the
group as ``the church" even as he uses this Word and the sacraments with the bodily
term f or a household of believers as well as for senses, it is not less important that we con-
125 CHURCH

template the activity Of God in the church he may present her spotless for the marriage
with the ear and the eye Of faith. Preaching feast of the Lamb. Thus, within the heart Of
becomes more effective as it calls men more Christ's bride there should ever be a great
of ten to behold God working for them than longing for the hour when all the shadows
when it scolds men for not working better for shall flee before the flaming of his advent
God. "God, the Creator Of heaven and earth, feet.
speaks with thee through His preachers, bap- The Ministry Of the Church. The one es-
tizes, catechises, absolves thee through the sential ministry of the church is, therefore,
ministry of His own sacraments" (Luther). As the ministry of her Lord and Saviour Jesus
the sacrament is administered, Christ is not Christ. Hebrews and Revelation reveal the
less busy giving himself and his blessings to Lamb in the midst of the throne, the High
the believer than the minister is in distributing Priest ever interceding at the heavenly altar o£
the bread and the cup to the communicants. prayer as the focus of Christian worship. By
The Reformers speak of the Sabbath as the his heavenly ministration all of God's people
day in which we are to rest from our labors have access to the throne Of grace. In the NT
that God t"tzy work in us. As God generates church there is no chancel separating the cler-
believers by the preaching ot. the Word of gy from the laity. All of the flock are God's
Christ, and nourishes them by the sacraments heritage (clergy), a royal priesthood, a people
of his grace, faith beholds the face of the Lord (laity) for God's own possession (I Pet. 2:9;
in the form Of the church of the living God. 5:2-3).
God's acts in the church are in Christ Jesus. As under-shepherds, Christ appointed first
An adequate recognition of Jesus as the Mes- Of all the apustles who had companied with
siah and of the mighty acts of God in him him through his ministry and who were eye-
establishes the integral relation Of the church witnesses of his resurrection. By the apostolic
to her Lord. The King-Messiah and the people keryg7#tz, God brought those who had not seen
of God belong together. As the shepherd im- Jesus into a like precious faith with the apos-
plies the flock, as the hen gathers her chickens tles. As they directly represent Christ and
under her wings, as the vine has many speak with the authority he has conferred, so
branches, the body its several members, as the there is no way to him which detours around
foundation supports its building, as the Serv- the apostolic witness to Christ. They preached
ant justifies many, as the Son of Man stands Christ Jesus as Lord and themselves servants
for the saints of the Most High, as the King for Christ's sake (11 Cor.. 4:5). While the
implies the kingdom, so the Messiah has his church belongs to Christ, the apostles belong
twelve and the Lord his church. Jesus spoke to the church, not the church to them (I Cor.
o£ "my church" and of "my flock," and these 3:22). Lest any one would think they bap-
two are linked together in Acts 20:28. The tized in their own name, it was their custom
several lines of parallel thoughts support the to have baptism performed by their associates
imf requent use by Jesus of the word church (Acts 10:47 f.; I Cor.1: 13-17).
(Matt.16:18; 18:17). Following his exalta- Following the apostles were the prophets
tion, by the one Holy Spirit we are all baptized who brought words from God for the prac-
into the one body of Christ and each is given tical problems of life and were responsible to
a special function in his body. Christ is the the church. Then there were evangelists gifted
church herself in that she is the body of in presenting the gospel to win men to Christ
Christ, and yet Christ is distinct from the and teachers to instinct them in Christian liv-
church in that while she is the body he is her ing. In the local congregations there was a
Head, and at the same time her Lord, her plurality Of officers: elders to oversee the work
Judge, her Bridegroom. Her life, her holiness and conduct of the church, and deacons to
and her unity are in him. distribute to the necessities of saints. In this
The heavenly church is the bride awaiting latter service, ministering women ably assisted.
Christ her Bridegroom (Mark 2: 19, 20; 11 Cor. The Mission of the Church. Our Lord Jesus
11:2; Ron. 7:I-6 and especially Ephesians Christ is the sun about which the whole mis-
and Rev. 19-21). Christ loved the church and sion of the church revolves. Public worship is
gave himself up for her. Having cleansed the the encounter of the risen Redeemer with his
church by the washing of water with the people; evangelism is calling men to the Sav-
Word, he is now sanctif ying her in order that iour; publishing the law of God is proclaiming
CHURCH GOVERNMENT 126

his lordship; Christian nurture is feeding his moderators attests a movement towards epis-
lambs and disciplining his flock; ministering to copal supervision. The very existence of such
the needs of men is continuing the work of the groupings as Congregational and Baptist
Great Physician. Unions, with their presidents, shows that
In the whole work and witness of the churches with a basically congregational polity
church, Jesus Christ is to be recognized as are yet alive to the place of other elements in
Lord, the only King in Zion. Her business is the Christian tradition. Yet the generalization
to obey his will, to proclaim not her own but we have stated does apply, and we shall ex-
his reign. For God has established him upon amine these systems in turn.
that throne of which David's was a type (Isa. I. EplscopAc¥ is the system in which the
9:6-7; Luke 1:26-35; Acts 2:25-36). He has chief ministers of the church are bishops, oth-
been enthroned with all authority that he may ers being presbyters (or priests) and deacons.
give repentance an-a remission of sins (Matt. All of these are mentioned in the NT, al-
28: 18; Acts 5:31). Th.anks to his intercession, though there bishops and presbyters seem to
his people have access to the throne of grace be identical (see EplscopAc¥). Those who see
for mercy and help in every time of need. an episcopal system in the NT point to the
Every mercy received from Christ, every com- function of the apostles (which some feel was
fort of the Spirit, every assurance of the Fa- passed on to the bishops they ordained), to the
ther's love is a testimony to the praise of the position o£ James o£ Jerusalem (which is not
glory of God's grace. And the church is this unlike that of the later bishop), to the func-
witness, the concrete evidence of the grace Of tion o£ Timothy and Titus as revealed in the
the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God and the Pastoral Epistles (which seems to indicate a
communion of the Holy Spirit. status intermediate between those of the apos-
BIBLIOGRAPHY tles and the bishops of later times). There are
Amdt; K. L. Schmidt "Ekklesia" in TWNT,. pamphlet also the facts that the apostles practiced ordina-
92 of' World Conference on Faith and Order, 1939;
tion by the laying on of hands (Acts 6:6;
_--_---
I Tim. 4: 14), and that they appointed elders
in the churches they founded (Acts 14:23),
presumably with the laying on of hands. On
this view the apostles were the supreme minis-
ters of the early church, and they took care
i:;B.,I:;ra.f'L?:!,#j,;::;'sjJ;;,:,;£:#'fi%%`;cg;'a'yr,c.s7;:;,,|!that suitable men were ordainc`d to the minis-
C1'|,rcl., try. To some of them they entrusted the power
Articles include: E. Schlink, "Christus und die
to ordain, and so provided for the continuance
§i:ca::ieo':¥ned[)?,,:(c]h9u5r:i}jpip].(]b2£;d¥.84:kBraohu]id`€F[tfit: of the ministry in succeeding generations.
I:uT:,ni:g?e5h5e?:-:e:;a::;;:,:i;bp:ig:Ea:ri:'E;`rpLie|e:i';I::I?.,Tqi's: It is further alleged that the organization
of the church subsequent to NT days sup-
!ex:figh:(:i.i.;:;3?AFCETl:fh±-,i?i,tfi:|9E5?#C5;.oSP!e;1:;:,I:n:f ports this view. In the time of Ignatius the
Fd%:£,\\e&i,;;JoerstusdedrerK.kec{%enr.}dEet:.,,.B#:rLaz5t8rcF\rga:i)1,tapc* lhrecfold ministry was clearly in existence in
325-42; R. Bultmann, "The Transformation of tile lclea
Asia i\Iinor. 8}7 the end of the second century
of the Church in the History ot` Early Christianity," it is attested for Gaul and Africa by the writ-
ings of Irenaeus and Tertullian. Nowhere is
iiuTnNfi:'5:T)±Npgr3b5:r3g(,8lL?:5T%KauEsi'r#3S3isjLF?#t;z7g¥;:Cph:: there evidence of a violent struggle (as would
316-+ 5 .
WILLIAM CHILDS ROBINSON be natural if a divinely ordained congrega-
tionalism or presbyterianism were overthrown),
CHURCH GOVERNMENT. Basically and the same threefold ministry appeared uni-
there are three types of church government, versally. The conclusion that is drawn is that
the episcopal, the presbyterian, and the con- episcopacy is the primitive and rightful form
gregational. Probably none of these exists in a
of church government.
pure fcrmi without admixture of the others. But there are objections. For example, there
Episcopalianism, for example, finds a large is no evidence that bishops differed from pres-
I)lace for presbyters in its synods and else- byters in NT days. It is going too far to say
where, and its congregations have many func- that all the ministry of those times was of
tions of their own. Presbyterian congregations apostolic origin. What was the case with
also play their part, while the appearance of churches not of apostolic f oundation like
127 CIRCUMCISION

Colosse? Again some of the early church or- a man would approach God, but the Christians
ders, like the D;dcic7ie, are congregational in would have none of this. Christ's priestly work
outlook. The case is not proved. has done away with the necessity of any earth-
11. PRESB¥TERIANlsM does not usually hold ly priest if a man would approach God. Added
that only its polity is to be found in the NT. to this is the emphasis on the local congrega-
At the Reformation the Presbyterian leaders tion in the NT. There, it is maintained, we
thought that they were restoring the original see autonomous congregations, not subject to
form of churc`h government, but this would episcopal or presbyterian control. The apostles,
not be vigorously defended by many Presby- it is true, exercise a certain authority, but it is
terians today. It is recognized that there has the authority of founders of churches, and of
been much development, but it is held that the Lord's apostles. Af`ter their death there was
this took place under the guidance of the p.o divinely institu-ted apostolate to take their
Spirit, and that the essentials of the presby- place. Instead the local congregations were
terian system are scriptural. In the NT it is still self-governing, as we see from local church
beyond question that the presbyters occupy an orders like the Djd¢cJie. Appeal is also made
important place. They are identical with the to the democratic principle. The NT makes it
bishops, and form the principal local ministry. clear that Christians are all one in Christ, and
In each place there appears to have been a there is no room for any absolute authority.
number of presbyters who formed a kind Of A consideration of all this evidence, then,
college or committee which was in charge of leaves us with the conclusion that it is impos-
local church affairs. That is the natural con- sible to read back any of our modern systems
clusion to which exhortations like Heb.13 : 17; into the apostolic age. If we are determined to
I Thess. 5: 12 f., etc., point. From the account shut our eyes to all that conflicts with our
of the Council of Jerusalem in Acts 15 we see own system, then we may find it there, but
that the plesbyters occupied an important place hardly otherwise. It is better to recognize that
at the very highest levels of the early church. in the NT church there were elements that
In the subapostolic age the bishop developed were capable of being developed into the epis-
at the expense of the presbyters. This was due copal, presbyterian and congregational sys-
to such circumstances as the need for a strong tens, and which, in point of fact, have so de-
leader in times of persecution and in the con- veloped. But, while there is no reason why
troversies against heretics, and perhaps to the any modern Christian should not hold fast to
prestige attaching to the minister who regu- his particular church polity and rejoice in the
larly conducted the service of Holy Com- values it secures to him, that does not give him
munion. license to unchurch others whose reading of
There is much that is convincing here. the evidence is different.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Against it, as a complete understanding of the
NT and the early church, are the considera-
tions we have adduced under EplscopAcy,
and those to follow under the next heading.
Ill. CoNGREGATloNALISM` as the name im-
i;h::iilh##tgs:jbigti;i;z;:i;:;i:;::E„;;:,;f,cii";i,;4E?ij;;ir;;,
Mfl"t"I of Cot.gregatio7i¢l Prj"cjplcs,. J. Moffatt, TJic
Presbyterian Church.
plies, puts the chief stress oh the place of the
congregation. Perhaps it would not be unfair LEON MORRIS
to say that the chief scriptural buttresses of
this position are the thoughts that Christ is the CIRCUMCISION. An operation performed
Head of his church (Col.1:18, etc.), and on the male organ of propagation for the re-
that of the priesthood of all believers (I Pet. moval of the foreskjn. Although practiced
2:9). It is fundamental to NT teaching that also among other nations, within Israel cir-
Christ has not left his church. He is the liv- cumcision has a distinct meaning. As a sign
ing Lord among his people. Where but two of the covenant with Abraham (Gen. 17: 11)
or three are gathered together in his name, he it partakes of the characteristics of this cove-
is in the midst. Nor is it any less fundamental nant. It appears capable of a progressive deep-
that the way into the very holiest of all is ening of import and teaches ethical and spirit-
open to the humblest believer (Heb.10:19 ual truth. The external rite, whose observance
f.). Other religions of the first century re- is strictly enjoined (Gen. 17: 12 ff.; Ex. 4:24
quired the interposition Of a priestly caste if ff.; Josh. 5:2 ff.), ought to be the sign of an
CITIZENSHIP 128

intcmal change, effected by God (Deut. countryside (Mark 6:56). The Hebrew city
10:16; 30:6). The uncircumcised as well as occupied a defensive hill site (Josh.11:13)
the unclean are barred from the "holy city" near a water supply, and contained a citadel
(Isa. 52:I; cf. Ezek. 44:7, 9). Humility and (Judg. 9:51), walls, gates, narrow streets,
acceptance of God's punishment are to take market place (i\Iatt.11:16), cisterns and a
the place of the uncircumcised heart before sanctuary. Particular quarters housed special
God will restore his covenant (Lev. 26:41). crafts; control was vested in elders (Deut.
The NT echoes this teaching and brings it 19:12), judges and watchmen (Isa. 62:6).
to its completion. Circumcision being a sign The Greek free city state embraced citizens be-
of the righteousness of faith (Ron. 4:10 f.) yond its walls, was administered by ekkle-si¢
and having lost its relevance for justification (citizen-assembly) and bow]G (council), and
through Christ's coming (Gal. 5:6), no NT acknowledged its Tyc7]G or goddess (cf. Roman
believer can be compelled to submit to it (Acts genius).
15:3-21; cf. Gal. 2:3). In the light of this Jerusalem was regarded as the holy city
NT fulfilment the term circumcision now ap- (Isa. 52:1 = Matt. 4:5) of the great King
plies equally to Jewish and gentile Christians (Ps. 48:2 = Matt. 5:35) while it contained
alike (Phil. 3:3) since in the "circumcision of God's tem|)le. The concept of a restored Jeru-
Christ" all those who are baptized have put salem appears in Ezek. 40 ff.; Zech. 2; Hag.
off the body of the flesh (Col. 2: 11 f.). 2:6-9, Pss. Sol. 17:33 and I Enoch 90:28,
BIBLIOGRAPHY and leads Paul to envisage a free city of Jeru-
Rudolf Meyer on per;temJ.o in TWNT; G. Vos, Bjb]j- salem above as the mother (11 Sam. 20:19)
€fl3!6_#!;e°]]o°h8.y'Dep€;oo]t? 36°T56, Z., psj?r¥;F[a7. °TS) 9p PP. o£ Christians (Gal. 4:26). Revelation, viewing
MARTEN H. WOUDSTRA
the present world order as corrupt, teaches that
the holy city must be established either in the
CITIZENSHIP. The word citizenship is millennial age (Rev. 21:9 ff.) or as the final
not used in the AV, but it is used by the ASV habitation of redeemed humanity in the eter-
and the RSV in Acts 22:28 and the ASV in nal state (Rev. 21:I-2). The city is the
Phil. 3:20. "Citizen" and "fellow{itizen" are church, Christ's bride, and the new Israel of
used by all three versions in Luke 15:15; twelve gates, founded on the ke]-yg"cz of the
19: 14; Acts 21 :39 and Eph. 2: 19. The same twelve apostles. It lies foursquare like the
Greek root is used in a few other passages with holy of holies, but being sanctified by God's
various translations. The RSV often translates presence throughout its infinite extent needs
Ro-mc}jos "Roman citizen," and in Judg. 9 no local temple. By allusion to Gen. 2: 10 and
translates "citizens of Shechem" where the Ezek. 47:7 the seer depicts the city's ideal
other versions have "men of Shechem." water supply and security. It was by depicting
Roman citizenship was highly prized be- Christian society as the City o£ God that Au-
cause of its privileges and advantages, such as gustine fostered the medieval conviction that
exemption from degrading punishment, the the empirical Catholic Church was the king-
right of trial before Roman courts with their don of God.
administration of the famed Roman justice, BIBLIOGRAPHY
and the right of appeal to Caesar himself as co£.rensdt;A#v%,B'.p¥.EB7E8;.]S[£5;Chrfe*e£Mrfur:::jnn'.KT|'£]eBfbo':
the supreme court. Citizenship could be in- Rev. 21.

herited by birth, could be granted to individ- DENIS H. TONGUE

uals, or bestowed upon those living in certain
cities or districts. CLEAN, UNCLEAN. The Hebrew £67i6r
The Christian has his citizenship in the and the Greek kczthc}ros chiefly represent the
kingdom o£ God. That fact should make us idea expressed by "clean;" whereas the Hebrew
aware both of our glorious blessings and our tdme' and the Gleck ahathartos Cand ahathar-
corresponding obligations. si¢) chiefly represent the idea expressed by
"unclean."
SAMUEI. A. CARTLEDGE
The OT presents four clean-unclean cate-
CITY. The term pol;s (Heb. `€r) was ap- gories: (I) Sex -the uncleanness of parturi-
plied in biblical times to places of quite modest tion (Lev.12), menstruation (Lev.15: 19-24),
proportrons (e.g., Lachish covered fifteen unlawful copulation (Lev. 20:10-21) and
acres) to distinguish them from villages and seminal emission (Lev.15:16-18). (2) Food
129 COLLECTION

- the uncleanness of certain creatures for food the Lord. In the NT the word is not used of a
(Lev. 11). Blood is likewise forbidden as resti.icted class. It denotes either a lot or a
human diet (Gen. 9:3 f.). (4) Disease -the heritage, and in I Pet. 5:3 the plural is used
defilement of leprosy (Lev. 13, 14). (5) of God's I)eople as a whole. But by the time
Death-the pollution of the corpse (Lev. of Tertullian we find it used of the class Of
11 :24-40; Hag. 2: 13). ordained office-bearers in the church. It was
These distinctions may be justified on the applied to the threefold ministry of bishops,
following grounds: (1) the natural stigma at- priests and deacons. Later on the word ex-
tached to certain things (serpents, death, etc.) tended its meaning to include the minor or-
because of their association with human sin ders, and sometimes, it would seem, members
(Gen. 3). (2) The hygienic cleanliness of the of religious orders or even educated people
people as preservatives of health (Deut. 23 :9- generally. Then it reverted to an earlier use
14). (3) The ceremonial use of certain things and now denotes regular members of the min-
in worship (such as blood for atonement), istry of the church (without respect to de-
thus making them ``unclean" for other uses nomination) as distinct from lay people gen-
erally.
(Lev.17:10-14; Deut.12:15 f.). (4) The
LEON MORRIS
covenant relationship o£ Israel as a holy (un-
contaminated) peo|)le (Lev. 20:7, 22-26). (5) CLOUD. See GLORy AND SHEKINAH.
The typical significance of ceremonialism as
COLLECT. From the Latin co[lectcz, de-
symbols of a spiritually "clean" heart (Ps. 24:3
noting the "gathering together" of the prayers
f.; 51:7,10).
of the congregation into a short compass. Brev-
The NT revelation sets forth eight levels:
ity is thus the essence of a collect. In construe-
(I) the natural impurity of evil spirits (Mark tion it consists of three elements: (a) an in-
I:26 f.) and the unregenerate (Ron.1:24).
vocation, which is usually based on some par-
(2) The legal observance (Gal. 4:4) of ce[e- ticular attribute of the Godhead; (b) the peti-
monial distinctions in Jesus' life (Luke 2:21-
tion, with which is commonly linked some
24; 5:14). (3) The implicit abrogation of
spiritual objective; (c) the termination, plead-
Jewish ceremonialism in Jesus' teaching (Matt. ing the name and merits of Jesus Christ or
15:3-20). (4) The complete repudiation o£
ascribing glory to the triune God. Most of the
ceremonial distinctions in apostolic practice
collects in current liturgical use are ancient,
(Acts 11:1-12) and teaching
(Ron.14:14, being derived from the Latin Sacramentaries
20; Titus I : 15). (5) The explicit retention Of
o£ Leo I (fifth cent.), Gelasius (492), or
the concept of the "clean" with reference to
Gregory (590). Of the more modem collects
children of a believing parent (I Cor. 7:14;
to be found in the Anglican Book o£ Common
cf. Acts 15:20,.29). (6) The retrogression to
Prayer, some date from the Reformation and
ceremonialism in nascent Gnosticism (Col.
were the work of Crammer (e.g., Advent I and
2:16, 20-22). (7) The resurgence of cere-
11), while others were added in 1662 (e.g.,
monial distinctions in the predicted apostasy
Advent Ill, Epiphany VI).
(I Tim. 4:I-5). (8) The etel.nal separation Of FRANK COLQUHOUN
the ``clean" (the saved) and the "unclean"
(the lost) in the world to come (Rev. 22:14 COLLECTION (for the Saints). The word
f.). loge;a, which often occurs in the Koine for
BIBLIOGRAPHY collections with a religious purpose, is used by
nell. fi:aj§fEE? £n HDB; S. Smith in HDAC,. P. W. cram. Paul in I Cor. 16: 1 to describe the collection
WICK BRcOMALI. for the poverty-stricken Jewish Christians at
Jerusalem. Paul also uses le;tot".gj¢ for the
CLHRGY. The word is derived from the same idea in 11 Cor. 9:12 to set forth this
Greek k!e_J.os, "a lot," which may point to a charity as a rehgioi]s service commendable to
method of choosing something like that in God. The plan, although organized by Paul,
Acts I:26 (c£. also Acts 1:17 where "part" was sponsored by the Jerusalem "pillar a|)os-
translates klGi'os). As early as Jerome it was tles" (Gal. 2: 10). Paul himself seems to have
pointed out that the use of the term is am- regarded it as the climax of his work in Gala-
biguous. It may denote those who are chosen tia, Asia, Macedonia and Achaia (Acts 24: 17;
out to belong in a special sense to the Lord, Rom.15:25, 26; 11 Cor. 8:I ff.), and the
or it may signify those whose lot or portion is importance he attached to it can be seen in
COMFORT 130

his careful |]1anning (note the exi]licit direc- authorit}', whether divine or humcln. They are
tions in I Cor. 16:2), his own determination the rendering of se\'eral Hebrew and Greek
to deliver it personally if at all possible, and words which occur as nouns or `'crbs about
his ai)pointment of delegates to accompany nine hundred times in Scrii)lure. The first
him :(cf. G. S. Duncan, Sf . Paii!'s EPJ?es;at. word of God to man was a command: "The
M;77jst7-y, 1929). Lord Cod commzmdcd the nian si`}'ing" (Gen.
2:16).
Man's dis()bcdieni`e to that commi`ncl
DONALD GUTHRIE
was the fall. The c()mm£`ndmi`nts of God {`re
COMFORT. Ne77dti®d and tfl7i7tt}iiii`7Ii are his law which in its f`ullcst scnsc ctjvers e\'cr}'-
variousl}' rendered b)7 the words. "comfort," thing which God has i`()mmi`ndcd. Ps.119
"consolation," ``exhortation," "encouragement,"
uses ten different w()rds nefirl\' two hundred
and the usual Greek equivalent is pfli-c/kze-sis. times to cxi)rcss this iclci`: thi`' inost t`rc(iui`nt
From the Hebrew root come the pro|)er n£`mes are law, word, judgment, testimon}', ct)mmand'
Nahum (comfort) and r\Tehemi£`h (God com- ment, statute, I)rec`c`i7t, sii}ing. In a narrt)w £`nd
forts). The Greek word has a i]ersoml form specific sense, the referenc`e is to thc. Decalogue
pfli-¢klelos which is a descrii)ti`'c title of the or ten commandments (c|.v.).
Hol}' Spirit (Comforter, Paraclete) and means OSWALD T. ALLIS
"one called .ilongsidc' (to hell))."

The Hebrew \7erb "co\7ers a lz`rgc si)here of COMMISSION, THE GREAT. Jesus'
action; its reflexive use denotes man's sorro\`'- command to the Ele-.,'i]r. to i]reach the gosi)el
jng for the past whereas the intensive form ap- on a world-wide basis is conf ined to the post-
plies to active c`onsolation" (Ulrich Simon, A resurrection period. This is not to say that in-
TJic()log,t. of Sclzt7¢tl.o7t, p. 28). When God timations of the divine purpose are lacking
comforts, he docs so by reversing human situa- prior to this time (e.g. Mark 14:9). But there
tions and turning sori-ow into joy. On the na- is an undeniable fitness in withholding pre-
ti()nal scale this was seen particularly in the i`jse direc`tions until the event`s whii`h c`on-
dclivcrance of Israel from the exile (Isa. 40: 1; stitute the lii`sis of the gosi)el have oc`currcd.
+9: 13; 51 :3; etc).
Eai`h of the Gospels has its own sti`tcment
In the NT, although a national application of the Commission. whic`h was doubtli`ss re-
is found in Luke 2:25, p¢i.¢kle-s;s is used in a
peated in somewhat varying form b}7 our Lord
more persomil sense. Comfort is promised to on se\'cral oci`i`sions. Mark's account, found in
those who moum (Matt. 5:4). All three I)er- the disputed ending of his Gosi)cl (16:15),
s(]ns of the Godhc£`d are associated in the min-
emi)hasizes the obligation to go to e`rer}7 crea-
istr}' of consolation (11 Cor.1:3, 5; Phil. 2: 1;
ture with the message. Luke's statement
Acts 9:31). Christ b}' his incarnation is well
stresses the evangelization of the nations as the
£`ittcd to bc our Comforter, ha\'ing full}' shared
fulfilment of God's purl)ose set forth in the OT
our sorrows and temi)tations (Luke 7: 13; Heb.
Scriptures. It is a I)art of the divine I)rogram as
2: 18).
definitel}7 as the death and resurrection of the
B.`rn.ibas means "son of consolation" (Acts
promised Christ (Luke 24:46-48). In John
4: 36); the Epistle to the rlebrews is described
the words of Jesus imiiai't dignit}7 to this task.
as i` "word of c`onsolation" (Heb.13:22); 11
As the Father has sent him, so does the
Corinthians is pre-eminentl}' the ei)istle of con- Saviour send the apostles. The mention of the
sol:ition (p#i.czklGsis in each case). Readiness to
Spirit suggests the source of needed power for
sui)I)ort one another in griefs and trials should this mission, and the word about forgiveness of
alwiiys be characteristic of the Christian fel-
sins I)oints to the cffectivencss of the applica-
lowship (see I Thess. 2:11; Rom.I:12; Col.
tion of the gospel to the needs of sinful men
4: 11).
(John 20:21-23).
]}IBLIOGRAPIIY
Arndt; A-S; HDB; HDCG,. H. H. Farmer, Tlie IIc'a!-
The peculiarity o£ Acts 1:8 lies in its spe-
iii# Cro.``s, p. 133; N. Snaith, D;stj"ctivL' Id.'as of tJ!e cification of the areas in which the witness is
0!{! Tcisraiiic"t, p. 180.
to be given. Galilee is omitted,.perhaps on the
L. E. H. STEPHENS-HODGE
assumption that the discii)les, being Galileans,
COMFORTER. See Hot.¥ SplRIT. will not neglect their own section. Each of the
I)laces mentioned has its own reason for em-
COMMAND, COMMANDMHNT. These phasis. Jerusalem must not be avoided because
are the words most frequently used to exiiress of antipathy for those who there crucified the
131 COMMUNION OF SAINTS

Lord. Such peo|)le advertise their need for the ables men, though not born again, to develop
gosi)el. Judea is the probable home of the be- the latent forces of the universe and thus make
tra}'er, but it must not suffer neglect on this a positive contribution to the fulfilment of
account. Samaria conjures up feelings of ani- the cultural mandate given to men through the
mosit}', but this must not deter the apostles first man, Adam, in paradise.
from ministr}' there. Jesus himself had pointed Recent criticism of this general idea centers
the wi`}' (John 4). The uttermost part of the around the person of the Reverend Herman
c'i`rth suggests the masses of I)aganism with Hoeksema. He holds the view that common
their idoli`tr}7 and immorality. These must be grace is an unavoidable stepping-stone toward
rcachcd, £`nd without the complaint that the the Arminian view that God desires to save all
Mi`stc`r i`ont`inc'.d his li`bors to the Jews. men.
In Matthew 28:19 the em|)hatic word is In the face of such criticism the Synod of
not go but ma7ce czi.sc;pzes. This means to make the Christian Reformed Church o£ North
c`onverts, .is in Acts 14:21. Evangelism must America in 1924 reaffirmed the idea of com-
bc £`ollowed b}7 Z7¢pt!.zi7cg and feGchj74g. The mon grace under three heads: (I) a favorable
command is grounded in Jesus' universal au- attitude on the part of God toward mankind
thority (v. 18) and is implemented by his in general; (2) the restraint of sin in the life
of individual men and in society; and (3) the
I)romise of unfailing presence and support (v.
20). performance of civic righteousness by the un-
E'`'ERETT F. HARRISoN regenerate.
Going beyond these "three I)oints" William
COMMON. The Jewish concept of "com- Masselink, following Valentine Hepp, sets
mon" as "uni`lean" is reflected in Acts 10: 14, forth a point of view which leads back toward
28; 11 :8, in connection with Peter's vision on a Romanist notion of natural theology.
the housetop. There the two terms are synon- Avoiding the e.¥treme views of Hoeksema
vinous. The word koj7®os js even translated ``de- and Masselink othc`rs would think of common
i.iled" in Mark 7:2, "unclean" in Ron. 14: 14 grace as a limiting concept supplementing the
(three times), and "unholy" in Hebrews basic conce|)t of the full sovereignty of God
10:29 (AV). The cognate verb koj7too- is and the genuine significance of human re-
rendered "defile" in eleven of its fif teen oc- sponsibility. Thus viewed, common grace does
currences in the NT (AV). This reveals the not tone down but supports even as it supple-
strong Jewish emphasis on ceremonial clean- ments the view of the total depravity of man.
ness and uncleanness. Those who hold this position maintain that par-
But in the NT kol.74os also has its original tii`ularly when thus viewed, there can be a true
dnd full api]reciation of all that is "true and
meaning of "belonging to the group." Thus
we read of "the common f`aith" (Titus I:4) good" an}'where on the part of those who
and "the common salvation" (Jude 3). It is greatly stress the idea of saving grace as o£
stated that the early disciples in Jerusalem God alone.
"had all things common" (Acts 2:44; 4:32) BIIiLIO(`,R,\PIIY
11. Bavinck, DL' AIgc't]?t'c'iic Gc"t[t]t'; A. Ku}'per, Dt'
(see CoMMUNIT¥ oF GooDS). A careful study Gc'.il('['i.{J Graf!.{',.11. Kuiper, Ca!viw orl Colt"i®oii Gr¢c`t';

of the Greek tenses, however, shows that when

special needs arose these were met by some g`#:I;`i`aif.,.?€#,,.I,i:,,:I,:!',f5,::;I;?!:?fh.:,i:.;cc;%r`k.;'|;fl:C;i:i:i:I;
Christ and Ciiltill.a..
believer selling I)roperty and donating the
CORNELIUS VAN TII.
proc`eeds. Private property was not abolished.
RAI.PH EARLE COMMUNION, HOLY. See LORD's Sup-
PER.
COMMON GRACE. The doctrine of com-
mom grace, says Herman Bavinck, enables one COMMUNION 0F SAINTS. Sfl7cctoi-c477®
to recognize and appreciate all that is good and Co7ti#!ti7?;oMc"z, the second c`lause of the ninth
beautiful in the world while at the same time artii`Ic of the Ai)ostlcs' Creed, traceable to the
holding unreservedly to the absolute character text of Nicc`tas o£ Aquileia in the fifth ccn-
of the Christian religion. Whereas si)ecial tur}', is I)robal)l}' the latest addition to the Ro-
grace regenerates the hearts of men, common man symbol, but is ()f uni`ertain origin and
grace: (1) restrains the destructive I)rocess o£ imi)lii`ation. Commiinion implies a sharing, but
sin within mankind in general and (2) cn- f roln the c'`clrlicst timt`s there has bc`cn con-
COMMUNITY OF GOODS 132

fusion over what is shared. (1) The acts of share in the d;flko7®ie and relieve the poverty
the council of Nines, Aquinas, and Abelard of Jerusalem saints. In 11 Cor. 8:4 he uses the
treat sci7tctort" as neuter gender and under- remarkable phrase tg7c koi7¢o-";a# £e-s diako"3as
stand it to affirm participation in the sacra- ious hagious.
ments. (2) Others, as Nicetas, treat sc[7®cto7.w7„ BIBT ,IOGRAPHY
as masculine, representing an expansion of the
preceding phrase, "holy catholic church." It is g:Z,Za:":,.FPE6:6:!s-,5f;i;?¥#::T6a¥A:i:iJ,e:¥.:eLa:k:e:,tB:f
I.ellowship of believers with each other that DENIS H. TONGUE
was understood by the Reformers and many
modern interpreters. There is debate, however, COMPARATIVI] RELIGION. This is
over whether the communion is limited to the study of the various religions of the world
those on earth, or, as some Catholic theologians in their relationships of similarity and dissimi-
insist, is with saints in heaven, on earth, and larity. It is obviously legitimate in itself, ant)
in purgatory. (3) Others like Barth affirm a to the extent that Christianity has the external
combination of these first two views. (4) Still features of religion it may rightly be included
others, like Faustus of Reiz, have understood in this type of investigation. Indeed, a higher
a communion of saints and angels in heaven legitimation may be t`ound in the fact that
to be enjoyed after death. with varying degrees of corruption all religions
BIBLIOGRAPHY derive originally from natural revelation (q.v.).
On the other hand, certain dangers are to be
noted. First, comparative religion is often ap-
£::i;js;:;ii,?!fcS;;,if%:e;if';+p,'J:.#`g:oj:4;;i:;igfi#g?-¥P:3,,:T3hi: plied to the explaining away of all religion and
therefore of Christianity. Second, it has the
JACK P. LEWIS
result Of making religion a purely human
COMMUNITY OF GOODS. The primi- phenomenon and thus subjectivizing it. Third,
it entails a relativizing of Christianity as per-
tive koj7z6#7.H is confined to Acts 2:42-46; 4: 32
-5:4, but see also terms koi7c67cos = partner haps the best religion, yet only one among
many others. Finally, it obscures the proper
(Luke 5:10), koz.7®o-7ceI.7¢ = to share (Ron.
work of Christian theology, substituting his-
12: 13), koj7to-7.jkos (I Tim. 6: 18), and koj7¢o--
torical investigation for' biblical exposition and
"3¢ = communion (I Cor. 10: 16) and yakyad,
"fellowship." Heb. yczz2¢cZ (= kol."o-7!i¢) often dogmatics. It has thus to be realized that com-
occurs in Manual of Dead Sea Sect, which parative religion can teach us only the less
important things concerning the form of the
practiced total community of goods and ban- divine revelation in Jesus Christ and our re-
ished the fraudulent. Philo praises the Essene
sponse to it. If this is firmly grasped, and it
koj7to-7t;c! which included sharing of houses,
is given only a minor role in theology, it is not
clothes, food and wages (Q.O.P.L. par. 84,
without a certain interest and value. But if
91). Josephus says it obtained from city to
I`.ot, it denies from the very outset the basic
city.
factor o£ God's own Word and work, and in
Jesus fed the multitudes communally, sanc- the hands of friends and foes alike its results
tioned a common I)urse (John 12:6), and ac- are necessarily mischievous.
cepted the djczko7".a of many women (Luke GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
8:3). Peter organized the koi#o-#j4! (Acts
2:42) for the 3,000 Jerusalem converts to off- COMPASSION. Denoting by its deriva-
set ostracism and excommunication from syna- tion "suffering with another," compassion may
gogues (John 9:22). Believers had all things be described as pity touched with loving con-
common, but based the system on the sale of cern. The principal scriptural terms are the
cai]ital, not on daily labor as at Qumran; hence Hebrew rci¢¢-7"€t#, related to "womb," and the
its swift collapse. From Acts 4:33 -5:4 the Greek sphagch7c¢, "bowels." Used metaphorical-
"communism" appears voluntary, proceeds be- ly, they carry the thought of yearning over
ing at Ananias's disposal after sale. Many, like another with great feeling. The Bible shows
Barnabas, sold possessions to relieve the needy, a pref erence for the use of the verb form
anticipating an early Parousia. rather than the noun. Our Lord felt compas-
The koj7!o-7".ci soon disappeared, to be re- sion for the neglected multitudes (Matt. 9:36)
placed by an organized d;¢ko7?;a (Acts 6: I, 2). and also for the suffering and sorrowing in-
In gentile churches Paul urged converts to dividual (Luke 7: 13). The prominence given
13 3 CONCURSUS

to this trait in his parabolic teaching (Luke sometimes linked with grace to describe the
10:33; Matt.18:27; Luke 15:20) reflects the divine operation which accompanies the hu-
degree to which it was dominant in his own man as distinct from the prevenient grace
character. By constantly exemplifying it, he gave which precedes.
to the OT representation of God as a pitying GEOFFREY W. BROMILET
father (Ps. 103:13) a real (rather than a
merely illustrative) significance. Though he CONCORDAT. A treaty or legal agree-
showed such great compassion for others, Jesus ment between the Roman Catholic Church
sought none for himself , even in the agony Of and a secular state having to do with religious
the garden and the pain Of the cross. He was matters of concern to the church within that
a stranger to self-pity. particular state. Usually such agreements are
When Christ is enthroned in the hearts Of negotiated in the interests of the Papacy when
his people, the appeal to be compassionate its properties and standing are threatened. The
toward one another is both natural and prac- existence of a concordat supposes a diplomatic
ticable (Phil. 2: 1; I Pet. 3:8). victory for the church. When states or nilers
Whereas compassion has a strong emotional work closely with the church to maintain its
coloring, its synonym mercy (q.v.) more often position or primacy there is no need for an
is connected with positive measures for relief agreement, but when the church has been de-
(Ron. 12:8). prived of what it considers to be its rights or
EVERETT F. HARRISON privileges then the concordat guarantees to the
church whatever rights and privileges may be
CONCEPTUALISM. A solution to the negotiated.
philosophic problem Of universals first set forth One of the most important treaties signed
by Peter Abelard and reaffirmed by St. Thorn- was that between Napoleon Bonaparte and
as Aquinas. Avoiding the errors of the ex- the church known as the Concordat o£ 1801.
treme realism of William of Champeaux on HAROLD LINDSELL
the one hand, and those of nominalism on the
other, it affimed that universals exist j% re. CONCUPISCENCE. Concupiscence is the
equivalent of the Greek epjtht„„in usually
See also REALlsM ANI) NOMINALISM.
GREGG SINGER
translated "lust" but occasionally "concupis-
cence" and, in a good sense, "desire." It signi-
CONCISION. Paul uses the term once fies for the most part the wrongful inclination
(Phil. 3:2) in a play on words with circum- of the sinner which characterizes his nature
cision, to stigmatize the ``cutting" party which and leads to sinful acts. While allowing that
sought to force circumcision upon Gentile be- it is sinful in the unregenerate, medieval and
lievers. In the OT this word ketotome- is used Romanist theologians argue that it is only the
of lacerations inflicted on the body, as in the testing scar and combustible material of sin
case Of the prophets of Baal (I Kings 18:28). in the baptized, in whom original sin is sup-
Sini`e in Christ outward circumcision is noth- posed to be abolished. But Reformation the-
ing (Gal. 6:15), the imposition of it on the ology does not accept this distinction or its
believer is meaningless mutilation, seeing that presupposition. Although not im|>uted, orig-
he already has the circumcision of Christ inal sin remains in believers, and therefore
which sets him apart unto God (Phil. 3:3; concupiscence may and must be said to have
"of itself the (true and proper) nature of sin."
Cbl. 2: 1,).
EVERETT F. HARRISoN GEOFFREY W. BROMII.E¥

CONCOMITANCE. This is a technical CONCURSUS. This term denotes God's

term used in the eucharistic theology of Roman continuous action on the creation in conjunc-
Catholicism to describe the presence of both tion with the action of his creatures. His provi-
the body and blood Of Christ in each of the dential control may be said to embrace the
species Of bread and wine, and thus to afford preservation of all things and also their direc-
a theological justification for the denial of the tion so as to insure lhat they will fulfil his
cup to the laity. More widely, it denotes the will. The concursus is necessarily Of divine pro
presence Of the whole Christ, i.e., his human vision and continues to operate according to
soul and Godhead, together with the body and his good pleasure. As applied to human life,
blood in virtue Of the hypostatic union. It is it involves the problem of divine sovereignty
CONDEMN, CONDHMNATION 134

in relation to human freedom. Among the to a weak universalism. From the biblical
Schoolmen, Aquinas gave to concursus its most standpoint, however, they fail to do justice to
extensive elaboration. such passages as Isa. 66:24 (cf. Mark 9:44,
See also FREEDOM, PRovlDENCE, WII.I, oF 46, 48); Matt. 22:13 and 25:46; John 3:36;
MAN. Acts 1:25 and Rev. 20: 10. Again, while eter-
BIBLIOGRAPHY nal or everlasting is not to be construed merely
G. J. Stokes in HERE; J. Koestlin in SHERK,. ODCC. in terms of temporal duration, its sense is
EVERETT F. HARRISoN surely more than that of termination. Finally,
while the Bible speaks of the overthrow of
CONDEMN, CONDEMNATION. The death and hell (Rev. 2Q:14), it is difficult
verb is used in a typically forensic setting in to think of a total extinction of being as dis-
Deut. 25:I, where the judges are to "justify tinct from exclusion from the divine presence
the righteous, and condemn the wicked." From (11 Thess.1:9) and therefore from real life
this a regular use arises for the condemnation (cf. S. D. F. Salmond, T7ie C7irjsfi¢" Doctr;"e
of one man by another. The more important Of lmmortahity).
use of the verb however, and the regular use See also ANNIHILATloNlsM.
of the noun, is for condemnation by God. The WILLIAM KELLY
teaching of the Bible on this subject is summed
up in two passages in John. Men's condemna- CONFESSION 0F CHRIST. The word
tion lies in this, ``that the light is come into confession (7707"ozogjfl,) means acknowledgment
the world, and men loved the darkness rather of something along with other people, or agree-
than the light; for their works were evil" (John ment as to the facts. In the technical sense of
3:19). The other passage says: "He that an acknowledgment o£ Christ it is used main-
heareth my word, and believeth him that sent ly in the verb form J®o7"ozoge6. Believers con-
me, hath eternal life, and cometh not into fessed that Jesus was the Messiah (John
judgment (i.e., condemnation), but hath 9:22); that he was the Son o£ God (I John
passed out of death into life" (John 5:24). 4: 15); that he had become incarnate (I John
That is to say, there is a very real and a very 4:2); and that he was Lord, chiefly on the
serious condemnation. Men who choose the basis of his resurrection (Ron. 10:9; Phil.
lesser way, the love of darkness rather than 2: 11). Jesus taught the necessity of confessing
light, come under nothing less serious than him before men if one would be acknowl-
God's condemnation with all that that implies. edged by him before the Father in heaven
But the work Of Christ is to deliver men from
(Matt.10:32). Failure to confess him in these
condemnation. ``There is therefore now no ways is attributed to theological error (11 John
condemnation to them that are in Christ Jesus" 7) or to craven fear (John 12:42).
(Ron. 8: I). In view of the variety of predicates assigned
LEON MORRIS
to Christ in these statements, it is improbable
CONDITIONAL IMMORTALITY. On that confession was limited to the occasion of
this vie,w, first advanced by Arnobius, con- baptism.
demned at the Lateran Council in 1513, but Since confession is not inevitably linked
much favored today, immortality is a divine with the mention of faith as a condition of
salvation, the implication is that true faith will
gif t only to believers, the wicked being subject
to annihilation. Supporters of this teaching issue in confession, even as repentance is un-
argue that the Bible does not proclaim the derstood as a necessary condition, along with
Greek view of immortality, that death as the faith, even though it is not always mentioned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
penalty of sin entails destruction, and that the
eternity of punishment refers to its finality Mi?hep.inBUTrftyitnT¥DAC; J. Y. Campbell in RTWB,. o.
rather than its duration. They try to maintain EVERETT F. HARRISoN
harmony with Scripture by agreeing that all
are raised at the last judgment but presuming CONFESSION OF FAITH. A declara-
that unbelievers then fall under the condemna- tion of religious belief, an acknowledgment
tjon of the second death. In this way they made publicly before witnesses (I Tim. 6: 12,
hope to avoid what are thought to be the more 13). Occasionally the phrase is used to de-
repugnant elements in the doctrine Of eternal scribe the creeds of the early church, but more
punishment without making any concessions particularly the formal statements made by the
135 CONFIRMATION

Protestant churches at the time of the Reforma- even to the whole body of presbyters. In James
tion and afterwards. The main Evangelical 5 : 16 confession is mutual among church mem-
(Lutheran) confessions are the Confession of bers, as is the prayer for one another.
Augsburg, 1530, the work of Melanchthon, It is a corollary of confession to God that
approved by Luther; Articles of Smalkald, acknowledgment of sins against a brother
1573; Formula,1577; and Book of Concord, should be made to the offended person. Matt.
1580. Reformed (Calvinist) confessions 5:21 implies this. Such a private offense may,
number nearly thirty Of which the most im- on occasion, also come to be confessed in the
portant are: the Helvetic Confession, 1536 and presence of the whole church (Matt.18: 17).
1566; the Scottish,1560; the Heidelberg Cate- DoriALD w. 8. ROBINsON
chism, 1563; The Canons of the Synod of
Dort, 1618; and the Westminster Confession, CONFESSOR. (a) A name first applied to
1646, the work of the Westminster Assembly, early Christians who confessed the faith in
a synod appointed by the Long Parliament in times of persecution, and were exposed to pos-
1642 to revise the Thirty-Nine Articles of the sible dangers and suff`ering, but who did not
Church o£ England. This latter confession has actually suffer martyrdom. Later the name was
been used by the Church o£ Scotland since applied more loosely to those who had not
1647, and was approved by Parliament in been exposed to dangers but who were known
1648. to have led holy lives. After the fourth century
the church publicly honored confessors even
M. R. W. FARRER
though they had not suffered martyrdom. (b)
The priest who hears confessions in the
CONFESSION OF SINS. The confession
Roman Church (in the sacrament of penance).
of sins is part of the confession or acknowl-
This generally means private confessions to
edgment (Greek 71otmologi¢) of the sovereignty
those who have been appointed for this pur-
o£ God (Isa. 45:23; Ron. 3:,19). It is the ad-
mission of guilt when confronted with the re- pose.
HAROLD LINDSELL
vealed character and will of God, whether or
not forgiveness follows (Lev. 26:40; Josh. CONFIDENCE. The word confidence -in
7: 19; Matt. 27:4). Confession is consequently the OT is primarily the rendering of the He-
a test of repentance and belief in the gospel, brew word Z76.t¢b, meaning to trust, and its
as Mark 1:I-5 illustrates, and by God's grace derivatives. In the NT it is primarily the ren-
i,S:;)C°anndjt£:fne°£efc°trug:ye;leas;e{P{i3K2£:n5Ss[8J:°3h3: dering of the Greek words pcz7-}'e-si¢, meaning
boldness (Acts 28:31; Heb. 3:6; 10:35; I
Neh.1:6; Ps. 66:18; Dan. 9:4; Luke 18:9-
John 2:28; 3:21; 5:14), and pejt7io-with its
14). The Levitical law required confession derivative pepoith6si.s, meaning to put confi-
(with restitution where possible) before remis- dence in (2 pf.) and confidence respectively
sion of either individual or corporate trespasses
(11 Cor.I:15; 2:3; 8:22; 10:2; Gal. 5:10;
(Lev. 5:5; Nun. 5:7; Lev.16:21). Eph. 3:12; Phil.1:25; 3:3, 4; 11 Thess. 3:4:
While confession of sins is primarily before Philem. 21). The word frequently refers to
God (Ps. 51:3-4; Ron.14:10-12), it may on trust or confidence in men (11 Cor.1:15).
occasion involve some sort of open communica- Its most striking use is in connection with the
tion, as in a general confession of the church confident access that the believer has toward
to God either collectively or by the mouth of God due to faith in Christ (Eph. 3: 12).
a representative (Ezra 9:6), or in confession S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR.
by individuals, in the presence of the church,
of their sins against God (Acts 19:18; James CONFIRMATION. One of the seven sac-
5: 16). The latter is not a public disclosure of raments of both the Roman Catholic and East-
secret sins (which might be unedifying and ern Orthodox Church. The Roman Church
scandalous: Eph. 5:12) but an admission of teaches that it was instituted by Christ,
guilt in matters of general concern where the through his disciples, for the church. Its early
consc.ience of the church might be aggrieved; history is somewhat uncertain and only grad-
it is not for the benefit of the confessor. 11 ually did it receive recognition as a sacrament.
Cor. 2:5-7 and Gal. 6:I imply such confes- It was given a sacramental status by Peter
sion. But there is no suggestion of private con- Lombard in the twelfth century, and by
fession of sins to an individual presbyter or Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth centur}';
CONFORMITY 136

finally, by the Council of Trent in the six- sciousness which means "awareness of ." Con-
teenth century. One of the two sacraments ad- science is an awareness but restricted to the
ministered by a bishop in the Roman Catholic moral sphere. It is a moral awareness. The
Church, its purpose is to make those who have Greek equivalent in the NT is sy7!eide-sis, a
been baptized in the faith strong soldiers of compound of sy# ``together" and ejde#aj ``to
Jesus Christ. It is administered to children know," that is, to know together with, to have
before they receive their first communion, common knowl.edge together with someone.
generally at about the age of twelve. Concern- The German Gewisse7e has the same meaning.
ing it St. Thomas Aquinas wrote: "Confirma- The prefix ge expresses a collective idea, the
"together with," and wjsse# is "to know."
tion is to baptism what growth is to genera-
tion." It is administered according to this The word conscience does not appear in
form: "I sign thee with the sign of the Cross the OT. However, the idea is well known and
and confirm thee with the chrism of salva- is expressed by the term heart. It appears at
tion." Since it confers an indelible character the very dawn of human history as a .sense of
upon the recipient, it is administered but once. guilt with Adam and Eve after the fall. We
According to Roman Catholic theology, sane- read of David that his heart smote him (11
tifying grace is increased in the soul and a Sam. 24:10). Job says: "My heart shall not
special sacramental grace consisting of the reproach me" (Job 27:6). And Ps. 32:1-5
seven gifts of the Holy Spirit is conferred upon and 51:I-9 are the cries of anguish of an
the recipient. In the Lutheran Church con- aroused conscience.
firmation is a rite rather than a sacrament and The Babylonians, like the Hebrews, identi-
the recipient offers it as a confirmation in his fied conscience with the heart. The Egyptians
own heart of those baptismal vows which his had no specific word for conscience but recog-
parents assumed in his behalf. It is adminis- nized its authority, as is evident from the Book
tered but once at about thirteen or fourteen of the Dead. The early Greeks and Romans
years of age and admits the recipient to the personified conscience and depicted it as fiend-
communion. In the Protestant Episcopal ish female demons called Erinyes and Furies
Church it is a sacramental rite completing respectively.
baptism. The word s,wejde-sis or "conscience" appears
BIBLIOGRAPHY thirty times in the NT - nineteen times in
wr]br!.mE};y,D§:cn;:Seer;tasi°ttTr:::h,9nfgcaa„t3°£j:ac%:g|:;.g:
the writings of Paul, five times in Hebrews,
Reformatiorl'L Churches. three times in the letters Of Peter, twice in
GREGG SINGER Acts, and once in the Gospel of John, although
the correctness of the latter reading (8:9) has
CONFORMITY. From the verb "to con- been questioned.
form" ("to become or be like," or "to follow Definition. Conscience is that faculty in
the pattern of"), conformity indicates an in-
man by which he distinguishes between the
ternal or external adherence to an accepted morally right and wrong, which urges him to
norm. In the NT, the Christian is not to be
do that which he recognizes to be right and
conformed to this world (Rom. 12:2) but is restrains him from doing that which he recog-
predestinated to be conformed to the image of nizes to be wrong, which passes judgment on
the Son of God (Ron. 8:29). Hence there
his acts and executes that judgment within his
must always be marks of both nonconformity
soul. Webster defines conscience as the sense
and conformity in Christian life. In historical
or consciousness of right and wrong. Kant
usage the term denotes acceptance of the com-
speaks of it as a consciousness of a court within
mon standard, either of belief or more spe-
man's being or the categorical imperative. Oth-
cifically of modes of worship, government and ers have defined conscience as the ethical sense
conduct. organ in man.
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
Conscience is innate. According to Ron.
CONSCIENCE. The word conscience is 2: 14-15 conscience is innate and universal. It
derived from the Latin co7®scje7ctjcz which is a is not the product of environment, training,
compound of the preposition co" and scjo habit, race impression, or education, though it
meaning "to know together," "joint knowledge is influenced by all of these factors.
with others," "the knowledge we share with As to function, conscience is threefold. (1)
another." It stems from the same root as con- Obligatory. It urges man to do that which he
137 CONSECRATE, CONSECRATION

regards as right and restrains him from doing to translate a number of Hebrew words: On
that which he regards as wrong. (2) Judicial. qGde-5 see below. On Zi6ra7" (Mic. 4: 13, "de-
Conscience passes judgment upon man's de- vote'') see CuRSE. Ne-zer signifies a pagan re-
cision and acts. (3) Executive. Conscience ligious dedication (Hos. 9:10 RSV) as well
executes its judgment in the heart of man. It as the Nazarites' act and status of sepc!r¢tjo"
condemns his action when in conflict with his to God. (Nun. 6:7, 9,12; Nun. 6:18 f.
conviction by causing an inward disquietude, RSV; cf. Lev. 21:12 RSV). Cf. Judg.13:5
distress, shame, or remorse. It commends when LXX-A (7cclzjrafo7®) and Matt. 2:23. Mille-' y6¢,
"to fill the hand," is a technical phrase used
man has acted in conf ormity with his convic-
tions. primarily Of a priest's installation (Ex. 28:41;
Erring conscience. This is a misnomer. Con- Lev. 21:10 RS`V) and, as a substantive,
science does not err, but the standard on the owi!Zw'€7", of the installation offerings (Ex.
basis of which conscience acts might be in 29:22). The idiom reflects an ordination cere-
error. mony in which a portion Of the sacrif ice was
The morbid, perverted or narrow conscience. placed in the priest's hand symbolizing his
By this is meant a conscience out of proper future duties and rights.
balance, narrow, fanatic, bigoted. In the RSV the hundred odd occurrences
Pathological and neurotic conscience. This usually stand for qddG5 and its Greek equiva-
has its origin in a psychic disorder or in a lent, hagjc!zo-, "to dedicate, to set apart to God."
neurosis rela-ted to phobias, obsessions, fixed See SANCTIFY, SANCTIFlcATloN, HOLY. They
ideas, and compulsions. are applied to the priests, people, temple, sac-
Doubting conscience. One who acts in un- rifices, money (Ex.19: 10; 29:33, 36; 40:9 f.;
certainty. Ron. 14:23 declares such action to Judg.17:3); and, in the NT, to Christ, Chrisr
be sinful. tians, and food (John 17: 19; I Tim. 4:5).
Dulled, calloused, or a dead conscience. This Te}ejoo- (and its cognates), usually trans-
is a condition wherein conscience ceases to lated "make perfect," ``perfection," is a cultic
function because of repeated disregard of its terln in the Greek mystery religions meaning
waning voice. Paul speaks of it as a seared "to consecrate, to initiate, the initiate." Sin-
conscience (I Tim. 4:2). ilarly, the patristic writers use it Of the act of
Good conscience. When man acts in con- baptism and of the baptized person. The death
fomity with his convictions, he is said to have
Of a martyr is expressed also by this word
a good conscience. . "Faith cannot exist and
(Eusebius HE Ill. 35; VII.15; cf. IV Macc.
abide with and alongside Of a wicked inten-
7: 15; Heb.12:23, Rev. 6:9). The LXX some-
tion to sin and to act against conscience"
times so translates 7„iz!g', 7wj]lt4'€7", with refer-
(Formt4ha of Co"cord, Epitome IV, Triglotta, ence to the priest's installation and the installa-
p. 795, Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, tion sacrifice (e.g. Ex. 29:9, 22; cf. Philo, de
Mo.).
vjf¢ Mosjs 11. 149).
Social conscience. The merging of the in-
This technical usage may carry over into
dividual moral consciousness into a group
moral consciousness results in the social con- some NT passages which speak o£ Christ as
"consecrated" or "made perfect" (tezejoo-) by
science.
Freedom of conscience. The freedom to be- death (Heb. 2:10; 5:9; 7:28J. That is,
Christ's sacrifice involves a final consecration
lieve, practice, and propagate any religion
through which he is installed (in his resur-
whatsoever or none at all is referred to as free-
rection) into his high priestly function (Luke
don of conscience.
13:32) and in which believers also are con-
Conscience is a wonderful gift of God. It is
a guardian of morality, justice, and decency in secrated (John 17:23; Heb.10:14). This act
the world. It is an irrefutable testimony to the of consecration likewise sanctifies (hc}gj¢zo-)
and glorifies (doa¢flzo-,) both Christ (John 17: |9;
existence of God.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 12:23; 13:31 f.; 17:5) and believers (Heb.
2:10 f.; John 17:10). The relationship of
pieAiee,M6onRsec}ew„£c¥:L' t7geN¥£jcfes°t£"Ce'%:C;e"ce; C. A.
these terms is of some soteriological signifi~
ALFRED M. REHWINKEL
Cance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONSECRATE, CONSECRATION. In
the AV these terms are used some forty times a„AdTedi#%#Bp.°36Lfe,V.]377:3f?;B9.F.M*:set];ot?,erEPBj:ii!
CONSISTORY 138

tt°hethfuyJ:teebrrye%S:,3P&o6n3s,£bFi3Ao.££:Kermedyist.Pauland
give, and be
"Blessed take
theaway,
namebut
of Job
the would
Lord" still say,
(I:21).
E. EARLE ELLls
Jesus enhanced the concept of God as an in-
CONSISTORY. The consistory was for- terested Father, and thereby helped men to
merly the antechamber of the imperial palace. cease from their anxieties (Matt. 6:24-34).
Here the emperor sat on a tribunal to dispense Paul did it by urging faith in Christ and be-
lief in immortality. And for him "godliness
justice, with others standing around him (co7i-
siste„tes). The term was taken over at a later with contentment (¢wt¢rkei.cz) is great gain"
date by the church, mostly in connection with (I Tim. 6:6).
the administration of ecclesiastical law. Thus, J. KENNETH GRIDER
in certain Presbyterian churches the church
CONTRITION. Contrition is sorrow for
sessions are known as consistories. In the
sin because it is displeasing to God. When we
Church of England the bishop's court for the
analyze the meaning of repentance (q.v.), we
administering of canon law is in most cases
realize that a person may repent of sin for two
known as the consistory court. In Roman
reasons: (a) the fear of punishment; (b) be-
Catholicism the term is used for an assembly
cause he has offended a just and holy God.
of the cardinals in the presence of the Pope
The term ``attrition" is used in Roman Catholic
and may take one of three forms, a public, a
theology (from the Middle Ages) to denote
semi-public and a private.
the first, and "contrition" the second. Obvious-
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY ly the first reason for repentance is not because
CONSOLATION. See CoMFORT. sin is an evil thing, but because of possible
unpleasant consequences to oneself. Such an
CONSUBSTANTIATION. A technical attitude does not constitute penitence in the
term o£ Scholastic origin commonly applied to true sense (cf. 11 Cor. 7:9-10). The second
the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper. is the proper attitude, and indicates real love
Co#st4Z?st¢#t;cztio carries several possible senses : o£ God and desire to please him. Even Roman
(1) a commixture Of two substances, (2) an Catholic theologians, though teaching the nee-
inclusion of one substance in another, (3) a essity of confession to a priest to receive ab-
simultaneous coexistence of two substances. solution, allow that a true "act of contrition,"
Only (3) may properly be identified with or- without the presence of the priest, receives ab-
thodox Lutheran teaching; (I) is a fiction solution from God. Evangelical theology and
which appears only by misrepresentation; (2) practice seeks to equate repentance with con-
is more accurately styled impanation. In Lu- trition, and always to stir up contrition in the
ther's own language, the actual body and blood heart of sinners.
of Christ exist "in, with, or under" the ele- W. C. G. Proctor
ments of bread and wine. No permanent asso-
CONTROVERSY. It is generally agreed
ciation is postulated: the relationship is con-
that controversy for the sake of controversy is
fined to the sacramental action. The trams-
an evil. For that reason most Christians have a
formation is effected by the Word of God, not
desire to avoid it as far as possible. But we live
by priestly consecration. Luther was less con-
in a world in which truth and error are in
cerned with metaphysical speculation than
with the a££irmation of what he believed to be deadly conflict and it is often impossible to
remain silent. Jude exhorts us to "contend
theological truth. His doctrine of Holy Com-
munion is integral with his Christology earnestly for the faith which was once for all
delivered unto the saints" (Jude 3).
(Works, Philadelphia Edition,11, 187-94).
Controversy that is carried on with candor
A. SKEVINGTON WcoD
and moderation and in a spirit of honest in-
CONTENTMENT. A steady restfulness of quiry can result in much good. Repeatedly
spirit, a freedom from care - based on satis- throughout the course of church history er-
faction with one's situation. If its basis is the roneous beliefs have appeared and it has been
suppression of desire for the Oriental, and necessary to refute them. The rise of such be-
wisdom for the ancient Greek, it is the result liefs has often stimulated a more detailed study
of faith in God for the Judecrchristian tradi- of the doctrine in question, and has forced the
tion. Since the Lord is the psalmist's shepherd, orthodox leaders to present reasoned statements
he will not want (Ps. 23: 1). The Lord could for their faith. The fact is that most of our
139 CONVICT, CONVICTION

creedal advances have come about in that way. turn or to return (either physically or spirit-
Doctrinal controversies are the focal points at ually). The following survey is based on the
which truth and error come into conflict, with usage of these words.
the result that further study substantiates the Conversion js described in the OT as a
truth and exposes the error. In all realms the turning from evil (Jer. 18:8) unto the Lord
advance of knowledge has taken a zigzag (Mal. 3:7). Because of man's evil nature
course, first to one side then to the other as (Hos. 5:4), this change is resisted (11 Chron.
demonstrated errors have forced it back to the 36:13). God is the primary mover (Jer.
path of truth. In the theological realm, as in 31 : 18), although man appears to have a sub-
that of politics, economics, history, etc., most ordinate part (Jer. 24:7). Individuals (11
of us, if indeed not all of us, have some er- Kings 23:25) and nations (Jonah 3:10) are
roneous ideas, and an intelligent opponent can subjects of conversion. God uses the prophets
point those out and reveal new tnith. as secondary agents in effectuating conversion
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Neh. 9:26; Zech.I:4). Those who refuse
M. Campbell Smith in HERE. to turn to the Lord are punished with such
LORAINE BOETTNER evils as chastisement (Amos 4:6-12), captivity
(Hos. 11:5), destruction (I Kings 9:6-9),
CONVENTICLE. The main usage of this death (Ezek. 33:9,11); those who return to
term has been in relation to groups meeting the Lord receive such blessings as forgiveness
together for religious worship outside and in (Isa. 55 :7), freedom from punishment (Jonah
opposition to the established order in the 3:9 f.), fruitfulness of service (Ps. 51:13;
church. Thus some of the early Puritans in Hos.14:4-8), life (Ezek. 33: 14 f.). The con-
post-Reformation England formed conventicles version of large multitudes is anticipated at
when they associated for free worship, particu- the Messiah's advent (Deut. 4:30; Hos. 3:5;
larly after the passing of the 1604 canons. Mic. 5:3; Mal. 4:5 f.).
Whenever five or more persons gathered in a The NT harmonizes exactly with the OT
house in addition to the family, and took part description of conversion. Apostolic preaching
in some form of worship, this constituted an insists (Acts 26:20) that men must turn from
illegal conventicle as defined in the later legis- evil to God (Acts 14: 15; I Thess.I:9). Such
lation. The acts against conventicles were re- an act translates them from Satan's power to
pealed in 1689 with the toleration and licens- God's kingdom (Acts 26:18). True conver-
ing of dissenting bodies. sion involves faith and repentance; it issues in
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
the forgiveness of our sins (Acts 3:19;
CONVERSATION. In the AV the word 26:18). Israelites (Luke 1:16 f.; 11 Cor.
has two meanings: (I) the modern sense of 3:16), Gentiles (Acts 15:19) and Christians
talking together (sy7®o7#ile6) as in Acts 10:27, (Luke 22:32; James 5:19 f.) are subjects of
and (2) the archaic sense of behavior, manner conversion. Paul is the outstanding example
or course o£ life (¢#¢strop7.e-). This idea comes (Acts 9: I-18). The apostles were instrumental
from the Vulgate, co7tversfl"i7®j, "the whole in the conversion of large multitudes (Acts
course of life." The JSBE develops the modern 9:35; 11:21). Only converted men can bring
use; Moule, EPJtesicz"s, CGT, gives the older about results in this blessed ministry (Luke
22:32; James 5: 19 f.).
usage, (Acts 23: I; Phil.I:27).
Modern translations stress the concept of Such problems as (I) the relation of con-
deportment (see Heb.13:5, RV). Many times version to predestination (cf. Isa. 6: 10; John
the word is translated "manner of life" in 12:39 f.), (2) the future conversion of Israel
the ASV and the RV, whether ¢7€¢strop7®G, (cf. Deut. 4:30; Isa. 59:20; Rom.11:26 f.)
tropos Or politeuormai. see also potiteui'na, "ctti- and (3) the relation of conversion to free
zenship." Confusion can be avoided by remem- agency (cf. Matt.18:3) constitute some of the
bering to emphasize the idea of conduct in all most debated questions of theology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
these cases.
ROBERT WINSTON ROSS HAincqt; James Strachan in HERE,. W. F. Lofthouse in
WICK BRO0MALL
CONVERSION. The act of conversion is
represented by the Hebrew verb 5#g and the CONVICT, CONVICTION. The words
Greek verb epjstrep7io- - both meaning to convict or conviction, common in any Chris-
CONVOCATION 140

tian's vocabulary, never occur in the AV. Con- Markan passage Jesus is referring to the de-
victed occurs only in John 8:9. The RSV uses spicable practice of children refusing to help
convict once and convicts and conviction twice needy parents on the pretense that money that
each. Convict is found three times in the RV. might have been used for that purpose had
Convicted occurs twice. Convicteth and con- already been dedicated as a gif t to God and
viction each occur once. Elegcho is the most his service. This casuistry was allowed by the
common Greek word involved, found fifty scribal tradition of Jesus' day; later scribal au-
times in the LXX and eighteen times in the thorities modified it, as they were able to see
NT. The AV variously translates the word by its clear misuse.
"reprove," "tell," "rebuke," etc. SAMUEI. A CARTLEDGE
The NT uses this word to describe the work
of the Holy Spirit by which the satanic blind- CORNERSTONE. In th.e NT the people
ness is lif ted from men's eyes, and they are o£ God are viewed as a spiritual temple in
enabled to see themselves as they are in God's which Jesus Christ is the cornerstone, e9e7®
sight - guilty, defiled, and totally unable to pj"7®t3, akrogo-„ic}jos (Isa. 28: 16; Eph. 2:20;
save themselves. Sin is thus brought to the I Pet. 2:6). The theological significance Of the
conscience. John 16:7-11 is the fullest treat- term arises from this usage. The word appears
ment on this subject in the NT. While this to be practically the equivalent of the phrase,
is a neglected theme it is well handled by "head of the comer," ro-'5 p;#7®4, kez7h¢ZG g67cja
Chafer and Hendriksen (L. S. Chafer, Sys- (Ps.118:22; Matt. 21:42 and parallels; Acts
fe7"afic T71eolog,y, Vol. VII, pp. 94-96; Wil- 4: 11; I Pet. 2:7). For example, in Ps.118:22
1iam Hendriksen, The New Tes€¢7"e7®f Com- the latter phrase is rendered ¢krogo-7iinjos by
mentary: Exposition of the Gospel Acccnding Symmachus and, in turn, Isa. 28:16 is trans-
to /oh", Vol. 11, pp. 324-27). lated by the Peshitta as "head of the wall."
HOWARI) Z. CLEVEljAND There is a difference of opinion, however, re-
garding its precise connotation. Generally, it has
CONVOCATION. As used in the OT, been considered the first laid cornerstone above
more specifically in Lev. 23, a holy convaca- the foundation level Of the building and, hence,
tion is a solemn assembling of God's people on the stone by which the other stones were meas-
the sabbath or on the occasion of the various ured or beveled and to which the design of the
festivals. Hence it is sometimes used to denote building conformed. KD (on Ps.118:22 and
the gathering together o£ Christians for pur- Zech. 4:7) view r6'5 'pi7®"4 as designating the
poses of worship or mutual edification. A spe- final topstone of the temple. Similarly, J.
cific application of the term is found in the Jeremias, jn TWNT (see bibliography), ar-
Church of England, in which for many cen- gues that flkrogo-7tifl;os is the capstone (AZ7-
turies it has described the official gatherings ``schzt4ssstej%) which completes the building and
of the clergy to consider matters of partioular which is placed at the summit or (probably)
relevanc.e to the church. In the Middle Ages over the entrance. This use of the term occurs
the main business was the voting of taxes and in some extra-canonical Jewish literature and
the making or revising of canons. After the in IV Kings 25:17 (Symmachus) where the
Reformation the importance of convocation crown or capital of a column is so rendered.
declined, and the gatherings were purely for- In either case the "comerstone" signifies a key-
mal throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth stone in which ``the whole stmcture is welded
centuries, but more recently convocation has together" (Eph. 2:21 Moffatt).
been given new powers in conjunction with The "temple typology," of which the corner-
a house of laity, and again has the initiative in stone is a part, expresses a basic theological
church affairs. concept in the NT (c£. E. E. Ellis, PowZ's Use
See also CONVENTICLE. of t7}e Oid Test¢t#e"t, Win. 8. Eerdmans Pub-
GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥ lishing Company, Grand Rapids, 1957, pp.
87-92). The tnie temple o£ God, "not made
CORBAN. The word corban, from the He- with hands," is superior to the material ten-
brew word meaning "offering," is used only plc (Mark 14:58; Acts 7:48; 17:24; cf. Matt.
once in the Bible (Mark 7: 11). The Hebrew ]2:6). It is a spiritual house of which Christ
word is used in Lev.I:2, 3; 2:1; 3:I and is the builder (Mark 14:58; c£. Matt.16:18),
Nun. 7: 12-17 in reference to sacrifices. In the the comerstone, and the high priest (Heb.
141 COUNCIL

9:11). In fac.t, Christ's body is the very es- physical degeneration and decay (Isa. 52: 14;
sence of the temple (John 2:21), and Chris- Lev. 22:25; Dan. 10:8). In addition 5a7i¢t is
tians, who are the "body" of Christ, are the so translated in the AV, although its meaning
"living stones" (I Pet. 2:5) of the temple. It is place of corniption, pit. The cognate verb
is no little thing, therefore, that the Jewish 3¢h¢f indicates the act of corrupting or of be-
``builders" should reject the stone which God coini-ng corrupt morally through sin (Gen.
fias destined to be ``head of the corner." The 6: 12; Ex. 32:7; Hos. 9:9).
result is the rejection of the builders them- In the NT diaphthora and phthora ate ren-
selves. It is within this context that the Lord dered "corruption." The former occurs six
quotes Ps.118:22 in which Israel, the stone, times (Acts 7:27, 31; 13:34, 35, 36, 37) and
is rejected by the gentile builders. The NT, consistently denotes the decomposition or de-
typically, views Jesus Christ as "Israel" and cay of the body. The latter has this meaning
unbelieving Jews as "Gentiles" and so applies also (I Cor. 15:42, 50), but in addition sig-
the passage. nifies the decomposition of the material world
The "cornerstone" is a part of what Austin and the world of nature (Rom. 8:21; Col.
Farrer has called the great images of the NT. 2:22; 11 Pet. 2: 12a); religious and moral cor-
The concept is no less real for being in the ruption (11 Pet.1 :4; 2: 19); and eschatological
language of imagery; rather, we may believe destruction (Gal. 6:8 where phthor¢ is con-
that in just this fashion it is best conveyed. trasted with zo-g cljo-wios, "eternal life;" 11 Pet.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 2:12b). No indication is to be found in the
pe#r?dpt.; i#TEvirNGi, i:]gF.n7gTfh;elf,jr;tp.Eg;S5t':f.°f St. word pht7ior¢ itself of the precise nature or
duration of this eschatological min.
E. EARLE ELLIS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arndt; H. Windisch, Die Katholjsche" Brjefe, HZNT,
p. 95.
CORRECTION. "Conection" must be con-
WALTER W. WESSEL
sidered along with "chastisement, chastening,
instruction," all used to translate 7#t}s6r and its
equivalent in the LXX and the NT, pfljdei¢. COUNCIL. An assembly, from the Latin
"Correction" is less frequent than the other co7®sjljw", a collection of people, Of persons for
words in the English versions. T6Eflb¢£ is also the purpose of deliberation, consultation, or de-
used (Prov. 3:11), being rendered "correc- cision. In the NT the word is commonly used
tion" (AV), "reproof" (RV). Generally, the to translate sy"ec!rjo7t, "seated together." Ec-
thought of discipline and improvement through clesiastically, councils and synods are assem-
chastisement js conveyed, and this represents blies o£ Christian leaders for the purpose of
the Hebrew concept of child-training. Hence, discussion and decision jn matters of doctrine
Jehovah's "chastisement" of his own people and administration. The synod, from the Greek
was corrective and prompted by loving concern sy"oc{ic}, "a company," is usually more local in
for their welfare (Prov. 3:11,12). In Isa. character.
53:5, however, "tls6r carries no thought o£ The assembly of the apostles in Jerusalem
correction, but of chastisement vicariously re- (Acts 15) during the apostolic period is some-
ceived. times referred to as the first Christian council.
In the NT p¢jde;ci always implies corrective The regional synods of the second century
discipline, chastisement or chastening being were loosely organized; they met to decide
the usual rendering. Correction is often by local issues, and their authority seems not to
means of adverse circumstances (I Cor.11 :30- have been binding upon individual congrega-
32; Heb.12:5, 6,11). But in 11 Tim. 3:16 tions.
paide;a and epc!7corf ho-s!.s, which is found only The general or ecumenical councils are
here in the NT and also means correction or numbered from the first, called by Constantine
amendment, are received through the Scrip- at Nit.aea in 325. The decisions of the general
tures, according to God's purpose. councils, composed of bishops of the whole
R. COLIN CRASTON church, but in practice representing largely
the East, were binding, both in ecclesiastical
CORRUPTION. In the OT the substan- and imperial law. Both Eastern and Western
lives rendered "corruption" are principally churches consider the first seven general coun-
7";Sky¢, „!o5¢6£ and 7„c}5b€!: all three signify cils as authoritative. After 754 so-called gen-
COUNSEL 142

eral councils were held independently in the or agreement between two parties binding
E{ist and West. them mutually to undert.1kings on each other's
BIBLIOGRAPHY behalf . Theologically (used of relations be-
tween God and man) it denotes a gracious
c,,:.r .,,, ; `ivoi:e„Tef:,,led, Fj;;-oiv,;cc,'fc t,i:,7l::st,"lc2iLsd o!er::,sc,
XIV. undertL`king entered into by God for the bene-
DONALD G. DAvls fit and blessing of man, and specifically of
those men who b}' faith receive the promises
and commit themselves to the obligations
COUNSEL. The Hebrew `gsfi and the
which this undertaking involves.
Greek bot!ZG and sy7"Z7otizf.o" chiefl}7 represent
I. CovENANT IN THE, OT. Uniformly the
the idea e,xpressed b}' the English "counsel."
word used to express the covenant concept is
This word indicates the deliberative process
the Hebrew Z7€rft. The original meaning of
whereby presumat)l}r wise decisions are ren-
this word was I)ro-bably "fetter" or "obligation,"
dered.
coming from a root Z7c7i-4, "to bind." This root
The following contrasts represent some Of
the manifold I.1mifications of counsel: (I)
does not occur as a verb in Hebrew, but it
does occur in Akkadian as b4ii-ti, "to bind," and
human (Isa. 30:1: Jer. 49:30) and divine
appears as a noun in the Akkadian bjr;ti4,
(Jer. 50:45); (2) good (I Kings 1:12-40)
which means "bond" or "fetter." Thus a Z7er£±
and evil (I Kings 12:8; Ps.I:I; 83:3; Ezek.
would originally signif}r a relationship between
11:2); (3) accomplished (Ps. 20:4; Prov.
two parties wherein each bound himself to
19:21) and unaccomplished (Neh. 4: 15; Esth.
9:25; Ps. 33: 10; Isa. 47: 13-15); (4) received perform a certain service or duty for the other.
But some scholars prefer to derive this noun
(Ezra 10:3-8; Prow.12:15) and rejected (11
from the verb I?6i-6 "to eat," which occurs in 11
Chron. 25:14-17; Prov.1:25, 30); (5) wise
Sam.13:6; 12:17, etc., and thus interpret it
(Acts 5:38-40) and foolish (Job 38:2; 42:3
as "a meal" or "food," with reference to the
ff; Acts 27:42 f.); (6) peaceful (Ps. 55:14;
sacrificial meal which the contracting parties
Prov. 27:9) and rebellious (Ps. 106:43;
often ate together when ratifying their agree-
]07: 11; Ezek.11 :2); (7) upheld by the Lord
ment before the deity who was invoked as pro-
(Isa. 44:26; 46:10; John 11:49-53; 18:14)
tector and guarantor of the covenant. So E.
and rejected by the Lord (Isa. 19:3; Jer.
Meyer, 8. Luther, L. Koehler. Still others, like
18:18-23; 19:7).
E. Koenig and H. Zimmern, trace it from a
God's counsels are eternal (Ps. 33: 11), im-
b6rj!, meaning "to perceive" or "to determine";
mutable (Prov.19:21; Heb. 6:17), all-com-
hence bci.ff would involve the basic idea of
prehensive (Acts 4:28; Eph.I:11), directive "vision." But neither of these explanations
(Ps. 73:24), wonderful (Isa. 28:29), faithful
commends itself as being so fitting or appro-
(Isa. 25: I), great (Jer. 32: 19) and consistent
with man's free agency (Prov. 19:21; Acts priate to the basic character of a covenant as
the idea of "bond" preferred by the majority
2:23). God clothed the Messiah with counsel
of scholars-including G. Quell in TWNT.
(Prov. 8: 14; Isa.11 :2; Zech. 6: 13).
A general characteristic of the OT Z7er£! is
WICK BROOMALL
its unalterable and permanently binding char-
acter. The parties to a covenant obligated
COURAGE. Although among the four car-
themselves to carry out their respective com-
dinal virtues (Wisdom 8:7), the word "cour-
mitments under the penalty of divine retribu-
age," t7tflrsos, occurs only once in the NT
lion should they later attempt to avoid them.
(Acts 28:15). Yet, the idea of courage, born Usually, although not necessarily, the promise
Of faith in God (Ps. 56:3; Matt. 8:26), is
of each was supported by some sort Of legal
common. Chief Hebrew words are Jt6zc}q
consideration or qt4jd pro qwo. But where the
(Nun.13:20; I Chron.19:13), and .'6t%as one party to the agreement was greatly su-
(Deut. 31:6, 7, 23; Josh.1:6, 9,18). The
perior to the other in power or authority, the
LXX uses a#dr;zo7#aj, "play the man," for both
situation was a bit different: the ruler or man
(c£. I Cor.16:13). Heart and spirit are also of authority would in the enactment of the
translated courage.
beii! simply announce his governmental decree
R. COLIN CRASTON
or constitution which he thought best to im-
COVENANT. The OT word is b€r€!; the pose upon those under him, and they for their
NT djathgk8. Basically, it denotes a compact part expressed their acceptance and readiness
143 COVENANT

to conform to what he had ordained. Doubt- of grflcc re|)resent (lec`rccs which he will surely
less it was true even in this type of covenant bring to pLlss, whc`n conditions are ripe for
that the ruler impliedly committed himself to their fulfilment; (b) that the 1)ersonal benefit
rule for the best interests of his people and to - and especially the spiritual and eternal ben-
contrive for their protection against their foes. c`fit - of the divine I)romise will accrue only
But in the case of the I)romulgation of a to those individuals of the covenant I)eoplc of
covenant by God with his chosen people, this God who manifest a true and living fc`ith
one-sided asi)ect of the transaction was even (demonstrated by a godly life). Thus the first
more ai)I)arent, since the contracting parties asi)ect is brought out by the initial form of the
stood ui]on an entirely diffc`rent level. In this covenant with Abram in Gen.12:1-3; there
case the co`'enant constituted a divine an- is no shadow of doubt but what God will truly
nouncement of God's holy will to extend the m£`kc of Abram a gre:`t nation, and mL`ke his
benefits of his unmerited grace to men who name great, and shall bless all the nations of
were willing by faith to receive them, and who earth through him and his posterity (c`f. Gal.
b}' entering into a persoml commitment to 3:8). This is set forth as God's plan from the
God bound themselves to him by ties of ab- very beginning; nothing shall frustrate it. On
solute obligation. The char£`icteristic statement the other hand, the individual children o£
of this relationship occurs in the formula "I Abraham are to receive personal benefit only
will be their God and they shall be my 1)eo- .1s the}' mclnifest the faith and obedic`nce of
Abraham; thus: Ex.19:5 ("Now therefore if
ple" (c£. Jer.11:4; 24:7; 30:22; 32:38; Ezek.
11:20; 14:11; 36:28; 37:23; Zech. 8:8, etc.) ye will obey my voice indeed, and keep my
This signifies that God unreservedly gives him- covenant, then ye shall be a peculiar treasure
self to his people and that they in turn give unto me .... And ye shall be unto me a king-
themselves to him and belong to him. Thus don of I)riests and a holy nation"). In other
they are his "peculiar treasure" (segt4]Z6 - Ex. words, God will see to it his plan of redemi]-
19:5; Deut. 7:6; 14:2; 26:18; Ps. 135:4; tion will be carried out in history, but he will
Mal. 3:17). His motive in adopting them as also see to it that none partake of the eternal
his own covenant-children is stated to be "lov- benefits of the coveni`nt in violation of the
ingkindness" or "covenant-love" (¢esed), a term demands of holiness. No child of the covenant
with which Z7er€t is often associated (cf . Deut. who I)resents to him a faithless and insin-
7:9; I Kings 8:i3; I)an. 9:4). (Compare also c`erc` heart shall be included in its blessings.
I Sam. 20:8, where Jonathan is said to exer- This triumphantly enduring qualit}7 of the
cise 7tesec! when he enters into his covenant- i`ovenant of grace is esi7ccially set forth b}' the
relati.onsrip with David.) This presents a re- pro|)hets in the form of the "New Co\'enant."
markable contrast to the motivation attributed In the classic passage on this theme (Jcr.
by the heathen Semites to their gods, who 31:31-37) the earliest phase ot` the c`oviinant
were uniformly depicted as entering into cove- (that entered into at Sinai) is shown to have
nant-relations with their devotees for the pur- been temporary and provisional bec`ause of the
flagrant violation of it by the Israelite nation as
pose of extracting service and nourishment
from their altars, more or less like the feudal a whole, zind because of their failure to know
lords of human societ}7 who extract their sup- or acknowledge God as their I)ersonal Lord and
Saviour. But there is a time coming, says
port from the labor of their vassals.
One very important element in God's cove- Jehovah, when he will put his hol}' law into
their very hearts, so that their cordial inclina-
nant-relations with Israel lay in the dual aspect
tion and desire will be to live according to his
of conditionality and unconditionality. Were
holy standard. Moreover he shall beget within
his solemn |]romises, which partook of the na-
them a sense of sonship towards himsc`1f, so
ture of a binding oath (cf. Deut. 7:8), to be
that they shall have a personal knowledge and
understood as capable of non-fulfilment, in
love of him that will not require artificial
case of the failure of man to live up to his
human teaching. Furthermore the carr}'ing out
obligations towards God? Or was there a sense
of this redeeming purpose is stated to be as
in which God's covenant-undertakings were
sure as the continued existence of sun, moon
absolutely sure of fulfilment, regardless of the
and stars, or even of the foundations of heaven
unfaithfulness of man? The answer to this
itself.
much-debated question seems to be: (a) that
the promises made by Jehovah in the covenant 11. CovENANT IN THE NT. The term for
 144
COVENANT THEOLOGY

covenant employed in the NT is d!.¢tjie-kG, the was life. The proiJ;so was perfect ot>edience
word used constantly in the LXX for Z7C7.€£. by Adam. And the pe74¢!ty of failure was
Since the ordinary Greek word for "contract" death. To save man from the i]enalty of his
or "com|)act" (sy"t7tGke-) implied equality on disobedience, a second covenant, made from
the:part of the contracting 1)arties, the Greek- all eternity, came into operation, namely, the
s|)eaking Jews I)referred c]jatJ]e-kg (coming from covenant of grace. Throughout the OT I)eriod
dj¢ti£Jie"!fli "to make a disposition of one's own there were successive i)roclamations of this
co\'en<int. We find it in the pt.otevci7cgez;t47"
I)roperty") in the sense o£ "a unilateral enact,
ment." In secular Greek this word usually o£ Gen. 3:15. Certain of its I)rovisions were
mez`nt "will" or "testament," but even classical later revealed to P\Toah (Gen. 9). It was then
authors like Aristophanes (Bj/-ds 439) occa- established with Abraham (Gen. 12), and
sionally used it of a covenant wherein one of with his descendants after him, thus bei`oming
the two 1)arties had an overwhelming superiori- a national covenant. Although in the NT this
ty over the other and could dictate his own covenant is described as 7zeiv-, such passages as
terms. Hence the biblical d;c}t7t67€G signified Rom. 4 and Gal. 3 show that it is essentially
one with the covenant under which believers
(in a way much more specific than did Z7Cr€!)
an £`,m`ngement made b}7 one pi`rt}' with plc- lived in OT times. Salvation was shown to be
n£`r}' power, which the other part}i may ac- of grace and not of merit, for the OT sacri-
cei]t or reject but cannot alter. Johannes Behm ficcs were prefigurative of the atoning death of
Christ. But although the same covenant, it is
(in Kittcl's TWNT ii, |]. 137) defines it as:
"The decree (Ve7.ft+egti7cg) o£ God, the power- described as a Z7etter covenant under the NT
ful disclosure of the sovereign will o£ God in dispensation, because it is now administered
histor)' whereby he constitutes the relationship, not by Moses, a servant, but by Christ the Son
the authoritative divine. ordinance (institu- (I-Ieb. 3:5, 6).
tion), which introduces a corresponding order The covenant of grace is treated under two
of aft.airs." There is just one passage in which asi)ects. The first is a Godwafd asi)ect, under
the more usual secular significance o£ "will" which it is sometimes called the covenant of
or "testament" appears along with the cove- redemi]tion. The p¢rtjes, under this as|)ect, are
nantal idea: Heb. 9: 15-17. A legal analogy is God and Christ; the proviso is the Son's per-
drawn from the fact that a testator must die £cct obedience even to his suffering the pen-
before his will can take e££ect; so also in the alty of man's disobedience, namely, death; and
enactment of the Mosaic covenant there was the pl-om;se is the salvation of all behevers.
slain a sacrificial animal, representing the The second is a mzinwtard aspect, in which the
atonement of Christ, and it was the blood of p¢J.t1.es are God and the believer; the p7-o7"jse
that victim which was sprinkled upon the pecr eternal life; and the proi7jso faith in Jesus
ple and the covenantal document itself . But Christ as the only "work" required of the be-
even here the predominant notion in diath€kG 1iever (John 6:29).
is "covenant" rather than "testament." BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY •3.;.::,;e,#7;is,:#;:og;;;cy:tg;,.ifj;1,:,:!?;-:2S6;T!.3_,:t+%FrLgsgBeif,#;
ES}.7E82:7]]:T!n:i':A:#J:::i[a%i:?,.All;>-3j.ie::.:e:ye:¥:t!i£JES#.
729; G. E. Mendenhall, Law a7id Covc']}q7tt i" Israc! alid GEORGE N. M. CoLLINS
tlicJ Aticici7.t Near East,. G. Oehler, T'hco]ogy a/ tJlcJ OT,
P#:';_?;;te:1.;yv:is:8Bufb::.#ar[¥:i;e:I,;:ogn;,`.VI#TbT;.;]'RPcF..gt]o?.7-33:
COVENANTERS. The Covenanters were
those who, in Scotland, resolutely contended
G. L. ARCHER, JR.
for religious freedom from 1637 to 1688
against Stuart absolutism in church and state.
COVENANT THEOLOGY. The theology The name is |]articularly applied to the "suf-
of the Reformed churches, in the I)lace which fering remnant" persecuted from 1660 on-
it gives to the covenants, has its prototype in
wards. Many bonds or covenants had been
patristic theology as systematized by Augustine
signed for the defence of the Reformed re-
of Hippo. It represents the whole of Scripture
as being covered by two covenants: (I) the 1igion. The most important was the National
covenant of works, and (2) the covenant of Covenant o£ 1638, signed in Greyf riars
Church, Edinburgh, by most of the nobles and
grace. The pc}rtjes to the former covenant were
God and Adam. The pi.o7„;se of the covenant vast numbers of commoners.
145 CREATION

Years before, the court had suppressed Pres- Covetousness is a grave sin. It is labeled
byterianism and established Prelacy against the idolatry (Col. 3: 5), for intensity of desire and
wishes of the nation. The church was in worship are closely related. Its heinousness
chains. A crisis was |]recipitated by the intro- doubtless is accounted for by its being, in a
duction of a new Book of Canons and a new very real sense, the root of many forms o£
Liturgy on High Church lines. The king sin. This is the reason Jesus warned against it
bowed temporarily before the storm, and iier- so sternly (Luke 12: 15).
mitted a General Assembly in 1638. This As- BIBLIOGRAPHY
sembly abolished Prelacy. War ensued, in Andre\`' K. Rule in TCERK,. William Evans in JSBE,
11, p. 733; Mst, 11, p. 546; AC.
which the Scots were successful. The king
LEWIS T. CoRLETT
gave solemn guarantees of religious liberty but
soon broke'them. In 1643, the Scots entered
CREATION. The doctrine of the origin of
into the Solemn League and Covenant with
the universe by the creative power of God and
the English Parliament. In the Civil War the
not from prcvious]}' c,xisting material, is found
Parliamentary party triuin|)hed and Charles I
only in monotheistic religion. Since there is
was executed. At the Restoration in 1660, al-
only one monotheistic tradition in all of
though Charles 11 had sworn to defend the
human culture, the Hebrew tradition - Ju-
Covenants, there began a shameful oi)pression
daism, Christianity and Mohammedanism, the
of the Covenanters. Arg}'le, Sir Archibald
only monotheistic religions, consciously deriv-
Johnston of Warriston, and other eminent ing their monotheism from the IIebrew sources
men, were hurried to the scaffold. Three hun- - there is only one source of the doctrine o£
dred and fiftv ministers were driven from
creation out of nothing, and that is found in
their churches`. Then began the conventicles
the Bible.
on the hills and moorlands of southern Scot-
The biblical cosmogony, the doctrine of the
land. In twenty-eight fears, 18,000 suffered
creation of the cosmic order out of nothing,
from the ruthless persecution - many thou-
including the human order as a culmimtion,
sands banished or imprisoned, 498 executed
is given ex|)Iic`itly in Genesis 1 : 1 -2:25, but
without process of law, and 362 after formal
it is also dechred or assumed in mciny other
process. Nothing could break the spirit of the
more resolute. Finally, their principles tri- |]assages.
umphed in the Revolution of 1688 under Wil- /c)7". I:3. To consider first certciin Sc`riit-
turi`s outside of the Genesis €`ccount, let us
liam of Orange.
note the doctrine of creiition in the I)rologuc
BIBLI()GRt\PIIY
{\lexi`iidcr Smellie, i`lt'7} of tJ]e Co`'c'IltH!t,. King IIi`wi-
to the Fourth Gospel. The first |]ostulntc is
s()i`, Tlic' Co\ien(intc'rs. God and the Logos, who is God and with God.
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK In other words, the first postulate is the eternal
God, whose `personal being is complex. The
COVETOUSNESS. Covetousness means second postulate is the creation of the finite
primarily "inordinate desire." It has come to cosmos by God. The common En§ilish version
mean a desire for anything which is inordinate reads, "All things were mcide b}' him, and
in degree, or a desire for that which rightfully without him was not any thing made that was
belongs to another, especially in the realm of made." But the word "made" translates, not a
material things. In a general sense it means all form of |7ojeo-, to make, but of gj7to"iczj, to
inordinate desire for worldly possessions such come to I)ass or to come into being. Literally,
"Everything came ;nto being through him, and
as honors, gold, etc. In a more restricted sense,
it is a desire for the increasing of one's sub- without him not one thing came into being
stance by ai)proi)riating that of others. which has come into being."
The shades of meaning vary according to Wc need not try to argue that John 1:3
the particular word used and the context. The amounts to a categorical declaration of crea-
following z`re some of the uses: Z7esa`, "dishon- tion e# 7€;7ijzo. Had there been such a declara-
est gain" (Ex. 18:21); zjzeo7texic!, "the desire tion in the most literal terms, the modern
to have more than one possesses" (Luke mystics and e,`istentialists generally would have
12:15), "an intense love or lust for gain" sought to argue that the nothing was some-
(Ron.1:29), "greed" (11 Pet. 2:14 RSV); thing. It is a fact of` history that John I :3 has
p7ij!¢7.gt4r;cz, ``an inordinate love of money" (I been a source and cause of the doctrine of
Tim. 6: 10). theistic cosmogony.
CREATION 146

It is in John I :3, Col. I : 16, and Heb.I:2, cosmogony, ". . . made them not of things
that the second person of the Trinity is said to that were, otlk ex o7¢to-".'.
have been the special divine agent in creation. Ge"esjs I ¢7®d 2. It should be clear from
HezJreit7s I I..3. The author of the Epistle towhat has been said that the biblical doctrine
the Hebrews alludes to creation in 1:2, 10 of creation e^` „;7tjlo is not dependent upon the
and 4:3. In 11:3 the doctrine is expressed in meaning of the word Z76rd' in the first chap-
striking terms. The following suggestions may ter of Genesis. Indeed (with the exception Of
help toward a more explicit interpretation than the pjcl stem, in which the word means to cut
the common version gives: (1) "Faith" in this down or cut out) the word b6rd' always means
chapter is not subjective but objective, not our to create something new, and God is always
act of believing, but what we believe, i.e., the the one who does the creating. But the word
content of the gospel. (2) The word of God, itself dces not exclude previously existing rna-
as in other Scriptures (c£. Ps. 33:6-9), is taken terials. Rather, it has about the breadth of
as the sole and sufficient cause of creation. meaning of the English word "create." The
(3) "Things which are seen," or more cor- doctrine of creation out of nothing is implied
rectly "that which is seen," is a simple refer- rather (1) in the words "In the beginning,"
ence to the visible material universe. (4) (2) in the total absence of any suggestion Of
``Things which do appear," phfli#o7#e7co-~, any thing uncreated upon which God worked,
seems to refer to things which, though some- (3) in the references to the divine f;at as
times invisible, do come into view. The follow- causative, and (4) in the way in which the
ing expanded paraphrase is thus suggested: record was understood by the later writers o£
"By what we believe in the gospel, we can Scripture. For the different interpretations Of
understand the doctrine of creation, namely, the Genesis account, see Ramm's work listed
that by the word o£ God as a sole and suffi- below.
cient cause the worlds were set in order, so Beginning with 2: 5 we have a literary phe-
that the visible universe did not come into nomenon sometimes called a "recurrence."
being out of previously existing things which That is, the author goes back to a previous
come into view." point in the narrative to bring up the threads
Granted that this is an expansion and not a in detail. In this instance the author goes back
strict translation, nevertheless the strictest pos- to a point in the second "day" and tells how
sible rendering must admit the probability that rain came, and then how, and in what condi-
. . . rh6mati theou . . . me ek phainomen6n to tion, the human race began.
Z7Zepo7"e7¢07c gego7cet®fli was intended as an as- Tbeolog!.ca! jt"poi.t¢73ce of great weight at-
sertion of creation out of nothing. taches to the biblical cosmogony. If God is not
Colossj¢7is J:]5-J7. The "founding of the the creator of absolutely everything but him-
world" and similar phrases recur in the NT self, with nb exceptions, then he is not com-
(cf. John.17:24; Eph.1:4; 3:9; I Pet.1:20; pletely sovereign. If the substance of which
Rev. 13:8; 17:8). The vigorous insistence in the universe is made is not created by God,
Col.1:16-17 that ever}`thing without excep- then it is co-eternal with God. Then God, in
tion was made by Christ, and that he is "be- making the universe, was limited to the possi-
1`orc all things," and in him all things "consist," bilities of the substance with which he had to
leaves no room for previously existing material. work. Then he is not omnipotent in creation,
Creation e# #jJiizo is certainly assumed here. nor in providence, nor in redemption, for we
Space does not allow for the examination had to be made out of the substance which
of many other Scriptures referring to creation.
God found on hand.
See especially Rom.1:18-23; Acts 14:15-17; If , on the other hand, God created the
17:22-29; Ps. 33:6-9; 148:1-5; Prov. 3:19; universe out of his own substance, as some
8:22-31; Job. 26:7b; 38; Isa. 37:16; 40:26; have held, then we have stark pantheism.
Amos 4:13; 5:8; Zech.12:I. The Apocrypha Then the substance of God is physically di-
naturally reflect the scriptural attitude (cf. visible and finitely extended in space. Then
Ecclus.16:26 -17:9. Although Wisd.11: 17 the substance of God is the substance of every
shows extraneous influence, ``. . . created the sinner and of every instrument of crime and
world out of formless matter, e# a7"oi.p7}ow shame.
hyle-s," 11 Mace. 7:28 teaches a strict theistic The God whose attributes are delineated on
147 CREED, CREEDS

virtually every page of the Bible is the creator, There seems little doubt, however, that they
the absolute originator, of everything. grew out of the rudimentary forms of confession
BIBLIOGRAPHY which we find in the NT (cf. Acts 8:36 ff.;
Ron.10:9; I Cor.12:3; I Pet. 3:18 f£.) and
which were probably used not only at baptism
but also for purposes of worship and instruc-
tion. In some cases these express faith in Jesus
Christ alone, but in others the Father is also
included and the baptismal formula in Matt.
28:19 (c£.11 Cor.1:21 f.; I Pet.I:2) shows
us that trinitarian as well as binitarian and
purely christological forms were already in use
in the NT period.
J. OLIVER BUSWELL, JR.
The main development of creeds in the cen-
CREATI0NISM. Creationism is one of turies which followed was almost certainly
three theories found in the Christian tradition within the context of the catechumenate and
whereby the origin of the soul of man is ex- baptism, with a consequent emphasis upon the
plained. The other two are traducianism (q.v.) original element Of confession. Two main prob-
and pre-e.xistence (q.v.). According to the crea- lems have engaged the interest of scholars:
tionist theory, God makes the soul de 7covo at first, whether the creeds are an expansion of
the moment of conception or birth and imme- the purely christological formula of Acts (cf .
diately unites it with the body. The foetus or 8:16; 19:5) or of the trinitarian formula of
the newly born child is polluted and therefore Matt. 28: 19; and second, whether their orig-
guilty (mediate imputation) or guilty and inal use was declaratory (as in the later bap-
therefore polluted (immediate imputation) be- tismal orders and fairly certainly in catecheti-
cause of the first sin of the parent of the cal instruction) or more strictly interrogatory,
human race. Thus, the soul is sinful not be- as seems to be suggested in some of the earlier
cause the creation of it is in some manner de- writers (e.g., Tertullian, Hit)polytus). The
fective, but because of its immediate contact probability is that we do not have to make a
with inherited pollution and guilt. Some of simple choice in these matters, but that various
the |]rincipal Scripture passages on which crea- complementary fo[ces were at work. In any
tionists base their belief are: Zech. 12: I; Isa. case, however, there can be no doubt as to
42:5; Num. 16:22; Heb.12:9. This view is the con£`essional character of the earliest creeds.
common among Protestants, es|]ecially the Re- Yet the use of ereeds for instructional I)ur-
formed; traducianism is associated especially poses inevitably ccirried with it an emi]hasis
with the Roman Church. upon the substance of what is confessed. This
BIBLIOGRAPHY is not wrong in itself . To believe in God nec-
E„T#d:g:e5y5.cbf:I,;#„,D206gt#aetff;,.]F4ejTrtchharpc:n[z]£;]c%::: essarily and quite rightly means to believe
s>istcTii.atic Theology. that God is, and to believe that which he tells
JOHN H. GERSTNER us about himself. It is not surprising, therefore,
CREED, CREEDS. The term creed de- that certain of the more imi)ortant biblical
rives from the Latin crec!o ("I believe"), and truths or facts concerning God and his work
as used in the Christian church signifies a con- should come to have a I)art in the primary con-
fession of faith. The form of the ancient creeds fession of faith in Jesus Christ or the triune
makes it plain that primarily a creed is not a God, nor can the I)rocess be described as illegi-
mere statement of beliefs or acceptance of di- timate so long as "the faith" is kept in the
vine revelation, though these are also involved. primary context of faith.
It is an acknowledgment of personal trust in With the development of heretical teaching,
God. Hence we do not merely say: Credo however, there was a natural tendenc}' to use
Det" (esse): "I believe that God exists"; or the creeds as a test of catholic orthodoxy. This
Crec!o Deo: "I believe what God says"; but: is the most likely ext)lanation of the use of
C7.edo j7c Det47": "I believe, or trust, or have the Latin term sy7„Z?o!?two for a creed. It is a
faith, in God." token by which the true Christian can be
The historical derivation of our I)resent known from the infidel or heretic. The gen-
creeds will always be something of a mystery. uine Christian does not merely express faith
CRITICISM, NEW TESTAMENT 148

in Jesus Christ and therefore in the Father and must always have a place as the profession of
the rloly Ghost. He states this faith and cer- justifying faith in Jesus Christ and therefore
tain of its basic implications in a particular in the Father and the Holy Ghost. For baptis-
way. We cannot be certain, of course, that this mal and liturgical purposes, the Apostles'
is the real reason for the use of the word Creed offers a short and biblical statement
"symbol," but it seems to harmonize best both which under Scripture may well remain in
with the detailed evidence and the general continued use in the churches. Liturgical and
development. instructional value may also be found in the
other two primary creeds,. though they can
Instances of this new emphasis and applica-
hardly be imposed or used in the same sense
tion are perhaps to be seen even in a brief and
and must always be subjected to the scriptural
simple statement like the later Apostles' Creed.
norm. More detailed confessions have a legiti-
Thus the confession that God is the Creator
mate place in expressing the mind of the
excludes the Gnostic idea of a Demiurge, and
churches on disputed issues and therefore help-
the stress on the death o£ Christ is an answer
ing forward the work of exposition and the-
to Docetism. But the emergence of new here-
ology. But these again cannot be regarded as
sies, especially in the field o£ Christology
absolutely binding or final, and care must
(q.v.), necessitated continuing elaboration in
alw3.}'s be taken that they do not bind either
creedal definition and even the introduction
the church or the Bible on the one side or on
of terminology for which there is no direct
the other subjugate the true nature and use
scriptural I)recedent. This is reflected in the
of confession to the search for detailed ortho-
so-called Nicene Creed and more particularly
doxy.
the complicated Athanasian.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
up to a point this might seem to be a
natural and justifiable development. Yet it car-
ried with it four serious dangers. First, the ele- ?,fe#fEeke;df?Il&3#sad#isTehE£:Ea#:oc#.n?s!#='t:i,sF#eed#Bs-
ment of genuine confession of faith in Christ WILLIAM KELLY
was ver}7 largely lost in that of assent to the-
ological orthodoxy. Second, the creed became CRITICISM, NEW TESTAMENT. The
an instrument of division rather than unity. aspect of criticism with which this article deals
Third, the highly intellectual content made it is frequently called higher criticism to distin-
im|>ossible for the average man to understand guish it from lower criticism which has for its
the statements and therefore he was required province the Greek Text. It deals ivith ques-
to accept a good deal on trust, with all the as- tions of` authorship, time of writing, literary
sociated evils of im|)licit faith. Fourth, it be- structure and contents. The study of such
came difficult to stop the process of elabora- questions rna)' prove of great value for the bet-
tion, and the continuing requirement of this ter understanding o£ Scripture, if it is con-
or that new dogma on pain of eternal damna- trolled by balanced judginent and due recog-
tion could only enhance the power of the nition of the fact that if the sacred writings
church, weaken true faith and its confession, 2.re the works of men emplo}7ing contemporar}r
and call forth from protesting or reforming literar}r forms and modes of expression, they
i`,re at the same time much more, being also
groui)s oi)posing statements which had also to
be given some measure o£, symbolical signifi- records of supernatural revelation and giving
cance. evidence of divine supei.vision of their com-
In t}7pical reaction against over-emphasis on position.
the creedal content, liberal Protestantism has I. DEVELopMENT oF CRITlclsM. The be-
ascribed a new and false importance to the ginnings of criticism as applied to set)arate
confessing subject and thus given a distinctive books of the NT may be seen in the early Gen-
nuance to the term creed. "My" creed is that turies of the Christian era, notably in the com-
which I now happen to believe concerning ments of Origen and Dion}'sius. It was not,
God, the world and myself, the important however, until the late eighteenth century that
thing being, not that it is my response to the it developed so as to exert an influence upon
divine word and work in Jesus Christ, but that the interpretation of the NT as a whole. At
it is the non-obligatory and variable product of that time a reaction was beginning to make
m}' own thinking, fantasy or experience. itself felt against a wave of rationalism which
In its basic sense of confession, the creed had promoted skepticism on matters Of re-
149 CRITICISM, NEW TESTAMENT

ligious faith. But the influence of the Car- trustworthy. Today this hypothesis is a matter
tesian philosophy and the Newtonian concep- of history. Comparatively little is heard of it.
tion of the universe still tended to produce an The present century has witnessed the dating
attitude of mind relying strongly on subjective of most, if not all, of the books within the
judgment and unfavorably disposed to belief second half of the first century. The Epistles
in supernatural activity in the world. The way bearing Paul's name have been restored to him,
was thus prepared for regarding the books of with the exception of Ephesians and the Pas-
the NT as I)urely human works. The miracu- toral Epistles which are still questioned by
lous was suspect. It was freely assumed that certain critics, although leading scholars, con-
a heightening of Christology and modification s3rvatively or otherwise inclined, have given
in accordance with the developing thought of strong reasons for regarding them all as Paul-
the Church was discernible in the NT writ- ine. The archaeological researches o£ Sir Wil-
ings. Consequently, boo.ks of earlier date were liam Ramsay, the works of James Smith, Hcr
thought to be more reliable than those of later I)art and, more recently, F. F. Bruce, have
date and sources behind the Gospels more ac- done much to restore confidence in the au-
curate than the Gospels themselves. Literary thenticity, unity and historicity of the Lukan
questions and the quest of the "Jesus of His- books.
tory" became the center of scholarly interest. Ill. SouRCE CRITlclsM. In 1835 Synoptic
It was hoped that with the discovery of the c`riticism received considerable impetus from
``real Jesus," who was believed to have been a
Lachmann's theory of the priority of Mark,
merely human prophet, leading a blameless life based on the belief that Matthew and Luke,
and teaching the fatherhood of God, the when covering common ground with him,
brotherhood of man and the nearness of the never agree against him. It now came to be
kingdom of heaven, enough would be salvaged accepted by many scholars that the other
to prevent the Christian faith from being over- Synoptists used Mark's Gospel as one source.
whelmed by rationalism. In course of time, the material which they
11. THE TUEBINGEN ScHooL. The first have in common in addition to what they owe
critical introduction to the NT was issued in to Mark, was held to be derived from a source
]804 by Eichhorn who had already written a written or unwritten, denoted by Q, from the
critical introduction to the OT. But, about a German Qt4ez!c (source). Some scholars in-
clined to identify it with the Zogja which
quarter of a century later, works of far greater
importance began to appear. Their author, Papias attributed to Matthew the apostle. This
F. C. Baur o£ Tuebingen, became the leader two-document source theory was later elab-
of an influential critical school. He approached ctrated to become a four-document hypothesis
the NT documents from the historical view- in order to account for matter peculiar to each
of Matthew and Luke. These further hy-
point and showed the value of relating the
books to their original setting and considering pothetical sources are known as M and L re-
the circumstances and motives of their writers. spectively. The theory that Mark existed in an
But by applying the principles of the Hegelian earlier form, called by critics Ur Markus, is re-

philosophy to the interpretation of the con- jected b}7 Vincent Ta}7lor. Canon Streeter sup-
tents of the NT he arrived at extreme and mis- ports a Proto-Luke h}7i]othesis, on the assumi)-
leading conclusions. He supposed that the tion that Q and L were combined before Luke
chief clue to the date and character of the came upon Mark's Gospel, and together repre-
various books was their relation to the antag- sented,,€omparative]y early tradition. Opinion
onism between the Petrine and Pauline on the merits of this theory varies.
schools. Those which gave clearest evidence of IV. ]oHN AND PAUL. The Fourth Gospel
the opposition between the parties were early was commonly held to be of late date and little
and those which showed conciliatory tenden- historical value. Its ideas represented the in flu-
cies, or made little reference to it, were later. ence of developing theology and hellenistic
This method of classif ication led to the hy- conceptions upon primitive tradition. Critics
pothesis that Paul wrote only Galatians, I and generally regarded it as non-apostolic. Recent
11 Corinthians and Romans 1-14. A number
of books were placed in the second century, :efnf::cfir!:set:et:I;:dt:te:i,totnttEeat`a|sttieacsadaet
the writings o£ Luke being among them. Late least apostolic authority behind it and that the
writings were considered tendentious and un- apparent differences between it and the Synop-
CRITICISM, OLD TESTAMENT 150

tic Gospels are less inexplicable than was for- other kinds of tradition. On this basis, Dibelius
merly believed. The Dead Sea Scrolls have re- and Bultmann, among others, classif ied the
vealed that certain Johannine ideas, once con- whole material of the Gospels, dividing it into
fidently thought to be hellenistic, may well groups of supposedly varying historical value.
have been current in Palestine when Jesus While drawing attention to some things which
taught. The early opinion of Dionysius that were, perhaps, little noticed previously, they
on literary grounds the author of the Fourth made serious mistakes. They exaggerated the
Gospel could not have written the Apocalypse length of time between the ascension and the
has persisted, but even R. H. Charles admits earliest written records. They misjudged the
some connection between Revelation and the extent and character of the influence of the
Fourth Gospel. life and thought of the church upon tradition.
The keen interest in the "Jesus of History," They gave too large a place to subjective
already mentioned, had as one of its conse- opinion.
quences a reaction against Paulinism. Liberal
Much criticism is thus seen to have yielded
scholars maintained that Paul's Christ was the destructive or negative results. But all scholar-
creation of a writer who paid little attention ly labor in this direction was not in vain. Er-
to historical fact, and borrowed largely from ror stimulated fresh study in order to refute it
current Judaism and mystery religions. Out- and so one way or another work of lasting
standing advocates of these views were Wrede value was produced.
and Reitzenstein. But many scholars joined `in BIBLIOGRAPHY

research to examine the foundations of these

daring hypotheses and among those who
helped to vindicate Paul's claim to be a true
;oh,:f[':s%i"r::,!h?.!,;i#ehs:5eg;i"::„!:!i;t?g'.5a?,;,:¥::i..:,:gg!;:ei;
WILLIAM J. CAMERON
witness to Jesus may be mentioned, H. A. A.
Kennedy, Anderson Scott and J. Gresham CRITICISM, OLD TESTAMENT. OT
Machen. criticism may be defined as the serious and
V. ESCHATOLOGy AND FORM CRITlclsM. An scholarly study of the OT. It is generally
epoch-making book, published in Gemany in divided into the two categories of lower and
1906, had two important effects. It was trans- higher criticism. Lower criticism deals with the
lated into English under the title TJ}e Qwesf text of the OT, its transmission and condition.
of t7.e H;storjc¢l Jestis. The author, Albert Higher criticism on the other hand occupies
Schweitzer, reviewed the course of crideism itself with the study of the date, authorship,
in the nineteenth century and claimed that place and circumstances of composition as well
the emphasis of the original gospel was as the purpose and nature of the individual
eschatological. In certain respects views ex- biblical books. In popular parlance, however,
pressed in Schweitzer's book are open to grave the term ``higher criticism" has come to desig-
objection. But the book raised the question of nate an approach to the OT which discards its
the apologetic value of the supposed "Jesus of absolute trustworthiness and in the study of
History" and also tuned the attention of schol- the above mentioned questions feels free to
ars to the eschatological teaching of the Gos- set itselt` in conflict with exi)less statements of
pels. the Bible.
Some years earlier, Wrede had published a During the early Christian centuries, par-
work entitled The Messjc[t®jc Secret i7® t7®e Gas- ticularly among groups which were outside the
pels. Its thesis that Mark had superimposed pale of the orthodox church, hostile criticism
upon tradition a series of messianic claims of the OT made its appearance. This was the
based on post-resurrection belief met with case among certain Gnostic groups, Marcion,
strong opposition in Germany and England. Celsus, Porphyry and others. These latter were
But it was used by the Form Historical critics, hostile opponents of Christianity and opposed
who came into prominence after World War the OT from a heathen philosophical stand-
I, to discredit the Markan framework on the I)oint. Among the Jews there were some who
attacked certain statements in the OT, and
ground Of artificiality. This school, professing
disappointment with the meager results of one or two denied the latter chapters of Isaiah
source criticism, concentrated on the period to that prophet.
when tradition was forming. They assumed Spinoza (1632-77) has been termed the
"father of higher criticism." He denied the
that it would follow patterns familiar from
151 CRITICISM, OLD TESTAMENT

Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and Israel's religion denied also the Davidic au-
thought that it might have been the work of thorship of those psalms which are attributed
Ezra. A German scholar, H. 8. Witter (1711) to him, as well as the unity and Isaianic author-
thought that there were two parallel accounts ship of Isaiah and the Danielic authorship of
of creation in Genesis, distinguished by the Daniel. During the early part of this present
use of different divine names. Jean Astruc century the development hypothesis was truly
(1753) also used the divine names as criteria regnant. At the present, however, it has largely
for the identification of documents and carried been discarded, although some form of docu-
his analysis throughout Genesis, finding in all mentary hypothesis is generally held by those
some twelve different documents. who refuse to ac.cept the trustworthiness of
The principle of documentary analysis was the Bible. The reasons why the development
adopted by Eichhorn ( 1780-83), although, un- hypothesis has now become almost obsolete are
like Astruc, he denied that Moses was the to be found principally in the discoveries Of
compiler o£ Genesis. He designated the docu- archaeology and the world wars which shat-
ments J and E af ter the divine names Jehovah tered the evolutionary conception of man that
and Elohim. The next stage in the develop- underlay much of this theory. The inherent
ment of this negative criticism (negative, be- weaknesses of the position itself also led to its
cause it ran counter to the positive statements decline.
of Scripture) is found in the work o£ K. D. Under the influence of Hermann Gunkel
Ilgen who believed that E really consisted of and Hugo Gressmann a school of study arose
two documents, El and E2. The order thus which sought to determine the life situation
stood E1, E2, J and D (Deuteronomy). This which gave rise to each bit of OT material,
arrangement is known as the Earlier Docu- poetry, oracle or narrative. These units were
mentary Hypothesis. then classified and categorized. According to
During the nineteenth century other views Martin Noth (1943) the first four books of
also appeared, the most important of which the Bible (the Tetrateuch) consist of ancient
was known as the supplementary hypothesis. traditions which reach back into ancient times.
This view maintained that there was one basic Noth's position is in reality based upon the
document to which supplements or additions earlier work of Gunkel and Gressmann. Noth's
had been made. views have imf luenced modern Scandinavian
An important step in the history of the scholars, notably Ivan Engnell, who maintains
documentary hypothesis is associated with the that most of the OT was transmitted orally
name of Herman Hupfeld (1853) who, even until it was finallv written down at the time
more clearly than Ilgen, distinguished between of -the exile. Engnell lays great stress upon the
lst and 2nd E. He labeled his documents E or importance of oral transmission.
P, E2, I, and D, regarding P (priestly) as the Adherents of the documentary hypothesis
earliest and D as the latest. for the most part held a low view of the
Largely due to the influence of K. H. Graf Massoretic text and its reliability, often prefer-
(1866) P was now considered the latest docu- ring the readings of the LXX. Largely as a re-
ment and J the earliest` giving the order J E D sult of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls
and P. This position was maintained in con- a greater respect for the Massofetic text has
nection with a particular theory (known as arisen. Tliere was a time when scholars were
the development hy|)othesis and popularized quite free in suggesting emendations of the
by Julius Wellhausen, 1876) of the origin of OT Hebrew text. Such a time has passed,
Israel's religious institutions. According to the however, and at present a more cautious atti-
development hypothesis the religion of Israel tude is prevalent.
was not a special revelation but arose from Side by side wi:h t-he critical movement
natural impulses in man. The patriarchs were whose histor}r has just been sketched there has
not historical figures and Genesis was said not also existed a reverent scholarship which has
to present an accurate picture of patriarchal regarded the Scriptures as authoritative and
times. It was not until the Deuteronomic re- infallible. Adherents of this movement have
form in 622 B.c. under Josiah that worship at produced valuable commentaries and have pub-
a single sanctuary was required. The Levitical lished and continue to publish scholarly bibli-
system was thought to be even later. cal studies. This group engages in scholarly,
Advocates of the development hypothesis of critical study of the OT, but endeavors to be
CROSS 152

guided in its research by the authority Of the on a cross to symbolize a ourse (cf . Deut.
Scriptures. In this group some Of the greatest 21:22; Josh.10:26; 11 Sam. 4:12). An ex-
names in OT study are to be found, e.g., ception to this was by the Jewish mler Alexan-
E. W. Hengstenberg, K. F. Keil and William der Jannaeus (104-78 B.c.) when in raging
Henry: Green. anger he ordered eight hundred deserters to be
It is of course impossible to tell what direc.. crucified and the throats Of their children and
tion future studies in the field of OT will wives to be cut before their eyes (Jos. A7!t.
take. Without a doubt the discoveries of ar- XIII. xiv. 2). The public use of the cross was
chaeology have brought about a more conserva- adopted by the Christians as a symbol at the
tive frame of mind, and this is probably a time of Constantine.
For the early Christians, surrounded by cru-
good thing. The OT scholar, however, needs
more than a conservative frame of mind. He cifixion as a grim fact of common experience,
there was no danger of beautifying the cross
must be a man who is regenerate and who
by sentiment. Its grimness remained as the
possesses the` necessary scholarly equipment. It
is upon such men that the future of true OT epitome of the sufferings of Christ and the
very heart Of discipleship. It ceased to be an
scholarship rests.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
embarrassment in the light of the resurrection.
At the cross salvation was achieved and the
•¥nc,::fx.:he#ie¥aI:ee::d;;sfh;se¥ictse;?i-#;c;isifg;oeE#,a:#! doom Of hostile powers was sealed (I Pet.
2:24; 3:18; Col. 2:15).
the Old Tcstame"t.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EDWARD J. YoUNG Amdt; HOB; I. ]. Cbuins ia CBQ, April 1939, pp.
154-59; Crem.
ROBERT V. UNMACK
CROSS. The Greek word for "cross" is
stattros and lit. means an upright, pointed stake
or pale; I)iles driven in to serve as a founda-
CROWN. In the NT there are two Greek
lion. The verb means to make a fence with words for ``crown" - dhade-t#tz and stepha"os.
stakes, to palisade, to crucify. The Latin crwx The former is found only in Revelation (12:3;
13:1; 19:12). Originally it meant ``the sign
("cross") and p¢lt.s ("stake'') are background
expressions for our English word. In the NT Of royalty among the Persians, a blue band
the noun is used twenty-eight times and the trimmed with white, on the tiara" (Arndt, p.
verb forty-six. The use of the cross as a form 181 ). So the term suggests a symbol of royalty.
of punishment was adopted by the Greeks and On the other hand, stepJ}a"os (also used
Romans from the Phoenicians, Persians and as a proper name, Ste|)hen) meant "the wreath
Carthaginians. In pre-Christian days, besides . . . given as a prize for victory, as a festal
the upright post, there were primarily two ornament, or as a public honor for distin-
types of crosses. The cr"x comt"jssa or St. An-guished service or personal worth" (A-S, p.
thony's cross was shaped like the capital "T", 27). It was used for the laurel wreath pre-
consisting of an upright post with a cross-bar sented to the victor in an athletic contest (c£.
on top. Vine maintains that this came from the I Cor. 9:25). It means "prize" or "reward"
symbol of the god Tammuz and the ta" be- (Amdt, p. 775).
came the initial of his name (Vine, A# Exposi- This gives added poignancy to its use for
tory Dict;o7!ary, Westwood, N. J., Fleming H. the ``croum of thorns" placed on Jesus' brow
Revell Company, 1956, p. 256). The other (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:17; John 19:2, 5).
type was the Latin cross or crt4x it"m;ssa with The reward he received from those to whom
the cross-bar lowered about a third of the way he had ministered in loving compassion was
on the upright post. Not only does tradition a cruel crown of thorns.
bear witness to the latter but also the four The eipression "crown Of life" occurs twice
Gospels (Matt. 27:37; Mark 15:26; Luke (James I:12; Rev. 2:10). In both cases the
28:38; John 19:19-22) in stating that a title idea of reward f or faithfulness is the prominent
was nailed to the cross Of Christ. Josephus feature. "Of life" is probably the genitive Of
records that two thousand were crucified after definition; i.e., "the crown which consists in
the death o£ Herod the Great by Varus (A"t. life eternal" (]. 8. Mayor, The Epistle of St.
XVII. x. 10). Titus, in A.I). 70, also carried Jar»es, Zondervan Publishing House, Grand
out mass crucifixion. The Jews never killed Rapids, Mich., n.d., p. 49).
by crucifying but they did hang dead bodies Trench (p. 78) insists that while dfade-7wa
153 CURSE

signifies a crown of royalty, sfeph¢7®os always desire uttered to God against another person
means a crown of victory. It is "always the or thing. A curse was considered to have an
conquerer's, and not the king's" (ib;cZ., p. 79). innate power to carry itself into effect (Zech.
Yet he admits that the crown of thorns sug- 5:I-3, where the curse inevitably found its
gested mock royalty (jz?jd., p. 81). victim). Curses among the heathen were sup-
An inscription relating to a second century posed to be possessed of the power of sel£-
athlete, in the theater at Ephesus, reads: "He realjzation (Num. 22-24 with Balaam). In
fought three fights, and twice was crowned" Scripture a curse was invariably related to sin
(Deiss LAE, I). 309). Another inscription, (Gen. 3) and disobedience (Prov. 26:2). In
from the second century B.c., honors a man certain cases the concept of oath suffices to
for public service "with a golden crown" (iz".cZ., convey the meaning (Judg.17:2; Isa. 65: 15).
p. 312). In both cases stepJ'ici7?os is used. In its si]ecif ic usage the curse was an act of
BIBLIOGRAPHY dedicating or devoting to God. Things or per-
Arndt; A-S; Deiss LAE; Mayor; Tre"ch. sons thus devoted could not be used for I)ri-
RALPH EARLE vate purposes (Lev. 27:28). In time of war
a city was devoted to the Lord. This included
CUP. This word is used in three ways: lit- the slaying of men and animals (Deut. 20: 12-
erally, literal-metaphorically, and metaphori- 14; Josh. 6:26); the redeeming of children and
cally. virgins (Deut. 21 : 11-12); the burning of com-
Literall}' it is used of the cup of cold water bustibles (Deut. 7:25); the placing of metals
given in Christ's name (Matt. 10:42; Mark in the temple (Josh. 6:24); £`nd the imi)osi-
9:41) and of the attention given to cups by tion of the ban on those who violated these
the Pharisees (Matt. 23:25; Luke 11:39;
provisions (Josh. 6: 18). How literally the last
Mark 7:4). named ban was i`arried out may be seen from
The literal-metaphorical usages involve a the tragic history of Achan and his family, and
literal cup but the contents have a metaphori- the experience of I-Iiel the Bethelite (Josh.
cal meaning. In the institution of the Lord's 7: I ff. and I Kings ]6:34). The Canaanites as
Sui)per (Matt. 26:27; Mark 14:23; Luke a nation were set apart for this kind of de-
22:17, 30; I Cor.11:25) and in its practice struction (Josh. 2: 10; 6: 17).
by the church (I Cor.10:16, 21; 11:26, 27,
In its higher significance the curse indi-
28) we have an actual cup but its material
cates a thing devoted to an exclusively sacred
contents depict the atoning death of Christ.
use. It amounts then to a vow. Comi)are the
The metaphorical usages are profound and
consecration o£ John the Baptist (Luke 1 : 15;
worth}r of careful study. The cup symbolizes
7:33), and the misuse of the vow among the
the suffering and death of Christ (Matt.
20:22; Mark 10:38; Matt. 26:39; Mark people of Israel by an evasion instituted by
their religious leaders (Mark 7: 11 ff.). It dc-
14:36; Luke 22:42; John 18:11). This sym-
notes, as seen, the ban of extermination and
bol of a violent death is also applied to James
occurs frequently in the OT, but there is no
and John (Matt. 20:23; Mark 10:39). The
clear instani`e of this in the NT. The ban of
cup also stands for the wrath of God to be
annihilation was replaced at times by the dis-
poured out upon sinful men at the end of this cipline of excommunication (John 9:22;
age (Rev. 14: 10; 16: 19). In interpreting these
12:42; 16:2; iMatt.18:17). Ezra 10:8 is un-
metaphors, stress should be put upon the sym-
derstood to a|)proximate the later rabbinic prac-
bolic nature of the cup and its contents.
tice of excommunication (Matt.18:17; Luke
A. BERKELEY MICKELSEN 6:22). Admittedly, the Lukan reference may
have a wider application.
CURATE. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTlcAL.
One regular use of the word is in contrast
CURSE. The Scriptures employ the term to blessing. Whc.n the term is so employed,
"curse" (OT noun forms, qehal4 and ZiGret#,. there are no sacred associations, and the word
verb, '6r¢r et ¢1.; NT noun forms, hatc!ra and runs the gamut from divine to satanic. Before
anathema; nyerb, hataraomai et al.) in certain the people of Israel entered Canaan they were
well-defined significations. In general usage a given the choice of obedience and God's bless-
curse is an imprecation or an expressed wish ing or disobedience and the curse. The curse
for evil. If it be directed against God, it is was placed symbolii`ally on Mount Ebal, while
blasphemy (Job I:5,11; 2:5, 9). It may be a the blessings were attached to Mount Gcrizim
CUSTOM, CUSTOMS 154

(Deut. 27: 13-26). The rarity of the curse in As man emerges from savagery he tends to
the NT is in keeping with the spirit of the regulate his conduct in society by the generally
new age (Matt. 21:19 ££.; Mark 11:12 f£.). accepted standards of the tribe. His attitude is
The curse has a clef inite christological refer- not due to deep reflec.tion; it is mere con-
ence. Paul states that Christ became a curse formity to what is usually practiced. The inte-
for us (Gal. 3: 13) by bearing the penalty of gration of morality and religion with tribal
the law (Deut. 21:23). The curse of the law customs is for primitive man the attempt to
(Deut. 27:26) fell upon him by the manner preserve the identity and the unity of his clan
of his death as well as the fact of it. It was a in the struggle for survival.
criminal's death and so under the curse. As moral ideas develop, custonis are seen to
BIBLIOGRAPHY be inadequate or even harmful as standards.
The abominable customs of the heathen were
IsfB,' 1]1', Pp.. %]7;; ESDl?'sE'D?;p:3]46£..; HDCG,I, p. 4o4;
forbidden to Israel (Lev.18 :30). Even Israel's
CHARLES L. FEINBERG
traditions are seen to be harmful in the light
of growing ethical awareness. The word of
CUSTOM, CUSTOMS. The word cus-
tom(s) reflects the meaning of the Greek God was being rendered of none effect by
et72os or the Latin 7t}ores. A custom is any clinging to outmoded traditions. The customs
norm of voluntary action that has been of Moses tended to stifle the universality and
developed in a national or tribal community. freedom of the gospel. Paul was arraigned on
It has a place in the growing awareness of the charges of changing the customs which Moses
moral ideal. With primitive man, custom is commanded (Acts 6:14; 16:21). The law
the great guide of life. needed to be fulfilled.
Custom is allied to both habit and law. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Habit is more individualistic, while custom is
Maw;aiwo7n£;hic€:h£CpS.'9¥].££;ChLa.P.H.3;GrJfys£.nhfaEcfii?Zie.
more social. Law is more universal in its scope
than custom. ALBERT VICTOR M'CALLIN

DARKNESS. Beyond the literal meaning DAVID. The son of Jesse, musician, war-
of the Hebrew ¢o-5eE, 'o-pe], and the Greek, r`ior, poet, pro|)bet, king, is one of the most
skotjcz, skotos, zophos, there is a wealth of prominent figures in OT history. Some sixty
metaphor. Concerning man, darkness means ig- chapters in the historical books deal with his
norance (Job 37:19), calamity (Ps.107:10), many-sided career. In them we are given the
death (Ps. 88:12), wickedness (Prov. 2:13; Z7iog7.czp7cy o£ David. We read of the shepherd
lad, secretly anointed by Samuel; of the
John 3: 19), damnation (Matt. 22: 13). These
metaphors are grounded in the truth that harp player whose music soothed the trou-
God is light (I John 1 : 5) and in creation and bled spirit of Saul; of the youthful war-
redemption (11 Col. 4:6) he has conquered rior who slew Goliath, became the friend
darkness, the forces which oppose his mle of Jonathan, and the hero of the people; of
(Luke 22:53; Eph. 6:12). Darkness is asso-
the fugitive from the murderous hate of Saul,
ciated with divine interventions, firstly, as in resorting to lying, treachery and cruelty to
save his life; of the king who reigned first at
Deut. 4: 11, because God is hidden except he
Hebron and then at Jerusalem over all Israel;
reveal himself; secondly, because the light of
of his successful wars which delivered Israel
revelation (Isa. 60:2) becomes darkness and from her enemies; of the bringing up of the
condemnation to those who refuse it (Amos ark, of the ungranted desire to build the ten-
5:18; Zeph.I:15). plc, and of the messianic promise o£ 11 Sam.
7; of the great sin and its terrible conse-
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
155 DAY

quences: the murder of Amnon, the rebellion of men of every age have responded and will
of Absalom, the slaying of Amasa, fulfilling respond until the end of time.
the word of the prophet, "The sword shall not OSWALD T. ALLIS
depart from thine house forever"; Of the prep-
aration in material things for the building of DAY. I. NATURAI. MEANINGs. The greatest
the temple and in spiritual ways by the order- number of uses of day (yo-7„,. 7ie-7"e7'¢) refers
ing of the worship, especially the service of to natural time units; but in the progress of
song; of the crowning of Solomon to succeed revelation its theological use increases to such
him and of the death of David. This, in brief, an extent that in the Synoptic Gospels almost
is the history. It reveals David as the men of one-third of all uses of 7iG77®ercz is eschatological.
his own day knew him, a great man, capable A. Howrs of D¢yljght on any given day be-
of the noblest acts, but alas also of very ignoble tween dawn and dusk (Gen.I:5,16,18).
deeds. The Lord Jesus spoke of a day of twelve hours,
The autobiography o£ David is given largely assuredly of light since man does not stumble
in the Book of Psalms. Seventy-three are as- (John 11:9). Day is used to indicate the
signed to him by the headings; and it is in dawn (Josh. 6:15; 11 Pet.I:19), midday (I
these Psalms that the heart o£ David is re- Sam.11:11; Acts 26:13),late afternoon or
vealed to us. In Ps. 23 we meet the youth who evening hour (Judg.19:9; Luke 9:12). A
fought with Goliath, in Ps. 18 the warrior large number of references speak of day as
king who triumphed over all his enemies, in opposed to night (Isa. 27:3; Mark 5:5; Luke
Ps. 51 the penitent sinner seeking and rejoic- 18:7; I Tim. 5:5).
ing in the forgiveness of God, in Pss. 8, 19, 8. Leg¢! oi- Cjt7;I Dci)J, a period of twenty-
103 and 139 the man after God's own heart, four hours' duration. The sabbath is from dusk
the man of profound piety and love. The to dusk (Lev. 23:32). There are six days and
greatest thing in David's life was the messianic a sabbath in a week (Lul{e 13 : 14). The Lord's
promise made through Nathan (11 Sam. 7), resurrection is after three days (Mark 8:31;
which has its echo in Pss. 2, 89, and Ilo (c£. Luke 24:46). The I)eriod between the resur-
Ps. 72); and these promises regarding David's rection and the ascension is forty legal days
house, which are so gloriously fulfilled in
(Acts I:3). The legal day is contrasted with
Christ, are the ``sure mercies of David" of the hour and month and year in Rev. 9: 15.
which Isaiah spoke (55:3) and which Paul
C. A Lo7®ger Pe7-jocz. Although day is used
proclaimed in his first sermon addressed to in the singular to designate long periods of
gentile ears (Acts 13). In Ps. 22 the afflicted time, as the "day" of Christ (John 8:56), or
David prefigures the Sufferer of Calvary; and
the day of salvation (Isa. 49:8; 11 Cor. 6:2),
in Ps. 16 we read one of the clearest predic-
tions of the resurrection. In Ps. 32 the for- yet it is more generally used in this respect in
the plural in such expressions as "the days o£
giveness of David's sin reveals the absolute Adam" (Gen. 5:4), "the da}7s of Abraham"
c`haracter of justification.
(Gen. 26:18), "the days of Noah" (Matt.
The Psalter, of which so much was written 24:37), "the days of the Son of man" (Luke
by David, has been called "the song book of 17:26). Christ's I)resence is "always" (lit. "all
the second temple." Much of it was undoubt- the days") with those who go out to preach
edly intended to be the song 'L)ook of the f irst his word (Matt. 28:20).
temple. In it we learn what was the true faith
11. THEol.oGlcAL MEANINGs. A. Ge7?e7-czl.
and life of the Israel of old under the covenant
The antithesis of day and night in the literal
of Sinai. For David is a true representative
sphere is seen in the description of believers
of that Israel which, as the people o£ God,
as children of the day and unbelievers as chil-
learned, often by bitter experience, to worship dren of the night (I Thess. 5:5-8). The Lord
the God of Abraham and of Moses in spirit
Jesus indicates that the da}' is the time of op-
and in truth. portunity for service which will end with the
The truly amazing thing is that the psalms coming night (John 9:4). Paul, however,
o£ David are not only the songs of the f irst teaches that the period ui) to the time of
and of the second temple, they are the songs eschatological salvation is the night and this
of the Christian church. The sweet singer o£ will issue in the glorious day of Christ (Ron.
Israel has struck the chords to which the hearts 13 : 11-13).
DAY OF ATONEMENT 156

8. Esc7?czfo!ogf.cc]J. In the records of man's t#eoweo„,tjF:st¥*eB:,.bin:oH.Zfi%%;,;:;,o„Thae„dFaEtehrtye:;t:ros:a;#

earliest history the word day i`ame to be as-
GEORGE A. GAY
sociated with special days set aside as belong-
ing to Jehovah (Gen. 2:3; Ex. 20:8-11; DAY OF ATONEMENT. A full descrip-
12:14,16; Lev.16:29-31). In the total OT tion of its ritual is given in Lev.16 (cf. 23:27-
concept they VI'ere designed for judgment of 32; 25:9; Nun. 29:7-11). It was held on
sin in nations or individuals (Isa. 2: 12; 13:9, the tenth of Tishri (October-November) and
11; Ezek. 7:6-8; Zeph.I:14-18; Obad.15), underlined by its elaborate symbolism the
but they also had the purpose of salvation. "7¢jvers¢! need for atonement. The people, the
`'indication, or restoration o£ God's chosen high priest and his house and even the sanc-
ones (Gen. 7:10+13, 23; Mic. 2:12; Isa. 4:3- tuary shared in this need. Typically it points
6). The local days o£ Jehovah visited on Israel forward to Christ's atonement (Heb. 9).
and Judah (Ezek. 7:4-8) or upon pagan Two main elements of the ritual are the
nations (Isa.13:9) were just a foretaste of one sprinkling of blood at the mercy seat, not
climactic c!jes ji-oe to come upon the whole otherwise accessible, and the ceremony of the
world (Joel 2:31; Mal. 4:5; Isa. 2:12; Jer. two male goats, one of which was sent into
25:15). Immediately following this super- the wilderness for Azazel, probably a demon
natural intervention on the plane of history thought to be residing there, and the other to
God would set up his eternal kingdom (Dan. be slain. Together these two animals sym-
2:28, 44) in which he alone would be sov- bolized the expiation and removal of sin (c£.
ereign and exalted (Isa. 2: 11). for a similar rite of removal Lev. 14:4-7, 49-51
In the NT the day of Jehovah, or final day and Zech. 5:5-10).
of reckoning, is designated by various phrases The prominent place given to sanctuary and
(I Thess. 5:4; .Tohn 6:39; Matt.10:15; I Pet. mercy seat in this ritual ill suits an assumed
2: 12), I)rincipally in combinations with the exilic or post-exilic origin of the day.
name of Jesus Christ (Phil.I:6, 10; I Cor. BIBLIOGRAPHY
I:8; 5:5; Acts 2:20; 11 Pet. 3:10), but they
s¢cT}#c8.;„Vrtjheeze8j,np3T§i5:28?.w2.°'ri:5aigp.en?.Lg5;,};:
contain the same basic concepts as in the OT, cws, pp. 238-54.
i.e., God's judgment, salvation, sovereignty, MARTEN H. WOUDSTRA
and exaltation.
The phrase, "the last days" (Acts 2:17; DAY 0F THE LORD, GOD, CHRIST.
Heb.1:2; 11 Tim. 3:I; 11 Pet. 3:3, 4), seems See EscHATOLOG¥.
to include, in its greatest extension, the whole
DAYSPRING. (Luke 1:78, flttc]tobe-) "the
period from the cross to the Second Advent.
More specifically, day in its plural form is rising of the sun"; here "the dawn," elsewhere
used to designate that final terrible period im- in NT "the east." SBK 11, p.18 points out
mediately before the pal.ows;a, including the it is the LXX rendering for Se?t¢azl, i.e., branch,
Great Tribulation (Matt. 24:19-22; Luke in ]er. 23 : 5, Zech. 3 :8, 6: 12, and interprets it
17:26-30; cf. Rev. 4-11). In the singular form here in this sense as a messianic. title; see also
it designates the p¢rot/sic jtse!f (Matt. 24:30, Amdt, p. 62a; Edersheim, Life a#d Tit"es, p.
31, 36; 11 Thess. 2:I, 2) and also the post- 158.
H. L. ELLlsoN
parot4s;¢ period up to the creation of the new
heavens and earth (11 Pet. 3:8-13).
The theological connotations of day do not DEACON. From Phil. I : I, an official salu-
rob it of its literalness when referring to the tation, we gather that deacons (the word
means "servant") were one of the two main
pcirot4s;¢. Rather, God's choice of the term
"day" only serves to emphasize its literal reality. orders of ministry in the apostolic church.
When the Lord himself makes his second ap- Some hold that the institution Of the diaconate
is seen in Acts 6, though this is never said.
pearance on earth, then will begin what Peter More likely we have there a temporary meas-
in the last verse of his second epistle calls "the
ure to meet a particular situation. But the offi-
day of eternity" (11 Pet. 3: 18, Greek). cers proved of value, and in due course settled
BIBLIOGRAPHY into an established order. The qualifications of
a deacon are given in I Tim. 3:8-13. Sound
ge;?;s#ro;AfsiE;*B?::h#hmgq:,I:.:?i%j:fyiF,a.y;;jsjgii.:ias:#; character and a good grasp of the faith are
157 DEAD SEA SCROLLS

required, but there is no mention of teaching these manuscrii]ts has reduced the gap separat-
or the like. The functions of these officials ing the autographs from the oldest extant
may well have been administrative and finan- copies by 1000 years, and is immensely im-
cial. portant for the textual history of the OT.
LEON MORRIS The non-biblical scrolls, along with the ar-
chaeological evidence furnished by the exi`ava-
DEAD SEA SCROLLS. I. QUMRAN. The tion of Khirbet Qumran, gi`'e us a pic`turc of
most important manuscripts among those dis- the beliefs and 1)ractices of this community,
covered since .1947 on the NVI7 shores of the which almost certainly was an Essene group.
Dead Sea are those found in eleven `caves in They practiced ceremonial ablutions, they held
the Wadi Qumran - apparently the remnants fellowship meals, they followed the calendar
of the library of a community which had its of the Book of Jubilees, they c`herished apoca-
headquarters at Khirbet Qumran between cfl. lyptic hopes, they interpreted prophetic Sc`riii-
100 B.c. and A.D. 68 (with a thirty years' ture in terms of I)ersons and events of their
break c¢. 34-4 B.a.). This community, founded own days and the days immediately to f()ll()w.
by a leader called the Teacher of Righteous- Some of the most interesting of these doi`u-
ness, regarded itself as the righteous remnant ments are commentaries (pes7iflH.tic) on biblic`al
of Israel, and withdrew to the wilderness of books, from which we mi`y learn their ideas
Judea to prepare for the cataclysmic events of biblical interi)retation. The itroi)hcts, they
which would terminate the "epoch of wicked- believed, knew by revelation what God was
ness" and introduce the kingdom of God. By going to do at the end-time, but they were not
diligent study and practice of the law they told when the end-time would c`ome; this
hoped to win acceptance for themselves and revelation was reserved for the Teacher Of
expiate the errors of their fellow-Israelites; Righteousness, who imparted it to his follow-
they also expected to be the executors of divine ers. They accordingly regarded themselves as
judgment on the ungodly at the end-time. The men whom God had favored by initiating them
end-time would coincide with the rise of three into his wonderful mysteries. Their system of
figures foretold in OT prophecy - a prophet interpretation I)resents striking points of re-
like Moses, a warrior-prince of David's line semblance and contrast with the interi)retation
and a great priest of Aaronic descent. This of the OT found in the NT.
priest would be head of the state in the new The expectations of the Qumran sect were
commonwealth, taking precedence over the not realized; they were dispersed, and their
Davidic Messiah. They refused to recognize headquarters destroyed, by Vespasian's forces
the priesthood of the "epoch of wickedness" in A.I). 68.

partly because it did not belong to the family The Qumran sect has been com|)ared to the
o£ Zadok and partly because of its moral un- early church in its eschatological outlook and
fitness for the sacred office. In their own ranks its remnant mentalit}', as well as in its biblical
they preserved the framework of worthy priests exegesis. But the decisive difference between
and Levites, ready to resume a pure sacrificial the two lies in the person and work of Jesus.
worship in the temr)le of the new Jerusalem. The Teacher of P`ighteousness was exactly
Their library, of which over 400 scrolls have what his title suggests; he `vas no Messiah or
been identified (most in very fragmentary Saviour. Jesus was to the early`Christians all
state), included biblical and non-biblical writ- that the Teacher was to the men o£ Qumran,
ings. About loo scrolls are biblical, all the but he was more. As Messiah, he was prophet
OT books (except Esther) being represented, and priest and king in one; and he fulfilled his
some of them several times over. These biblical messianic mission in terms of the portrayal of
scrolls date from the last few centuries B.c. the Suffering Servant which the Qumran com-
and the first century A.D. and attest at least munity endeavored to fulfil cori)orately. If (as
three distinct textual traditions of Hebrew appears possible) refugees from Qumran after
Scripture - not only the text (of Babylonian A.D. 68 made common cause with the refugee
provenience) underlying the later Massoretic church of Jerusalem, they learned at last how
recension, but the text underlying the Sep- Jesus fulfilled the hopes which had not been
tuagint version (of Egyptian provenience) and fulfilled in the way of their expectation.
a text akin to the Samaritan Pentateuch (of 11. MURABBA`AT. In caves in Wadi Murab-
Palestinian provenience). The discovery o£ ba`at, about eleven miles south of Qumran,
DEAN 158

manuscripts were discovered around 1952, the In the OT, death is set forth ih various
most significant belonging to the period when wa)'s. It was sometimes described as a gather-
Murabba<at was occupied by a garrison o£ ing to one's fathers (11 Kings 22:20). More
Bar-kokhba, leader of the sei`ond Jewish revolt often it was stated as a going down into Sheol,
against Rome (A.D. 132-35). From some of a cheerless abode where no work could be con-
the documents (including two letters from the tinued and where no communion was possible
leader himself ) it ai)peared that his proper (Eccl. 9: 10; Ps. 6:5). But brighter expressions
patronymic was Ben-Kosebah. Many fragments appear here and there, breathing an expecta-
of biblical manuscripts of this period were tion of continued fellowshi|) with God (Ps.
found, all of them exhibiting a "proto-Massore- 73:24). An influence in this direction may
tic" text. From neighboring caves further man- well have been the inequalities in earthly
uscripts of the same period came to light, in- existence - the suffering of the righteous and
cluding not only biblical manuscripts in He- the prosperit}7 of the wicked. Justice would be
brew but an important Septuagint fragment meted out in the life after death.
of the Minor Pro|)bets. Because of the connection between sin and
Ill. KHiRBET MIRD. Another collection of death, Christ's redemptive mission entailed his
manuscripts was unearthed at Khirbet Mird, own death (I Cor. 15:3; Ron. 4:25; I Pet.
north of the Wadi en-Nar (Kidron valley), 3:18). By submitting to death he triumphed
midway between Qumran and Murabba`at. over it, abolishing it and bringing life and im-
This collection dates between the fifth and mortality to light (11 Tim.I:10). The be-
eighth centuries A.D., is o£ Christian proveni- liever in Christ, despite the impartation to him
ence, and contains several biblical texts in of spiritual life, is subject to physical death,
Greek (including fragments Of uncial codices for this is the last enemy to be overcome (I
o£ Wisdom, Mark, John. and Acts) and in Cor.15:26). It will be banished at the return
Palestinian Syriac (including fragments of o£ Christ, when the Christian dead shall be
Joshua, Luke, John, Acts and Colossians). raised incorruptible (I C,or. I 5`:52; Phil. 3:20-
BIBLIOGRAPHY 21). In view of the future bodily resurrection
of the saints, death can bc described as a sleep.
(I Thess. 4:15). The animation of the body
in its perfected state following upon its mo-
tionless condition in death finds its analogue
in the stirring of the inactive frame af ter a
.--- _- night of slumber. The fear of death is over-
FREDERICK F¥vlE BRuCE come for the Christian because he no longer
has to cope with sin when he stands in the
DEAN. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTlcAL.
presence of God - sin which is the sting of
DEATH. Under normal conditions, death death (I Cor.15:56). Christ has removed the
is a universally lamented event in human ex- sting by his atoning death. To depart this life
is I)ositive gain (Phil.I:21). It brings a bet-
perience. It is a phenomenon which cannot
be regarded as wholly natural, but as a mystery
terment of the condition of the believer, even
a sharing of the glorif ied presence of the Son
which calls for explanation. If man is truly the
of God (Phil.1:23; 11 Cor. 5:8). Death has
crown of the divine handiwork, why should
he have a shorter existence than some forms of
no power to effect separation from Christ
(Ron. 8:38).
plant and animal life? One may go further
and ask why, if man is made in the image of In the teaching of Paul, so intimate and ef-
the eternal God, he should perish at all. The fective is the union between Christ and his
answer which Scripture provides is that man's
own that the believer is regarded as having
involvement in transgression o£ God's will and
died to sin together with Christ. For this rea-
law has brought death as a penalty (Gen. son he is under no obligation to serve sin any
longer (Ron. 6:I-4; Col. 3:I-3). Death may
2: 17). This does not mean that death, whether
also denote the moral inability of human na-
as to its timing or its manner, is directly re-
lure (Rom. 7:24).
lated in each case to sonie personal sin (Luke
13:1-4). It does mean that by reason of the The unbeliever is dead because of his sins,
very univers.1lity of sin, death is present as a unresponsive to God (Eph. 2:I; Col. 2:13).
necessary consequence (Ron. 5: 12-14). This strain of teaching is found in John also
159 DECALOGUE

(5 :24). Jude describes apostates as twice dead DECALOGUE. This word does not occur
(Jude 12). The deadness of their natural state in the Bible. But the "ten wolds" from which
is matched by the deadness of their professedly this Greek word is derived appear in Ex. 34:28
Christian experience. When the wicked are and Deut. 10:4. The usual biblical name is
"testimony." The testimony was placed in the
finally punished, their doom Of separation from
God is called the second death (Rev. 21 :8). ark (Ex. 25:16, 21) which is consequently
See also IMMORTAI.ITV, REsuRRECTloN. often called "the ark of the testimony"
BIBLIOGRAPHY (25 :22), and so also the tabernacle where the
ark dwelt is called "the tabernacle of testi-
line:EDBTfihvc:,n;Eec,lo:ns'i;?EeL:,;d!irD:::#i;ts,.`;i-'%::,."`o:,.:£i;:,:;:
mony" (Nun.1:50). It is God's testimony to
Tesfai~e"ts, pp. 3-30; A. Richardson in RTWB,. I. I. Israel because it represents his will for Israel;
Von Allmen in CB.
and above the ark is the mercy seat where once
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
a year the high priest makes atonement for the
children of Israel for all their sins against his
DEATH 0F CHRIST. See ATONEMENT.
holy law (Lev.16:33 £.).
That there are ten commandments is clearlv
DEBTOR. References are few in the OT stated. But they are not numbered; and thi's
because of the spirit of brotherhood and mu- has led to differenc`e of opinion regarding
tual hell)fulness fostered by the Mosiac law. them. The grouping ado|)ted by the Reformed
No provision was made for the recovery of churches regards vss. 4-6 as the second com-
debt, but non-I)ayment was severely con- mandment and vs.17 as the tenth. The Jews
demned (cf. Ps. 37:21; I)eut.15:1; I Sam. treat vs. 2 as the first commandment and unite
22:2; 11 Kings 4:1; Neh. 5:5). Occasionall}' vs. 3 with vss. 4-6 as the second. The Luther-
poverty led to slavery, but the creditor's power ans treat vss. 3-6 as the first and divide vs. 17
was limited (cf. Lev. 25:39; Deut. 24:6). In into two, the ninth and tenth.
Roman law imprisonment was inflicted on the The ten commandments are on two tables
debtor (Matt. 5:25).
(Ex. 31: 18). It is natural to assume that the
In NT times, due to Roman commercifil first states man's duty toward God. It is the
I)I:ictice, the none)'lender `vas a familiar fig- first fmd great commandment, summarized in
ure. Two striking I)arables were used by Jesus Deut. 6:4-5. Cf. Matt. 22:36 f. The second
Christ to ex|)ress the indebtedness of all men table defines man's duty to his fellow men
to God. This vital relationship cannot be imd is summed up in Lev. 19: 18.
placed on a business footing, since m{`n is That the Dci`aloguc is a declaration of ethi-
spiritually bankrui)t (Matt.18:27). cal monotheism can hardly be denied. For
The word debtor is a favorite description of while the first command, "Thou shalt have no
Paul for his I)osition as an apostle. The divine other gods before [or beside] me" might seem
impulse in his e`Jangelistic work was kindled to recognize the existence of other gods, and
by his sense of debt to Christ, and to man- therefore to require only monolatry and not
kind (Ron.I:1,14).
monotheism, the emphatic prohibition of idola-
All kinds of obligations, moral as well as
try in the second and the declaration in the
financ`ial, are covered by it. Taxes are to be
fourth that "Jehovah made heaven and earth`
paid in full as a duty owing to the State (Rom. the sea and all that in them is" excludes such
13:6). Domestic harmony is fostered by the an inference. Idolatry w{1s practiced by all the
rendering of what is due from husband to nations with which the Israelites came in con-
wife, and vice versa (I Cor. 7:3). Law keep- tact. The importance of the Decalogue and its
ing is futile as a means of salvation (Rom.
permanent authority is indicated by Jesus'
4:14; Gal. 5:3). Christians owe more than words: "On these two i`ommandments hang all
they can ever repay even to their brethren the law and the pro|)hets" (Matt. 22:40).
(Ron. 13:8). Gentile Christians were deeply That the Dec{`loguc is binding ui)on the Chris-
indebted to their Jewish brethren for the gos- tian is gcnerall}' recognized. It is for this rea-
pel (Acts 11:29; 11 Cor. 9:1; Ron.15:26). son that an e,\'i)osition of the Ten Command-
The same idea is found in "bondservant." The ments and their meaning for the Christian
Christian is purchased by Christ, is his |]rop-
(Matt. 5: 17) htis been made an integral part
erty and is delivered from bondage to all else. of such well-known catechisms as Luther's, the
RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN Heidelberg, clnd the Westminster. For the
DECEIT 160

freedom of the Christian from the law (Rom. events happen because God has decreed them.
6: 14) is not lawlessness. The Christian keeps This doctrine is taken as rooted in the very
the moral law as a son obeys his father,` not nature of God. As sovereign, nothing is out-
out of constraint but of love. In this sense love side his dominion; chance is eliminated. Eter-
is the fulfilling of the law (Ron.13: 10; Gal. nal and immutable himself, his purposes are
5 : 16-26). likewise timeless and changeless. When men
For many years it has been maintained in change their plans, they do so either because
"critical" circles that the Dec`alogue of Ex. 20
they have lost the ability to fulfil them, or b'e-
is not Mosaic, that the ethical monotheism cause greater wisdom has led them to plan
(q.v.) of which it is the expression was not at- differently. But because of God's perfections,
tained until about the eighth century B.c. In- his plans never require revision; his decrees
sofar as this is argued from Scripture and not shall never be revoked. Evil acti.ons as well as
from a theory of naturalistic development im- good are covered by his decrees, but never in
posed upon Scripture it is based on the fact such a way as to involve`him in the evil.
that the OT so often represents the people o£ When evil things happen they do so by what
Israel as living on a far lower plane than that the Reformers call his per"¢jssjt7e decree, as
required by the Decalogue. It is claimed that distinct from his express enactment. But the
such a code of laws could not have existed in evil event is so overruled as to fall in with
the days of the Judges or even much later. the great purpose of his etemal decree, name-
This claim ignores or rejects the fact that the ly, his own glory. In this connection, Acts
Bible declares the Decalogue to have been 2:23 is often cited. The ``determinate counsel
given at Sinai and rei)resents idolatry and of God" operated even in the crucifixion Of
similar sins as apostasy. Hence the date of the his Son by "wicked hands." And yet, in exe-
Decalogue is important to the vital question cuting his Purpose God did not violate the
whether the religion of Israel is a divine revela- moral freedom of the agents through whom
tion or a natural evolution. his permissive decree took effect in the death
See also CoMMAND. of his Son.
OSWALD T. ALLIS The doctrine of God's eternal decrees in-
evitably raises the question, Why does God
DECEIT. A deliberate concealing or per-
verting of the truth, especially in moral and permit sin? The above-mentioned Arminian
modification of the doctrine does not remove
spiritual matters, with the intention of mis-
the difficulty. The problem is to us insoluble
leading another. One of several words for it
because, as A. A. Hodge puts it, "it is
in the OT, ";I-"6, appears twenty times. In
the NT deceit, cZo!os, is a specific kind of act, grounded in the inscrutable relations of the
eternal to the temporal, of the infinite to the
since it is differentiated from several others in
finite.„
Mark 7:22 and Rom.I:29. Its being men-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tioned alongside of murder, etc., suggests its
seriousness. To guile, or to use a bait, is sug- `L.`8;e8LeT,.ihhecddfiepo°r:,:;8tjcDOTc?rej°„!:g:fj'p:e:ies3t%;fj6;;
pp. 228-353.
gested by doz;oo-in Rom. 3: 13. Paul's exhorta-
GEORGE N. M. Col.LINS
tion \vcis "not of deceit" (I Thess. 2:3), mean-
ing that he did not lead the people astray. It
DECRETALS, FALSE. A collection of
is a broader term than fraud, the latter re-
ecclesiastical laws supposedly authored by Isi-
ferring I)articularly to financial contracts.
dor of Seville (d. A.D. 636). The book is prop-
J. KENNETH GRIDER erly divided into three sections. The first part
DECREES, ETERNAIJ. The Reformed contains sixty forged decretals of Ante-Nicene
confessions are at one in teaching that all that popes and fif ty Ai]ostolical Canons from the
happens is b}- the eternal decree o£ God. The collection of Dionysius. The second part con-
Arminian6, indeed, have modified the Re- tains the forged Donation of Constantine and
formed view in the resi]ect that where they do a collection of canons of councils. The latter
recognize the existence of the divine decree are mainly genuine. The third part includes a
the}' base it upon God's foreknowledge of large collection of letters of the popes from
events. The Reformed view goes further. It S}7lvester (d. 335) to Gregory 11 (d. 731).
regards God's decrees as in no wise based upon Thirty-five of these decretals are forged.
his forelmowledge of events, and teaches that The Isidorian Decretals were regarded as
 161 DEISM

genuine during the middle ages. However, the frequently outran of f icial pronouncements.
Italian humanist, Lorenzo Valla (ccz. 1406-57) Julius received worship in his conquests. Au-
demonstrated the non-genuine character of the gustus promoted the worship of "Divus Julius,"
Donation Of Constantine in De Fazso Crec!jtcz but moderated the worship proffered to him-
et Ementita Constantini Donatione Decl,amatio self . He and most of his successors were off;-
(1440). Now, both Protestant and Roman cjczzzy deified at death (hence Vespasian's
Catholic historians are all agreed that the deathbed joke, "I think I'm becoming a god").
Decretals are false. The true authorship is un- Unbalanced Emperors -Caligula, Nero, Domi-
certain although they were of French origin. tian - insisted on divine honors during life.
The date popularly assigned for their compo- Relatives, even favorites, of Emperors received
sition lies between A.D. 847 and 865. consecration. With Diocletian and the anti-
BIBLIOGRAP[IY Christian movement of the late third century
P. Hinscl`,ius, Dt'crcl¢!es Psewdo-Isjdoria""c ..I Cqp!.-
the cult of the reigning Emperor reached its
£Lax;A#8:'Ettti'.,Tte„X;i;F£Jj3.,.ttlvr[;£nfrjs:g:;:'°pgp£:4L3"_t[;82: peak. The Christian empire ended it, but con-
P266S.C7h3a.££1 Htst°r)I Of the Christian Ch..rch, V6\. |\i, pp.
secration and the title Dl.vt4s remained in use
HAROLD LINDSELL for many }'ears.
When the Emperors were still regularly
DEIFICATION. The biblical insistence consecl.ated onl}' at death, an oath by the Em-
on the separation of man as creature, and as peror's "genius," perhaps conjoined with his
fallen, from his Creatur, and on the unique- consecrated i]redecessors, became a test of the
ness of Christ the God-man leaves little place lo}'alty of citizens. Christians regarded this
for the conferring of divinity upon a man. oath as inconsistent with their exclusive alle-
Deification of the king held an acknowl- giance to Christ: and suffered (cf. e.g., Pliny
edged place in the cultus of the nations sur- to Trajan, Ep. 96; Mal-t. Po!yc¢rpj).
rounding Israel; but the covenant between Solne Asian cities were noted for Caesar
Jehovah and the head of the Davidic house worship as "the seven churches," especially
\vas a standing protest against assimilation to Pergamum, well knew (Rev. 2: 10,13).
the common pattern. There wa.s no coherent theology of deifica-
For Greeks, deification followed easily from tion. Imperial cult was not exclusive, and local
both the anthropomorphism of the myths, consecrations of celebrities continued.
which emptied the concept of godhead of Hellenistic m}'sticism, as ex|)ressed most
much numinous content, and the philosoi)hico- fully in the m}Tster}J religions, but observably
religious belief in immortality and the divine even in the Jewish Philo, tended to seek
affinities of the soul. Heracs and benefactors identification of the soul with the divinit}7 to
received quasi-divine honors, and at least from which it was kin. This I)assed into some forms
the fifth century B.c. divine honors were paid o£ Christian in)'sticism; the Christian's ado|)-
to living men. Alexander received worship in tive status was neglected; "partakers of the
the Oriental lands he conquered: with his suc- divine nature" (11 Pet.I:4) came to express
cessors and kings and kinglets thereafter it be- an essential, rather than a moral transforma-
came a commonplace. This might be Oriental tion.
flatter)', like that dearl}' bought b}7 Herod BIBLIOGR.\PIIY

Agrippa (Acts 12:20 ff.); but it might be in-

tensely serious, as when Antiochus IV Epi-
a:I;ie6e§;e,:;rt:::ji£!`:;:,I:a}i,]t:p:[oFj:g:5;,#c:°g;!jv:'e:r:sk:i;:Sfpi:C;;:`[;o:i's':k;t:
phanes, opponent of devout Jews and their ',ent.
God, identified himself with Zeus and called ANDREW F. WALLS
himself "God" on coins; and it might have
deep associations as in Eg}Tpt, where sacred DEISM. The term deism, as distinguished
kingship was traditional, and the Ptolemaic from theism, 1)ol,\'theism, pantheism, etc., desig-
famil}r, living and dead, were worshi|]ed offi- nates no well defined doctrine or s\7stem of
cially. doctrine. Strictly, the term denotes ; certain
From Julius Caesar onward deification was movement of rationalistic thought which was
a carefully regulated part of Roman policy. manifested chiefly in England from the mid-
Traditional Roman sentiment was inimical and sevcnteenth to the mid-eighteenth cen[ur}7.
Caesar worship was always restrained in Affirmatively, the chief doctrines generally
Rome: but in the empire local communities held b}r those who called themselves deists
 162
DELIVER

were (1) the existence of a personal God, rJ®t4otw¢i; and to deliver up, translating 7c6£fl7c,
Creator and Ruler of the universe; (2) the iLnd paradid6mi.
obligation of divine worshi|); (3) the obliga- I. THE OLD TESTAMENT. Both 7!6S¢[ and
tion of ethical conduct; (4) the necessity of p6haf are used characteristically of acts of God.
repentance from sins; and (5) divine rewards Out of a total of two hundred and eleven in-
and punishments, here, and in the life of the stances, "6Saz has God as its subject in one
soul after death. These five points were stated hundred and three; and nineteen out of twen-
by Lord Herbert o£ Cherbury (1583-1648), ty-two cases where p6!fl.t means to make to es-
called the father of deism. cape likewise refer to acts o£ God. With the
Negatively, the deists generally denied any possible exceptions o£ Ps. 39:8; 51:14; and
direct intervention in the natural order on the 79:9, both words refer .to temporal deliver-
part of God. Though they professed faith in ances granted by God to his people. The use
personal Providence, they denied the Trinity, of 7}6Sal, however, in connection with the
the incarnation, the di`Jine authority of the Exodus (Ex. 6:6; i8:10) establishes its close
Bible, the atonement, miracles, any particular relation with the redemption concept. Ex-
elect people such as Israel or the church, or amination of the use of 7t6Scz!, p6!c]f and 72jiffl7¢
any supernatural redemptive act in history. (to give, hence to give over to) shows t-hat
The deists' attitude is anticipated in 11 Pet. they reveal God as sovereign, redemptive, and
3:4. ``Whele is the promise of . . . (any super- righteous. As Lord of history, he is able to in-
natural intervention) . . . all things continue tervene to deliver (Ps. 1/)6:23) his own; and
as they were from the beginning of the crea- his deliverances are his saving acts (Ps. 7: 1),
tion.,' ultimately in a spiritual sense. Thus the OT
The rationalism of the deists was of the safeguards the historical basis of salvation.
common sense variety, qwod setitper a"od However, God is not mocked, and when his
~Z7iqt4e qtiod ab o"ttiz7tts. Their ethic was based people sin the}7 experience the other side of his
upon the stoic notion of natural law. Denying power, for he takes the initiative against them,
revelation and affirming natural theology only, and delivers them into the hand of their en-
they yet generally claimed to be within the emies (Jer. 29:18-21) that they may learn
Christian tradition. his righteousness.
An unsigned article on deism in the 11. Without forgetting God's temporal prov-
eleventh edition of E7ccy. Brit. significantly idences, THE NEw TESTAMENT is concerned
points out that the most important ten of the with spiritual deliverance. Ex¢ji-e6 means to
deists, except Lord Herbert himself, were all deliver from danger (Acts 12: 11; 26: 17), but
born between 1654 and 1679, and that "by also to deliver from sin (Gal.I:4); rhi.o"CCH.
far the greater part of the literary activity of (to rescue) has its temporal side (11 Cor.
the deists, as well as of their voluminous op- I : 10), but also its eternal, which in fact pre-
ponents, falls within the same half century." ponderates (Col.1:13; I Thess.1:10); pfli-a-
The greatest contemporaneous writing against did6mi is much used of the delivering o£ Jesus
deism was Bishop Joseph Butler's A%alogy of to his enemies (Luke 24:7; Ron. 4:25) -
F\etlgion, Natui.al and Ftevea|e4, to.the Coul-se thus God vindicates his righteousness upon the
of N¢twre, published in 1736 and used as a substitute of his apostate people.
college textbook in courses in philosophy of
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
religion for more than two hundred years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY (RECENT) DEMIURGE. A Greek word for "craf ts-
_--= _:_-__
man." Plato uses it for the divine being whose
inferior deities form the world (Tj7"czetis 40:C;
Rept427ljc 530:A). According to Irenaeus, a
majority of Gnostic writers (e.g„ Simon,
Menander, Saturninus and Carpocrates) taught
47.d the Fremch Dejsts, 1956. that angels made the world. Two s}'stems sup-
J. OLIVER BUSWELL, JR. pose a single creator, those o£ Malcion and
Valentinus. The latter alone names the Creator
DELIVER. This verb is used in two mean- the Demiurge. He probably borrowed Plato's
ings: to deliver from, translating (mainly) usage, which through him obtained wide cur-
the Hebrew #d5a!, pGha£, and Greek e"ireo-, rency. In Valentinian cosmology Demiurge is
163 DENOMINATION

born of the mingling of Wisdom, herself a BIBLIOGRAPHY

fallen spirit, and Matter. rle creates .the visi- noEd#:rcdasFaannd:toBn;t#:e¥:#5s,off%eomd;„#%{]sF.tie::
ble world, orders its course, and is identified ger, Biz?I;ca[ De"o#ology.
MERRII.L F. UNGER
with Jehovah, the author of Judaism and of
false notions in Christianity. From Demiurge DENIAL. Ar7¢Gs;s is rare (Mar{yrdo" of
spring three classes corresponding to the Su- Po[yc¢rp 2, 4) but derives from the biblical
preme God, Demiurge himself, and matter: verbs ¢r7ceotwai and ¢pcirmeot#ai. Both are used
namely, spiritual men, i.e., Gnostics; psychical,
(I) to repudiate a person or belief. Joshua
that is, orthodox Christians; and hylic (flesh-
warns Israel of this danger (Josh. 24:27), but
ly) men who are beyond redemption.
the ultimate denial is perpetrated before Pilate
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DCA. (Acts 3: 13). Jesus warris his disciples as the
new Israel not to repudiate him (Matt.10:33)
M. R. W. FARRER
and incur divine repudiation. He probabl}'
equates himself here as Son o£ Man with his
DI]MON. Among the Greeks a demon was saints or church and deplores apostasy (Luke
originally, as in Homer, a god or deity, and 9:26). Peter thrice denies "before them all"
the word is used once in this sense in the NT (Matt. 26:70, cf. 10:33) any acquaintance
(Acts 17: 18). Howe`'er, from Homer down to with the man Jesus, and calls down curses on
NT times the term c!¢jt"o-73, which Plato de- himself if he is lying; but he scarcely re-
rives from c!czg7"o-7i, an adjective formed from
pudiates the collective Son of Man or church,
dao- and signifying "knowing" or "intelligent" as Judas does; he remains in the group and on
(Crcifyzws I:398), the sense of this word and repentance is restored (John 21:15). The
its derivative drj7"o7®jo# increased graduall}. heretics in 11 Pet. 2:I and Titus I:16 may
in inferiority to thejo7¢, "divinity," "deity." b}' word profess to know Christ, but repudiate
In post-Homeric usage the term demon came God by antinomian conduct. Those in I John
to denote an intermediary between the gods 2:22 (cf. 4:2) are docetic teachers who dis-
and men (Plato, Syrmposjil77i 202, 3) and de- sociate the man Jesus from the divine Christ.
mons were viewed as morally imperfect beings, The repudiation of the faith or name in the
both good and bad. By NT times the expres- Apocalypse (Rev. 2: 13; 3:8) covers any apos-
sion had reached its precise meaning of an tasy in persecution; in I Tim. 5:8 it is un-
"evil spirit," a "messenger and minister of the
charitable behavior, and evokes reciprocal de-
devil." In the LXX the word demon was em- nial in 11 Tim. 2: 12 and Luke 12:9. Further
ployed to translate Hebrew 5Gdft", "lords," or meanings are (2) to deny a fact or refuse to
'Gl€!;7", ``idols" since the Hebrews very early re-
admit one (Luke 8:45; Acts 4:16); (3) to
garded idolatrous images as mere visible s}'m- deny oneself (a) b}7 acting in wholly unselfish
bols of invisible demons (Deut. 32:17; Ps. manner and renouncing worldly interests daily
96:5; LXX 95:5; Bar. 4:7; Ps.106:37, 38). (Luke 9:23, and for an e,xtreme statement c£.
The LXX also rendered the se`€r£77i, (AV Luke 14:26) or (b) by being untrue to one-
``he goats," RSV "sat)7rs'') as d¢jt"07t;¢ (Lev.
self, as God cannot (11 Tim. 2:13); (4) to
17:7). Isaiah portrays these "hair}7 creatures" deny by.formal orthodoxy the power of the
(demon-satyrs) as dancing in the ruins of Gospel (11 Tim. 3:5); and (5) to refuse as
Babylon (Isa.13:21; 34:14). a man of faith to associate with the heathen
In the NT demons afflict men with mental, (Heb.11:24).
moral, and physical distempers (Mark I:21, Specific denials in the NT are made by the
etc.). They enter into men and control them Sadducees, who say there is no resurrection
in demon-possession (Mark 5 : 1-21), instigate and reject popular angelology (Acts 23:8),
``doctrines of demons" (I Tim. 4: 1), exercise and by the f alse teachers in Jude 4 who deny
the Kyiios title to Jesus.
power in the government of the satanic world BIBLIOGRAPHY
system (Eph. 6: 12; cf. Dan. 10: 13), energize
idolatry, immorality and human wickedness (I F7TR2`:57¥;;;9:3,[ifc?ngt:uj;iyz;`r:#:t.Eie&ts:errE;a;ap?.yc5}is.7p;?rdi'i';
Cor. 10:20; Rev. 9:20, 21), inspire false
DENIS H. TONGUE
teachers (I John 4: I, 2), and in general assist
Satan (q.v.) in his program of opposition to the DENOMINATION. A class, kind, or sort
word and will of God. designated by a specific name; ecclesiastically,.
DEPRAVITY, TOTAL 164

a body or sect holding peculiar distinctives. the later so-called Athanasian Creed as de-
From the sixteenth century to recent times a sce"djt ad ;7¢feros - "he descended to the un-
tendency toward the multiplication of de- derworld." It is probable that this item was
nominations has been a characteristic of Prot- added in order to combat dacetic views of the
estantism. Values in danger of being obscured person of Christ.
or lost were thus preserved through periods Of Many Christian writers of the second cen-
transition. Without a central controlling tury taught that Christ went to Hades after
human authority the distinctives thus con- his death. Paul had affirmed Christ's descent
served by religious bodies have not all been of into the lower parts of the earth as the coun-
equal value, and the current trend is in the terpart of the ascension (Ron. 10:6-8; Eph.
direction of consolidating denominations hold- 4:8-10). Closely connected with this teaching
ing basically the same doctrines and practices. is the OT I)rophetic announcement cited by
Peter in Acts 2:31. The reality of Christ's
See also EcuMENlcAL.
DONALD G. DAvls humanity demanded that he share man's lot in
death, as in life.
Varied views have been held as to the pur-
DEPRAVITY, TOTAL. Total depravity
is a theological term used to denote the un- pose of the desce7}st4s. The Roman Catholic
meritoriousness of man in the sight o£ God. position is that Christ descended to the limz7ws
Negatively, the concept does not mean (I) p¢ti-t4„i to manifest his glorious power and de-
liver the souls of the righteous dead, bearing
that every man has exhibited his depravity as
them to heaven. The Eastern Church limits
thoroughly as he could; (2) that sinners do
the work to OT saints who believed in the
not have conscience or "naive induction" con-
Messiah. The Formula of Concord (Lutheran)
cerning God; (3) that sinners will indulge in
states: "For it ought to be enough for us to
e`'ery form of sin; or (4) that depraved man
know that Christ desc.ended into hell, that he
does not perform actions that are good in the
destroyed hell for all believers, and that we`
sight of man. Positively, total depravity means
through him have been snatched from the
(I) that corruption extends to ever}7 part of
man's nature, including all the faculties of his power of death and Satan, from eternal damna-
tion, and even from the jaws of hell." Calvin
being; and (2) that there is nothing in man
taught that in this experience Christ, for the
that can commend him to a righteous God.
benefit of believers, "suffered in his soul the
Calvinists trace depravity to an inherent cor-
dreadful torments of a person condemned and
ruption of nature inherited from Adam. Until
irretrievably lost." The modern period has wit-
the time of Augustine this idea of original sin
nessed the rise of the notion (based largely on
was relatively undeveloped by the Fathers, and
I Pet. 3:19) that the preaching of Christ in
the semi-Pelagian reaction to the teachings of
Hades opens the possibility of salvation after
Augustine f inds its successor today in Ar-
death for those who lacked opportunity to
minianism which denies total depravity, the
hear the message in this life.
guilt of original sin, and the loss of free will, BIBLIOGRAPHY
and which affirms involvement in the sin of
Adam to the extent Of giving mankind a tend- F.Jio¥f.sP;EefkyE;Efi'.'yB.C%rj:et;:rTchrece£S;ospt%s,3Z3::£;
pp. 56-63.
ency toward sin but not a sinful nature (cf . EVERETT F. HARRISoN
John Miley, S,ysteowfltic Theozogy, I, pp. 441-
533; L. Berkho£, Syste"I¢tic Theology, pp. DESIRE. The question of desire was much
244-50; L. S. Chafer, Systei'i¢atjc TJ®eozogy, discussed in Greek ethics, but did not com-
11, pp. 218-19). mand a dominant interest in the NT. The
See also SIN. noun ep;f h#7"ic! is occasionally translated by
"desire," but more often by "lust." In the
CHARLES C. RYRIE
RSV, "desire" replaces "lust" in eight passages.
DESCENT INTO HELL. The words, Numerous words are used to express the same
"He descended into hell," were not in the Old general idea. They possess no necessary moral
Roman form of the Apostles' Creed, but were connotation (as e.g., in Luke 20:46; 15:16;
included in the form given by Rufinus about 10:24), but because of the sinful nature of
A.I). 400. He derived them from the creed Of man they came generally to describe wrong
the church at Aquileia in Italy. Occurring desire. In Matt. 5:28 epit7®wtweo-is used spe-
there as desce7®dit ad j7!femc], they appear in cifically of sexual desire, understood as con-
165 DIALECTIC

travention of the law. In the NT Epistles the crees of God whereby he determines or ordains
noun has become fi,xed as a description of lust. circumstanc`es and events in ai`cordanc.e with
DONALD GUTHRIE his will and purpose. It occurs eight times in
the NT. The periods of human history and
DESTRUCTION. The idea of temporal the bounds of human habitation are deter-
calamity dominates the wide range of OT mined by God (Acts 17:26); so also God is
words on this topic, but of the twenty-two in- spoken of as determining a certain day (I-Ieb.
stances of ap6leia, olethros and kathairesis in 4:7); the way of the cross was determined for
the NT only five concern temporal distress; Christ by God (Luke 22:22); he was de-
the rest refer to eternal loss. Where the truth livered up by the determinate (7tol.js"e7ie-)
of eternal life shines fully, it illumines the counsel and foreknow]edge of God (Acts 2:23;
tmth of eternal destruction (see HADEs). cf. Acts 4:28, where the use of the verb
The exceptions to the general OT notion proorize;71, "to foreordain," in a similar context
are found in the word 'GVZ7¢cZc!6". This word oc- conf irms the close connection of our verb with
curs in parallelism with 5C6Z (see HELL), the doctrine of foreordination); by his I.esur-
"¢¢-we£ (death), qeE}er (grave) and 7}o5ek rection from the dead Jesus has been marked
(darkness). The suggestion of reference. hera off by God as the Son o£ God (Rom.I:4);
to the state after death is borne out by examina- and it is he whom God has ordained to be
tion of instances (though, as with Sheol, the the Judge of both living and dead (Acts 10:42;
teaching is nebulous and scanty). Thus, while 17:31).

Job 26:6 refers to Sheol and Abaddon in proof The doctrine implied by these terms is
of God's power, Prov.15: 11 does so in proof characteristic of the OT as well as the NT;
of his moral discernment. This notion that see, for example, Deut. 32:8; Job 14:5; Isa.
moral distinctions are made hereaf ter is en- 19:]7; Dan. 9:24; 11:36; Zeph. 3:8.
forced by Job 31:12 where Abaddon is the PIIII.IP EDGCUMBE HUGHES
ultimate destiny of the adulterer. Finally, in
Ps. 88, the Psalmist, in temporal distress, de- DEVIL. See SATAN.
picts himself as one who, already in Sheol DEVOTE. See CuRSE.
(identified in vs. 11 with Abaddon), is under
pressure of God's wrath (v. 7) and cut off DIALECTIC. This term has a long history
from God`s fellowship (vss. 10-12). stretching from the pre-Socratics to nco-ortho-
The bridge between this unformulated OT doxy, and its meaning has changed f ron cen-
doctrine and the full NT teaching is Rev. tury to century. In medieval theology it was a
9: 11 where Abaddon (q.v.) is the name of the tool of the theologians which reached its acme
"angel of the abyss" also called Apollyon (cf. in the S¢i7"#ia Tfoeozog/.cci o£ Thomas in which
"son of apolet.fl," John 17:12; 11 Thess. 2:3).
he stated an opinion of a Father, then gave a
Destruction meets those who have chosen the counter opinion, and then gave a reconciling
broad road (Matt. 7:13), oppose the cross exposition of the problem. IIse of the term in
(Phil. 3: 19; 11 Pet. 2: I), are ungodly (11 Pet. recent theology stems from Kant. He used the
3:7), pervert Scripture (11 Pet. 3: 16) and are term to denote pseudo-philosophizing, i.e., the
unready for Christ's return (I Thess. 5:3). postulation of metal)hysic`al s)'stems beyond the
Destruction is the opposite of life (Matt. limits of experience. Hegel, taking a cue from
7:13), and salvation (Phil. I:28; Heb. Fichte, reversed Kant and used the term to
10:39); is swift, personally merited (11 Pet. describe the true process of philosophical
2: 13), inescapable (I Thess. 5:3) and by fire thought. Kant stated that certain contrarieties
(11 Thess.I:8, 9; 11 Pet. 3:7); and results in in human thought (antinomies and paralcr
eternal separation from God (11 Thess.1 :9). gisms) were symptomatic of the limitations of
The justice of this condemnation is guaranteed the human reason Hegel felt that these con-
by the unimpeachable will o£ God (Ron. trarieties were the stuff of philosophical
9 : 22). thought. Following Fichte he stated that a
thesis (being) gave rise to its anti-thesis (noth-
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
ing), and the two were "reconciled" in a syn-
DETERMINE, DETHRMINATE. As a thesis (becoming). This triadic dialectic was
biblical and theological term the verb hoiizej7? (according to Hegel) the structure of the prog-
is associated particularly with the sovereign de- ress of all branches of human culture which in
DICHOTOMY 166

turn` were the divers manifestations Of the Ab- trine through Thomas Aquinas, who taught
solute Spirit. that the soul was created in heaven and placed
Soeren Kierkegaard, who was familiar with in the forming body, probably at the time of
"quickening" in the mother's womb. The new
the Hegelian dialectic, recast it for his own
purposes. He affirmed that theological asser- philosophy after Descartes affirmed the inde-
tions were I)arado.`ical in character, and de- pendent origin of body and soul, supposing
nied a synthesis of the two contrarieties. The that the apparent unity of them in the human
mind was to hold the members of the paradox personality is due to the coincidental correla-
in opposition, and their reconciliation was ac- tion which occurs momentarily, as when the
complished in faith (defined as man's highest penduli of separate clocks happen to swing to-
emotion) or subjectivity. The acceptance of gether. Contemporary theology usually rejects
the paradox, while exciting man's subjectivity this view, holding to the body-soul unity of
to its highest intensity, appears to the mind as man as set forth in Hebrew thought: ". . .
a leap or a risk. and man became a living soul" (Gen. 2:7).
Nco-orthodoxy, /a.v.) deeply influenced by BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Bultmann, Ncov Tcst¢i7ie7¢t Thco]ogy, Vol. I; G. P.
Kierkegaard, has made much of a two-term
dialectic of paradox and so has been called
dialectical theology. Revelation coming from #=£dhFez;S;:tse¥t#£§n#,o:c£##*of%uf#,aRI#r.E#ur####=
above to man in the contradiction of sin and WAYNE E. WARD
within the limitations of f initude can only ap-
I)ear to the human mind as a series of para- DISCIPLE. The English term is derived
doxes. Barth's Epistle ±o the Rot#ci7®s (2nd edi- from the Latin discipt4Zt4s, meaning pupil or
tion, Munich. Chr. Kaiser, 1922) is the mod- learner, an exact equivalent of the Greek word
crn landmark of dialectical. theology. Although mfl±77gtGs. Curiously, LXX has no certain ex-
Barth has moved aw[iy from the strong dialec- amples of the use o£ 777ot7tGfeis, though the root
ticism of his earlier years, paradoxical modes is found in Isaiah 8: 16 and I Chronicles 25:8.
of thought reinforced by existentialism widely In Greek literature the word is common as a
pervade much contemporary theology. designation for a philosopher's understudy.
BIBLIOGRAPIIY
"Dialektik," Wocrtcrbtlc}i der p7}jlosop7".sc7le" Begriffe Occasionally it is found in the sense of ap-
(editctl by R. Eisler), I, pp. 268-72. prentice.
BERNARI) RAMM Chief interest centers upon its use in the
Gospels. We read of Moses' disciples (John
DICHOTOMY. This term, which signi- 9:28) and of John the Bat)tist's (Mark 2: 18).
£ies a division into two parts (Greek djcJtc!, in The Pharisees had them also (Matt. 22:16).
two; te7"72ei7¢, cut), is applied in theology to Because of Jesus' inspiring teaching and bene-
that view of human nature which holds that ficent works, many flocked to him and at-
man has two fundamental parts to his being: tached themselves in varying degrees of con-
body and soul. Usually the two are sharply viction and loyalty. A broad and a narrow use
contrasted, considered to have different origins of the term is discernible in the Gospels and
and independent existence. Thus, the actual is seen to best advantage in connection with
rcli`tionship between body and soul becomes the choice of the Twelve. This latter group
the crucial question. was chosen from a larger company of disciples
Plato taught that the body was perishable and by virtue of this selection became the dis-
matter, but the soul existed in the heavenly ciples p¢7. c,|cez!e7cce (Luke 6: 12-18).
world of pure form or idea before its inc`arna- For the most part Jesus' followers are desig-
tion in the human body. The soul was there- mated as "his disciples" in the Gospels, thus
fore uncreated and immortal - a part of deity. preserving the genuine f lavor of contempo-
The body is the prison house of the soul; the raneous description. They had not been with
soul is locked in the body like an oyster in its him a sufficiently long time to make "the dis-
shell. At death the soul leaves the body to ciples" a self-explanatory term. By contrast, in
return to the heavenly world or to be rein- Acts the word is practically .always used ab-
carnated in some other body. solutely, no further description being needed.
Aristotle's adaptation o£ Plato by dividing It was an accepted description of adherents to
the soul into its animal and rational aspects the Christian movement. That a disciple might
was further developed in Roman Catholic doc- be exceedingly limited in understanding and
167 DISPENSATION

achievement is obvious from Acts 19: 1 ff. No Cor.1:3-11; 12:7-10). There is self-chasten-
example of the word is to be found in the ing (Dan. 10: 10, 7?jt7¢pczez of `67cC!). The con-
Epistles. sequent fumbling and suffering are designed
Early in the second century Ignatius used to deliver from temporal consideration (I Pet.
it of himself as the equivalent of martyr. Death 4: I, 2; 11 Cor. 5: 15; I John 2: 15-17).
would prove his true discipleship. See Light- The purpose of discipline is the correction,
foot's note on Ignatius' Ephesian Epistle 1:2. the improvement, The obedience, the faith, and
In summary, disciple may mean: (I) a be- the faithfulness of God's child. The outcome
liever, as in Acts 11:26, (2) a learner in the is a ha|]piness, a blessedness (Job 5:17; Ps.
school of Christ, (3) one who is committed to 94: 12; and assurance of Rev. 3: 19: "as many
a sacrificial life for his sake, as in Luke 14:26, as I love, I rebuke and chasten .... ").
27, 33, (4) one who acts to fulfil the climactic While there is no special term for discipline
obligation of discipleship, namely, to make dis- by the church upon erring believers, there is
ciples of others (Matt. 28: 19). clear teaching of the subject (cf. I Cor. 5: 1-
BIBLIOGRAPHY 13; 11 Cor. 2:4-11). It appears that only pub-
Amdt; K. H. Rengstorf in TWNT; J. Y. Campbell lic sins ,ire subject to ecclesiastical censure;
in RTWB.
EVERETT F. HARRISoN while other wrongs are to be confessed, f irst to
God (I John I:9) and then to one's fellow
DISCIPLINE. Discipline implies instruc- Christian (James 5 : 16). If I)rivate conference,
tion and correction, the training which im- confession, and attempted corrections fail, then
proves, molds, strengthens, and perfects char- the matter should be taken to the church
acter. It is the moral education obtained by the (Matt.18: 15; I Thess. 5: 14).
enforcement of obedience through supervision The lazy, irresponsible busybodies in the
and control. Usually the concept is translated affairs of others were to be rebuked; and if
chastening, chastisement, and instruction necessary, separi`ted from the assembly of be-
CHet.. ydsar, mi}lsal.; Gr. paideu6, paideia). lievers (11 Thess. 3:6-15).
The discipline of the believer on the part of Disciitline upon the flagrant offender was to
the heavenly Father is frequently illustrated be inflicted in open assembly of the church
by the correction made by the human father. membership (I Cor. 5:4). Censure suitable to
"As a man chasteneth (yc!-sc".) his son, so the
the offense was to be placed upon the sinning
Lord thy God chasteneth thee" (Deut. 8:5; Christian; even to the extent that he be de-
Ps. 6: 1; 38: I). He is taught not to despise the livered unto Satan (vs. 5). Such open rebuke
chastening, 7"#s¢r, of the Almighty (Job 5: 17; and condemnation will bring fear and rever-
Prov. 3:11). The value of discipline by a ence on the part of others (I Tim. 5:20; Acts
human father is stressed in Prov.19: 18. 5: 11). All fellowship with the "wicked" I)er-
The OT teaching is amplified in the New, son was to be cut off (vs. 13; Ron. 16: 17; 11
especially in Heb. 12: 3-12, by considering care- John 10). Upon true repentance the erring
fully the su££ering endured b}7 the Saviour (vs. brother was to be restored, forgiven, and com-
3). The Christian is reminded to value the forted lest he be "swallowed up with his over-
disci|]line of the Almighty (p¢jczeic!), vss. 5, 7, much sorrow .... " (11 Cor. 2:7-10). The re-
11. The discipline is a sure evidence of son- sult of church discipline properly administered
ship (vss. 7, 8); and of God's love (vs. 6). in the light of the Scriptures (11 Tim. 3: 16),
Lack of chastening is an evidence of hatred in the love o£ Christ, and under the guidance
rather than of love (Prov. 13:24). Further- of the Holy Spirit was a clean church, whole-
more, the end result of discipline which for some, wholehearted (I Cor. 5:7, 8).
the moment is grievous is the ultimate good of BIBLIOGRAPHY
HDAC,I, |>p. 303-4; JSBE,11, p. 852; CE, V, I)p.
that one who is thereby instructed (Heb. 30-32.
12,,0,11). V. R. EDMAN
Discipline may be severe but not disastrous
``as chastened, and not killed" (11 Cor. 6:9;
DISPENSATION. The English word dis-
Ps. I 18 : 18); and such chastening delivers from pensation translates the Greek o7./<o"o7?iz.c} and
condemnation with the world (I Cor.11 :33). occurs in I Cor. 9: 17; Eph. I : 10; 3:2, 9 (cor-
Discipline is often by I)aim, sorrow, and loss rected Greek text) and Col.I :25. Ojko7¢oow;cz
(Job 33:19, yGEazl) whereby the Christian also oc`curs in Luke 16:2, 3, 4, where it is
shares Paul's assurance of God's comfort (11 rendered "stewardship," and in the best Greek
DISPERSION 168

texts of I Tim.1:4, where in the AV the tion that a dispensation is ``a period of time"
translators have followed the text with o;ko- is quite outside the scope of the meaning of
dot"e-" and so rendered it by the word ``edify- the word and is but incidental to the fact that
ing." Charles Hodge points out the double use the two plans of God - the Mosaic and the
of the word: (I) with respect to one in au- Christian - were consecutive in their adminis-
thority, it means a plan or scheme; (2) with tration.
respect to one under authority, it means a Under the Mosaic or "old" dispensation the
stewardship or administration. The theological gospel was presented in types and shadows,
interest of the term belongs to the former of and the Epistle to the Hebrews shows the re-
these uses. When God is the Dispenser the lation between this former dispensation and
term dis|)ensation refers to the purpose he has that of the gospel. In the form bf priest, altar,
in view and the way he intends to execute it. sacrifice, tabernacle and mercy seat were ex-
God's covenanted purpose with sinful man has hibited the way in which God was purposing
ever been one of grace; but the covenant of man's salvation. Faith in these provisions o£
grace was based on a double plan, or, to use God's grace, which in turn expressed itself in
scriptural terminology, was revealed in two conformity to the demands of his holy law,
dispensations. The first of these was the Mo- was the plan by which God not only pre-
saic dispensation sometimes called the "Old figured the saving work o£ Christ but by
Covenant," and the second is the Christian which also he truly accepted and justified the
dispensation, usually called the "New Cove- penitent saints of OT times. But ``he taketh
nant." Strictly, the covenant (q.v.) is one and away the first, that he may establish the sec-
the same covenant of grace all through (see ond" (Heb. 10:9), and in the new or ``sec-
Paul's discussion of the relation Of law to grace ond" dispensation the ``figures of the true"
in Gal. 3), and it would be more proper to (Heb. 9:24) are removed, and Christ, not by
speak of the old dispensation and the new. the blood of goats and calves, "but by his own
What has become known in recent days as blood he entered in once into the holy place,
"dis|)ensationalism" finds many more "dispen- having obtained eternal redemption for us"
sations" in the Bible. Scofield, for example, (Heb. 9: 12).
discovers no less than seven, namely, the dis- ERNEST FREDERICK KEVAN
pensation of innocence, of conscience, of civil
government, of promise, of law, of grace, Of DISPERSION. This is a technical term to
the kingdom. Dispensationalism claims to be a denote Jews who were scattered abroad
method o£ "rightly dividing the word of truth" throughout the world beyond the borders o£
in relation to dispensations. According to this Palestine. Originally the dispersal was the pen-
view a dispensation is "a period of time during alty for disobedience to the law (c£. Deut.
which man is tested in respect of obedience to 4:27, etc.) . This prediction was largely ful-
some specJ.fjc revelation of the will of God" filled in the captivity 6f the ten tribes in 721
(Scofield Reference Bible, p. 5). If the use B.c., and later of the two in 586 B.a. (Jer.
of the word is to be kept strictly biblical, how- 25:34). Under Alexander the Great emigra-
ever, it will be found that it is used in the tions took place to Syria and Egypt (c£. Ps.
Scriptures to make only one distinction, that 146:2 [LXX]; 11 Mace.1:27). In the Roman
is, the distinction between the way the grace empire there were numerous settlements, so
of God was made known bef ore the coming that Agrippa in a letter to Caligula, preserved
of Christ and the way it was manifested after by Philo, says that "Jerusalem is the capital,
his redeeming work had been accomplished. not alone of Judaea but, by means of colonies,
This is the Pauline sense of the word when of most other lands also" (cf. Acts 15:21).
he s|)eaks of God's "dispensation" in Eph. Three chief centers existed in Babylonia, Syria,
1:10; 3:2, 9; Col.I:25. It is the plan that and Egypt, but Jerusalem was the common
belongs to."the fulness of times." That is to say, religious center, and liberal offerings were sent
it is God's manner of presenting his grace to the temple by them. Each colony had its
which belongs to his revelation in the Lord representative synagogue also in Jerusalem
Jesus Christ. The "mystery" to which Paul (cf. Acts 2:5,11; 6:9).
refers in this connection is not the calling of When we turn to the NT we find that the
the Gentiles, as some infer, but the redemp- great highroads of the Dispersion were fol-
tion which is effected by Christ. The sugges- lowed by the apostles, and well-nigh every
169 DIVORCE

apostolic church grew out of a Jewish syna- who have superphysical knowledge. Such traf-
gogue (a.v.) of the Dispersion. The movement f ic is once f or all condemned in the Bible in
thus appears to be of the clearest providential the case o£ Saul and the spiritistic medium at
order to act as a bridge between Israel and Endor (I Sam. 28).
the Gentile world (cf. Acts 15:21). See also SplRITlsM.
In the NT period the word has gained a BIBLIOGRAPHY
distinctive meaning, yet the apostles are not T. K. Oesterreich, Possessio.I, Demom;acal a„d Other
afraid to use it for their own purpose. In
James I: 1 its use is figurative and prophetic. fgm?a"#:ogdpg74ttrj¥:.::es#e:wi:ss#;€r::;B;b!t.::§IE.:d£!e%so4o8fe;;
carding to Lactantius.
The letter is addressed to Jewish Christians in MERRILL F. UNGER
Palestine and Syria apart from the mother
church at Jerusalem. In I Pet.I:1 the sense DIVINITY OF CHRIST. See CHRls-
appears to be that of gentile Christians, con- TOLOGY.
stituting the new Israel, who as pilgrims in
this world (I : 17; 2: 11) are yet removed from DIVISION. See ScHlsM.
their heavenly home.
DIVORCE. The OT provisions are given
BIBLIOGRAPHY
in Deut. 24: I-4. In this passage vss. I-3 form
the protasis and vs. 4 the apodosis. This con-
¥7[:t.,E,Tu%tece:jueeE:is:7,.#.:r.,#a;sp,t;#£;n:e;oo£#;w.sg.pgrfgF::
struction shows that divorce was not manda-
RICHARI) E. HIGGINSoN tory in the case of the unseemly thing men-
tioned in vs. I nor does the passage approve
DIVINATION. Divination is a phenome- of divorce in the -circumstances mentioned; it
non of paganism and involves the art of ob- simply provides that, if a man puts away his
taining clandestine knowledge, especially that wife and she marries another, the former hus-
of the future. Two main types of divination band cannot under any conditions take her
exist -artificial and inspirational. The artifi- again to be his wife. Divorce was, however,
cial variety is augury, and consists in interpret-
permitted or tolerated to the extent that no
ing certain signs called omens, such as ex- civil or ecclesiastical penalty was imposed. It
amination of the liver of animals, consulting was practiced in terms of this permission (c£.
the teraphim, or observing the way arrows fall Lev. 21:7,14; 22: 13; Nun. 30:9 (10); Deut.
(Ezek. 21:21). Inspirational divination in- 22:19, 29; Isa. 50:I; Jer. 3:I; Ezek. 44:22).
volves the medium's coming under the im- It is not certain what the unseemly thing was.
mediate influence o'r control of evil spirits or It was not adultery - death was the penalty
demons, who enable him to utter oracles in- for such (cf. Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22-27).
volving superhuman knowledge. Nor could it be adultery suspected but not
The early Church Fathers were correct in proven (cf. Nun. 5: 11-31). Other provisions
describing the divination of heathenism as can be found in Deut. 22: 13-29.
demonically inspired and a satanic imitation In the NT the question of divorce is dealt
of prophecy. As the Holy Spirit inspires the with in our Lord's teaching (Matt. 5:31, 32;
true prophets of God, demons inspire the false 19:3-9; Mark 10:2-12; Luke 16:18). These
prophets of idolatrous religions. For this rea- passages make it plain that the only reason for
son divination is denounced in the Bible as which a man may put away his wife is adul-
incompatible with the knowledge of the one tery on her part. The one exception, men-
true God (Deut.18:10-14). Balaam (Nun. tioned in Matt. 5:32; 19:9, underlines the il-
22-24) is a case of a diviner who reached the legitimacy of any other reason. Mark 10:12
status of a true prophet of God, but lapsed implies that the right to put away for adultery
back into corrupt paganism. belongs also to the woman when she is the
The demon-inspired girl at Philippi (Acts innocent party and that the same restriction
16:16) had actual powers of oracular utter- ap|]lies to her also.
ance, as did the ancient diviners at Delphi and Other considerations derived from these pas-
other shrines of paganism. Ancient necroman- sages should also be appreciated. (1) The
cy, essentially the same as modem spiritualism person put away for any other cause than adul-
(spiritism) involves the medium's coming un- tery is not at liberty to remarry (Matt. 5 :32b)
der demon influence and consulting not the - this would be adultery. The bond of the
spirits of the departed dead, but evil spirits, marriage has not been dissolved, and the di-
 170
DIVORCE

vorce is not valid in the sight of God. (2) The In the NT elsewhere the most significant
person who 1)uts away (divorces) for any other I)assages are Pauline. In Ron. 7:I-3 and I
cause is not at liberty to remarry (Matt.19:9; Cor. 7:39 the princii)le js plainly asserted that
Mark 10:11,12; Luke 16:18). (3) Our Lord the death of one spouse dissolves the marriage,
did c"4f J7oi-7.ze divorce for adultery. He did not and the surviving |]artner is at liberty to marry
make it mandatory. What course of action is again. The permanency of the marital bond is
to be followed by the innocent is to be de- here also unequivocally estabhshed. But these
cided by other considerations. Sometimes it passages are not to be interpreted as excluding
ma}r be mandatory. (4) Mark 10:12 implies the right of dissolution in the abnormal cir-
that not only may the man sue for divorce cumstance of the marital infidelity mentioned
in the case of adultery but it is also the right above. It would not have been germane to the
of the woman when her husband commits apostle's purpose to introduce in these passages
adultery. (5) By im|)lication, our Lord abro- this special and exceptional contingency.
The passage in Paul most i`elevant to our
gated the OT penalty for adultery. (6) He
likewise repealed the permission, allowed by topic is I Cor. 7: 10-15. Here it is all-important
Deut. 24: I-4, to put away for cause other than to note the distinction between the situation
that of adultery. (7) Matt. 19:8 confirms the contemplated is vss.10,11 and that viewed
interpretation of Deut. 24:1-4 -the Mosaic in vss.12-15.

provision was sufferance but not approval. In the former Paul appeals to the teaching
o£ Christ in the days of his flesh and enun-
The most disputed question concerns Matt.
ciates two principles binding upon spouses.
19:9 in relation to Mark 10:11, 12; Luke
They are not to be separated from each other.
16: 18. The former allows the person who puts
But, if there is actual separation, they are to
away for adultery to remarry; the two latter
remain unmarried or be reconciled. Dissolu-
mention no such exception. One way adopted
tion of the marital bond is rigidly forbidden.
for the harmonizing of this apparent dis-
It is assumed, by reason of the distinction ex-
crei]ancy is to say that in Matt. 19:9 all that
is permitted is to put away for adultery but pressed in vs. 12, that both spouses profess
the Christian faith.
not to remarry - the e.xception a|)plies only
to divorce from bed and board. This is a In vss. 12-15 an eventuality is dealt with
forced interpretation. There is no warrant for that did not come within the purview of our
such a restriction of the exception stated; syn- Lord's teaching-"I say, not the Lord." The
tactical as well as other considerations are case is that of a mixed marriage - one spouse
against this construction. And, although there is a believer, the other is not. Several con-
is a textual variant which would support this siderations should be noted. (1) The believer
type of solution, the evidence favors the text is not to put away the unbeliever (vss. 12,
followed by our standard versions. The most 13). (2) The reason is that the unbeliever as
acceptable solution is to note that in all three well as the o££spring are sanctified in the be-
liever and hence no defilement arises for the
passages the burden of emphasis falls upon
abrogation of the Mosaic permission. In respect believer or the children (vs. 14). (3) Unbe-
of this permission the annulment is absolute lief or disavowal of the Christian faith is not
in all three accounts. And Mark and Luke a legitimate ground of divorce. (4) If the unbe-
focus attention upon that one fact without ad- 1iever wilfully departs, the believer is not
ditional information. Matthew, on the other obliged to discharge marital obligations to the
hand, provides us with the information respect- deserting spouse. These are usually spoken
ing two additional reservations made by our of as the obligations of bed and board - in
Loi-d in this connection, that a man may put respect of these the believer is free. There is
fiway his wife for adultery and that when he no room for doubt as to these conclusions.
does this he may marry another. Mark and The question that occasions difficulty is the
Luke say nothing about the right to put away force of` the expression ``is not bound" in vs.
for adultery. Hence they could not mention 15. Does it mean merely freedom from the
what right belongs to the innocent spouse in debts of bed and board? Or does it also imply
this event. The conclusion is, therefore, that freedom from the bond of marriage, with the
there is no contradiction and that Matt. 19:9 result that the marriage may be dissolved and
accords to the innocent spouse the right of re- the believer free to marry another? There is
marriage. widespread disagreement. Much can be
171 DOGMA

pleaded in favor of both interpretations. It understand that he descended from heaven.

should be understood, however, that, if the Docetism was attacked by lgnatius and
latter alternative is adopted, this does not nec- Irenaeus, who dealt extensively with its varied
essarily conflict with the principle that only forms, and by Tertullian, who wrote five books
for adultery may a spouse pt4t owc!y. In this against Marcion. The essence of this heresy
case of desertion the believer does not pt4t which influenced Mohammed has survived in
czw¢y -the unbeliever has wilfully and wan- some of the doctrines of Islam concerning
tonly deserted. And the conspicuous difference Jesus, and in the modern cults which regard
between the terms of vs. 12 (where no dis- matter as evil.
solution is allowed) and vs. 15 lends con- BIBLIOGRAPHY
siderable support to the second alternative. If
27FafrfT,ac3k?oTist£::Lofngoffy„a:,e,I,D%.foL:3::8t#j,st?apj
this view is adopted, however, it should be Bjograp7iy, I, pp. 865-70.
clearly understood that the liberty applies only MERRILL C. TENNEY
to a believer wilfully deserted by an unbe-
liever. DOCTRINE. Occurring infrequently in
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the OT, the word there translates terms de-
F. L. Cirlot, C7.fist a"d Divorce; C. Gore, The Qties- noting what is received or heard. In the NT
didach6 and didaskal,ia derive from the root,
"to teach," and may mean the act of teaching

i#%#AD#o;r:i::;e::I:fi:tEEd;::e¥se::o;;h,o:{c¢c:;:;7tfx;i,:;:#t¥::rd%;:;;§j§; or the content of what is taught.

2.a, Doctrine is the teaching of Scripture on
JOHN MURRAY theological themes. It differs from dogma (q.v.)
in that it does not connote an authoritative
DOCETISM. A theological term derived ecclesiastical affirmation but is rather the raw
from the Greek verb 4{okeo-, "to seem." Doce-
material of the word of God which councils
tism was the doctrine that Christ did not ac-
use in formulating theological truth in defini-
tually become flesh, but merely seemed to be
tive and sometimes polemical forms.
a man. It was one of the first theological er- In current discussions, doctrine is sometimes
rors to appear in the history of the church, used in contrast to spiritual life. However, an
for it is probably the target of the warning in antithetical use here is unfortunate, for these
I John 4:2, 3: "Ev.Cry s|]irit that confesseth two elements are complementary. When Paul
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is of
speaks o£ "sound [healthy] doctrine" (I Tim.
God: and every spirit that confesseth not that I : 10; Titus 2: I) he seems to affirm that true
Jesus Christ is come in the f lesh is not of doctrine is life-giving.
God: and this is that spirit Of antichrist, where-
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
of ye have heard that it should come: and even
now already it is in the world." DOGMA. Derived from the Greek dog7"c},
The first known advocate of this doctrine from do77`ej7¢, ``think, seem, seem good," the
was Cerinthus, (ca. A.D. 85) traditionally an word designates a tenet Of doctrine authorita-
Alexandrian, who was a pupil of Philo. He tively pronounced. In the LXX dc)g7rf¢ aitpears
held that Jesus differed from other men only in Esth. 3:9; Dan. 2: 13 and 6:8 for a decree
in that he was better and wiser than they, and issued by the king. In Luke 2: I it is the de-
that the divine Christ descended upon him at cree of Caesar Augustus, in Acts 16:4 the de-
the baptism and left him at the cross. The crees laid down by the apostles, in Col. 2: 14
effect of this reasoning was to make the in- and Eph. 2:15 the judgments of the law
carnation an illusion. Either there was no against sinners, which Jesus triumphed over
human Jesus at all, but only an apparition, or in the cross.
else the real Son of God was simply using the In Greek I)hilosophy, especially Stoicism, il
human Jesus as a vehicle of exi]ression, but referred to axiomatic principles considered set-
was not in real union with him. tled forever, beyond all doubt. Josephus (Co„-
Marcion in the middle and latter part of the trcz Apjo7c. i. 8) calls the Jewish sacred books
second century was willing to concede the Tj.eot4 cJog"Iatcz, "decrees of God." Ignatius
reality of the suffering of Christ, but not the CAd Magnes. 13), Origen (`De Principiis iv.
reality of his birth. In his version of the Gos- 156), and Clement of Alexandria (Sfj-o7"czteis
pel of Luke he asserts that Christ simply ap- vii. 763) all apply the term to the Christian
peared in the reign of Tiberius, by which we revelation. Now it designates those proposi-
DOMINION 172

tions of religious truth believed to have orig- tion to inflict capital punishment on the Ana-
inated from divine revelation and set forth as baptists.
a part of a comprehensive doctrinal system by BIBLIOGRAPHY

a duly constituted religious authority.

£#¥„;st¥„:g'ga#i#£To;;atr,?%On8ao£;£tt:cog;:,"s£:h'G:.*i||fs:eesnt:
WAYNE E. WARD
\VILLIAM NIGEL KERR
DOMINION. The I]ebrew verbs Z7ji`¢l,
DOOR. In the OT there are two main He-
"d5¢l and rddd (and their noun forms) and
brew words for doo]': (I) pe!clky, meaning
the Greek nouns ki.cztos and kt4i'iotGs (and its
opening, doorway; (2) dele!, "door," i.e., the
verbal form J€t+7~;eti6) are the chief words ex-
object which closes the opening. In the NT
pressing dominion. The larger aspects of the thy7.a does service for both of these meanings
subject involve man, Satan and Christ.
Man's dominion may be categorized as crea- (e.g., Matt. 6:6; 27:60). A competent descrip-
tion of the construction of doors in the Near
ture -over other creatures (Gen.1:26 ff.):
East is found in HDCG. Thyrc! is also em-
head -over woman (Gen. 3:16); ruler -
ever nations (Matt. 20:25); sinner -under ployed figuratively in several ways: first, sig-
nifying nearness, ¢t t7te door (Matt. 24:33;
the law (Ron. 7:I) and under sin (Ron.
Mark 13:29; James 5:9); secondly, describing
7: 14, 23); believer -co`dominion with Christ
the entrance to the kingdom of God, tjte "clr-
(11 Tim. 2:12; Rev. 3:21). row c!oor (Luke 13:24); thirdly, symbolizing
Satan's dominion was secured by rebellion
opportunity or feasibility, at2 ope% door (Acts
(Isa.14:12-16). It was proffered to Christ 14:27; I Cor.16:9; 11 Cor. 2:12; Col. 4:3;
(Luke 4:6), who restricted it (Mark 3:27). Rev. 3:8; c£. Hos. 2: 15, " door of hope, which
It will be revived during the reign o£ Anti-
may be the seedplot of this meaning); fourth-
christ (11 Thess. 2: I-12; Rev.13); but Christ's
1y, depicting Christ, the dooi. }o the sheep
return will terminate it (11 Thess. 2:8).
(John 10:7) and tlte dooi. for the sheep (John
Christ's dominion was I)redicted in the OT
10:9); lastly, portraying the persistent and lov-
(Isa. 11 : 1-10); promised at the nativity (Luke ing invitation o£ Christ to men (Rev. 3:20).
I:32 £.); proved in his conquests over the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
devil (I John 3:8), demons (Mark 5:1-15)
and death (Heb. 2:14 f.); proclaimed at the HDA6%d;t;B.B.F.RwieE:;;tn,erThfenRJesvBCFZ.tis.ofB.t7}EaE:rthe±,:
ascension (Acts 2:34 £f.; c£. Ps. 24); and per- DAVID A. HUBBARD
fected at the second advent-(I Cor.15:24-28).
WICK BRO0MALL DOUBT. The term denotes a state of un-
certainty with respect to some cause, person or
DONATISTS. A schismatic reform party event. In the NT it is usually employed in
of the fourth and fifth centuries taking its one of two ways. It may indicate a state of
name from Donatus, a north African bishop. being at a loss to comprehend some situation
The protest arose when Bishop Felix, a trcidj- (John 13:22; Acts 2:12,10:17; Gal. 4:20).
for, presided over the ordination of the bishop It implies hesitancy to act, and may or may
o£ Carthage. The I)arty soon to be called not be sinful.
Donatists objected and separated themselves Used in the second sense, it signifies posi-
from the major church gI.oup, declaring it to tive wavering of judgment, and issues in lack
be apostate and its baptism invalid. They were Of conviction, and in many cases disbelief and
noted for their severe discipline, insistence on skepticism (Mark 6:6; Ron. 14:23). Doubt
separation of church and state, and high stand- may be resolved by further thought and action;
ards for the ministry. They held to baptismal or it may remain unresolved, and as such it
regeneration and infant baptism. Unfortunate- may become positively sinful.
ly their conscientious separationism degen- Doubt and moral unwillingness are closely
Crated into bigotry and extremism. The I)arty related.11 Thess. 2: 10-12 embeds the princi-
was combatted by Augustine in the early fif th plc, that much doubt stems from refusal to ac-
century but Donatism was not destroyed until cept the mandates of revealed tnith. Volitional
the invasions by the Arian Vandals in A.D. 428 doubt may become the pattern of one who re-
and Islam in the seventh century. Significantly jects divine revelation and its claims. ISBE, 11,
the laws enacted against Donatist rebaptism pp. 870 f.
HAROLD 8. KUHN
were used by Romanists during the Reforma-
173 DREAM

DOVE. The dove's docile nature is some- a moming canticle. Later it became incorpo-
times a simile for foolish trust (Hos. 7: 11) or rated into the Latin Mass, where it occupied a
defenselessness (Ps. 74: 19), but it is also used place at the beginning of the service. In the
to denote lack of guile. So Jesus enjoins the English Communion Service of 1552 the Re-
disciples to be "innocent as doves" (Matt. formers transferred the hymn to the end of the
10:16), that is, be pure and open in motive office, no doubt in accordance with the usage
and action. This quality of perfect purity then at the first eucharist: "When they had sung
becomes an apt emblem of the Holy Spirit an h}7mn, they went out" (Matt. 26:30). In
(Matt. 3: 16; cf. Heb. 7:26; bHag.15a; Targ. this I)osition it forms a fitting conclusion to
S. o£ Sol. 2: 12). The dove is also a term of the Christian sacrifice of praise and thanks-
endearment (S. of Sol. 2: 14; 5:2) and a s}7m- glving.
bQl of beauty (S. of Sol. I : I 5; 4: I), and thus It is now generally agreed that the doxology
stands occ`asionally in Jewish literature for at the cnd of the Lord's Prayer is not part of
marital felicity (bErub. 100b; bBaba Kamma the origincil text of Matt. 6:9-13. It may be
93a). Sometimes the mournful cooing of the regarded as an ancic.nt liturgical addition to
dove, although in reality a sign of hapi]iness, the pra}'er, which was adopted by the Greek
is used to signify suffering (Ezek. 7: 16; cf. S. church, but not by the Latin.
of Sol. Rabba 1 : 15).
FRANK COLQUHOUN
The dove, along with the pigeon, was used
in general 1)urificatory offerings (Lev. 12:6;
DREAM. The Bible assigns to involuntary
14:4-8), especially if brought by the poor
dreams a legitimate place in revealing future
(Lev. 12:8; Luke 2:24). However, it was events. This is true in dispensations o£ God's
never involved in any sacrificial meal, nor is
dealings with men in which there was an ab-
there any evidence that the dove was ever I)art
sence of regulai.1y constituted prophets or little
of the Hebrew diet. Perhaps this is related to
or no written revelation, as in the patriarchal
the sacrosanct character of the dove in other
period (Gc.n. 31:10-14; 37:5-9) and in the
parts of the ancient Near East (cf. W. Rob- time of the Judges (Judg. 7:9-14), or for very
ertson Smith, The F\eligion of the Semites, siiecial oi`ci`sions (Matt.I:20; 2:13). Such
Adam & Charles Black, London, 1894 (2nd
gt`idclnce may be divinely induced in any age.
ed.), pp. 219 (note 2), 225, 294).
But in the era of an outi)oured Spirit and a
ROBERT 8. LAURIN full written revelation to guide, we walk b}'
faith, and normall)I have little need for such
DOXOLOGY. The term, which is derived t]nusual methods of guidance (11 Cor. 5:7).
from the Greek doxcz (glory), denotes an Yet, even now, should God choose to lead in
ascription of praise to the three persons of the this extraordinar}' way, there would be nothing
Blessed Trinity. In its commonest form, known in it inconsistent with his holiness, or smack
as the G!orjfl Pcrtrj or "Lesser Doxology," it is of thc' divinatory taint of heathenism.
rendered: "Glory be to the Father, and to the The case is quite di££erent, however, with
Son, and to the I-Iol}' Ghost: As it was in the voluntary or humanl)' (demoniacally) induced
beginning, is now, and ever shall be, world dreams, definitely divinatory in character. In
without end. Amen." Its use at the end of the this categor)' occur dreams induced by "incu-
Psalms, as directed e.g., in the Book of Com- bation" or sleeping in some shrine where the
mon Prayer, dates from the fourth century. It I)atron deity is belie\'ed to reveal his secrets
is thus a symbol of the duty of Christianizing to the sleeper. Herodotus cites the occurrence
the Psalms and serves at the same time "to of this practice timong an Egyptian sect known
connect the Unit}' of the Godhead as known as the Nasamonians (Herocz. JV, p. 172, ed.
to the Jews with the Trinity as known to by A. D. Godle}7).
Christians" (Tt4£ori.cr] P).czyer Book, Harrison The Bi`ble denounces this heathen custom as
Trust, London, p.101). a corruption to which God's people yielded.
The so-called "Greater Doxology" is the They are described as those who "sit among
G]oi-icz j" E%ce!sis, "Glory be to God on high." the graves and lodge in the secret i]]aces
On account of its opening words, taken directly [vaults]" (Isa. 65:4). King Solomon's famous
from Luke 2: 14, it is sometimes known as the dream at the high place o£ Gibeon (I Kings
Angelic Hymn. This doxology is of Greek 3: I-15), although it came to him at a shrine
origin (fourth century) and was used at first as with |]agan associations, was nevertheless God-
DRUNKENNESS 174

the real object. The "object" of knowledge is

givei} involuntary on the monarch's part, and
not an instance of incubation. held to be known only through the mediation
BIBLIOGRAPHY of "ideas." This tyi>e Of thinking raises the im-
Cutten, The Psycho]og;col Pfoe#ome#¢ of Christja"ity. portant question of the manner in which
MERRII.L F. UNGER knowledge can bridge the gap between the
idea Of an object and the object itself .
DRUNKENNESS. The excessive drinking Ethical or ethico-religious dualism asserts
of intoxicants was a common vice among the that there are two mutually hostile forces or
ancient Jews and other early peoples. But since beings in the world, the one being the source
intoxicants were so expensive, it was particu- of all good, the other the source of all evil.
larly a practice of the rich (Amos 6:6; 4:1; The most clear-cut type of ethico-religious
2:8). Jesus condemns it only once (Luke dualism is that of the ancient Iranian religion,
21:34); probably since he had been sent to usually associated with the name o£ Zoroaster,
the poor, and intoxicants were still costly. Paul in which Ahura Mazda and Ahriman represent
frequently urged temperance (Gal. 5:21; Eph. the projection into cosmology, respectively, of
5 : 18). the forces of good and evil. The universe be-
Although intemperance is consistently con- comes the battle-ground for these opposing be-
demned in both the OT and the NT, total ings, identified respectively with light and
abstinence for all is not explicitly required in darkness. More moderate forms of dualism per-
either. Nazarites vowed to refrain (Nun. 6:3 vade most religions, expressed, for example, by
f.); Daniel and his friends elected to do so the distinction between ``sacred" and "profane,"
or by the analysis Of reality in terms of y¢#g
(Dan.I:8-16); and priests were required to
abstain while on duty in the sanctuary (Lev. and yj# in Chinese thought. Christian theology
10:9). But although abstinence is never a generally accepts a modified moral dualism,
universal requirement, such instances of a total recognizing God as supremely good, and Satan
refraining imply that it is a higher ethic than as a deteriorated creature bent everywhere
mere temperance. Also, there are abstinence upon the intrusion of evil. This, however, is
implications, as in Matt. 16:24 f., Ron. not dualism in the sense of its usual defini-
14: 13-21, and I Col. 8,:8-13.
tion, since Christian theology does not con-
sider Satan to be ultimate or original, and sees
J. KENNETH GRIDER him ultimately excluded from the universe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DUALISM. A theory in interpretation SHERK, IV, p. 15; Dagobert Runes, I)jctjot.dry of
which explains a given situation or domain in Philosophy, pp. 84 f.
HAROLD 8. KUHN
terms of two opposing factors or principles. In
general, dualisms are twofold classif ications
which admit of no intermediate degrees. There DUTY. The verb ophej!o- signifies moral
are three major types: (a) metal)hysical, (b) obligation; what is due by or to someone. This
epistemological or epistemic, and (c) ethical is more of ten expressed by the impersonal verb
or ethico-religious. de;. Shades of meaning in the NT are: (1)
Metaphysical dualism asserts that the facts payment of financial debt (Matt.18:28), (2)
of the universe are best explained in terms of be obligated (Luke 17:10), (3) bound (by
mutually irreducible elements. These are often oath) (Matt. 23:16,18).
considered to be mind and matter, or as by Always there is the idea of compulsion of
Descartes, thought and extension. Mind is some kind; of fate, or law or inner necessity.
usually conceived as conscious experience, mat- Sin is sometimes represented as debt. Kant re-
ter as occupying space and being in motion. garded duty for duty's sake as the true motive
They are thus two qualitatively different or- of moral action. This is formal and abstract.
ders of reality. Jesus regarded love for both God and man as
Epistemological dualism is an analysis of the the tnie moral motive.
knowing situation which holds that the idea See also ETHlcs.
or object of judgment is radically other than ALBERT VICTOR M'CALLIN
 EARNEST. The Greek ¢rr¢Z76# occurs in Alexandria and Rome as to the method Of cal-
11 Cor.I:22; 2:5; Eph.I:14 (RSV, "gu-ar- culating the date of Easter; but since the
antee"). and its Hebrew equivalent in Gen. Council of I\Ticaea (A.D. 325) the date has
28: 17, 18, 20. A commercial term of Phoeni- been determined by the Jewish Passover and
cian origin, it is used in the papyri of an en- falls on the Sunday nearest to the 14th Nisan.
gagement ring, a down payment on a cow, an This means that the extreme limits of the
advance payment to dancing girls (``as earnest feast are from March 21 to April 25.
money to be reckoned in the price" MM). It According to Bede, the name Easter is de-
may, then, designate a p!ec!ge which is later rived from Eostre, an Anglo-Saxon goddess
returned (Gen. 38:17 ff.), a dow# pc!y"e"£ whose festival was held in the spring. The
which validates a contract, or a first j7cs£¢Z}- original title given to the feast, both in the
7"e7tf which secures (and partakes of the na- East and the West, was P¢scJ®a, on account of
ture of ) a further performance. It is always an its association with the Jewish Passover.
act which binds one to a future action. In
FRANK COLQUHOUN
patristic literature, the Letter of Polycaxp 8: 1
speaks Of the death of Christ as "the e¢7.7tes£ EAT. The word eat (OT 'd&a! and others;
of our righteousness." In the NT occurrences NT esfh;o-, ef az.) is employed in a variety of
the Holy Spirit is given to the Christian as meanings. The first test of the human race
God's flrr¢Z7o-" - his guarantee and/or first in- centered about a prohibition to eat (Gen.
stallment (Rom. 8:23) of a promised future 2:16,17). Since Adam and Eve had beeh
redemption. Significantly,11 Cor.1:21 f. uses
graciously supplied by God with every good,
the words arr¢Z7o-" and bebc}jot47® ("establish") this was the best test of their obedience. The
together (see also SEAL); the latter also is a fall became a historical actuality through
commercial contractual term meaning ``to make Adam's eating the forbidden fruit (Gen. 3:6;
legally binding." Their combined usage rein- Rom. 5:12). In Noah's day there was the
forces Paul's concept which represents ``the proscription of eating blood (Gen. 9:4 and
relation of God to believers under the image Acts 15:19-20). Forbidden foods were insti-
of a legally indisputable relation" (A. Deiss- tuted in order to impress upon Israel her sep-
mann, Bjz7Ze Stt4dies, T and T Clark, Edin- arate position among the nations, that she
burgh, 1903, p. 108 f.). might be kept from idolatrous practices to be
E. EARLE ELLIS a clean channel for the coming Messiah (Lev.
11 and Deut. 14). It is well known how rab-
EASTER. The annual festival of our Lord's binical Judaism enlarged these injunctions to
resurrection, as Sunday is the weekly com- make a burdensome load upon the people o£
memoration of the same. It is at once the old- Israel (Mark 7:I-8; Acts 15:10). Meticulous
est and greatest festival of the Christian regulations were set forth for the eating of the
church, having been observed from very early Passover meal (Ex. 12:4 £f.).
times. The importance of the feast derives Eating and drinking express man's ordinary
from the centrality of the resurrection in the life (Matt.11 : 19; Luke 7:34) as in the days
church's faith and preaching. of Noah (Luke 17:27). The moral aspects of
The festival is preceded by the forty days this activity are contained in a number of pre-
o£ Lent (q.v.) and extends for forty days after- scriptions and prohibitions on the manner,
wards, viz., until Ascension Day. In the primi- time, and articles of eating.
tive church Easter was one of the special occa- Eating together meant either adoption (11
sions for the t)aptism of catechumens and also Sam. 9:7; Jer. 52:33) or entrance into cove-
for the restoration of penitents to the Holy nant relationship (Jer. 41:I). Exodus 24:11
Communion. reveals that the concept of covenant relation-
During the first three centuries there was a ship underlay the sacrificial meal. It was per-
difference of opinion between the churches of fidy and treason of the worst sort to break a

175
EBIONITE 176

covenant made through eating together (Ps. conveyed or preached (Ezek. 2:8; 3:3; Rev.
41:9; John 13:18). 10: 10).
When eating was not related to the spiritual BIBLIOGRAPHY
life, it was unsatisfying (Ezek.12:18; Mic.
6:14). To "eat up" meant to destroy (Ps.
53 : 4). Excess ill eating is condemned through- F{:tt:c:k§p%[£;7;:,;a;a!j,Ejh,e{h]§5¥g#;;:jB§::bg#j,::T%9g{
out the Bible (Eccl.10:16,17; Isa. 5:11,12; CHARLES L. FEINBERG
I Cor. 6:13; Phil. 3:19). Careless self-in-
dulgence is also condemned (Matt. 24:49; EBIONITE. The name is derived from the
Luke 12:19). Anxiety over the provision Of Hebrew. In the OT the word poor implied
food is prohibited (Matt. 6:24-34; Luke humility, suffering for righteousness' sake. The
12,22-34). sect was a logical development from the Judai-
Of the Synoptic accounts of the institution zers Of Paul's day. It kept the entire Mosaic
of the Lord's Supper only Matthew (26:26- law with special attention to circumcision and
28) has the command to eat, although I Cor. Sabbath, and revered Jerusalem as if it were
11 :26 mentions the eating without enjoining the abode of God. Jesus was regarded as the
it by an imperative. The bread which sym- last and greatest Of the prophets, the natural
bolizes Christ's body given vicariously for sin- son of Joseph and Mary, but not the etemal
ful man, must be received and eaten by the Son of God. "After his baptism Christ de-
communicant. Although the drinking of the scended upon him in the form Of a dove," but
cup was withheld by the Roman hierarchy departed from him before the cmcifixion. Jesus
from the laity during the Middle Ages, eating died and rose again, but Christ remained im-
the bread was always an indispensable part of passible, being by nature spiritual (Irenaeus
the celebration of the Eucharist. The followers Adv. 7®¢er.I, xxvi, I, 2). Only the Gospel Of
o£ Christ will eat with .him in his kingdom Matthew was used, and Paul was rejected as
(Luke 22:30). an apostate from the law (Eusebius iii. 27).
In John 6:35-50 Christ points to himself as The destniction of the tem|)le in A.D. 70
the bread of life. He is the spiritual food of was a fatal blow to all Jewish Christians. They
believers through his redemptive work in his ceased to wield any imf luence because they
death. Whether it is warranted to see here a were removed from the main centers of activity
reference to the Lord's Supper or not, com- which were exclusively gentile. T'hey lingered
munion with and appropriation by faith o£ for a long time and the remnants were ab-
Christ in his redemptive work are indicated. sorbed by Islam. Their imperfect conception Of
There is life-sustaining power in communion Christ has reappeared from time to time in
with Christ. Christian history.
A perusal of the Book of Acts reveals the Some scholars maintain that the Qumran
importance of eating for fellowship in the Community consisted of Jewish Christians of
early Christian church, whether in regular the Ebionite type.
communal meals or clg¢pG feasts (Acts 2:42; BIBLI0GRAPH`'
I Cor. 11 :20, 21), and in the commemoration F. I: i.ru::,h°sne:,£oe|dd' Tshe::egtf ts°fo„thtf e DDe:gd %ee% §#:!!S;
of the Lord's Supper (I Cor.11:28). As sig-
±seD„:?;°n6hs:i=sms:'pT£:I:ffJeerrj#eseis:a°df8e:ms'c%]fs?dthe
nificant as these gatherings were at first in
the assembly of Jewish believers, they were all RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN
the more vital later for the cementing of the ECUMENICAL. The word ojkot47#e„g
bond between Jewish and gentile believers. It was used in the classical Greek, caught up in
was thus not without reason that Paul was the NT, applied throughout history by Eastern,
gravely concerned over the conduct Of Peter Latin, and Evangelical churches, but has taken
at Antioch (Gal. 2:11-13).
on a special meaning and importance in the
The matter of Christian liberty is taken up twentieth century non-Roman communions. A
and thoroughly expounded on the subject of brief consideration of these items constitutes
eating either things sacrificed to idols (I Cor. this article.
8:10) or foods which may be repugnant to The basic, original meaning of the word was
other believers (Ron. 14). geographical. According to I-Ierodotus, Demos-
The appropriation of truth is sometimes il- themes and Aristotle it carried the connotation
lustrated by the "eating" of the message to be o£ "inhabited world." Since, however, Greece
177 EGYPT

represented the tutored and refined versus the ¢7®d t7®e Ev¢"geljc¢I. The new ecumenical
"barbarian," the word acquired a cultural im-
evangelical magazine, Chr;stj¢7?jty Toczciy, de-
plication superimposed on its fundamental geo- votes much space to the question of Christian
graphical significance. unity.
The NT uses the word fifteen times, usual- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ly in the geographical sense, but generally
without conveyin.g any cultural implications.
There is a little carryover Of the proud Greek i:,:uF*¥€:;in;j„:.;i:#Os;#;::s:t#;ist;,g;ei;£#:#£s:i:;i;i:h::s§{
usage, now in the form of the proud Roman tou%eg;L=;dFbn%as#\#tchR.ecovery of uni.u 1. R. "e\son,
usage (cf. Luke 2:I; Acts 11:28; 19:27;
24:5) but this is alien to the NT viewpoint JOHN H. GERSTNER
itself . In it the word reverts to its basic ety- EDIFICATION. "Edification" is used in
mology and designates the entire inhabited the AV in Ron. 15:2; I Cor. 14:3; 11 Cor.
world. The gospel is to be preached in the 10:8 and 13:10 to translate the Greek
ojkow7#e7ig (Matt. 24: 14); the a;kot47"e7cG is
o;koc!o7"e-. The same Greek word is also trans-
to be judged by Jesus Christ (Acts 17:31; cf.
lated "edifying" several times in I and 11 Cor-
Luke 21 :26); the kingdoms of the ojkow7"e"g
inthians and Ephesians; in Ron.14:19 it is
are shown to Jesus by Satan (Luke 4: 5). Oth- used in a phrase, "things wherewith one may
er occurrences (Acts 17:6; Ron.10:18; Heb.
edify." The same root is used in I Tim. 1 :4,
I :6; 2:5; Rev. 3: 10; 12:9; 16: 14) repeat, com-
where ojkoczomj¢ is translated "building up."
bine or develop the above significations. The corresponding verb form is used several
The various branches of the Christian times in Acts and the Pauline epistles. The
church since apostolic times have employed ASV and RSV are similar but not identical.
this term. Thus the Eastern Church has had The Greek word literally means "building a
"ecumenical" synods and theologians. The
house." Paul uses both the noun and verb
Roman Church calls its councils "ecumenical." f orms to impress upon the Christian the im-
Evangelical churches speak of the Apostles',
portance of development in the Christian life.
Nicene, Athanasian and others as ``ecumenical A person becomes a Christian at the moment
creeds."
of the expression of a true, saving faith, when
The fissiparousness of the non-Roman the foundation of faith in Christ is laid. Then
churches has called into being a powerful throughout the rest of his life he must build
modern counter-tendency and its label is "ecu- a house upon that foundation. Each Christian
menical." One of its chief exponents, W. A. should build up his own Christian life and
Visser t'Hooft, associates two current meanings also help others build up theirs - provoking
with the term: unity and universality. These them to good works.
are expressed in the various inter-church move-
SAMUEL A. CARTLEDGE
ments which bear the designation "ecumenical."
Some indication of the scope of ecumenism in EGYPT. Although this country was no
the twentieth century is seen not only in the
promised land for the patriarchs and was for-
large number of councils formed, the most sig- bidden as a refuge in famine (Gen. 26:2; cf.
nificant being the World Council of Churches, 12:10-20), it nevertheless served as a haven
but in the numerous actual denominational for Jacob and his posterity (Gen. 46:3; cf.
unions. 15:13-16), who, as pilgrims and strangers,
The ecumenical movement has tended to never ceased to look on Canaan as their home
handle the divergent theologies of cooperating (Gen. 47:30; 50:24-25). Compared to the
groups gingerly and unrea]istically, in order to wildemess, Egypt offered creature comforts
prevent the occurrence of ruptures. However, which brQught nostalgia to many Israelites
one writer has said that the ecumenical "honey- (Nun.11:4-6). Their experience of sojourn
moon" is over and the real questions involved there was intended by God to teach them
in living together must now be faced. compassion toward the strangers in their own
Leadership in the ecumenical movement has midst (Ex. 23:9), and their deliverance from
often been in the hands of those less concerned helpless servitude by God's mighty power was
theologically, but Evangelicals have been far held before the nation as a reminder of his
from uninterested. A recent volume typical of redemptive purpose (Deut. 4:34; Ps. 78:52).
their thinking is Marcellus Kik's Ectt7#e7cist# Pharaoh becomes representative of those who
 178
ELDER

£ulfil God's will des|7ite their stubborn re- cc)mmunity o£ 120 (cf. Acts 1:15) or more
sistiince to him (Ex.14:17; Rom. 9:17-18). i`ould f`i)point seven elders (Misjwicz, Sanhc-
The theolog} of the I.`odus Includes Judgment drin I:6). These were called the "seven of a
ui)on fcilsc gods (Ex. 12 12). Eg}'|)t was sen- cit?7," ancl it is I)ossible that the seven ap-
sual (Ex. 23:19-21) aTid marked b}7 pride pointed in Acts 6 were regarded as such elders
which merited di`'inc 1)unishment (Ezek. 29:3 (c£. D. Daube, TJte New Testa„te7tt a%d Rciz7-
ff.). Tudah's contemr,lated alliance with her Z7j7?jc Jwda}so}, p. 237). In the Gospels the
is stigmatized as .1 covenant with death and elders are associated with the scribes and chief
an agreement with Sheol (Isa. 28:15). Eg}7pt priests as those at whose hands Jesus (Matt.
tii)i7ec`rs consistentl}' as a s}mbol of worldly 16.21; 27:I) and the apostles (Acts 6:12)
anti-God po\\'er (Rev.11:8). This makes all suffered.

:E`:ormuo[::n rfe:all:`atE[ee |attt:I a:;,:1(S|esa.Of| 9G2¥;: te, [o?) tahpepetTrT:a:|\:e:; :Le"T]rfeesb:7£te:i': (CPL:::i:
EVERETT F. HARRlsoN taking their place along with the apostles,
prophets and teachers. At Jerusalem they are
ELDER. .`The elders of the people" or the associated with James in the government of the
"elders of Israel" are frequently associated with local church after the manner of the synagogue
Moses in his dealings with the people (Ex. r`Acts 11:30; 21:18), but in association with
3.16, 4:29; 17:5; 18:12; 19:17; 24:I,11; the apostles they also share in the wider, or
Nun.1l:16). The}' later administer local gov- more sanhedral, government of the whole
ernment (Judg. 8:14; Josh. 20:4; Ruth 4:2) church (Acts 15:2, 6, 23; 16:4). An apostle
and have a hand in national affails (I Sam. can be a presbyter (I Pet. 5:1).
4:3) even after the institution of the mon- Presbyters do not appear at Antioch during
archy (I Sam. 8:4; 30:26,11 Sam. 3:17; 5:3; Pau" stay there (Acts 13:1), nor are they
I Kings 21.8). They achieve fresh promlnence mentioned in Pau" earlier epistles. .Possiply
during the exile (Jet. 29:1; Ezek. 7:I; 14:I; government was then a matter of minor im-
20: I) and after the return are associated both portance. BTt Paul and Barnabas on their first
with the governor in his functions (Ezra 59 missionary ]ourney had presbyters appointed
ff., 6:7) and with loc`al adminlstration (Ezra in all the churches they founded (Acts
10: 14). They havebythemselvescertainjuridi- 14:23).
cal functions (Dent. 22:15; 25:7 ££.) and are The presbyters whom Paul addressed at
associated with the judges, who are probably Ephesus (Acts 20:17 ff.) and those addressed
appointed from their number, in the adminis- in I Peter and Titus have a decisive place in
tration and execution of justice (Deut.16:18; church life. Besides their function of humble
21:2 £f., Ezra 7:25; 10.14). They are also as- pastoral oversight, on them largely depends
sociated with Moses and Aaron in conveying the stability and purity of the flock in the ap-
the word of God to the people (Ex. 3:14; proaching temptation and crisis. They are in
4:29; 19:7) and in representing the people such a position of authority and privilege as
before God (Ex.17:5; 24:1; Nun.11:16) can be abused. They share in the ministry o£
on great occasions. They see to the Passover Christ towards the flock (I Pet. 5:I-4; Acts
arrangements (Ex.12:2l). 20:28; cf. Eph. 4:11).
Other nations had elders (c£. Gen. 50:7; It is often asserted that.in the gentile
Num. 22:7), the right to the title being due churches the name episcopos is used as a sub-
to age, or to the esteem in which an individual stitute for presz?yteros with identical meaning.
is held, or to the holding of a definite office The words seem to be interchangeable in Acts
in the community (cf. Saxon alderowa%, 20:17; 20:28., and Titus I:5-9. But t+ough
Roman se%¢tor, Greek gerot.sja). The elder in all epjscopof are undoubtedly pi'esz7yte7.oi, it is
Israel no doubt at first derived his authority not clear whether the reverse is always true.
and status as well as his name by reason o.£ his The word presb,yf eros denotes rather the status
age and experience. of eldership while episcopos denotes the func-
In the Maccabean period the title "elders of tion of at least some elders. But there may
Israel" is used of the members of the Jewish have been elders who were not eplscopoj.
Sanhedrin which was regarded as being set up In I Tim. 5:17 teaching as well as over-
by Moses in his appointment of the seventy sight is regarded as a desirable function of the
elders in Nun.11:16 £f. At the local level a presbyter. It is likely that when the apostles
179 ELECT, ELECTION

and teachers and I)rophets ceased to be able ELECT, ELI]CTION. The term clcct may
to minister to the whole church in their travels, be ti verb of action or it may identify the per-
the function of teac`hing and I)reaching would son who is the object of this action. It is thus
fall on the local presb)Jters and thus the office s}'non}'mous with "choose" and "chosen" rc-
and the qualifications of those holding it spcctivcly. In Scripture it is frequently applied
would develoi). This, again, ma}7 have led to to the action o£ God in reference to men and
distinction within the presbyterate. The presi- to the category in which men are placed as a
dent of the body of presbyters, both in the result of this action. The term election likewise
ordering of the congregation and the celebra- mav reflect on the action o£ God or on the
tion Of the Lord's Supper, would tend to be- resLltins status of men. The terms always im-
come a permanent office held by one man. |)ly differentiation whether viewed as action
The "elder" in 11 and Ill John I.efers merely on God's I)art or as I)rivilege on the part of
to some one highly esteemed within the men.
church. The twenty-four elders who aitpear so In the OT this c`oncci)t appears in God's
frequently in the visions of the Book of Reveia choice of Isr£`el from among all the nations of
tion are examples of how all authoritv should the earth to be his peo|)le in the I)ossession of
humbly adore God and the Lamb (Rev. 4: 10; covenzint privilege and blessing (cf. Deut.
5:8-10; 19:4). It is to be noted that even these 4:37; 7:6, 7; I Kings 3:8; Is.£i. 44:I-2). It is

presbyters seem to minister in heaven to the also used with reference to the Messiah (Isa.
church on earth (Rev. 5:5; 5:8; 7: 13). 42: I) and this is reiterated in the NT (Luke
At the time of the Reformation, Calvin 23:35; I Pet. 2:4, 6). In reference to Christ
found that the office of elder was one of the the differentiation im|)lied points to the unique
four "orders or of ficcs" which Christ had in- and distinctive office with which he is i.n-
stituted for the ordinary government of the vested and to the peculiar delight which God
church, the others being pastors, doctors the Father takes in him.
(teachers) and deacons. The elders, as repre- As the election which ai)plies to Christ has
sentatives of the people, along with pastors or respect to the offices which he executes in the
bishops, were responsible for discipline. In accomplishment of salvation and the securing
Scotland the elder was later ordained for life, of its ends, so election as it concerns men is
without the laying on of hands, and was pre-eminently that which pertains to their sal-
given the duty of examining communicants vation in Christ. Election on the part of God
and visiting the sick. He was encouraged to in eternity is the source from which the proc-
teach. The theory arose, through I Tim. 5: 17, ess of salvation springs and it is the ultimate
that ministers and elders were both presbyters reason for the salvation of men ~ they are
of the same order, the former being the teach- chosen by God unto salvation (11 Thess.
ing elder, the latter the ruling elder. But, as 2: 13). The fruits which accompany salvation
a whole, the Presbyterian Church has held supi)ly to us men the proof of God's election
that there is a distinction between ordination (cf. I Thess. I :3, 4). This election took place
to the ministry and that to the eldership, or- in Christ before the foundation of the world
dination being determined by the end to which and was to the end that the elect should be
holy and without blame (Eph.1 :4).
it is directed. The elder has been regarded as
As election is eternal, so is it`sovereign. No
a representative of the people (though not ap-
passage shows this more clearly than Ron.
pointed by or responsible to the people) in the 9: 11 where the differentiation between Esau
ordering of church affairs, and has fulfilled and Jacob finds its explanation in, and is di-
many of the functions appropriate to the rected to the vindication of, "the purpose of
diaconate in the NT. The pattern of the God according to election." It is futile to ap-
elder's work within the church corresponds peal to the foreknowledge o£ God as in any
closely to that of the OT ``elder of the people." way abridging or modif}7ing the sovereign char-
BIBLIOGRAPHY acter of election. Ron. 8:29 shows that the
term "f oreknow" is itself differentiating and
cannot mean the foresight of faith but refers
to that distinguishing knowledge of God by
§e¥[t#c£#:;hsaFo#;;g:ta;;#a¢::s:::I::¥E:;€{:;;:%¥;hro:tt;i;:_
Presbyter.ianism? which he loved the persons concerned from
RONALD S. WALLACE eternity. Ron. 8:29 is similar to Eph.1:5,
ELEMENTS OF THE WORLD, THE 180

that in love God predestinated his people unto (Tertullian) and superseded by Christian reve-
adoption. Foreknowledge is the synonym Of lation: so Burton (ICC) and Goodspeed.
"£orelove" and so "whom he foreknew" (Ron. Against (3) Burton argues that there is no
8 :29) is equivalent to election in Christ (Eph. evidence to link stojcJie;a with deities in Paul's
I, 4). day, and that heavenly bodies cannot be de-
As salvation in possession is the proof of scribed as ast7te"e- and pto-c7?a. There would be
election, so election is the guarantee Of all that a good case for (2) if the Colossian heresy
salvation implies. We are therefore enjoined were Essenism (Lightfoot): the Qumran Man-
to make sure that it is a fact (11 Pet.I: 10) ual stresses calendar festivals. Radford favors
and in this assurance we have the certainty of (3) on the ground that the Colossians re-
divine vindication (Rom. 8:33). But election garded Christian salvation as liberation from
offers no ground for presumption or license. sin but not from the need to conciliate the
It is in our identity as "elect o£ God" that we planetary angels.
are to put on "bowels of mercies, kindness, The term sto;cJ7eia is used again in 11 Pet.
humbleness of mind, meekness, longsuffering" 3: 10 of the basic elements of which the nat-
(Col. 3:12). The pure sovereignty o£ God's ural world is composed and which will disap-
grace, when apprehended, constrains the pear in the world conflagration at the end of
amazement which humbles and the gratitude time; also in Heb. 5:12 of the elementary
which sanctifies. tniths of God's word.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY

W8[::t;c:I.as:i:;ts°;nhbcB?'MP.P.D;b]e°ii|:,;GL;is?e.owRea,?,f°5g:
78 f£„ 228 ff.
€£e#;Ej:3¥7:,:t]:8:i::hc#§;e,:B,%f;:€o,:£§:r;agc£:,Bs§;.:c:a:,::3k%;; DENIS H. TONGUE
270-333.

JOHN MURRAY ELIJAH. In the OT Elijah is given a two-

fold role: (I) as the voice of denunciation
ELEMENTS OF THE WORLD, THH. against social oppression and the amoral wor-
The e.vpression t¢ stoiche7.a fot4 kos7"ow is ship of Baal during the days of Ahab Of Israel
found only in Gal. 4:3 and Col. 2:8, 20 (cf. (I Kings 17, etc.), and (2) as the voice Of
the Sib. -Or. 2.206.. ta asthene hal pt6cha preparation resurrected during eschatological
stojcheifl Gal. 4:9). Stoichejo" is used by days to proclaim the imminent appearance of
Greek writers from Plato onwards for: (I) the "day Of the Lord" (Mal. 4:5).
alphabet letters or elements of leaning; (2) When the apostate, idolatrous worship of ls-
the four elements, earth, water, air, fire: so rael had reached its lowest ebb during the
Stoics, Philo, Siz7. Or. 2.206; (3) the princi- reign o£ Ahab (I Kings 16:30), Elijah sud-
ples of knowledge or mathematics; (4) the denly appeared to predict a drought of in-
stars and their physical elements: so Justin definite length as a penalty for lsrael's rejec-
Martyr; (5) angel-spirits: so 11 Encx=h 16:7 tion of the Lord (I Kings 17:I). This was
and Tatian. Kos7"os is used of the earth, fir- lifted when the people acknowledged the Lord
mament, humanity and sinful humanity. as God following the successful contest on Mt.
For t¢ stoiche!.ci tot4 kost"ott there are four Carmel between Elijah and the prophets of
Baal (I Kings 18). But Elijah, fearful Of the
possible meanings: (1) the physical elements
of the universe (Wisdom 7:17), favored by wrath Of Jezebel at his victory over the
Zahn because Jewish festivals were fixed by Baalistic worship, fled to Mt. Horeb for forty
movements of the heavenly bodies; (2) the days and nights. There God appeared to him,
heavenly bodies worshipped by the Galatians rebuked him, and sent him back to continue
before conversion (c£. Deut. 4: 19), advacated his role of being the national conscience, and
by Justin Martyr and Theodoret, who thought to anoint Elisha as his successor (I Kings
acce|)tance of the Jewish calendar would re- 19:21; 11 Kings I). The ministry Of Elijah
new bondage to these elements (Gal. 4:9); concluded when he was taken up alive to
(3) the angels associated with these elements
heaven in a whirlwind (11 Kings 2). However
who gave the law on Sinai: so Ritschl, Bauer, he was to return during the last days to pre-
Dibelius and RSV, who regard the Colossian pare men's hearts for the advent of world judg-
heresy as a syncretistic cult including angel ment (Mal. 3:1; 4:6).
worship; (4) elements of religious knowledge The NT and later Judaism reflect the
common to Jews and Gentiles before Christ eschatological role of Elijah. The common
181 EMOTION

pharisaic teaching was that before the advent aeons) thus became interposed between him
of the Messiah "Elijah must first come" (Mark and the creator of the material universe, called
9: 11). Indeed Jesus announced that John the the Demiurge, or god of the OT. The term is
Baptist was the fulfilment of this prophecy also used by the medieval mystics of those
(Matt.11 :7-15). Throughout the rabbinic lit- states of mind which were like ladders of
erature Elijah is expected to reappear in the ascent to God. Such graduated scales of vir-
last days to deal with all those legal problems tues were the products of imagination.
and cliff iculties which Israel had been unable RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN
to solve through the years. The common phrase
is "until Elijah comes" (cf . bMenaboth 63a;
EMOTION. The word emotion is derived
bBekhoroth 24a; mEduyoth 8:7; I Mace. 4:41-
from the Latin verb e7"ovcJ'e (e, "out" and
47; 14:41). It is possible that one of the Dead
"overe, ``to move, to stir up"). The emotions
Sea Scrolls also reflects this tradition (lQS
are an asi)ect of the mind. They are experi-
9:11). A final aspect of Elijah's preparatory
enced within the soul but have physical mani-
role was at the transfiguration when Moses
festations. Anger, for example, affects the
and he, representing the law and the prophets,
adrenal glands, worry the digestive glands, sor-
appeared with Jesus to symbolize their fulfil-
row the tear glands, fear the circulatory s}'s-
ment in him (Matt.17:3; Mark 9:4).
tem, etc. Different emotions affect the organ-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ism in different ways. Fear may increase phy-
M!igTeen-setE£±=S£=nuT,H.NT; H. S. Gehman ±n WDB; |u\ia.n sical strength, prolong the power of endurance,
ROBERT 8. LAURIN cause insensitivity to pain, but may also I)ara-
lyze. Emotions may interf`ere with normal
ELKESAITES. A syncretistic sect of early processes of body and mind, may cause physi-
Jewish Christianity- which flourished east of cal or mental ailments or even death. Emo-
the Dead Sea from about the beginning of the tions, like sensations, elude precise definition.
second century and contributed to the origin As the idea of sweetness, sourness, or bitter-
of Islam. The derivation of the name is in ness can be conveyed only by reference to an
doubt. Perhaps the Greek gzchfls¢j is derived object which possesses these qualities, so the
from the Aramaic hel kese, hidden power, re- meaning of a specific emotion can be com-
£erring to the Holy Spirit. A secret book with municated to another only by a reference to
the same Greek title, reputed to have been that emotion. Everyone knows what is meant
brought down from heaven by an angel, and by love, fear, anger, worry, etc. But it is most
central to the system, was known to Origen difficult to convey the meaning of any one of
and Hippolytus. these emotions by an attempted definition.
The Elkesaites took their rise from the However, all emotions have in common the
Ebionites, and, theosophical as they were, are general idea of being stirred up, excited, per-
considered by some as a class Of that Jewish turbed. They are a part Of the inherited equip-
sect. Among their practices were Jewish legal- ment of the child but are develo|)ed or modi-
ism and circumcision, two Christian baptisms, fied by maturation and training. They are im-
the Lord's supper observed with bread and portant factors in motivating human behavior.
salt, and pagan ablutions and astrology (q.v.). People are influenced more by their feelings
Christ was viewed as a mere man and the than by reason. Emotions are more tenacious.
Holy Spirit as female. Basically Gnostic, El- than ideas. Hence we say, "I am convinced
kesaism formed the basis of the Pseudorcle- but not persuaded." Emotions are means of
mentine system, which spread even to Rome. communication. A gloomy person spreads
DONALD G. DAVIS gloom, a cheerful person good cheer, and an
angry person anger. The emotions give color
EMANATION. Derived from Latin, mean- and richness to life and value to our posses-
ing to flow out, this is a common term in sions. They give rise to the noblest deeds of
Gnosticism (second century A.D.). It there men but also may change him into a savage
plays an important part in the attempted solu- fiend. They make an individual attractive or
tion of the problem Of evil. The material world repulsive, reasonable or irrational, saintly or
was considered evil in itself . The Supreme ignoble. Emotions are an important factor
Being had to be separated from such a degrad- jn man's religious life. God so loved the
ing connection. A series of emanations (or world (John 3: 16) is the essence of the gos-
EMPEROR-WORSHIP 18 2
"to make hard." Endurance is the capacity to
pel. To love God with all your heart, soul, and
mind and your neighbor as yourself is the endure, the power to be hard or strong in the
fulfilment of the whole law (Matt. 22: 37-39). face of suffering, persecution or pain, to bear
He that hateth his brother is a murderer (I up in sorrow, to be longsuffering, patient and
John 3: 15). He that hath pity upon the poor tolerant with others, to be firm and steadfast
lendeth unto the Lord (Prov. 19: 17). Fear not ih trials and temptation, to be unmovable in
them which are able to kill the body (Matt. the faith. He that endureth to the end shall
10:28). The emotions enrich Christian wor- be saved (Matt.10:22; 24:13.). To continue
ship. Church architecture, music, art windows, in the faith (Col.1:23; I Cor. 9:24), to re-
subdued light, liturgies, vestments, symbolism, main firm in temptation (James 1 : 12), to re-
incense, candles, etc. all appeal to the emo- main steadfast (James 5: 11), to stand fast in
tions. Christian faith sanctifies and purifies confidence (Heb. 3:6, 14) -these are mani-
our emotions. festations of endurance.
ALFREI) M. REHWINKEI. ALFRED M. REHWINKEL

EMPEROR-WORSHIP. See DEIFlcA- ENEMY. In the OT the enemy of Israel

TION. (or of the godly) was jpso f¢cto the enemy of
God. The imprecatory Psalms and the attitude
ENCRATITES. Encratites was a term toward gentile nations must, therefore, be un-
used, not for any particular sect, but for those derstood in this leligio-political sense: God's at-
who in the early church lived a life of strict titude toward evil itself is expressed in his at-
discipline (Greek egk"tejs, Latin co7?tj7ie7ctes, titude toward "the enemy." The NT term is
hence the alternative name Continents). The ap|]1ied to Satan (Matt. 13:39), evil powers
main point of their asceticism seems to have (I Cor. 15:25 I.), unregenerate men (Col.
been in respect of wine and flesh, though I :21), and personal enemies (Matt. 5:43 f.).
celibacy was also practiced. The apologist But the OT connotation is not absent (Luke
Tatian had Encratite connections, and though I :74), and "true Israer' underlies the mean-
it was quite possible for Encratites to be strict- ing virtually throughout. See TWNT.
ly orthodox there was undoubtedly a Gnostic E. EARI,E ELLIS
and docetic tendency in many such circles. It
was in this milieu that much of the NT ENLIGHTENMENT, THE. The Enlight-
apocryphal literature originated (c£. HERE). enment (Aufklaerung), was a most important
WILLIAM KELLY rationalistic movement in German theology,
philosophy and literature, headed by Lessing,
ENCYCLICAL. A circular letter (Greek Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn in the middle
egk"kzjos). It is confined in modern times al- of the eighteenth century. Carrying the ra-
most exclusively to papal documents, although t`ionalistic principle further, it revolted against
the term has been applied to the letters sent the existing Wolff ian compromise which had
out by the bishops of the Lambeth Conference built a superstructure of revelation on the
to churches of the Anglican communion. An basis of rational truth, and insisted that even
encyclical varies from a Bull (a solemn man- the documents and truths of Christianity must
date with the Pope's seal, Z7w]ha) and a Brief be subjected to rational analysis. While he
(a less formal papal letter sealed with the avoided the excesses of Voltaire, Lessing
Pope's signet ring). There is no particular form
pressed this analysis to the doubting of the
by which to identify an encyclical, though historical reliability of the NT in his publica-
some definitely use the name in the opening tion and defense of the Wolffe"Z7wettel Frclg-
words. Recent popes have adopted the en- 7#e#ts by Reimarus. He himself found certain
cyclical as. the means of making many im- truths of reason underlying the Bible, and
|]ortant utterances on questions theological and thought the Bible a useful means of conveying
social. The Pope's authority does not consti- them to the ignorant. This was an extremer
tute an encyclical an infallible utterance. form of the neologising by means of which the
RICHARI) J. COATES more advanced theologians tried to meet the
challenge of the Enlightenment, giving to all
END. See EscHATOLOG¥, AGE.
the Christian doctrines an attenuated, rational
ENDURANCE. The word endurance is de- signit'icance. The philosophical basis of the
lived from the Latin verb j7cdt4r¢re meaning Enlightenment was virtually destroyed by
183 EPIPHANY

Kant, and its theology superseded by that o£ betrays a typical apocalyptic genre, treating of
Schleiermacher, but its influence remained in visions, angels, heaven, hell, sun, moon, stars
the higher critical movement and the neologi- and divisions of future time. Last is "Third
cal impulses of the following century. Enach" which is also post-Christian. It is of
BIBLIOGRAPHY minor importance because Of its late date and
fragmentary character.
fehs¥;„£#?;a:£g::,;og?c!:%:,j3efj%dl£:;hffiers%%.Sit:eajr¥a.nEd€hcfagss¥rfei; DAVII) H. WALLACE
GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥ ENVY. In the OT q6"d', qi7c'6 (derived
from the blush of emotion) are translated
ENOCH. Genesis 5 is the prime source in "jealousy," "zeal," or "envy" according to sense.
the OT for information about the patriarch Envy is always bad, jealousy and zeal are fre-
Enoch. He was assumed into heaven, and be-
quently good. Similarl}' "to eye" (I Sam.18:9)
cause of this an extensive Jewish lore grew up and "the evil eye" (Ecclus. 14:8, 10; Matt.
around his name (see L. Ginzberg, T7ce Leg- 20: 15; Mark 7:22) express envy. In the NT
e7ccZs of t7}e Jews, Jewish Publication Society, zG!os ("jealousy," "zeal," seldom ``envy") can
Philad`elphia, 1946, Vol. VII, pp. 137, 138). be good or bad; p7itJ7o7¢os ("envy") is always
Luke 3:37 mentions him, and in Heb.11:5 evil (except James 4:5; R. V. G. Tasker, The
he is cited as one of the heroes of the faith. Ge„er¢Z Epjs£Ze of J¢7"es, Tyndale Press, Lon-
Three Jewish pseudepigraphical books bear don, 1956, pp. 90, 91, 105). Trench discrim-
his name. First in date and importance is inates between envy as passively and jealousy
"Ethiopic Enoch," an edited collection of writ-
as actively antagonistic towards another's good.
ings ti.eating a common general apocalyptic HDCG ("Envy'') relates envy to desire for an-
theme, and dating from the last two centuries other's possession and jealousy to rivalry for a
B.c. The name "Ethiopic" points to the lan- common objective. But envy (e.g., Joseph's
guage Of the extant version, although originally brethren, Saul towards David and the chief
the book was composed in either Hebrew or priests towards Christ) has reference to an
Aramaic. Ethiopic Enoch may be divided into inalienable possession (paternal love, victorious
five sections: (1) chaps.1-36 are a discussion honors or spiritual greatness), while jealousy
of angels and the universe; (2) chaps. 37-71, and zeal, good and bad (Gal. 4: 17,18), relate
the "Similitudes of ' Enoch," constitute apoca- to alterable circumstances. Envy is essentially
lyptic descriptions of the end time; (3) chaps. devilish (Wisd. 2:24; I John 3:12; see I
72-82 are called "The Book of the Heavenly Clem. 3) and a work of the flesh (Gal. 5:21),
Luminaries''; (4) chaps. 83-90 contain two a.nd was a "deadly sin" in later moral theology.
visions; and (5) chaps. 91-104 include the GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT
well-known "Apocalypse o£ Weeks" which
divides human history into ten parts, seven EPICUREANS. Adherents of the Greek
past (from the author's standpoint), and three philosopher Epicums (341-270 B.c.). He
to come. Much debate has been prompted by founded a community in Athens, condemned
Enoch's use of the term "Son of Man" (46:2, excess, and commanded a simple mode of life.
3 f£.), especially concerning its origin, its He discouraged ambition and counselled re-
meaning in Enoch and its significance for tirement from the world. The gods were not
Jesus' use of the title. There is no doubt that supernatural beings, controlling nature from
it is a messianic appellation, and some (e.g., without. The soul is a col.poral substance. Hap-
R. Otto) hold that Jesus borrowed it from piness and the avoidance of pain are the chief
Enoch. The better case may be made for Dan. ends in life. Feelings are the touchstone o£
7:14 as the source of Jesus' usage. Jude 14, conduct (cf. I Cor.15:32). Rabbinic Judaism
15 cites Enoch to enforce his discussion about used the name as a stock s}7nonym for a rna-
future judgment upon the ungodly. terialist or infidel. Bentham's Hedonism is a
A second book bearing Enoch's name is modern version of E|)icurean teaching.
"Slavonic Enoch," sometimes also called "The
RICHARD E. HIGGINSON
Book of the Secrets Of Enoch." Once thought
to have been written in the first century A.D., EPIPHANY. The feast of the Epiphany
it is now quite commonly agreed to be of later takes place on the twelf th day af ter Christmas,
date, possibly as late as the seventh century viz., Jam. 6. The name is derived from the
A.I). It was written originally in Greek, and Greek ep;p7i¢7cej¢ ("manifestation"), and the
EPISCOPACY, EPISCOPAL 184

festival is accordingly o£ Eastern origin. It cele- of pastor of his flock. He is the supervisor of
brated on the one day the nativity of our Lord, his diocese. He is a "father in God" to his
his baptism in the Jordan, and the manifesta- people. He performs rites like confirmation
tion of his glory at Cana's wedding feast (John and ordination. It is in this, and not in any-
2: 11). When in the fourth century the Greek thing else that the essence of episcopacy con-
Church adopted the Roman usage as to Christ- sists.
mas (Dec. 25), the Epiphany began to be ob- LEON MORRIS
served in the West as a separate festival and
became associated with the manifestation o£ EPISTEMOLOGY. Epistemology is the
Christ to the Gentiles in the persons of the science of the nature and possibility of knowl-
wise men (Matt. 2:I-11). The day is now edge; religious epistemolo8y, the science of re-
closely connected with Christmas, marking the ligious knowledge. The relation of the concepts
close of the festivities in honor of our Lord's of thought to the i`eligious Reality, and of re-
birth. In the Greek Church the Epiphany still ligious knowledge to knowledge in general,
retains its character as a feast of the baptism are pressing issues of contemporary theology
of Christ. and philosophy. Such questions are at stake
FRANK COLQUHOUN
as: In what sense is theology a science? Is the
Christian knowledge of God a form of knowl-
EPISCOPACY, EPISCOPAL. These edge in general (albeit a special form), or does
terms are derived from the Greek ep;scopos, it have a validity all its own? Is there a unique
meaning "bishop." They refer accordingly to source and avenue, and/or a unique criterion,
that system of church government in which Of Christian knowledge? These questions turn
the principal officer is the bishop. In recent on the definition of knowledge, on the right
times there have appeared Methodist Episco- of religion to claim knowledge-status for its af-
£irmations, and on the validity of the Christian
pals, with bishops as their chief officers, but
with no connection with the "historic" minis- claim to a distinctive knowledge of God over
try, i.e., with that ministry which goes back to against other world religions.
a remote antiquity in a direct line of ordina- I. BIBLlcAL TERMs. The Bible dces not
tions from bishop to bishop. They do not ac- systematically present a theory of knowledge,
cordingly come within episcopacy i-n the tra- yet it excludes many theories and implies one
ditional sense. of its own. Its approach is not abstract and
The antiquity of episcopacy is disputed. speculative, but ethiccrreligious (c£. Gen. 2 : 17;
Some hold it to be the primitive f orm o£ John 8:32). Its frame of reference is God as
church government, and that it is to be dis- Truth (c£. John I:1, where the Logos is
cerned in the NT. The evidence for this, how- identified with Deity), the universe as a ra-
ever, is not convincing. But it had certainly tional creation (cf. Gen. 1-2), and man as the
made its appearance by the second century, unique bearer of the divine image (Gen.
and in time it became practically universal. I :26). The Logos is the source of all knowl-
edge, not simply Of the knowledge o£ God
Characteristic of episcopticy is the presence
of one bishop (though he may have assistants (John 1:4, 9). All knowledge, therefore, in
some sense has the character of revelation.
called su££ragans or coadjutors) in each dio-
Human reason is a divinely fashioned instru-
cese. He is the supreme o££icer, but is expected
ment for its apprehension.
not to govern without taking note of the spe-
cial functions of the other orders. He is not a Man stands in perpetual relation to God, to
despot. The bishop is the ordaining officer. other selves, and to the world. His natural
He of ficiates at all ordinations, though pres- knowledge o£ God springs from an immediate
b}7ters also join with him in ordinations to the relationship through conscience, not simply by
inference from nature and history in which
presbyterate. The actual work of a bishop has
varied considerably through history. At one the Creator is also revealed (Ps. 19, Ron.
time he was apparently ver}' much like our I-2).
The problem of knowledge is never raised
parish minister, then we may discern the
evangelist or missionary, the royal counselor, in Scripture simply through an analysis of
the feudal noble, the politician o£ Whig and human cognition. Man the knower is a self,
Tory times, the administrator of modern days, conditioned by will and emotions as well as by
and others. But his essential function is that thought. As truth and goodness are united in
185 EPISTEMOLOGY

the divine nature, so knowledge exists for the false gods. Yet in some respects even secular
sake of spiritual and moral obedience. T'he views seem inevitably to borrow facets of the
Scriptures enforce this point by a turn o£ biblical ideology (even in the distorted pagan
phrase that seems strange to modern readers expositions the living God is not "without a
because o£ Greek philosophical influence upon witness,". cf. Acts 17:28), although as specu-
the West. They speak not simply of knowing lative systems they proceed on first principles
the truth, but of c{oj7®g truth (cf. John 3:21; antithetical to the Christian revelation. Yet as
Gal. 3:I; I John I:6, 7, 2:8-11; 11 John 4; persons men retain a point-o£-contact with th(`
Ill John 3). Man was fashioned by divine gospel in the broken jro¢go Dei.
creation for spiritual fellowship and obedience. Contemporary theology suffers still from the
Although immediately related to God influence of Kant's critical philosophy, which
through conscience, and confronted continually excludes cognitive lmowledge of the superna-
in nature and history with the revelation of tural world, and derives the content of knowl-
God's existence, fallen man seeks constantly to edge exclusivel}7 from sensation. While Kant
suppress this awareness o£ God (Rom.I:18 insists that the forms of reason are innate, he
ff.) and distorts it for his own comfort and arbitrarily dismisses the view that they are
convenience in sin. Scripture dues not teach divinely created, hence that man as bearer Of
that man as sinner attains a trustworthy knowl- the j7itflgo Dej is especially endowed for knowl-
edge of God on the basis of general revelation edge of God and his works. Man is indeed not
alone; rather, although emphasizing the fact of passive in the knowledge situation but, if bibli-
general divine revelation, it stresses man's cal theism be true, he is not ultimately crea-
blindness in sin and the reality of the spec`ial tive, but is fashioned to think God's thoughts
redemptive revelation addressed to him. In after him.
view of man's moral revolt against the Creator Assuming some genuine knowledge to be
and his predicament in sin, his restoration to I)ossible to man, we face the question whether
the tnie knowledge of and fellowship with the peculiar religious claim to lmowledge is
God is a work of divine grace. The scriptural valid. As an experience of the whole self,
revelation of redemptive love objectively dis- knowledge may involve overtones of volition
closes the nature and purposes o£ God, simul- and feeling, but the cognitive element dis-
taneously holding out the prospect of the re- criminates it as intellectual. What lies outside
mission of sins. On.to]ogically, the high point our conceptual grasp also lies outside the pos-
of that special revelation is Jesus of Nazareth; sibility of effective transmission to others; com-
epistemologically, the sacred Scriptures. municable knowledge consists of judgments
In a striking.turn of vocabulary, the Bible that satisf y the law of ncin-contradiction.
employs the term "to know" (Hebrew, y6d¢`,. While a distinction is necessary between re-
Greek, gi"o-sko~) of the most intimate personal ligious knowledge and knowledge in general,
relationship between human beings, sexual in- an absolute distinction is unwarranted. Knowl-
tercourse between man and wife (Gen. 4: I, edge is one; it must meet the test Of logical
17, 23; Matt.I:25) and also of personal com- consistency and coherence, or it is not knowl-
munion with God available to the redeemed edge. Christianity is a religion (cf. James
sinner (John 14:7; 17:3). 1:27: "pure religion") and is not in all re-
11. RELATED IssuEs. The jowago De;, broken spects to be contrasted with religion (cf . Gal-
by sin but not destroyed, survives in every vin's The Institutes of the Christian Religion),
human life as a point of contact for the gos- although it is peculiarly a religion of special
pel, the God Of creation and of redemption be- historical revelation. Christianity involves a
ing one (John I:3, 14). But man's revolt unique avenue of knowledge therefore: si)ecial
against God becomes more pronounced as the divine disclosure baf,ed on the initiative of the
interpretation o£ life and existence is for- living God. It has, moreover, its own condi-
malized from the standpoint of sin and revolt. tions - repentance and f`aith - for living ac-
As systems of thought, the great religions and cess to this way of knowledge. Yet neither the
philosophies must be viewed not simply as in- instrument of knowledge (cognition) nor the
adequate but false. The emphasis on Chris- test or criterion of knowledge (consistency and
tianity as true religion gives point to the fact coherence) are unique. For that I-eason, al-
that Platonism, Aristotelianism, Hegelianism, though Christian revelation communicates a
and so forth, as systems of thought, delineate higher knowledge, both as dealing with sui)er-
EPISTLE 186

natural realities and as conveying what is the very names of the persons who wrote
otherwise beyond man's ken, the content of them and also the persons or groups to whom
revelation has a genuine knowledge-status. The they were written. They were written for spe-
validity of knowledge is one in kind, although cific purposes to meet definite needs.
its sources and methods may be multiple. In interpreting an epistle or letter, then, we
The relation of the religious Object and the should strive to discover all we possibly can
God-concept, as well as the relation of religious about the author, the person or persons to
knowledge to general knowledge, remain fun- whom the letter was written, the place and
damental issues in contemporary thought. In- time of writing, and as much as possible about
fluential representations are: (1) Religious the conditions of both the author and the re-
knowledge is a species of knowledge in gen- cipient. Af ter we have discovered what mes-
eral, but Hebrew-Christian religion involves a sages the author intended to convey to his
special historical disclosure of God implying a original readers, we can then apply those mes-
special method and avenue of knowledge (Au- sages to our own needs today, as our needs
gustine, Calvin). (2) Religious knowledge is may be similar to those of the original readers.
a species of knowledge in general, involving It is customary to divide the NT Epistles
no distinctive way of truth and no distinctive into the Pauline and the catholic, ol general,
methodology (D. C. Macintosh). (3) Reli- Epistles, though these divisions are not too
gious knowledge is not a species of knowledge exact. The Epistles are very important f or giv-
in general (Kant). (4) Christian knowledge ing us insight at first hand into the lif e and
is not a species of knowledge in general; it in- thought of the early Christian church.
volves not only a special avenue and method, SAMUEL A. CARTLEDGE
but special criteria, being non-conceptual and
self-validating (Barth). Inherent in the views ERASTIAN]SM. Erastianism takes its
asserting the existence of the religious Reality name from Thomas Erastus (1524-83) who
independently of the knowing mind, yet deny- was born at Baden, studied theology at Basel,
ing an epistemological overlapping of human and later medicine, becoming Professor o£
concepts and the religious Object, is a dual Medicine at Heidelberg. He was the friend o£
difficulty: that of avoiding religious agnosticism, Beza and Bullinger and was a Zwinglian.
and that of preserving the ultimate unity of
A controversy arose in Heidelberg as to the
knowledge.
See also TRUTH, KNow, KNowLEDGE. powers of the presbytery. Erastus emphasized
strongly the right of the state (cz.v.) to inter-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
vene in ecclesiastical matters. He held that
the church has no scriptural authority to ex-
communicate any of its members. As God has
entrusted to the civil magistrate (i.e., the state)
#:a:t:i;i;}Frgi:,;#d:ji%:'%ijaij§{;.i;i;,,=i:i;::;:£i:b¥i:a:\::lice;[ii`}} the sum total of the visible government, the
CARL F. H. HENRY church in a Christian country has no power
of repression distinct from the state. To have
EPISTLE. The word comes directly f ron two visible authorities in a country would be
the Greek word epjstolG. It is the regular word absurd. The church can merely wan or cen-
for a letter (q.v.), and it is used often in Acts sure offenders. Punitive action belongs to the
and the Pauline Epistles and twice in 11 Peter. civil magistrate alone. The church has no
In the AV and ASV it is translated "epistle" right to withhold the sacraments from o££end'
or "letter" with almost equal frequency; the ers,
RSV uses "letter" only. In practice, the term Erastianism is some-
A distinction is often made between a letter what elastic. Figgis calls it: "the theory that
and an epistle. A letter is actually written from religion is the creature of the state." Generally,
one person or group to another person or it signifies that the state is supreme in ecclesi-
group, whereas an epistle is in the form of a astical causes, but Erastus dealt onl}' with the
letter but is meant for general circulation. If
disciplinary powers of the church. When the
this distinction is made, we should call the NT
"epistles" letters. All the books called epistles Roman emperors became Christian the rela-
and all the epistles mentioned in the NT are tions of civil and ecclesiastical rulers became
letters in the fullest sense. Usually we know a real problem. It became universally accepted
187
ESCHATOLOGY

until modern times that the state could punish may refer to less serious departures (Lev. 5 : 18;
heretics or put them to death. Ps.19: 12; James I : 16) or, on the other hand,
The name Erastian emerged in England in to departures from right faith and conduct so
the Westminster Assembly (1643) when out- serious as to destroy any possible fellowship
standing men like Selden and Whitelocke ad- (I John 4:6; James 5: 19; Rom.1:27).
vocated the supremacy Of the state over the For the correction of error, whether venial
church. The Assembly rejected this view and or mortal, whether of thought or of conduct,
decided that church and state have their sep- man must apply to the Holy Scriptures and to
arate but co-ordinate spheres, each supreme in the power o£ God, which are able to correct
its own province but bound to coroperate with the thought and to cleanse the conduct (Matt.
one another for the glory of God. 22:29; Ps.19:7-12. See also I John 4:6).
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
HERE; E"cyBrit; W. Cunningham, Historjcal Tj]colo- Alndt; H. Schlier in TWNT; KB.
gy., pp. 396 ff. KENNETH S. KANTZER
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK

ERROR. The words error and err (derived ESCHATOLOGY. Eschatology is trLidi-
from Latin erro, "to wander") are used in tionally defined as the doctrine of the "last
Scripture chiefly to translate words from two things" (Greek esc;2atfl) - in I.elation either
OT roots, 5696 or 5c7gj!g and !6rd, and one basic to the individual human being (in whii`h case
they comprise death, resurrection, judgment
NT word, pJfl"¢o7%-i, -pzfl7®G. These words sug-
imd the afterlife) or to the world. In this lat-
gest the idea of straying or wandering.
Error is, f irst of all, a wandering from the ter respect, some would confine "eschatology"
truth and is not merely the absence of truth to the absolute end of the world, thus exclud-
ing much that commonl}' falls within its sc`ope.
but the |]resence of a positive conviction Of
Such a restriction is not warranted by biblic`al
the truth of what is really false (knowledge,
usage. Hebrew Z7C'akya-I.€! jig,i',i'd"i€Mc, rendered
falsely so called I Tim. 6:20-21; see also 11
in the LXX e" f¢js esc7}affll.s JiG"Gel.fl;s ("in the
Tim. 2: 18) or of the falsity of what is really
last - or kitter ~ days"), may mean the end
true (saying there is no resurrection, Mark
12:18, 27).
of the present order or even, more generally,
"hereafter." It is thercforc. best to define cs-
More frequently, in Scripture, error repre-
chatology £.iirly broadl}7. The biblical concc|)-
sents a departure from right conduct (Num.
tion o[` time is not c)'clical (like the Greek
15:22; Ps.119:21; Jude 11, etc). In either
conception, in whic`h eschatology at best could
case, the emphasis is upon the unpremeditated
refer onl)I to the completion of a cycle) nor
character of the act. It is arrived at by "wan-
dering" rather than by delibelatc plan. At this I)urely linear (in which case eschatology c`ould
refer onl}' to the terminal I)oint of the line);
point it is to .be distinguished from heresy or
it I)resents us rather with a pattern in which
sect (hfliresjs), which suggests both voluntar}'
divine judgment and rcdemi)tion combine in a
choice and self-conscious commitment and
rh\'thm which "finds c`har€`ctcristic expression
which is not necessarily bad (though almost
in` terms of death ancl resurrection" (Charles
always so in the NT except possibly for Acts
Harold I)odd, Acco].d].7¢g to fJze Sci'ipti/I-es,
26:5).
Nisbet, London, 1952, p. 129). This being so,
Error and heresy are Of ten distinguished by
the term may be used "to designate the con-
degree of importance. Error suggests minor de-
summ£`tion of God's redemi]tive i)uri)ose
viations of faith or conduct, heresy a departure
whether or not an `end of history' or of the
from the truth so grievous as to impair the
world is anticii)ated" (Gcorgc Eldon Ladd,
structure of the faith as a whole. Errors may
EQ, 30, 1958, p. 140), whether the i`onsum-
be permitted within the Christian fellowship,
nation is the absolutely final one, or a "si)ring-
heresy passes beyond the permissible bounds of
ing and germinant accom|)lishment" revc.£`lcd
fellowship.
in the unfolding rhythm o£` God's I)urpose.
This does not quite point up the NT dis-
tinction between these two words, however. I. INDIVIDUAL ESCHATOLOGY IN THE OT.
It is true that heresy is a commitment outside The ideas about existence a£`ter death (q.t7.)
the bounds of what is legitimately Christian. expressed in much of the OT are very
Error is a much broader word. It indicates di- shadowy. As Jesus told the Pharisees, dcei)cr
vergence in conduct as well as thought and truths were imphcit in men's relation to God:
IESCHATOLOGY 18 8

the God who calls himself the God of Abra- the martyrs under Antiochus Epiphanes in the
ham, Isaac and Jacob (Ex. 3:6) "is not God of years following 168 B.c.
the dead, but of the living; for all live unto With the new emphasis on resunection (qw.)
him" (Luke 20:38). But these implications goes a tendency to distinguish more sharply
were not generally realized in OT times. It between the fortunes of the righteous and the
may have been partly in reaction against wicked in the world to come, in Paradise and
Canaanite cults of the dead that the OT lays Gehenna respectively, and even in the inter-
such little emphasis upon the afterlife. She'o] mediate state between death and resurrection
is viewed as a vast underworld region where (c£. Dives and Lazarus in Luke 16: 19 ff.).
the dead dwell together as shades; their former But in biblical teaching it is supremely
status and character are Of little account there. Christ who, by his death and resurrection, has
The praises of God, which engaged so much of begotten his I)eople anew to a living hope (I
a pious man's activity in life, remained un- Pet. I:3), because he has "abolished death
sung in S7.e'o! (Ps. 88: 10 ff.; Isa. 39: 18); in and brought life and immortality to light
popular thought S7®e'ol was outside Yahweh's through the gospel" (11 Tim.1: 10).
jurisdiction. Only occasionally do we find a 11. WoRLD ESCHATOLOcy IN THE OT. OT
more hopeful note. The writers of Pss. 73 and eschatology is closely linked with the concept
139 know that a man who walks with God in of "the day of the LORD." In the earliest sig-
lifc cannot be deprived of his companionship nificant occurrence of this phrase (Amos 5 : 18-
in death: "1£ I make my bed in Sheol, thou 20), Amos rebukes his fellow countrymen for
art there!" (Ps. 139:8). Job and his friends desiring this day so eagerly, assuring them that
mostly discount the possibility that a man will when it comes it will bring not light (as they
live again after he dies (Job 14:10 ff.); they hope) but darkness, not rejoicing but mourn-
do not suppose that the comforts of a future ing. From the context it is evident that this
existence can compensate for the sufferings of was the day when Yahweh was expected to
the present. Only in one moment Of upleaping vindicate himself and his people against the
faith does Job assert that, if not in this life, ungodly. But Amos insists that, since Yahweh
then af ter death he will find one to vindicate is so utterly righteous, his intervention to vim-
his cause, and that this one will be God him- dicate his own cause will involve his judgment
self (Job 19:25 f£.). on unrighteousness wherever it appears, and
A more explicit ex|)ectation of a life to come especially if it appears among his chosen peo-
is bound up with the hope of a national resur- ple, because they had better opt)ortunities of
rection. In Ezekiel's vision of the valley of dry knowing his will than the other nations had.
bones the dead warriors receive new life when Perhaps the Israelites' idea of the day o£
the divine breath enters them; but the inter- Yahweh was associated with an annual au-
pretation of the vision points not to an in- tumnal festival at which they celebrated the
dividual but to a national resurrection: "these
bones are the whole house o£ Israel" (Ezek. f£:og::Lpenotfps¥]a±;,eE;.g::ptsteg3;o;C5a.I:3do>„cean=
37:11). In the Isaiah-apocalypse there is a be used as evidence for this festival, we may
further promise of resurrection - "Thy dead infer that Yahweh's kingship was celebrated in
shall live, their bodies shall rise" (Isa. 26: 19) a number of ways. He was sovereign over crea-
- but even here it is arguable that national tion; he was sovereign in his seasonal gifts of
restoration is intended. Individual resurrection fertility and harvest; he was sovereign in his
first becomes explicit in Dan. 12:2: "Many of redemptive dealings with his people Israel; he
those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall was sovereign in his dealings with other na-
awake, some to everlasting life, and some to tions too. His sovereignty in all those spheres
would be fully manifested on a universal scale
shame and everlasting contempt."
on the day when he came to "judge the world
rlenceforth the belief in the future resur- with righteousness" (Pss. 9:8; 96:13; 98:9).
rection of the dead came to be part of Jewish The psalmists and prophets recognized that,
orthodoxy except among the Sadducees, who while Yahweh's kingship was already exercised
in this regard looked on themselves as the in so many ways, the reality which they saw
champions of the old-time religion against fell far short of what they knew to be the
Pharisaic innovations. The belief received a ideal. Yahweh's sovereignty did not receive due
tremendous impetus from the persecution of acknowledgment even in Israel, not to speak
189 ESCHATOLOGY

of those nations which had never known him. he permits. The epoch of pagan dominion is
This disparity between the actual and the ideal limited; when the last pagan empire has fallen,
would not endure for ever; on the day Of the God of heaven will set up a kingdom which
Yahweh his righteous kingship would be uni- will endure for ever. In the vision of the day
versally acknowledged, and the earth would be of judgment described in Dan. 7, this eternal
filled with "the knowledge of the LORD" (Isa. and universal dominion is given at the time
11 :9; cf. Hab. 2: 14). On that day, said a later of the end to "one like a son of man" (vs.13),
prophet, "the LORD will become king over all who is associated, if not equated, in the in-
the earth; on that day the LORD will be one terpretation of the vision with ``the saints of
and his name one" (Zech. 14:9). The day of the Most High" (vss. 18, 22, 27).
Yahweh, here and in several other places, is As time went on, the day of the LORD was
the occasion of a theophany; in Zech. 14:3 f. increasingly portrayed in apocalyptic language
Yahweh leads the attack upon his people's as- (cf. Isa. 24:I ff.; Joel 2:30; 3:9 ££.; Mal.
sailants and plants his feet victoriously on 3 : 16 -4 : 6) -although such language is found
Mount Olivet. even in the pre-exilic prophets (c£. ]er. 4:23-
One factor which emphasized the contrast 26, with its picture of "Chaos come aga.n";
between what was and what ought to be was Zeph. I:2 f£.). And not only the pictorial
the decline of the Davidic monarchy. The language of apocalyptic, but the very idea of
house of David represented the divine king- the day ot` the LORD, as his active intervention
ship on earth; but when disru|)tion, social in- and not simply as an inevitable development
from the current situation, is present in the
justice and foreign invasion had reduced its
pristine grandeur, its capacity to be a worthy prophets, although it receives sharpened em-
representative of God's sovereignty was im- phasis in the apocalyptists.
Some apocalyptic literature also betrays the
paired. But, as the fortunes of David's house
sink lower and lower, we find emerging with influence o£ Zoroastrianism, in which there
incre.1sing clarity the figure of a coming king was a well-clef ined conception of a day Of ul-
o£ David's line in whom God would fulfil all timate reckoning, separation and regeneration,
the bright promises which he had made to when evil would be burned up in purifying
David, a king who would restore and surpass f ire and the "desired dominion" of good would
the vanished glories of earlier days (cf . Isa. be established.
7:13 ff.; 9:6 f.; 11:1 ff.; 32:I f£.; Mic. 5:2 One interesting sample of eschatological ex-
ff.; Jer. 23:5 f.; 33: 14 ££.). pectation at the end of the pre-Christian era
is I)rovided by the Qumran literature, men-
Much of later Jewish eschatology is don-
tioned above (see also DEAD SEA ScROLLs).
inated by this hope of a Davidic Messiah ~ a
Messiah who would inaugurate the new age Ill. NT ESCHATOLOGY: JESUS AND THE
by vanquishing his peo|)le's enemies and as- KINGDOM oF GOD. In passing f ron the OT to
cending the throne as God's permanent vice- the NT, we mark a change in eschatological
emphasis. OT eschatology is forwardFlooking;
gerent. At times, however, the Davidic prince
is overshadowed by the priesthood in portrayals its dominant notes are those of hope and
of the coming age; this is evident, for example, promise. While these are present in the NT
in Ezekiel's program for the new common- too, the dominant note here is that of f`ulfil-
wealth in the age of restoration when Yahweh ment - in Jesus. This is apparent even in NT
would take up his abode amid his people. A books which otherwise diff`er considerably.
later instance of the same form of expectation Thus, no two books are more diverse in literary
is found in the Qumran literature, where the form than John's Gospel and the Revelation,
Davidic Messiah is plainly envisaged as sub- but when we get behind the form to the sub-
ordinate to the chief priest, who will be head stance, we hear in both of them one whose
of the state in the age to come. name is "The Word of God" saying to his fol-
lowers: "In the world you have tribulation;
In the Book of Daniel another form of the
but bc of good cheer, I have overcome the
eschatological hope appears. Although the He-
world" (John 16:33; cf. Rev. 5:5; 19:13).
brew monarchy is no more, the Most High has
not abdicated his kingship; he continues to With the ministry o£ Jesus biblical eschatol-
rule in the kingdoms of men and the various ogy reaches its decisive moment. I-Iis Galilean
pagan rulers in their successive empires attain ministry, as summarized in Mark I : 15 ("The
power by his will and hold it only so long as time is fulfilled, and the kingdom o£ God is
HSCHATOLOGY 190

at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel"), to come) - as a synonym o£ "the kingdom of
proclaims God"; to enter into the kingdom is to enter
"The time the
camefulfilment
when the ofsaints
Daniel's vision:
received the into life. This accords with the view then cur-
kingdom" (Dan. 7:22). In one sense the king- rent, that the kingdom of God would be es-
dom Of God was already present in Jesus' tablished in the new age, when the righteous
ministry: "If it is by the finger Of God that I would be brought back from death to enjoy
cast out demons, then the kingdom o£ God has without end resurrection life.
come upon you" (Luke 11:20; c£. Matt. In the apostolic teaching (which here makes
12:28). But in another sense the kingdom of explicit what was implicit in Jesus' own words)
God (q.v.) was something yet future, for which this eternal life is something .which may be en-
he taught his disciples to pray: ``Thy kingdom joyed in the present, although its full flow-
come" (Luke 11:2). This was the sense in ering may await a consummation yet to come.
which it would come "with power" (Mark For the death and resurrection of Christ have
9: 1) -an event associated with the paro„si¢ introduced a new phase of the kingdom of
("advent") of the Son of Man "in clouds with God, so that those who believe in Christ al-
great power and glory" (Mark 13:26). ready share his resurrection life, even while
This figure of the Son of Man, who plays they live on earth in a mortal body. There is
such a prominent part in Jesus' teaching about an interval (be it shorter or longer) between
the kingdom o£ God, especially af ter Peter's the resurrection of Christ and his p¢rowsj¢, and
confession at Caesarea Philippi (Mark 8 :29), during this interval (``the last hour") the age
to come overlaps the present age (q.v.). Chris-
goes back to the "one like a son of man" whom
tians live spiritually in "that age" while they
Daniel saw in his vision of judgment (Dan.
live temporally in "this age"; they possess
7:13 f.). In Jesus' teaching it becomes in-
creasingly plain that he himself is to fulfil this eternal life before the resurrection of the body
has taken place.
role. But while he does on occasion echo
Daniel's language and speak of the Son Of This outlook, which is specially charac-
Man as ``coming with the clouds of heaven" teristic of the writings o£ Paul and John, has
(Mark 14:62), he more often speaks of the been called ``realized eschatology." But the
``realized eschatology" of the NT, unlike much
Son Of Man as destined to suffer, using lan-
that goes by that name today, does not exclude
guage strongly reminiscent of the portrayal of
the obedient and suffering Servant o£ Yahweh an eschatological consummation in the future.
in Isa. 52: 15 -53: 12. This practical identifi- IV. "REALlzED EscHATOLOG¥." What is the
cation of the Son o£ Man with the Servant esc7t¢to%, the "last thing," which is the proper
may not have been a complete innovation object of eschatological hope? If it came in
(Daniel's "one like a son of man" is perhaps
the ministry, passion and triumph o£ Jesus,
one of the earliest, if not indeed the earliest, then it cannot be the absolute end of time
of the many interpretations Of the Servant); (q.v.), for time has continued to flow on since
but ]esus' way of speaking about the Son o£ then. Perhaps we should say that the NT re-
Man in terms of the Servant is quite distinc- veals the "last thing" to be really the "Last
tive, for not only did he identify these two One" - the Esc7i¢tos (masculine) rather than
figures with each other, but he presented him- the esc7.czto7? (neuter). (We may compare
self as the one who would fulfil them both at Jesus' title "The Fil.st and the Last" in Rev.
once in his own person. As Daniel's "one like 1:17; 2:8; 22:13.) That is to say, Jesus is
a son of man" receives the kingdom from the himself the fulfilment of the hope of the I)eo-
Ancient o£ Days, so in the Gospels Jesus re- plc of God, the "Amen" to all God's prom-
ceives the kingdom from his Father. But as in ises.
Dan. 7:18 £f. "the saints of the Most High" A generation or two ago the most significant
receive the kingdom, so Jesus shares the king- name in this field of study was Albelt Schweit-
don with his disciples, his "little flock" (Luke zer, with his "thorough-going eschatolog}J."
12:32; 22:29 f.). It is clear from his teaching, According to him, Jesus, who believed himself
however, that the fulness of the kingdom - its to be Israel's Messiah of the end-time, found
coming "with power" - must await the suffer- that the consummation did not arrive when
ing of the Son of Man. he expected it, and embraced death in order
Occasionally Jesus uses the term "lif e" - that thus his pcn.owsio as the |]romised
"Anointed One" would be forcibly brought to
more full}7, "eternal life" (the life of the age
191
ESCHATOLOGY

j"g of Christ (Cambridge University Press,

pass. Since the wheel of world history would
not respond to his hand and turn round to 1951) -Dodd appears to allow a future con-
complete its last revolution, he threw himself summation associated with the person of
upon it and was broken by it. ``The wheel rolls Christ: what came to earth with Christ's in-
onward, and the mangled body of the one im- carnation ``was final and decisive for the whole
measurably great Man, who was strong enough meaning and purpose of human existence, and
to think Of Himself as the spiritual ruler of we shall meet it again when history has been
mankind and to bend history to his purpose, wound up . . . At the last frontier-post we
is hanging upon it still. That is His victory shall encounter God in Christ" (p. 58).
and His reign" (The Qwest of t7ie Historjcflz A similar position to Dodd's is taken up by
Jest4s, Black, London, 1911, |>. 369). The Joachim Jeremias in The Par¢Z7Zes of Jest4s
thought and message of Jesus, that is to say, (S.C.M., London, 1954); indeed, Jeremias ac-
was basically eschatological, and eschatological knowledges his indebtedness to Dodd. Accord-
in the sense exemplified by the crudest apaca- ing to Jeremias, the parables Of Jesus express
lypticism of his day. His ethical teaching was an eschatology "that is in process of realiza-
designed only for the brief interim-period be- tion"; they proclaim that "the hour of fulfil-
tween his ministry and his imminent pczro~sicz. ment is come" and compel hearers to make up
Later, when his death was seen to have de- their minds about the person and mission of
stroyed the eschatological conditions instead of Jesus (p.159).
bringing them in, the proclamation of the There is no more stimulating thinker of this
kingdom was replaced by the teaching of the school than John Arthur Thomas Robinson.
church. His 1% t7le E%d, God . . . (Clarke, London,
While Schweitzer's interpretation of the mes- 1950) interprets the p¢rottsj¢ o£ Christ not
sage o£ Jesus was in its way a healthy reaction as a literal event of the future but as a sym-
to the liberal interpretation which he re- bolical or mythological presentation of "what
jected, it was equally one-sided and exag- must happen, and is happening already, when-
gerated in its selection from the Gospel data. ever the Christ comes in love and power,
One may acknowledge the value of his con- wherever are to be traced the signs of His pres-
tribution to the debate without accepting his ence, wherever to be seen the marks of His
interpretation. cross. Judgment Da}' is a dramatized, idealized
More recently C. H. Dodd, with his "real- picture of every da}'" (p. 69). In a later work,
ized eschatology," has become possibly the /es%s fl7cd His Co"i%g (S.C.M., London,
most significant name in this field (especially 1957), he faces the crucial question: Did Jesus
in Britain). In his P¢]~abzes of tJte Ki7¢gdot" ever use language which suggested that he
(Nisbet, London, 1935), he interprets Jesus' would return to earth from heaven? A critical
examination of the data leads him to answer
parables in terns of the challenge to decision "No." Jesus' sa}'ings on the subject reall}7 ex-
with vihich men are confronted as he proclaims
the gospel of the kingdom. In T7te Apostolic press the twin themes of vindication and visita-
Pre"ch,i77g ¢7td its DetJezop7#e7tts (Hodder and lion, e.g., his reply to the high I)riest's ques-
Stoughton, London, 1936), "the kingdom of tion whether or not he was the Messiah
God is conceived as coming in the events of (Mark 14:62 £..): "I am; and you will see the
the life, death and resurrection of Jesus, and Son of man sitting at the right hand of Power,
to proclaim these facts, in their pro|]er setting, and coming with the clouds of heaven." In
is to preach the Gospel of the Kingdom of Matt. 26:64 and Luke 22:69 a word or phrase
God" (pp. 46 f.). Here no reference is made meaning "from now on" or "hencef orth" is in-
to a future coming of Jesus. The historic events serted before "you will see"; this Robinson takes
of the gospel constitute an eschatological proc- to be a genuine part of the reply. These words
ess, "a decisive manifestation of the mighty of Jesus, based mainl}7 on Ps. I 10: I and Dan.
acts o£ God for the salvation of man"; and 7:13, declare that the Son o£ Man, though
the rater concentration on a "last thing" yet condemned by his earthly judges, will be vim-
to come was the result of a relapse into Jewish dicated in the court of God. And if here the
eschatology which had the effect Of relegating coming Of the Son o£ Man betokens vindica-
to a secondary place just those elements of the tion, there are other sayings o£ Jesus in the
gospel which are most distinctive of Chris- Gospels where the coming of the Son o£ Man
tianity. In a later work, however - The Co7"- betokens a visitation in judgment which will
ESCHATOLOGY 192

be set in motion by his rejection (e.g., Luke in particular are secondary, the product Of that
12:40; Matt.10:23; Luke 18:8). This visita- changed perspective in the early church which
tion in judgment will take place "from now on" is reflected also, e.g., in 11 Thess.1:6-10.
as surely as the vindication. Robinson, instead The argument from Mark 13, however, can-
of speaking o£ "realized eschatology," speaks of not be so quickly dismissed. Quite probably
an "inaugurated eschatology" - an eschatology Jesus' discourse in this chapter did have a his-
inaugurated by Jesus' death and resurrection. tory of its own before it was incorporated in
For his death and resurrection did not exhaust Mark's Gospel, and it may have been pre-
his messianic activity; on the contrary, they served in a disjointed condition. Certainly vss.
"would but release and initiate that reign of
24-27 draw upon the OT prophets in their
God in which J®e7ccefo7i]? the Father's redeem- portrayal of the day of the LORD; but what
ing work could be brought to the fulfilment could be more natural? "When God steps forth
which hitherto it was denied" (p. 81). To for salvation the universe pales before him"
]esus' ministry before his death and resurrec- (George Raymond Beasley-Murray, A Co7#-
tion Robinson applies the term ``proleptic es- 7"e7®tory o# Mark TJ®irtee7¢, Macmillan, Lon-
chatology" (p.101), because in his words and don, 1957, p. 67). And against this back-
deeds the signs of the messianic age were to ground of a darkened heaven the Son of Man
be seen by anticipation. comes with clouds - to earth. A similar in-
At an early period in church history, he be- terpretation of Mark 14:62 seems most rea-
lieves, the perspective was changed. While sonable, although the contrary interpretation
Christians continued to think o£ Jesus' vj7®d;- of this verse ``is becoming almost a new ortho-
c¢tj.o7c as following immediately upon his death doxy in Britain" (Beasley-Munay, o|). cit.,
and resurrection, they postponed his vjsjt¢t;o77 p. 91). Yet the "new orthodoxy" has not been
to a future day. accepted universally; Joseph Edward Fison
V. THE SEcoNI) ADVENT. Plainly ]esus' re- adduces Mark 14:62 as the one sure text
pl}7 to the high priest must be examined more which unambiguously proves that Jesus did
closely to determine whether or not he implied speak of his return to earth (The Chr;stj¢7¢
a coming of the Son o£ Man to earth. In Dan. Hope, Longmans, London, 1954, p. 194).
7: 13 (the OT passage on which the descrip- If Jesus indeed envisaged such a return to
tion of his coming with the clouds of heaven earth, we may inquire if he envisaged an in-
is based) the "one like a son of man" comes terval between the completion of his ministry
to £7ie A7ccz.e77£ of Dc!ys, and it has been in- and that second coming. In seeking the answer
ferred from this that Jesus thought of the Son to this question we become aware of a tension
of Man as coming with the clouds of heaven between the idea of the kingdom of God as
into t.he presence of God, and not to earth. But present in the life and work of Jesus and the
how in that case would the Sanhedrin see the id`ea of its future consummation - a tension
Son of Man? And where in fact is the Ancient apparent in the thought and teaching of Jesus
of Days located in Dan. 7:13? The thrones himself as well as in the thought and teaching
o£ Dan. 7:9 are placed on earth rather than of the early church. We fail to do justice to
in heaven; it is apparently on earth that the this tension when we interpret the NT evi-
Ancient of Days occupies his judgmentseat, dence in terms of an exclusively realized or
bestows dominion upon the Son o£ Man, and an exclusively future eschatology. That Jesus
gives judgment for the saints of the Most did think of an interval separating his passion
High. f rom his pczrot/sjcz seems clear from a saying
In Mark 13:26, another passage where like Mark 13:10 ("the gospel must first be
Jesus speaks of men seeing "the Son of man preached to all nations") - certainly a genuine
coming in clouds with great power and glory," saying of Jesus referring to the I)eriod before
there is little doubt that a coming to earth is the final consummation, whether it originally
meant, for it is men on earth who see him,
belonged to its present context or not. The
and he proceeds to "send out the angels, and
final consummation is vitally related to what
gather his elect from the four winds, from the
happened when Jesus came the first time. For
ends of the earth to the ends of heaven" (vs.
27). But it is widely held that the discourse he both fulfilled the kingdom, and promised
of Mark 13 in its present form is not the un- it. His promise of it is confirmed by his ful-
altered teaching of Jesus, and that vss. 24-27 filment Of it in life and death; his fulfilment
 ESSENES
193

of it in life and death will be vindicated when who refuse him arc "condemned already"
his promise Of it comes true. (John 3:18), this "realized" aspect of resur-
The implications of this tension are ex- rection and judgment does not exclude their
future consummation. The Gospel which most
pounded by Werner Georg Kuemmel in Pi.o7ro-
ise ¢„d F„lfjl%e%t (S.C.M., London, 1957). distinctively em|>hasizes that the judgment of
Oscar Cullmann, who acknowledges his in- the world coincided with the incarnation and
debtedness to Kuemmel, has also treated the passion of Christ (John 12:31), and that be-
subject illuminatingly (cf . "The Return of lievers in him already possess eternal life
Christ" in The E¢rly Chwrc7i, S.C.M., Lon- (John 3:36), also speaks plainly of a resur-
don, 1956, pp. 141 ff.). He has caught the rection to be effected by Christ at the last
imagination of many by his hal)py analogy o£ day (John 6:39 f.), when "all who are in the
D-Day and V-Day (Victory Day) to illustrate tombs will hear his voice and come forth,
the relation between what Christ did at his those who have done good, to the resurrection
first coming and what he will do when he of life, and those who have done evil, to the
comes again. Once the decisive battle of a war resurrection of judgment" (John 5:28 £.).
has been won, the final outcome is assured; Some minor questions actively canvassed in
the interval elapsing before the ultimate mani- connection with the parot/s;a, especially among
festation and celebration of victory is of un- evangelical people - such as its time-relation
certain duration and relative unimportance. So to the thousand years of Rev. 20:2 f£., or with
the great distress o£ Mark 13 : 19, etc. -belong
Jesus' p¢7-owsia is not the decisive event of the
more to the detailed exegesis of individual
gospel; it is rather the inevitable sequel of the
decisive event, which took place with his death Scriptures than to the general survey of bibli-
and resurrection. The time of its occurrence Gal eschatology. What is of the essence of the
does not matter so much as the fact that its gospel is the sure expectation of the time when
occurrence is assured. the cosmic ef fects of Christ's redemptive work
will be accomplished and "the creation itself
With the work accomplished by Jesus at his
will be set free from its bondage to decay and
first coming the eschatological epoch has been
obtain the glorious liberty of the children o£
inaugurated. The slaughtered Lamb (a.v.) has
God" (Ron. 8:21).
vindicated his title to be the Lord of history:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
this is the lesson o£ Rev. 5:5 ££. The con-
summation of the eschatological epoch is as
closely bound up with his person as the in-
auguration was; it is called in 11 Thess. 2:8
the "epiphany Of his parousia" (literally the
"manifestation of his presence"). He has been
vindicated by God, although that vindication
has yet to be universally revealed and acknowl-
edged. But the believer who lives now ``be-
tween the times" and awaits the "manifesta-
tion of his presence" experiences already the
assurance of his presence, his coming, his abid- FREI)BRICK F¥VIE BRUCE
ing as Victor and Deliverer. The NT writing
which dwells in greatest detail on the present ESSENES. An asc`etic Jewish group. The
vindication and exaltation o£ Christ admits derivation of the name is obscure.
that as yet we do not see all things put under Philo paints an id)'ll of an agricultural com-
him, but teaches us to rest content so long munity, (elsewhere he speaks of city-dwelling
as we see Jesus glorified (Heb. 2:8 f.); this is Essenes), voluntaril} poor, devoted to theologi-
guarantee enough that the Coming One will Gal and inoral instruction and solemnl}7 ob-
come (Heb.10:37). serving the sabbath in corporate worshi|); with
The p¢t.owsja o£ Christ is closely. associated common purse, table and wardrobe, dei)recat-
in the NT with the resurrection of his pecr ing marriage as threatening unity.
Pliny the Elder, a pagan, refers to the Es-
ple (and more generally with the resurrection
of mankind) and with the judgment of the sene tribe without money or women, maintain-
world. While the people of Christ experience ing its numbers by almost daily accessions of
the resurrection life here and now, while those the disillusioned. He locates it (if rightly un-
ETERNAL GENERATION 194

derstood) north of Engedi near the Dead Sea. been attributed to John the Baptist (q.vJ and
Josei)bus often refers, not alwa}'s I)erspicuous- even Jesus, and a few think the Qumran sec-
ly, to the Essenes. He has firsthand knowledge, taries Christians. Relations between the Qum-
but:is out to impress gentile readers. He speaks ran group and Jewish Christians after A.D. 70
enthusiastically, outlining their austere disci- are not impossible (though obscure); but the
pline, with the awful fate of excommunicates; differences between normative NT Christiani-
their worship and daily lustrations (the sun- ty and Essenism are radical. Essenism, how-
worship which some find, undoubtedly arises ever, helps in understanding such pietistic
from misunderstanding); their dread of cere- legalism as afflicted the Colossians.
monial defilement; their initiation, with its BIBLIOGRAPHY
three }Tear i]reparation (with purificatory lus-
tration after one year); and their secrecy about
their books.
In an obscure passage Josephus seems to
i;:;i::::ti;i:;#;i;iieoi;y:;i;i.:I;i;a:2ii::8;i;:i;eJ;#ii:C:1:!''t:§ei;:tis:€;I;:i!:;:£:;)i
mean that they sent offerings to the temple, Strugnell, JBL 77,106-15.
but were excluded from the common court ANDREW F. WALLS
since they refused regular priestly ministra- ETERNAL GENERATION. This is the
tions. They were noted for herbal lore and pre-
phrase used to denote the intertrinitarian rela-
dictions, arising both from prescience and
tionship between the Father and the Son as
study of the OT.
this is taught by the Bible. Ge7cercztjo72 makes
He numbers them at about 4,000. Some it plain that there is a divine sonship prior to
were butchered in the Roman-Jewish War. the incarnation (cf. John 1:18; I John 4:9),
They differed on marriage; to maintain their that there is thus a distinction of persons with-
numbers, some adopted children, others prac-
in the one Godhead (John 5;26), and that
ticed trial marriage.
between these persons there is a superiority
Hit)polytus, the early third century heresi-
and subordination of order (cf. John 5:19;
ologist, probably follows the same source as,
8 :28). Eter7icz! reinforces the fact that the gen-
rather than reproduces Josephus, and is occa-
eration is not merely economic (i.e., for the
sionally more helpful, e.g., on the Essene be-
purpose of human salvation as in the incarna-
lief in resurrection.
tion, cf. Luke 1:35), but essential, and that
It is generally, though not universally,
as such it cannot be construed in the categories
agreed that the Qumran discoveries (see DEAD of natural or human generation. Thus it does
SEA SCRol.Ls) relate to an Essene settlement. not imply a time when the Son was not, as
The site recalls Pliny's description, and many Arianism argued. Nor is there to be expected
observations about the Essenes - f rom initia- a final absorption of the Son. Nor does the
tion and excommunication to details like the I.act that the Son is a distinct person mean
horror of spitting - are illustrated by the that he is separate in essence. Nor does his
scrolls. A clue is thus o££ered to the fate of the subordination imply inferiority. In virtue and
Essenes and their books. An Essene origin for not in spite of the eternal generation, the Fa-
Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve ther and the Son are one (John 10:30). Ob-
Pftt7.i¢I-c/ts and other works is not unlikely.
jections have been lodged against the phrase
At present it is probably best to regard the on the ground that it is rhetorical, meaningless
Essenes as including, but not restricted to, the and ultimately self-contradictory. Yet it cor-
Qumran group. Like "Nonconformist" in Eng- responds to what God has shown us Of himself
land, "Essene" doubtless had different mani- in his own eternal being, and, if it carries an
festations which from certain viewpoints pre- element of mystery (as is only to be expected),
sented a broad unity. Essene celibacy and it has rightly been described by 0. A. Curtis
quietism attracted general notice: but some (The CJ"jsfia7c F¢;th, p. 228) as "not only
(including, apparently, Qumran) were clearly conceivable" but "also one of the most fruitful
not celibate; while Josephus and Hippolytus conceptions in all Christian thinking." It finds
mention separate striking departures f ron creedal expression in the phrases "begotten of
pacifism. his Father before all worlds" (Nicene) and
"begotten before the worlds" (Athanasian).
The question of an organic connection be-
tween the Essenes and early Christianity has See also ONI.I BEGOTTEN.
been variously raised. Essene antecedents have GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
195 ETERNAL LIFE

ETERNAL LIFE. Though anticipated in in its exi)erimental aspect of knowing God

the OT, the concept of eternal life seems to be and having fellowship with God through his
largely a NT revelation. The common transla- Son, Jesus Christ.
tion, "eternal life" or "everlasting life," is the Eternal life is contrasted in Scripture with
translation of zo-G (life) and c};olt;o7c (eternal), ordinar}' I)h}'sical life. Though human life is
an expression found throughout the NT, but endless in its duration, it does not possess in-
especially in the Gospel of John and I John. herently the qualities which enter into eternal
Zo-g is found 134 times, translated "life" in life. Hence, one having I)h)7sical life without
every instance in the AV except one (Luke eternal life is dcsc`ribed as "dead in trespasses
16:25). The verb form z¢o-is found 143 times and sins" (Ei)h. 2:I). The lack of eternal
and is similar in meaning. Aio-7".o7i appears 78 lit.e is equ£`ted with the state of being unsaved,
times, usually translated "eternal" (42 times condemned, or lost, in contrast to those who
in AV), but also "everlasting" (25) and once have cti`rml life who arc declared to bc saved,
"for ever."
and |]romiscd th:`t thc}7 shall never perish
Both the terms eteJ.7?¢Z and Zife are difficult (John 3:15-16,18, 36; 5:24; 10:9).
to define except descriptively. Zo-e- is used in E\'en in the case of the elect, eternal life is
many shades of meaning in Scrii)lure, some- not I)ossesscd until f`aith in Christ is cxercis'.`d
times little different than I?jos which occurs (Ei)h. 2: I, 5). Eternal life is not to be con~
onl}' eleven times in the NT and refers to fused with e£.ficacious grace, or that bestowal
earthly life only. Zo-c- is found in the following of grace which is antecedent to faith. Nor is
meanings: (I) life I)rinciple, or that which it to be confused with the indwelling of the
makes one alive physically (John 10:11,15, Hol}' Spirit or of Jesus Christ, though this ac-
17; 13:37); (2) life time, or duration of man's comi)anics and manifests eternal life. Eternal
life --similar to Z7!.os (Heb. 7:3; James 4: 14); life is to be identif`icd with regeneration and
(3) the sum of all activities comprising life is received in the new birth. It is resultant
(I Cor. 6:3-4; I Tim. 2:2; 4:8); (4) happiness rather thfm c:`usi`tive of salvation, but is re-
or state of enjoying life (I Thess. 3:8, verb lated to L`onversion or the manifestation of the
i.orm; cf. John 10:10); (5) as a mode of new lit`c` in Christ.
existence given by God, whether I)h}Jsical or Etcrm`l li£`c is gi`'en b}' the worl` of the
spiritual (Acts 17:25); (6) spiritual or eternal Hol}7 Si)irit z`t the moment ()f fi`ith in Christ.
life, a state of regeneration or renewal in holi- As in the c`asc of the inciirm`tion ot` Christ,
ness and fellowshii) with God (John 3: 15~16, however, the Trinity is related to the imparta-
36; 5:24; 6:47); the life which is in Christ tion of life. According to James 1:17-18, the
and God ~ divine life itself (John I:4; I Father is s:lid to beget his spiritual children.
John I:1-2; 5:11). The lif e which is best()wed uiton the belicvcr
Though zo-G is sometimes used without ad- is idcntificd with the life which is in Christ
jective to denote eternal life (I John 5:12), (John 5:21; 11 Cor. 5:17; I John 5:12). In
in many instances c7Zo-7!z.os is used to distinguish other passages, the Holy Spirit is declared to
eternal life from ordinary physii`al life. The be the one who regenerates (John 3:3-7; Titus
adjective oJ.o-7cjos corresi)onds to the noun a7.o-" 3 : 5).
which refers to life in general, or the age (q.v.) The impartation of eternal life is embodied
in which a life is lived. The idea of eternity in three principal figures in the Scripture. (1)
seems to TDe derived from the fact that eteinity Regeneration is described first as a new birth,
is a future age which eclii)ses in importance being "born . . . of God" (John 1:13), or
all other ages, and thus is the age pre-eminent. "born again" (John 3:3). The b€stowal of
Heni`e, eternal life or age-life is that which eternal life therefore relates the l>c`lievcr to
anticipates and assures fellowship with God God in a fcathcr and son relationship. (2) The
in eternity as well as having promise of enter- new life in Christ is described its a si)iritual
ing into that eternal fellowship in time. resurrection. Not only is the believer "ri`iscd
The Scriptures describe but do not formally together with Christ" (Col. 3: I) but is "alive
define eternal life. The nearest approach to a from the de£`d" (Ron. 6:13). Christ antici-
definition is given in John 17:3 where Christ pated this in his prophecy: "The hour cometh,
stated: "This is life eternal, that they might and now is, when the dc`ad shall hear the voice
know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, of the Son o£ God; .and they that hear shall
whom thou hast sent." Eternal life is described live" (John 5:25). (3) The bestowal of new
ETERNAL PUNISHMENT 196

life is compared to the act of creation. As Now the same terminology is used of "eter-
Adam became a living soul by the breath of nal" punishment as of "eternal" life (Matt.
God, so the believer becomes a new creation 25:46 has both in the same verse). The im-
(11 Cor. 5:17). The possessor of eternal life plication of this is that the punishment is just
is declared to be "created in Christ Jesus unto as "eternal" as the life. The one is no more
good works" (Eph. 2:10). The concept of a limited than the other.
new creation carries with it not only the pos- Then there are expressions which do not
session of eternal life, but involves a new na- use the term ``eternal." Jesu`s said: ``It is good
ture which corresponds to the life, "old things for thee to enter into life maimed, rather than
are passed away; behold, they are become new" having thy two hands to go into hell, into the
(11 Cor. 5: 17 ASV). unquenchable fire" (Mark 9:43; cf. Luke
See also LIFE. 3: 17). He referred to "hell; where their worm
BIBLIOGRAPHY dieth not, and the fire is not quenched" (Mark
Articles on "Life" and "Eternal Life" in HDB, JSBE, 9:47 f.). He spoke Of fearing God because he,
"af ter he hath killed hath power to cast into

;:i,:g:e3;s.p3;;`%t:73;i,tg,£„£ac:;,:.o]g;,hva;I;:tph;o:;;.ef;,;tt:3c#Aofoh§,;: hell" (Luke

12:5). He said there is a sin
voo[d, TJic Holy Sp;rit, pp. 128-37. which "shall not be forgiven . . . neither in
JOHN F. WALV00RD this world, nor in that which is to come"
(Matt. 12:32). Similarly John writes: "He
ETERNAL PUNISHMENT. It is plain
that obeyeth (mg. belie.-,7eth) not the Son shall
from the Bible that sin will be punished (Dan.
not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on
12:2; Matt.10:15; John 5:28 £.; Rom. 5:12
him" (John 3:36). Then there is the awful
f£., etc.). Orthodox Christianity has always un-
finality of Christ's warnings. He spoke of the
derstood this to signify that eternal punish-
door being shut (Matt. 25: 10), of being cast
ment is the lot of the finally im|)enitent. In "into the outer darkness" (Matt. 8:12; Luke
recent times, however, this has been disputed
13:28, etc.), of an impassable gulf (Luke
from two directions. Some hold that eventually
16:26). Nowhere is .there a hint Of any possi-
all will be saved. While this might, perhaps,
ble reversal of the last judgment.
be deduced from a few scriptural I)assages
More could be cited. It is clear that there
taken in isolation, it cannot be maintained that
is a strong body of NT evidence pointing in
it accords with the general tenor of Bible teach-
the direction of a continuing punishment.
ing. Others think that mar. is no more than
Against it we cannot put one saying which
potentially immortal. If he puts his trust in
speaks plainly of an end to the punishment Of
Christ and enters into salvation, he attains im-
the finally impenitent. As Orr says, "It adds
mortal life. If he fails to do so, he simply dies,
to the teri.ibleness of these sayings that, as be-
and that is the end of him. This might accord
fore remarked, there is nothing to put against
with those passages which speak Of "death"
them; no hint or indication of a termination of
or "destruction" as the lot of the wicked, but
the doom. Why did Jesus not safeguard His
not with those referring to Gehenna or the
]ike'
words from misapprehension, if behind them
there lay an assurance of restoration and
The usual NT way of speaking of eternal
mercy? One may ask with Oxenham, in a re-
punishment is by the use of ajo-w or one Of its
derivatives. This word means "an age," but its ply to Jukes, whether if Christ had intended
application to the never ending "age to come" to teach the doctrine of eternal punishment,
He could possibly have taught it in plainer
gave it the significance "eternal." Thus we
read o£ "the King eternal" (I Tim.I:17), terms" (ISBF iv, p. 2502).

glory is ascribed to God "for ever" (Ron. In the light of the cross we can be sure
11 : 36), and God is blessed "for evermore" (11 that the mercy of God reaches as f ar as mercy
Cor. 11:31). A. A. Hodge can say: "The can reach. God does all that can be don; for
Greek language possesses no more emphatic man's salvation. Beyond that, and the teaching
terms with which to express the idea of end- of the permanence of the doom of the wicked,
less duration than these" (Otlt!j7tes of T7?e- we cannot go. It may be that the dread reality
oJog}J, T. Nelson & Sons, London, 1873, p. is other than men have usually pictured it, as
469). The use of these terms for the eternity o£ C. S. Lewis suggests. It must be borne in mind
God shows conclusively that they cannot be that Scripture uses symbolic terms of neces-
held to imply a limited duration. sity to refer to realities beyond the grave. We
197 ETERNITY

must not press statements about ``fire," "death," the conception of the self-sufficient God.
and the like. But neither must we yield to a Hegel indeed distinguished the Absolute's in-
sentimental demand that they be watered divisible timeless inner unity from the Abso-
down. That there is a dread reality Scripture
leaves us in no doubt. ::::i':.ti:,po.I:lsd::ebrieg:tii.a,tio|:clasp.:,a_tE:ege,ai:!
BIBLIOGRAPHY thinkers in two directions. F. H. Bradley de-
clared temporal distinctions unreal in the Ab-
•3na±c!,soi#h::;;,i;he;I.:fo;:,;:#!::c;e?:,;sJi£oi|;?LEar,;tsys,hfi:att!
solute's experience, while most post-Hegelian
scholars rejected divine timelessness. Josiah
LEON MORRIS Royce proposed a mediating position. While
affirming the temporality of all experience, he
ETERNAL SIN. See ETERNAI. PuNlsH- asserted that the Absolute knows all events in
MENT, BLASPHEMY.
a single time-span, a unitary act of conscious-
ness, in contrast with the long successions of
ETERNITY. The word eternity suggests
time-spans involved in our finite knowledge.
transcendence of the temporal and is employed
But Royce's formula transcended the duality
in various senses: durability (cf. "the eternal
of eternity and time only verbally, since on his
hills"); time without end (Of. ``passing to his
theory time would not exist for the Absolute
eternal reward"); time without beginning (cf.
jn the same sense as for its parts, nor would
speculative conceptions of the universe as "an
events as known by finite selves carry ab-
eternal process"); infinite time (c£. the ascrip-
solute significance. Edgar S. Brightman vigor-
tion of temporality to the nature of God). Be-
ously asserted the divine temporality of his
yond this, the term traditionally has been used finite god. As naturalism more and more dis-
by theology and philosophy to designate God's
infinity in relation to time, that is, to designate placed idealism as the influential modem
the divine perfection whereby God transcends philosophy, its exponents affirmed the ulti-
macy of time (cf. Samuel Alexander's Space,
temporal limitations of duration and succession
Tine and Deity).
and possesses his existence in one indivisible
In reaction to the modern temporalizing of
Present.
In Greek philosophy the eternity of divine deity, nco-orthodox theology stresses the "in-
being simultaneously implied the shadow- finite qualitative difference" between eternity
reality and insignificance of the temporal, a and time. It emi)hasizes not onl}' the onto-
speculative view contradictive of biblical the- logical transcenclence ot` God as Creator, and
ism with its emphasis on redemptive revelation his moral transcendence of man as sinner, how-
in time (q.v.) and place. Parmenides already ever, but sketches his epistemological tram-
had shaped the Greek prejudice: only the scendence in such a way that, in the exposition
unchanging and permanent is real, all else is of the jtt7#go Dei, it curtails the role of cogni-
illusory. By another route Plato and Aristotle tion and the signif icance of the forms of logic
reached the same conclusion: genuine signifi- in the human reception of divine revelation
cance pertains only to eternal realities, never (see EplsTEMOLOG¥). It minimizes the his-
to the temporal. torical aspec`t of redemptive revelation, more-
Biblical theology and philosophy, however, over, by assigning God's disclosure a superhis-
affirmed the unique eternity o£ God without torical locus in man's encounter with deit}J.
ruling out the created and conditional reality Later writings of Barth and Brunner somewhat
of the time-space order and its momentous moderate their more extreme early statements;
significance. The doctrines of creation, preser- nonetheless, although now emphasizing the
vation, providence, incarnation and atonement, created reality of time and the crucial im-
all involved a strategic role for the world of portance of the incarnation and atonement,
time and history. they evade the direct identification of history
Prompted by Hegel, modern philosophy at an)7 point with di`'ine I.evelation.
lodged time (and the universe) in the very To repair this gulf between the temporal
nature of the Absolute. The immanental specu- order and the Deity, some recent theologians
lations conceived the whole of reality as ten- in turn discard the definition of eternity as
poral, as the Absolute in process of logical pure timelessness or non-temporality. While
evolution. Thus the idea of an insignificant thus avoiding Hegel's identification of the
temporal order was subverted, but so also was temporal order with God's direct self-manif`esta-
ETERNITY 198

tion, they lodge time in the very nature of God have sprung from an assurance that God in-
instead of viewing it as in created dependency. tervenes redemptively in fallen history, and not
Oscar Cullmann drops the whole idea Of time- especially from his non-temporality.
lessness with reference to the eternal. He main- But the non-temporality of God nonetheless
tains that eternity is simply infinitely extended can be firlnly supported. The constant use of
time: the former, boundless time; the latter, ¢jo-71 for the spatial world (cosmos) suggests
bound by creation at the one end and by the concomitance of time and space; hence not
eschatological events at the other. simply the tem|)orality but also the spatiality
Here the philosophical and theological re- of God - an assumption objectionable to bib-
pudiation of non-temporal eternity meet, lical theists - would seem to be implied by
though the philosophical motives are avowedly a one-sided reliance on a;o-7c. From this circum-
speculative, while Cullmann's are professedly stance the convic.tion gains support that time
biblical and exegetical. From the NT use of and space belong to the created order as dis-
a;o-# for a period of time, both defined and tinct from the divine essence, and that. eternity
undefined in duration, alongside its use Of is an incommunicable divine attribute. More-
this term for eternity, Cullmann argues that over, the biblical contrast of divine and tem-
eternity is not timeless but rather is unending poral duration frequently looks beyond a
time. Since the same term is applied both to quantitative or proportional to a qualitative
this age and to the next, the temporal and contrast. Temporal categories are viewed as in~
eternal worlds are presumably not qualitatively applicable to Jehovah (cf. Ps. 90:2) and the
distinguishable in respect to time. The es- word `6!d7„ gains theological significance. This
chatological drama, moreover, requires the idea qualitative connotation is more fully carried
of time progression. Hence the qualitative dis- by the later use Of `6ha" in plural form for
junction of eternity and time is dismissed as
God's eternity, a turn of phrase required by
Greek rather than biblical in outlook. Instead the absence of alternatives in Hebrew vocabu-
of binding time to the creation alone, Cull- lary to express a qualitative differentiation.
"The plural cannot mean the literal addition
mann affirms that time falls into three eras:
of a number of indefinite, unbounded tem-
pre-creation; from creation to "the end of the
world"; and post-eschatological. The first is poral durations: it can only be read as a
unbegun, the last unending (cf . C7trjst c}7id poetic emphasis by which a quantitative plural
Tine). is a symbol for a qualitative difference" (John
Marsh, Theological Word Book of the Bible,
No objection can be taken to Cullmann's
Alan Richardson, ed.: "Time," .p. 266b). The
aim, which is to preserve the absolute sig-
NT translation of `6Z6ow by a;6" and ¢io-#jos
nificance of redemptive history, and to prevent
is instructive, moreover. The primary thrust of
a dissolution of the Christ-event as the decisive
the familiar terms "eternal life" and "eternal
center of history from which both time and
death" is qualitative, and not simply quantita-
eternity are to be understootl. His detection of
tive. The former phrase depicts a quality Of
docetic and hellenic influences in the theology
life fit for eternity,, in which the believer Gl-
of Kierkegaard, Barth, Brunner and Bultmann,
7-e¢czy participates through regeneration (John
moreover, gains its point from their excessive
5:24), although it does not, of course, imply
formulations of divine transcendence. But the
non-temporality; the latter, eternal death, is
repudiation of the unique eternity or non-
spiritual death which, in the case Of the im-
temporality of God is not required to preserve
the reality and significance of historical revela- penitent unbeliever, is transmuted at physical
death into an irrevocable condition. Finally,
tion and redemption; indeed, the temporalizing
the attribute of eternity cannot be disjoined
of the Eternal poses theological problems all
from God's other attributes. The biblical em-
its own.
phasis on divine omniscience supports the view
Admittedly many biblical representations
of his supertemporal eternity. If God's knowl-
suggest nothing beyond an exaltation o£ God edge is an inference from a succession of
above all temporal limitations of the universe ideas in the divine mind, he cannot be om-
(John 17:24; Eph.I:4; 11 Tim.I:9). Re- niscient. Divine omniscience implies that God
course to Ex. 3: 14, ``1 am who I am," where lmows all things in a single whole, independ-
the French render the name of Jehovah as ent of a temporal succession of ideas.
The Eternal, is unavailing, for the comfort of BIBLIOGRAPHY
the oppressed Israelites in Egypt must surely Oscar Cu]lmann, C7}rjst a#d Time; C. F. H. Henry,
199 ETHICS

`¥:ise,?r fiheRP#:r.;"e of God, pp.124-36; John Marsh, Bk. 2, Chap. 6). Instinctive moral intuition
determines the moral mean between extremes,
CARI. F. H. HENRY
partly innate and I)artly the result of constantly
seeking the right path.
ETHICS. Ethics is the science of conduct.
Against the intellectuahsm of these systems
It is a systematic attempt to consider the pur-
of ethics the Stoics and Epicureans reacted.
poseful actions of mankind, to determine their Stoics found the good hfe in suppressing the
rightness or wrongness, their tendency to good
emotions. Virtue was fortitude. For Epicureans
or evil. The variety of terms in ethical usage
it was pleasure. In one form or another these
testifies to the complexity of the problem of
ethical ideas have traveled down through the
determining the nature of morality. Such terms
history of thought.
include good, right, duty, ought, goodwill,
Augustine was deeply impressed by Plato.
virtue and motive.
He taught that the St477i"t" Bo7®t" is the
What kind of a science is ethics? It has to
love of God, in which all man's faculties reach
do with the mind but is not an exact science
their highest perfection and his desires are
as are mathematics and logic. It is not merely
completely satisfied.
descriptive. It is normative, as it is concerned
Aquinas was influenced by Aristotle. The
with an ideal or standard Of conduct. Good
highest good is the knowledge of God. Rea-
(q.v.) is a conception that cannot be accurately
son and faith, though distinct, are harmonious,
defined. It has been equated with happiness.
for each comes from the one source of tnith.
Pleasure has been regarded as the good by
11. OBLiGATloN. The Greeks rarely raised
many. So too, has duty and also knowledge.
the question of moral obligation, i.e., why
No doubt all these are ingredients in the good,
anyone should pursue the good. They thought
but none of them singly is the highest good.
that knowledge of it was sufficient to supply
I. STSTEMs oF ETHlcs. The Greek philoso-
the motive to desire it. The specific nature of
phers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were among the ought tends to be lost sight of in such
the first to formulate ethical theories. For
systems of thought. We can seek to explain
Socrates, virtue and knowledge are one. He
the sense of moral obligation roughly along one
tried to identify practical excellence of charac-
of two ways. On the one hand we may hold
ter with intellectual insight into the true na-
that it develops naturally, or on the other hand
ture of actions.
that we see the obligation by intuition.
Plato treated the.subject for the most part
Naturalism in all its forms misses the point
as a quest for justice. For him, morals was a
of obligation. Such theories may serve as a
branch of politics. What obtains in the good
history or a description of ethics but the real
state is true also for the individuals who com-
point of why some course of action is right or
pose it. Justice i§ a harmony in which wisdom wrong or why we ought to pursue the right
rules over the spirited emotions and appe-
and combat the wrong is glossed over.
tites. The just man allows wisdom to control
Intuitionism at least sees the issue raised by
him. Plato's system has the permanent value
the sense of obligation. Bishop Butler showed
of putting the highest good in the realm of
that conscience has a supremacy of moral au-
spirit. The good is spiritual in its nature. It
thority, over pleasure and self-love, in de-
resembles the sun in the physical world, giving
termining motives and actions.
light and life to all things. So the idea of the
Kant separated obligation and self-love on
good reveals itself in everything that truly
exists. It is the source of all truth, knowledge, rationalist principles. He assumed that every
beauty, and moral goodness. rational being has the conception of obligation;
Aristotle was more down to earth in his the moral law is unconditionally binding on all
treatment of the subject. He saw man as a rational beings as such. It is categorically im-
social being in his essence. Morality arises out perative, admitting of no exceptions. The
of this. In social contacts, moral actions are moral agent should only act on the maxim that
determined. They are the result of deliberate what he wills should become a universal law.
habitual good actions. He defines virtue as "a Nothing is good absolutely but the good will.
state of deliberate moral purpose consisting in Duty for duty's sake is the moral motive.
a mean that is relative to ourselves, the mean Utilitarianism as ex|)ounded by J. S. Mill
being determined by reason, or as a prudent with its determining principle of "the greatest
man would determine it" (Aristotle, Et7®jcs, good of the greatest number" founders on this
EUCHARIST 200

rock of absolute moral obligation. Evolutional founds the divine and human natures, denying
naturalism similarly fails. "Being more com- Christ's consubstantiality with us and thus
plex" or "having the abilit}' to endure" is not overthrowing any genuine work of atonement.
what we mean by being right. Eutyches, who advanced his teaching in op-
The organism as it evolves, develops mind, position to Nestorianism (a.t7.), was condemned
whose characteristic is free thinking ideas. and deposed in A.D. 448. He gained temporary
To be able to reflect on itself and to criticize support at the Robber Council Of Ephesus in
its ideas shows that the thinking personality 449, but was finally condemned and exiled
cannot be explained on naturalistic grounds. If at Chalcedon in 451, when the balanced teach-
naturalistic explanation will not suffice we ing o£ Leo in his Tot#e was adopted in the
have to fall bac`k on intuition, i.e., insight into famous Definition. Eutychianism, however,
the truth of things moral. was not destroyed, but re-emerged in the pow-
Ill. CHRlsTlf\N ETHlcs. Insight into moral erful Monophysite heresy.
obligation is given by the indwelling of the See also CHRISTOLOG¥.
IIoly Spirit of God. The Holy Spirit not only GEOFFREY W. BROMILEy
gives enlightenment into what is good and true
and beautiful, but also the desire and the pow- EVANGELICAL. The evangelical C
er to follow them. tian faith is the "good news" or the
Conscience (q.v.) is the power of moral tidings" that God has provided redemption
man. It affirms that salvation from sin i
judgment informed by the Holy Spirit. It is
capable of being educated and enlightened rained through the grace of God, not that
more and more as the indwelling is maintained earned by good works or given becaus
in experience and behavior. merit on the part of man. It sets forth
The highest good of man is union with God. basic Christian doctrines, such as: the Trinity,
This union of human spirit with the Holy the deity of Christ, the personality of the Holy
Spirit purif ies the motive of inordinate self- Spirit, the plenary inspiration of the Scrip-
love and gives instead flgap6 - the disinter- tures, miracles, the substitutionary or vicarious
ested love of man, as a child of God. suffering and death of Christ as an atonement
BIBLIOGRAPHY for the sins of his people, his resurrection
from the grave, his ascension into heaven, his
:ett7!;CST?,..*h;a3:.fenRzi:s;;,:;tohff';Sd#:,.g:,Ao:fh:E:{!.:a:;:.A#jsai°;?Ga°|£ personal and glorious coming again, the resur-
ALBERT VICTOR M'CAI.LIN
rection and judgment of all men, heaven and
hell. See also CHRlsTIANITy.
EUCHARIST. See LORD's SuppER, SAc- The most important issue between evan-
RAMENTS. gelicals and others is that of biblical authority
(a.v.). The evangelical insists that Scripture is
EUNOMIANISM. A short-lived system of the word of God written, and that it is there-
extreme Arian doctrine associated with Euno- fore infallible in its original autographs.
mius, Bishop of Cyzicus (c¢. 395). He taught When this tenet is granted the other doctrines
that the Godhead was one substance without of the evangelical faith follow as a matter Of
distinction or properties, and derived from course.
Aetius the "Anomoean" doctrine that the Son Two special uses Of the word evangelical
was unlike (Greek c!7¢o7„oios) the Father in should be noted. In patristic literature the Cos-
essence, and had been generated outside his pel records are sometimes referred to as "the
nature. The writings of Eunomius which sur- evahgelical instrument," or "the evangelical
vive reveal a logical, anti-sacramental and anti- voice." In our own time, in Europe, the word
mystical mind. may be used as the equivalent of Protestant,
BIBLIOGRAPHY or still more narrowly, as meaning Lutheran.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
£;,::?.a:!u:.s,DP:G::.;9:ig3ci--jji,S%::tgeosfyckuyrscs:,H6sot:g; |a"es M. Gtay in ISBE; HDB.
M. R. W. FARRER LORAINE BOE~ER

EUTYCHIANISM. Named after Eutyches, EVANGELIST. The word comes directly

archimandrite of a large monastery near Con- into the English from the Latin ev¢"gez;sta
stantinople and a man of great influence, this which is derived from the Greek et"ggezis!gs,
is a view of the person o£ Christ which con- meaning a bringer Of the gospel, i.e., one who
201 EVIL

announces good tidings. It is the same root as EVIL. Evil is the bad (moral evil) or the
e¢4¢88eljo", meaning gospel and et"g8eli.zo7#¢i, harmful (natural evil). Natural evil, although
meaning to herald good news. It occurs three distinct from moral evil, is not separate from
times in the NT: (I) referring to Philip the it.
Evangelist (Acts 21:8), (2) evangelists as According to the Bible, natural evil is the
gifts to the church (Eph. 4: 11), (3) Timothy consequence of moral evil. At first, while still
the pastor who was called to do the work of sinless, man is placed in an idyllic garden,
an evangelist (11 Tim. 4:5). Hence in the where he lives in a happy relationship with
early church an evangelist was one who his Creator, his wife and his animals. There is
brought the first news of the gospel message, the possibility of eternal life. The "day" that
paving the way for the more systematic work of he disobeys God, i.e., commits moral evil, he
settled church officers. Evangehsts today are is covered with shame, confusion and anxiety,
regarded as itinerants traveling f ron place to is condemned by God and ejected from the
place preaching with a view to winning con- garden. The man must bring forth the fruit of
verts to the Christian faith. Not to be over- the earth, the woman the fruit of the womb,
looked however is the blending of evangelistic in agony (Gen. 3).
fervor with pastoral fidelity in the parish work This view prevails throughout the OT
of the pastoral evangelist. See also MINlsTER.
(Deut. 27: 14 f.; Ps.I; Prov.14:31; Mal. 4: 1-
In the ancient church the writers of the 6). Although Job was convinced for a time
Four Gospels were also called evangelists. that natural suffering had come upon him
Since this custom begins to emerge at the end without his deserving, at the end he humbles
of the second century, shortly after the in- himself under the divine rebuke (Job 42: 1-6).
dividual Gospels begin to be referred to by The prophets predict the Messiah's advent,
name, it is probable that the term evangelist, whose righteous role shall return the natural
being of the same Greek root as Gospel, was order to the Edenic state (Isa.11:I-9; Hos.
felt to be appropriate as a designation for the 2: 18). The experience of Job presents in bio-
men who composed them. graphical form what the 9lst Psalm states
F. CARI.TON BooTH didactically: that catastrophe "shall not come
nigh thy soul," that is, though natural evil
EVE. The suggested derivations Of this exists in this sinful world, it shall not be able
name, given by Adam to his wife after the fall to harm the soul Of the godly I)erson.
This same theme is caught up in the teach-
(Gen. 3:20), are many (Koehler's Lexico"
mentions nine possibilities). Apart from exact ing o£ Christ, whose doctrine may be sum-
linguistic precision the biblical connection be- marily stated in five points. First, sin and pun-
tween Eve (Hebrew Ji¢ww4) and "living" ishment are interrelated. His revelation of hell
is most pertinent here (Matt. 10:28; 23:33;
(Hebrew ¢¢y.y4) corre:tly indicates the rich
symbolism implied (cf. Gen. 3:15). Eve's I.uke 16:23). The Galileans, on whom the
creation out of Adam's rib (Gen. 2:21, 22) tower fell (Luke 13:I £.), although no more
suggests intimate unity between man and sinful than others, were assumed to have been
woman (Gen. 2:23). It also teaches woman's sinful and therefore serve to warn the rest
duty of submissiveness to man (I Tim. 2: 12, of sinful mankind. Second, the cancellation of
13). By yielding to the tempter's suggestion sin removes punishment. This is especially
Eve virtually put him in the place of God and clear in the healing of the paralytic (Mark
then became the instniment of Adam's fall 2:3 f.). Third, faith is necessary to receive
(Gen. 3:1-7). The divine verdict upon her this forgiveness and deliverance (Matt. 9:22;
was adapted to her womanhood. Its severity Mark 6:56; Luke 8:48; 17:19). Fourth, the
was mitigated by the privilege Of childbirth. purpose of some suffering is benign. This is
In the ensuing redemptive process she and her revealed especially in the case of the man born
"seed" (community, people) will be involved
blind (John 9: I ff.), particular affliction com-
in a God-imposed enmity with the serpent and ing upon him that its healing might be an
his "seed" (Gen. 3: 15). The symbolical names occasion for the revelation of the glory of God
Eve gave her children may suggest an in- in Christ. Fif th, the resurrection of the bodies
cipient insight based on faith in the promise. of the righteous and the wicked is in order
MARTEN H. WoUI)STRA that each group should be placed in the nat-
EVOLUTION 202

ural state appropriate to its moral state (John pression of the highest Idea or the Good. E. S.
5 : 29). Brightman internalized the recalcitrant element
The rest of the NT, especially Paul, main- which he called the "given" and saw a "finite
tains the same doctrine. "The wrath of God" God" struggling with himself. But whether
is revealed against all unrighteousness (Ron. it be a dualist like Plato, a mystic like Boehme,
I:18). "The wages of sin is death" (Rom. a pragmatist like William James, or limited
6:23). The death here mentioned represents theists, such as Brightman and Berdyaev, they
not only the ultimate natural evil of temporal all solve the problem of evil by yielding belief
life, but also of eternal existence, for it is set in some of the attributes of God.
in contrast to the eternal life which is through See also GOD, THEODlcy.
Christ. John closes the NT (Rev. 22:14,15) BIBLIOGRAPHY
with an apocalyptic vision of the world to
come in which there will be a plac.e filled with
nothing but moral evil and natural evil or suf-
f.ering (hell) and a place filled with nothing #§j;;g:§j;;;¥;.,„:,;;£:::£;::a%:c;:£;;:r;o:i;:i;ct##:::¥E;i:;
but moral good and natural good or blessedness JOHN H. GERSTNER
(heaven). Thus the Bible represents God as
permitting moral evil and its consequent, nat- EVOLUTION. Etymologically "evolution"
ural evil (cf. especially Ram. 8:22 f.), and (Latin evozt4tjo = an unrolling of a scroll) re-
restoring some persons to a state of moral good- fers to processes involving the appearance of
ness and natural blessedness. According to hitherto concealed features. In biology it may
Paul, all this is with a view to revealing his refer to the development of (a) the embryo
I)ower in vessels of wrath (q.t7.), no less than (older use of word) or (b) the race (modern
his grace in vessels of mercy (Rom. 9:22-23). usage).
The extra-biblical development shows con- Today it is often claimed that in evolu-
siderable variety. Augustine echoes the tion (modem usage) true novelty arises de
theodicy of Paul (City of God, especially XI) 7¢ovo. But when and how does it arise? The
as do Aquinas and Calvin. While the Pauline- word evolution is now usually confused with
Augustinian tradition sees this twofold pur- one or more of the various possible answers to
these questions. Thus evolution may mean:
pose of evil, a tradition from Origen to Karl
Barth sees only a benign purpose. The evil of (I) "descent with modification" (Darwin) as
men is interpreted as functional to the good; a mere process of change; (2) descent with
and the wrath of God is an aspect of his love modification as a creative process, simple forms
(cf. article on UNlvERSALlsM). This optimistic
of life spontaneously becoming more complex;
universalism, shared approximately by the (3) as in (2) but with the implication that
the process occurs in a I)articular manner (e.g.,
philosopher Leibniz, is in stark opposition to
the pessimism of Schopenhauer and von Hart- by the "survival of the fittest"); (4) as in (2)
mann, who find evil to be ultimate. The other with the addition that lifeless matter also spon-
taneously became alive; (5) as in (2) and
philosophy of evil is embodied in the dualism
of Zoroastrianism (q.v.) wherein, however, the possibly (4), not as a result of a force residing
within matter but as a result o£ frequent or
good principle conquers in the end-time.
Those who deny the realism of the Bible,
continuous intervention by God (Theistic
evolution) or some other power (cf . "evolu-
the optimism of universalism or the pessimism
tion" of the motor car).
of Schopenhauer are faced with irreducible
"surd" evil. One group sacrifices God's good- Further possibilities arise if the parts Of
man are distinguished. Thus some hold that it
ness to his power; the other, his power to his
may be that man's body and soul evolved but
goodness. The one affirms that God is cer-
tainly powerful and since he does not prevent God implanted spirit or psychic powers.
evil he must not be altogether good. The other It will readily be seen that to speak of be-
says, God is certainly good and since he does lief or disbelief in evolution is highly am-
not prevent evil he must not be altogether biguous.
powerful. He wants to eliminate evil and he I. BIBLlcAI. TEACHING. Scripture gives no
is partly successful in overcoming it, but not clear answer to the questions raised. In Gen.
completely. Plato found a recalcitrant matter 1 and 2 two words are used - "created" and
"made." "Created" is generally assumed to
outside of God which prevented the full ex-
203 EVOLUTION

mean "created from nothing," though this is simpler forms came first followed by app¢re7ct-
sometimes disputed. God is said to have ]y more complex, larger and more specialized
"created" (Z7dr6') heaven and earth, creatures
forms.
that swim, birds and man; and to have "made" (2) Evidence that early life was, in fact, sim-
('6S4) the fimament, the beasts of the earth, pler than later life is lacking. Biologists have
every creeping thing and, once again, man. In long been impressed by the resemblance be-
the Genesis story conspicuous life on land is tween evolution and development from the
mentioned first: "God said, Let the earth put egg ("ontology repeats phylogeny"). Sex cells
forth vegetation . . . And it was so." Here the (like all cells) possess enormous complexity.
language is similar in form to: "Let the waters. T.hese unfold in growth and cells become spe-
. . . be gathered . . . And it was so." In this cialized. Similarly evolution may consist only
last event, at least, natural forces were at work. of the unfolding of what was there before.
Could they have been responsible for plant God may have created cells which, over the
life too? The question is lef t open. years, have unfolded into the present forms Of
There is the view that the passage deals life. This view explains many puzzling fea-
with early pre-history from the standpoint Of tures of evolution (J. L. Baldwin, New A7r
an imaginary observer. This would explain swer fo Darwj7®js„i, 1957, M. Baldwin, Man-
why sun, moon and stars are said to be "made" hattan Bldg., Chicago, 5.).
when the sky (firmament) clears sufficiently (3) Scientifically the notion that lifeless
for them to become visible. Likewise it would matter became living bristles with difficulties.
explain why the very small forms of life are, True, radiation produces amino-acids in "Zcro-
omitted from the story and sea-monsters are gr¢ms from ammonia, carbon dioxide etc. but
mentioned before smaller fish because they are it destroys them too and would be highly de-
more conspicuous. structive of lower forms of life once produced.
Genesis speaks of two creative acts in con- The "lowest" forms of life involve unsuspected
nection with man: his body was made of the complexity, suggestive Of immense ingenuity.
dust and the breath of life was then im- A creative act for the beginning of life seems
planted. One interpretation is that, through called for.
long ages, God prepared a sub-human creature (4) It is exceedingly difficult to suppose
called 7„¢7®, the most noble of the beasts Of that, in evolution, radically new mechanisms
the field, and that one day, by an act Of mira- of great intricacy can arise spontaneously. Nat-
cle, he made man in his own image, implant- ural selection cannot function unless each stage
ing in him a measure of his own nature. In a is advantageous; it can be virtually proved that
sirr.ilar way Gen. 2:21 is regarded as a sym- this is not always so. In the last analysis all
bolical picture Of how, without the knowledge scientific laws are based upon the spontaneous
Of Adam, the f irst man, his own God-given disordering of matter, a fact hard to reconcile
nature was implanted in woman also. with "creative" evolution.
The traditional view that, according to the It is often suggested that matter, dead or
Bible, man was anatomically as well as spir- alive, possesses subtle properties which enable
itually a new creation, is equally possible. Even it to create organization under rare conditions
so, some see in the Genesis narrative an impli- or over immense periods. Such a view merely
cation that the beasts of the field included postulates the unobservable. If we must in-
man-like creatures, since otherwise the possi- voke the unobservable in any case, the chief
bility of Adam finding a helpmeet amongst objection to the view that God intervened in
them could hardly have been envisaged (Gen. creation disappears.
2:20; c£. 4:14). Science undoubtedly suggests that intelli-
The variety of possible interpretations serves gence has been at work in creation. This is
to underline the fact that God did not intend also the teaching o£ Genesis.
to enlighten us on points of science. Yet we Ill. MAN. Anatomically man is, in many
do know that in many matters of detail Genesis respects, like the beasts - though significant
is scientifically sound; quite remarkably so. differences exist and must not be forgotten.
11. SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE. We may sum- Archaeology shows that creatures which were
marize this as follows. anatomically man-like existed 100,000 years
(I) At one time there was no life on earth. ago - perhaps earlier.
When life anived the smaller and appare"tzy The Bible dates man at, probably, 5-10,000
EXAMPLE 204

B.a. and places him in Mesopotamia. It tells copies and "previews" Of a prior Heavenly
us that after his arrival there was a welter of Reality whose substance is made visible only
technological invention. If attention is paid, in the messianic age (cf. TWNT on hypode;g-
not to man's anatomy, but to his mental en- 7"a). OT eacmp]es are patterns to follow or
dowment, then archaeology confirms both the avoid precisely because they give insight into
biblical date and, probably, place: civilization the nature and ways of God in redemption and
started relatively suddenly and spread rapidly. in judgment. See TYPE.
When God made man in his own image the E. EARI.E ELLls
face of the world was changed and history
EXCOMMUNICATION. The idea of dis-
commenced.
ciplinary suspension of members from the fel-
See also CREATION.
lowship Of the church is fou.nd in only a few
ROBERT E. D. CI.ARK NT statements, but in later times it became
an established ecclesiastical procedure. Its roots
EXAMPLE. With the exception of I Pet.
go back to the OT ban (¢e-rein) applied to
2:21 (Jlypogra""o") the word is in transla- those who violated the Mosaic law and con-
tion of feypodefg7"c! and tyros or, occasionally, sequently placed themselves outside the cove-
their cognates. Once used together (I Tim. nant relationship (Ex. 30:22-38; Lev. 17:4).
I : 16), typos more frequently is found in con- It was also imposed on lepers (Lev. 13:46).
junction with r»j7%eot»a;, "to imitate," and Judaism modified this ban by using degrees
usually signifies an ethical or spiritual model Of excommunication, the more lenient "jddwy
or patter7} (Vorz7;ld) to be followed (Phil. 3 : 17; imposing restrictions on social behavior lasting
I Thess.1:7; 11 Thess. 3:9; I Tim. 4:12; I from thirty to sixty days, while the officially
Pet. 5:3; cf. Acts 7:44; Heb. 8:5; Ron. 6:17;
pronounced Z!8ret# involved ejection from the
Titus 2:7). Hypodejgt.icl is likewise so used community.
(John 13: 15; James 5: 10). Both also refer to The pronouncement Of Jesus against any
patterns to be avoided, i.e., wami#g eacmphes offender who refuses to hear the church
or e#hjz7jtjo"s o£ God's judgment and wrath (I
(Matt.18:17) does not consist of formal ex-
Cot.10:6,11; Heb. 4:11; 11 Pet. 2:6). communication, although it suggests some
In the typology of Hebrews a further sig- severance Of fellowship. In I Cor. 5:1-8 Paul
nificance appears, although this is not absent urges a corporate act of ecclesiastical discipline
in the usage elsewhere (c£. Ron. 5: 14; I Cor. against a serious offender and describes such
10: 11; 11 Pet. 2:4-6; Jude 7). In Hebrews the action as a delivery to Satan, a ten also used
OT cultus and He£]sgesc7ijcbte are viewed as in I Tim.I:20, where the apostle personally
a copy, a Nachbiid (hypodeigiira) a,nd shadow pronounces sentence upon Hymenaeus and Al-
(skjo) of a heavenly prototype (fypos: this is a exander. In the former case the offence was
peculiar usage due, perhaps, to the fact that moral, but in the latter doctrinal. Another ex-
it is a quotation; Heb. 8: 5). Contrariwise, "the ample of community discipline is found in 11
NT is not merely a reproduction of the Heav- Cor. 2:5-11, where the harshness Of the Cor-
enly Reality but its actual substance, the inthians' own decision leads Paul to plead for
Reality itself c.one down from heaven, the moderation. That at an early stage this pro
at4tg efk67®," i.e., the very archetype; Of . Heb. cedure could be abused is strikingly seen in
\0..I CG. Vac, The Teaching of the Epistle the action Of Diotrephes (Ill John 10).
to the Hebrews, Win. 8. Eerdmans Publishing DONALI) GUTHRIE
Company, Grand Rapids, 1956, p. 58). The
Old Covenant compares to the New as a EXEGESIS. The term is derived by trams-
shadow to reality. A preview of a film, though literation from the Greek exe-ge-sis, meaning
to the viewer chronologically prior, is actually narration or explanation. Although the noun
a subsequent copy which is meaningful only does not crocur in the NT (it appears once in
in the light of the film itself. So OT patfems the 8 text o£ Judg. 7: 15), the verb is found
or eac¢"pzes have, temporally, a Vorz7;ld char- several times with the former sense, and once
acter - models illustrating a plan of future with the latter (John 1 : 18). As the term sug-
(New Covenant) redemption and judgment gests, exegesis is the science of interpretation.
and, thereby, giving a pattern to follow or It is closely related to hermeneutics (a.v.).
avoid. But they are significant as Vorz7i!d only Whereas hermeneutics seeks to establish the
when recognized as essentially Nac7®b;id - ruling principles of biblical interpretation,
205 EXISTENTIAL, EXISTENTIALISM

exegesis seeks to fix the meaning Of individual public exposition of Scripture (I Tim, 4: 13).
statements and passages. R. COLIN CRASTON
This branch of study is basic to biblical
EXISTENTIAL, EXISTENTIALISM.
theology even as biblical theology is basic to
Existential is a term used by nco-orthodoxy
systematic theology. Exegesis, in turn, rests on
(a.v.) to designate the place of personal com-
the study of language, for translations, how-
mitment in an act Of faith. Existential faith
ever serviceable, are not able to convey all the
believes with inward passion; it is concerned
niceties of meaning which the Hebrew and
with the relation between the self and the
Greek originals afford. The ingredients of this
object Of belief ; it chooses from within the cen-
linguistic study are morphology, or the stnic-
ter of moral freedom. Cheap faith believes too
ture Of the language; lexicography, or the
easily; it does not count the cost.
meanings Of the words; and syntax, or the
functions of the various parts of speech. When Kierkegaard formulated the case for exist-
these factors have been marshaled and utilized, entialism. He was greatly disturbed by the
it may still be necessary to appeal to the au- dead orthodoxy in the church Of Denmark.
thor's peculiarities Of usage and to the demands He found that Christians were substituting
of thought in the immediate context and even symbols of the faith - baptism, confirmation,
of the wider range Of biblical teaching as a and general doctrine - for faith itself. The
whole, Christians recited the Apostles' Creed, but they
took no account of the relation between what
Exegesis is predicated on two fundamentals.
they recited and the state of their own lives.
First, it assumes that thought can be accurately
Kierkegaard illustrated the peril of faith by
conveyed in words, each of which, at least
originally, had its own shade Of meaning. Sec-
Abraham's offering of Isaac. Cheap faith reads
ond, it assumes that the content o£ Scripture the account and sighs, "Yes, yes." It then
turns to other affairs. Existential faith is trou-
is Of such superlative importance for man as
bled by the account because it must be per-
to warrant the most painstaking effort to dis-
cover exactly what God seeks to impart sonally responsible for what it believes.. How
through his word. can a holy God commend a human sacrif ice?
See also INTERPRETATloN.
And how can a sinner love God so perfectly
that his affection for his own son is tram-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
scended? Existential faith admires what it can-
not believe; and when it does believe, it be-
lieves with fear and trembling.
i;xiEig;e;:f:ij.ii!;Ijie':ef;f::::'i;::,;;i::;:::i;ii;ge;;]a;;e?,:':;keli|; Speculation is the opposite of existential
faith, and the most relevant illustration of fit-
ting speculation is science. The scientist is
in;[ee4§e:;?:s;,:£;e?;i°;:i:::.'£:g,€,1,ierfr°;:`::¥:y::::I£B,1,:;:;;a?:I::£:s;s°]3s:.:1?°¥:2i able to pursue it because he divorces himself
EVERETT F. HARRISoN from any personal involvement in his experi-
ment. He assumes a detached attitude; he
EXHORTATION. The word usually trans- seeks objectivity, prediction, and control.
lated "exhortation" is parcikzgsis (verb, p¢"- Existential faith cannot assume the role of
ka!e6). Originally it indicates a calling for, or spectator for it must unite itself with the ob-
near, with the same root as comforter (AV) ject of faith in spiritual commitment. God is
or advocate (RV mg) in John 14: 16. In the a person, and a person is known only in and
LXX and sometimes in the NT (Luke 2:25; through an act of self-surrender. Fellowship is
6:24; 11 Thess. 2:16, etc.) the meaning is the blending of life with life; it is a sharing
consolation or comfort. More frequently, how- of essence.
ever, the word is translated "exhortation" (Acts Although the term "existential" properly de-
13:15; Ron.12:8; I Tim. 4:13; Heb.12:5; notes neo-orthodox interests, it signifies a con-
13:22, etc.). Doubtless, the sense of consola- cept which has always been precious to Chris-
tion or strengthening is present even here. I tians everywhere. Scripture distinguishes be-
Cor. 14:3 has "exhortation" (AV) or "com- tween general and vital faith. General faith is
fort" (RV). Though incumbent on all (Heb. cheap faith; it is the faith of demons. Vital
10 :25), ex7}orSc}fio# is a particular responsibili- faith is cordial trust; it is a whole-souled act
ty Of pastors and is to be exercised in the of personal commitment. Vital faith is trams-
EXODUS 206

formed by the relation between the self and EXORCISM. Exorcism is the act of expel-
thtit which is believed. ling evil spirits in order to deliver the afflicted
BIi3LIOGR.+\prly from their malign influence. Incantations,
Gr=;\e,L.D£L}}e,i.',iEF;Setcft%i.=}`S'g.f#,'e"[ke#|.d3:;F#.?t3%=:'£
magical.charms, and formulae for this purpose
Treiiiz7Jj7ig; I`Ielmut Kulin, "Existi.ntialism - Christian appear in Eg}7ptian and Babylonian literature.
and Anti~Chl-istian" in TJiT 6, 311-23.
Jews of the Persian Empire used incantation
EI)WARD JOHN CARNELL bowls bearing formulae containing various
names of the God of Israel, other deities, an-
EXODUS. The English word is from the gels, King Solomon, and an illustrious rabbi
LXX title (Greek exocJos "a way out") of the (Joshua ben Perahya) deemed potent in in-
second book of the OT, but it refers more suring protection fi.om evil s|)irits.
specifically to the crucial event of that book The NT describes two professional exorcists.
~ God's redemption of his people Israel from Simon Magus (Acts 8:9 ff.) looked upon the
Eg}'pt. This divine act in human history, re- gospel as a kind of superior magic and desired
counted from generation to generation, was to add it to his repertoire. Bar Jesus (Acts 13:6
never lost sight of, even in the NT (Acts ff.) is described as a "sorcerer" and "false
7: 36). Psalmists, prophets, and historical writ- prophet.„
ers were continually pointing back to this Healing the body and casting out demons
miraculous event. are frequently associated in the ministry of
It served as a point of reference (Judg. Jesus (c£. Mark I:21-34). Power was dele-
19:30; Jer. 7:25) and dating (I Kings 6:1); gated to the disciples to cast out evil spirits and
it was the basis for God's command to keep to heal (Luke 9: I).
the sabbath day (Deut. 5: 15); it was the es- In the development of the liturgy for bap-
sence of Israelite epistemology, for by this ex- tism a form of exorcism was introduced. The
pression o£ God's power all were to k7tow that pre-baptismal state was looked upon as one of
there was only one God and him they were bondage to Satan, hence the formula: "Depart
to obe}7 (Deut. 4:37-40). Of even greater sig- from him, foul spirit, and give place to the
nif icance, the might manifested in the Exodus Holy Spirit, the Paraclete."
was the motivation and source of power for Toward the end of the third century an or-
living a holy life (Lev.11:45). der of exorcists was established which con-
The Exodus, as God's deliverani`e of his tinues as one of the minor orders Of the
"first-born son" (Ex. 4:22-23) from an "iron
Roman Church.
furmce" (Deut. 4:20; Jer.11:4) and from CHARLES F. PFEIFFER
a "house of bondage" (Ex.13:3; Deut. 5:6),
tyi]ifies God's gracious redem|]tive act in the EXPEDIENCY. Expediency is the char-
lives of all men of faith, "the assembly acter of an act in which any predetermined
(church) of the first-born who are enrolled in goal is sought by whatever means will enable
heaven" (Heb. 12:23). The passover lamb, one to achieve the goal most directly and ad-
slain the night before the Exodus (Ex. 12:21, vantageously without regard to the moral im-
28), becomes the symbol for Jesus Christ, the
plications of these means.
Paschal Lamb "who takes away the sin of the The relationship between expediency and
world" (John I:29). The celebration of the moral values may be set forth in different
Lord's Supper, initiated at the Passover season, ways. According to utilitarians the two areas
becomes not only an occasion for "proclaiming coalesce; what is really expedient constitutes
the Lord's death" (I Cor.11:26), but also a the right.
time for remembering the powerful, loving
According to the Stoics (q.vJ and Kant the
God of the Exodus who, by sending his only two areas overlap. The good must always be
Son, made possible for the "Israel of God"
followed for the sake of duty (q.t7.) alone; but
(Gal. 6:16) "a way out" of sin and oppres- where no moral standard for conduct is ap-
sion. For special NT uses of e%ocZos, see Luke
plicable, expediency becomes the only sensible
9:31; 11 Pet.I:15.
path to follow.
See also PAssoVER.
A third type of relationship between ex-
BIr}I_IOGR,\PH`-
P.`tl-ick F£`irbairn, T71e Typozogy of Scrl.ptwre, Vol. 11, pediency and moral principles sets them apart
pp. 30-50. as mutually exclusive guides to conduct and as
DEWE¥ M. BEEGLE usually in conflict. The expedient, therefore,
207 EYE

must never be followed because it is expedient, experience has most frequently involved the
but every act must be morally determined. investigation of the |]henomenon of conversion.
Christians generall}' have followed the sec- BIBLIOGRL\PIIY

ond view and argued for an area of czdjczp7io7-¢ c]„#.`5R]E+,,.v5,5P5P9.;6]3g;3o;,L`rE.R¥{especDkj,ctpo74j::;oP#Cp;,::

losopJly, p. 103; John Wild, Cha!Je%ge of Existe"tialis.tt.
(q.v.) where expediency has a place, but some
pp.188, 219.
have tended to hold to the third view. All HAROLD 8. KUHN
Christians have insisted that, however inex-
pedient the right course of action may some- EXPIATION. See ATONEMENT, SACRI-
times appear to be, in the overruling provi- FICE.
dence (f/.vJ of' God the believer may know
that the morally good always works out iiztj- EXTREME UNCTI0N. An anointing
„"rely to his best advantage (Rom. 8:28). with oil of the sick used as a sacrament in the
KENNETH S. KANTZER Romiin Catholic Church. "Extreme" may refer
to the fact that the unction is the last of the
EXPERIENCE. In the broad sense, this three s.`cramental unctions, the former at bap-
term includes all of our conscious processes. tism and confirmation, or to the fact that it
Thus defined, it involves sense I)erceptions, is aclininistei.ed when the patient is j74 cx-
feelings, memory, recollections, knowledge, f I-e77}js. The Council of Trent states that it
wi`s instituted by Christ. No reference is given,
prejudices, illusions, hopes, fears, beliefs, etc`.
The common denominator for these is the but it is said to be implied in Mark. Its sacra-
sense of I)crsonal awareness, an awareness re- mental sti`tus and effects are based on an in-
siding in the subjective life of a person. terpretation o£ James 5:14,15. Oil, consc-
cri`ted b}7 the bishop, is the matter; unction
A s}'stematic development of the cmi)hasis
with I)ra}'cr by the 1)riests the sign; the grace
upon ex|)erience is the methodology of em-
given on condition of re|)entance and faith is
piricism, which holds that all knowledge comes
forgiveness of sins, renewed health and
through exi)erience. EmpiriL`ists have usually
strength of soul, and also of body i£ God sees
limited ejxpelience to sense-experience, and
fit. Our Lord used varied means in healing
maintained that the onl}' valid knowledge is
the sick, but there is no actual record ot` his
either (a) that which is acquired through the
use of oil, unless wc infer it from apostolic
five senses, or (b) that which is referable to
the five senses for verification. practice in Mark 6:13. Was the use of oil
medicinal or s}imbolical? The Roman Church
Empiricism has for several decades had the
lm`kcs the oil symbolical of the Hol}T Spirit.
Pra}er for the blessing of oil for the sick is
:axs:e:t:rdd:Ear.:::qpuo:::£off£:;eFehnacvee[tb:se:oebxe_ found in the A|)ostolic Tradition of Hip-
plored in the area of religion. Religious em- |)olytus (c`a. A.I). 225) and in the Euchologion
piricists hold that all religious ideas issue from o£ Serapion (cc!. A.D. 365). From the fifth cen-
experience, however defined. They hold that tur}7 references to anointing are more frequent.
belief in God results from "witness theology"
The rite wLls included among the seven sacra-
as distinct from speculative theology.
ments in the thirteenth ccntur}7, and its doc-
Some thinkers ha\'e been willing to expand trinc defined at Trent.
the definition of experience to include such RICHARD J. COATES
experiences as the m}'stic claims for himself;
others have allowed moral experience as a EYE. The OT word is `¢}JjM, while the NT
source of religious ideas. The religious roman- most oftcn uses op7it7ic!Z7t4os and twice o774t?icz
ticists sought to explain the origin of religion (Matt. 20:34; Mark 8:23).
in terms of man's experience of specialized The most freqiicnt use is in the ordinary
types of feeling: e.g., the feeling of depend- literal sense. As such the eye is considered of
ence (Schleiermacher) or the feeling of awe great value. This is revealed by the custom of
in the presence of the "numinous" quality of
putting out the e}'es of one's enemies (Judg.
the universe (Otto). 16:21; I Sam.11:2), and by such a state-
Historic Christianity has understood the ment Lis Gal. 4:15. The eye also was con-
term "Christian experience" to mean the con- sidered the main channel of temptation (Gen.
scious reception of the ministry of divine grace 3:6; cf. I John 2: 16).
in the lif`e of the soul. The study of Christian The most interesting uses are figurative. In
FACE 208

this sense the eye usually stands for mental discloses the close relationship between the
or spiritual understanding. Thus to know state of the soul and the physical self in He-
Christ is to have the eyes of one's understand- brew thought, e.g., a person with an "evil
ing enlightened (Eph.I: 18) and to keep the eye" is envious (Deut. 28:54), a "bountiful
commandments of the Lord enlightens the eye" is generous (Prov. 22:9), a "high eye"
eyes (Ps. 19:8). is proud (Ps.18:27; cf. Isa.10:12).
The figurative use of the eye in the Bible WALTER W. WESSEI.

FACE. The Hebrew '¢p, "nostril;" `ay;%, (Num. 6:25; Ps. 31:16; 67:I; 80:3, 7;
"eye;" p(?#€7", "face" (``pr-esence," "sight," 119: 135).
"countenance," etc.); and the Greek proso-po#, The faces Of Moses (Ex. 34:30-35; 11 Cor.
"face" (person, presence, etc.) are all rendered 3:7,13), Christ (Isa. 52:14; Matt.17:2),
by face. Stephen (Acts 6:15), believers (11 Cor.
3:18), a mighty angel (Rev.10:1) and God
Literally, face designates the front, surface,
(Ex. 33:20, 23; Rev. 22:4) have special
or essential part of man (Ezek.10:14), ani- significance.
mals (Gen. 30:40), the earth (Gen.1:29),
See also PRESENCE, DrvINE.
the sky (Luke 12:56), water (Gen. 7:18),
WICK BROOMALL
etc.
Figuratively and idiomatically, face is used FAITH. Noun corresponding to the verb
"believe," for which the Hebrew is 7ie'e-7#€7i,
in the following meaningful combinations:
hiding the face - expressing disapproval the hiphil form Of `67„a7c, and the Greek (LXX
(Deut. 31:17 £.), .unconcern (Ps. 10:11; and NT) pistewo-. The latter is a key word in
13:I), forgiveness (Ps. 51:9), shame (Isa. the NT, being the term regularly used to de-
53: 3), fear (Rev. 6: 16); falling upon the face note the many-sided religious relationship into
- symbolizing prostration before man (Gen. which the gospel calls men - that of trust in
50: 18; 11 Sam. 9:6; Ruth 2: 10) or God (Gen. God through Christ. The complexity of this
17:3; Nun.16:22; Josh. 5:14; Judg.13:20); idea is reflected in the variety of constructions
setting the face - signifying determination (11 used with the verb (a 7ioti{lause, or accusa-
Kings 12: 17; Isa. 50:7; Jer. 42: 15; Luke 9:51) tive and infinitive, expressing truth believed;
or opposition (Lev. 17: 10; Ezek. 14:8); cover- e" and ep; with the dative, denoting restful
ing the face - signalizing mourning (11 Sam. reliance on that to which, or him to whom,
19:4), reverence (Ex. 3:6; Isa. 6:2), or doom credit is given; gis and, occasionally, epi with
(Esth. 7:8; Mark 14:65); looking another in the accusative - the most common, charac-
the face - implying challenging boldness (11 teristic and original NT usage, scarcely present
Kings 14:8,11; Gal. 2:11); turning the face in the LXX and not at all in classical Greek
-illustrating disapproval (11 Chron. 30:9) or - conveying the thought of a movement of
rejection (Ps. 143:7; Ezek. 7:22); spitting in trust going out to, and laying hold Of, the ob-
the face - displaying utter contempt (Nun. ject of its confidence). The Hebrew noun
12: 14; Deut. 25:9; Job 30:10; Matt. 26:67); corresponding to 'dm¢7¢ ('G7"tl7¢£, rendered
disfiguring the face - portraying paganism pistis in the LXX), regularly denotes faithful-
(Lev. 19:28; 21:5) or feigned religiosity ness in the sense of trustworthiness, and pistjs
(Matt. 6: 16); knowing or beholding another's occasionally bears this sense in the NT (Ron.
face - denoting intimate relationship (Deut. 3:3, of God; Matt. 23:23; Gal. 5:22; Titus
34: 10; Ps.17: 15; Matt.18: 10; I Cor.13: 12); 2:10, of man). The word 'e-"ti#d normally
causing the face to shine upon another - giv- refers to the faithfulness o£ God, and only in
ing or beseeching a blessing or benediction Hab. 2:4 is it used to signify man's religious
209 FAITH

response to God. There, however, the contrast (3) From Christ himself derives a nar-
in the context between the temper of the rower use of "faith" for an exercise of trust
righteous and the proud self-sufficiency of the which works miracles (Matt. 17:20 £.; I Cor.
Chaldeans seems to demand for it a broader 12:9; 13:2), or prompts the working of mira-
sense than "faithfulness" alone - the sense, cles (Matt. 9:28 f.; 15:28; Acts 14:9). Sav-
namely, of self-renouncing, trustful reliance ing faith is not always accompanied by "mjra-
upon God, the attitude Of heart of which faith- c]e-faith," however (I Cor. 12:9); nor vice
fulness in life is the natural expression. This versa (cf. Matt. 7:22 f.).
is certainly the sense in which the apostolic I. GENERAL CoNCEPTloN. Three points
writers quote the text (Rom. I : 17; Gal. 3: 11; must be noted for the circumscribing of the
Heb.10:38), and the sense which pistis, like biblical idea of faith:
piste"o-, regularly carries in the NT, where A. Faith in God involves right bedef about
both words are used virtually as technical God. The word faith in ordinary speech cov-
terms (John preferring the verb, Paul the ers both credence of propositions (``beliefs")
noun) to express the complex thought of un- and confidence in persons or things. In the
qualified acceptance of, and exclusive depend- latter case, some belief about the object trusted
ence on, the mediation of the Son as alone is the logical and psychological presupposition
securing the mercy Of the Father. Both normal- of the act of trust itself, for trust in a thing
ly bear this whole weight of meaning, whether reflects a positive expectation about its be-
their grammatical object is God, Christ, the havior, and rational expectation is impossible
gospel, a truth, a promise, or is not ex|)ressed if the thing's capacities for behavior are wholly
at all. Both signify commitment as following unknown. Throughout the Bible, trust in God
from conviction, even in contexts where faith is made to rest on belief of what he has re-
is defined in terms of the latter only (e.g., vealed concerning his character and purposes.
compare Heb. I I : I with the rest of the chap- In the NT, where faith in God is defined as
ter). The nature of faith, according to the NT, trust in Christ, the acknowledgment of Jesus
is to live by the truth it receives; faith, rest- as the expected Messiah and the incarnate Son
ing on God's promise, gives thanks for God's o£ God is regarded as basic to it. The writers
grace by working for God's glory. allow that faith in some form can exist where
Some occasional contractions of this broad as yet information about Jesus is incomi)lete
idea should be noticed:
(Acts 19:1 f£.), but not where his divine
(I) James, alone ot` NT writers, uses both identity and Christhood are consciously denied
noun and verb to denote bare intellectual as- (I John 2:22 f.; 11 John 7-9); all that is pos-
sent to truth (James 2: 14-26). But here he is sible then is idolatry (I John 5:21), the wor-
explicitly mimicking the usage of those whom ship of a man-made unreality. The frequency
he seeks to correct -- Jewish converts, who with whic`h the Epistles depict faith as know-
may well have inherited their notion of faith ing, belic`7ing and obeying "the truth" (Titus
from contemporary Jewish sources - and there I:I; 11 Thess. 2:13; I Pet.1:22, etc.) show
is no reason to suppose that this usage was that their authors regarded orthodoxy as faith's
normal or natural to him (his reference to fundamcnti`l ingredient (c£. Gal.I :8-9).
faith in 5:15, for instance, clearly carries a 8. Ffljf73 rests o7z d;v;f?e test}.77®o7ty. Beliefs,
fuller meaning). In any case, the point he as such, are i`onvictions held on grounds, not
makes, namely, that a merely intellectual of self-evidence, but of testimony. Whether
"faith," such as the demons have, is inade-
particular beliefs should be treated as known
quate, is wholly in line with the rest of the certaintii`s or doubtful opinions will depend on
NT. For example, when James says: "faith the worth of the testimony on which they are
without works is dead" (2:26), he is saying based. The Bible views faith's convictions as
the same as Paul, who says in essence, "faith certi`intics and equates them with knowledge
without works is not faith at all, but its op- (I John 3:2; 5: 18-20, etc.), not because they
posite" (cf. Gal. 5:6; I Tim. 5:8). spring from supposedly self-authentii`ating
(2) Occasionally, by a natural transition, mystical exi)erience, but because they rest on
``the faith" denotes the body of truths believed
the testimon}' of a God who "cannot lie"
(e.g., Jude 3; Rom. 1:5(?); Gal. 1:23; I (Titus 1:2) tlnd is therefore utterly trust-
Tim. 4: I, 6). This became standard usage in worth}'. The ti`stimon}' of Christ to heavenly
the second century. things (John 3: 11, 31 i..), and of the I)rophets
FAITH 210

and apostles to Christ (Acts 10:39-43), is the teacher and miracle worker (this is insuffi-
testimony of God himself (I John 5:9 ff.); cient, John 2:23 f.), but as God incamate
this God-inspired witness is God's own wit- (John 20:28), whose atoning death is the
ness (cf. I Cor. 2:10-13; I Thess. 2:13), in sole means of salvation (John 3:14 f.; 6:51-
such a sense that to receive it is to certify that58); (2) that faith in Christ secures present
God is triie (John 3:33), and to reject it is enjoyment of "eternal life" in fellowship with
to make God a liar (I John 5: 10). Christian God (John 5:24; 17:3). The Epistles echo
faith rests on the recognition Of apostolic and this, and present faith in various furth'er re-
biblical testimony as God's own testimony to lationships. Paul shows that faith in Christ is
his Son. the only way to a right relationship with God,
a. Faitl. is a supeTnatwral divine gift. Sin which human works cannot gain (see Romans
and Satan have so blinded fallen men (Eph. and Galatians); Hebrews arid I Peter present
4: 18; 11 Cor. 4:4), that they cannot discern faith as the dynamic of hope and endurance
dominical and apostolic witness to be God's under persecution.
word, nor "see" and comprehend the realities Ill. HlsTORy oF DlscussloN. The church
Of which it speaks (John 3:3; I Cor. 2:14), grasped from the first that assent to apostolic
nor "come" in self-renouncing trust to Christ testimony is the fundamental element in Chris-
(John 6:44, 65), till the Holy Spirit has en- tian faith; hence the concern Of both sides in
lightened them (cf. 11 Cor. 4:6). Only the the Gnostic controversy to show that their
recipients of this divine "teaching," ``drawing" tenets were genuinely apostolic. During the
and ``anointing" come to Christ and abide in Patristic period, however, the idea Of faith was
him (John 6:44-45; I John 2:20, 27). God is so narrowed that this assent came to be re-
thus the author of all saving faith (Eph. 2:8; garded as the whole of it. Four factors together
Phil.I :29: see CAI.L, REGENERATloN). caused this: first, the insistence of the anti-
11. BIBLlcAL PRESENTATloN. Throughout Gnostic fathers, particularly Tertullian, that
Scripture, God's people live by faith; but the the faithful are those who believe "the faith"
idea of faith develops as God's revelation of as stated in the ``rule of faith" (regt4ha fjdei),
i.e., the Creed; second, the intellectualism of
grace and truth, on which faith rests, enlarges.
The OT variously defines faith as resting, Clement and Origen, to whom p;stjs (assent
trusting and hoping in the Lord, cleaving to on authority) was just an inferior substitute
him, waiting for him, making him our shield for, and steppingstone to, g"o-sis (demonstra-
and tower, taking refuge in him, etc. Psalmists tive knowledge) Of spiritual things; third, the
and prophets, speaking in individual and na- assimilation of biblical morality to Stoic moral-
tional terms respectively, present faith as un- ism, an ethic, not of grateful dependence, but
wavering tmst in God to save his servants from Of resolute self-reliance; fourth, the clothing
their foes and fulfil his declared purpose Of Of the biblical doctrine of communion with
blessing them. Isaiah, particularly, denounces God in Nco-Platonic dress, which made it ap-
reliance on human aid as inconsistent with pear as a mystical ascent to the supersensible
such trust (Isa. 30:I-18, etc.). The NT re- achieved by aspiring love, having no link with
the ordinary exercise of faith at all. Also, since
gards the self-despairing hope, world-renounc-
ing obedience and heroic tenacity by which the doctrine of justification (q.vJ was not un-
OT believers manifested their faith as a pat- derstood, the soteriological significance of faith
ten which Christians must reproduce (Ron. was misconceived, and faith (understood as or-
4:11-25; Heb.10:39-12:2). Continuity is thodoxy) was regarded simply as the passport
avowed here, but also novelty; for faith, re- to baptism (remitting all past sins), and to a
ceiving God's new utterance in the words and lifelong probation in the church (giving the
deeds of Christ (Heb.I:1 f.), has become a baptized opportunity to make themselves
knowledge of present salvation. Faith, so re- worthy of glory by their good works). The
Scholastics refined this view. They reproduced
garded, says Paul, first "came" with Christ
the equation of faith with credence, distin-
(Gal. 3:23-25). The Gospels show Christ de-
manding trust in himself as bearing the mes- guishing between fjdes j«formjs ("un formed"
sianic salvation. John is fullest on this, em- faith, bare orthodoxy) and fjdes c4rito¢e forma-
ta (credence "formed" into a working principle
phasizing ( 1 ) that faith ("believing on," "com-
ing to," and "receiving" Christ) involves ac- by the supernatural addition to it of the dis-
knowledging Jesus, not merely as a Godsent tinct grace of love). Both sorts Of faith, they
211 FAITHFUL, FAITHFULNESS

held, are meritorious works, though the quality summons to decision issued by God's word in
of merit attaching to the first is merely co7€- Christ; but the elusiveness of their account of
gr¢te7®t (rendering divine reward fit, though the content of that word makes it hard some-
not obligatory), and only the second gains times to see what the believer is thought to
co#djg7® merit (making divine reward due as say "yes„ to.
a matter of justice). Rome still formally identi- Clearly, each theologian's view of the na-
fies faith with credence, and has added a ture and saving significance of faith will de-
further refinement by distinguishing between pend on the views he holds of the Scriptures,
"explicit" faith (belief which knows its ob- and of God, man, and of their mutual re-
ject) and "implicit" faith (uncomprehending lations.
assent to whatever it may be that the church BIBLIOGRAPHY
holds). Only the latter (which is evidently no
more than a vote Of confidence in the teach-
ing church, and may consist with complete ig-
norance of Christianity) is held to be required §ifjr:n;:;:cg§£i:::i§¥:I;I:::%';;;¥i;jcsi¢B:g};c;?;I?{gij:
of laymen for salvation. But a mere docile dis- JAMES I. PACKER
position of this sort is poles apart from the FAITHFUL, FAITHFULNESS. God's
biblical concept Of saving faith.
faithfulness in the OT has a twofold emphasis.
The Reformers restored biblical perspectives First, he is absolutely reliable, firmly constant,
by insisting that faith is more than orthodoxy and not given to arbitrariness or fickleness. His
- not fjdes merely, but fjdt/cia, personal trust faithfulness is great (Lam. 3:23), extensive
and confidence in God's mercy through Christ; (Ps. 36:5), and enduring (Ps. loo:5). Two
that it is not a meritorious work, one facet of words are used to depict this attribute: 'C7i.e£
human righteousness, but rather an appror (usually translated in the AV "truth," i.e., that
priating instrument, an empty hand out- which is reliable, and "faithfulness" in the
stretched to receive the f ree gif t Of God's RSV) and 'C7tw^47i¢ (commonly rendered "faith-
righteousness in Christ; that faith is God- fulness"), both derived from '7#w which de-
given, and is itself the animating principle notes "firmness," ``fixity." The name Rock
from which love and good works spontaneous- (Deut. 32:4,15; Ps.19:14, etc.) depicts this
ly spring; and that communion with God firmness.
means, not an exotic rapture of mystical ec- Second, God's faithfulness is revealed in his
stasy, but just faith's everyday commerce with covenant-loyalty (Deut. 7:9), his steadfast,
the Saviour. Confessional Protestantism has al- loyal love (¢esed, usually "mercy" or "kind-
ways maintained these positions. In Arminian- ness" in the AV). The frequent combination
ism, there resides a tendency to depict faith as of hesed and 'e"c£ (Gen. 24:27, 49; Ex. 34:6;
the human work upon which the pardon of Ps.. 40:-11, etc.) indicates that Jtesed connotes
sin is suspended - as, in fact, man's contribu- a determined, almost stubborn., st:adfastness
lion to his own salvation. This would be in toward his people and covenant (cf. Ps. 136).
effect a Protestant revival of the doctrine of FajtJ®f"! men fulfil responsibilities steadfast-
human merit. ly (Prov.13:17); their word is dependable
Liberalism radically psychologized faith, re- (Prov. 14:5). By relying on God, the right-
ducing it to a sense of contented harmony with eous man gains the reliability and firmness
the Infinite through Christ (Schleiermacher), which he does not have in himself (cf . Hab.
or a fixed resolve to follow Christ's teaching 2:4, where the AV translates 'C7"tl7®4 by faith).
(Ritschl), or both together. Liberal influence The NT builds upon the OT in affirming
is reflected in the now widespread supposition God's faithfulness (pistis, in a passive sense),
that "faith," understood as an optimistic con- which can never be nullified by man's faith-
fidence in the friendliness of the universe, di- lessness. The faithful (pjstos) God guarantees
vorced from any specific credal tenets, is a his sons' entry into glory (I Cor. I :9; I Thess.
distinctively religious state of mind. Nco-su- 5 :24), fulfils his promises (11 Cor.1 : 18; Heb.
pematuralist and existentialist theologians, re- 10:23; 11:11), brings triumph to sufferers
acting against this psychologism, stress the su- (I Pet. 4: 19), forgives confessed sins (I John
pernatural origin and character of faith. They I:9). Divine faithfulness is not conditioned
describe it as an active commitment Of mind by exter7cc!J standards: God must be faithful;
and will, man's repeated ``yes" to the repeated he cannot deny himself (11 Tim. 2: 13).
FAITH-HEALING 212

In the NT a faithful man does his duty the sick." Commentators differ over whether
diligently, as a servant (Matt. 25:21, 23), this is medical treatment (oil) with prayer, or
steward (Luke 12:42; I Cor. 4:2), or witness whether the anointing is a symbolic act Of
(Rev. 2:13). Several apostolic c.ompanions faith like the laying on of hands (c£. Mark
were deemed faithful: Timothy (I Cor. 4: 17), 6: 13). In no way, however, does this passage,
Tychicus (Eph. 6:21; Col. 4:7), Onesimus which deals with healing, support the Roman
(Col. 4:9), Silas (I Pet. 5:12). Paul viewed idea of the sacrament of Extreme Unction as
his divine commission as a proof of his faith- a preparation for death. In the NT `we note:
fulness (I Cor. 7:25; I Tim.I:12) and af- (I) Christians were not always healed (11
firmed, near his. death, his complete loyalty Tim. 4:20); (2) all recorded faith-healings
(11 Tim. 4:7). NT faithfulness has both its were virtually instantaneous, and patients did
incentive and dynamic: Christ's sterling ex- not need after-treatment.
ample (Heb. 2:17; 3:2; Rev. 1:5; 3:14; All down the ages, and today, miracles of
19 : 11 ) and the Spirit's fruitfulness (Gal. 5 :22, healing have been claimed, not only by ortho-
where the passive force of p;sf js accords with dox Christians, but by followers of various
the other virtues). cults. Christian Scientists claim healing
In the Pastorals f ive declarations are called through the denial of the existence of disease.
f¢jt7cfwz because they are completely reliable Spiritualist healers usually claim to be guided
(I Tim.1:15; 3:I; 4:9; 11 Tim. 2:11; Titus by some deceased spirit-doctor. Roman Cath-
3:8). Compare the "faithful and true" words olics claim many cures at Lourdes through the
of Rev. 21:5; 22:6. This combination recalls influence of the Virgin Mary, though only a
the OT relationship between fcljt7tf"!7tess and tin}7 proportion of these are officially put for-
f"th. Occasionally (cf. Ron. 3:7; 15:8; I ward as miracles. Pentecostalists and others
Cor. 5:8; 11 Cor. 7:14; Eph. 5:9), "truth" often conduct "healing missions." Many Chris-
(fllGtJ]e;c]) seems to reflect a Hebrew antecedent tians have experiences of cases that appear to
and could be translated "trustworthiness," "de- have been healed miraculously in answer to
pendability.„ prayer when doctors had given up hope.
BIBLIOGRAPHY It is noteworthy that almost all these cures
are either gradual, or necessitate further treat-
:#6na:e:i',p;?.9¥.61-6H?rfre.£fi.J§:aE.ih¥bgt.,„¥,:ye]Crae:sajtoh; ment, whether medical or further laying on of
DAVID A. HUBBARD hands. Are they Of the same order as NT
divine healings? In assessing modern cases we
FAITH-HEALING. This ten describes note: (1) the amazing effect of mind over
healings that occur contrary to normal medical body (e.g., in hypnotism); (2) the psychic
expectation, wrought by virtue of a special power that some possess, which makes them
spiritual gift (I Cor. 12:28). Biblical miracles vehicles of healing; (3) the willingness o£ God
of this kind are regarded as coming through to answer believing prayer that is according to
direct divine action, in response to the faith of his will. It would seem that he normally an-
the sick person (Matt. 9:22, 29), or of some- swers prayer for healing by a gradual process
one else on his behalf (Matt. 9:2; Mark 9:24; that may include the use Of medicines, though
John 4: 50). Jesus Christ miraculously healed sometimes it is against normal medic.al expecta-
all types Of disease, and also cast out demons. tion; but that, as in NT times, he does not
During his earthly ministry he gave his dis- will to heal all Christians.
ciples power to heal diseases and to cast out BIBLIOGRAPHY
demons (Matt.10:1), and this power was
staEi`orE. Wrai:fi::d'„MMa£:ac£!£S: thYeesbe['£%s a:£d T|°mdea,?,; £Jn.
also exercised after Pentecost, when again the What js Mow?, Chap. viii.
need o£ faith is mentioned (Acts 14:9), and J. STAFFORD WRIGHT
more specifically faith in Christ (Acts 3: 16).
Paul says that some have the gift of healing FALL, THE. Genesis confines its attention
from the Holy Spirit, though this gif t is not to events and their consequences, usually not
for everyone (I Cor. 12:9, 30). In James even stating the connection, but allowing facts
5 : 14, 15 probably no one is available with the to speak for themselves. Furthermore, the total
gif t of healing; then the elders are to anoint biblical revelation must be allowed to teach
the sick man, and pray over him: again faith the importance and implications of any event.
is emphasized; "the prayer of faith shall save We cannot, therefore, treat of Genesis 3 in
213 FALSE CHRISTS

isolation, or as if the rest of the Bible did not, In Paradise he lived under the twofold direc-
explicitly and implicitly, point back to it as tion that he should eat the Tree Of Life and
the explanation of the dislocated and frus- live, but not eat the Tree of Knowledge lest
trated life Of man. We will first survey the he die. When he disobeyed, God removed him
central NT passage and then proceed to Gen- from the proximity of the Tree o£ Life, thus
esis 3. confirming upon man, judicially and in ef-
In Ron. 5: 12-21, Paul compares Adam and fect, the sentence Of death, which remained
Christ. (1) The terms of the comparison - in operation until Christ brought life and im-
the "one man," Adam, counterpoises the "one mortality to light in the gospel.
man," Jesus - demand that we think of Adam JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
as a veritable, historical person, federal head
of mankind, as Jesus, in his place, is federal FALSE CHRISTS. The expression false
head of the redeemed. Hodges (Ro"c¢"s, Edin- Christs, formed on the analogy of "false apos-
burgh, 1864, p. 179) quotes Turretin on this tles" (11 Cor. 11 : 13) and "false brothels" (11
last point. The union of mankind with Adam Cor. 11:26), is derived from the Greek
is "I. Natural, as he is the father and we are
psewdochH.stoj, and is used in Matt. 24:24 and
the children, and 2. Political al`d forensic, as Mark 13:22 to denominate those who falsely
he was the representative head and chief of claim to be Israel's deliverer. Gamaliel alludes
the whole human race." (2) Adam's sin js to a revolt (A.D. 6) led by a Judas o£ Galilee
hamczrtja, "a missing of the mark;" paraz7¢s3s, and to a certain Theudas who perished with
"transgression of a known law" (cf. I Tim.
four hundred followers (Acts 5:36-37). The
2:14, where Adam's awareness of his sin's military tribune (Acts 21 :38) mentions a ccr-
implications is pointed out); and p¢rapto-i?ia, lain Egyi]tian who led four thousand dagger-
``a blunder." Adam's probation was genuine,
men (sihar].oi) to the Mt. of Olives and bade
not fictional. He possessed all facts and capaci- them wait until, at his command, the walls
ties to maintain his un fallen state and was sur- fell flat. When the attack failed the Egyptian
rounded by every inducement to do so; yet he conveniently hid himself. The tribune erron-
fell. (3) The result was that death and con- eously thought that the Jewish leaders had
demnation passed on to the whole race, by identified Paul as the Egyptian and were exact-
virtue of God's imputation of Adam's sin and ing vengeance for his self-imposed exile. Dur-
guilt. ing the revolt against Rome John o£ Giscala.
In Genesis 3 we not only f ind nothing in- leader of the Zealots, and Simon bar Gioras
consistent with, but everything pointing to, (i.e., son of the proselyte) opposed one an-
Ron. 5: 12 ff..(I) The origin of the impulse other with ruinous consequences terminating
to sin was both external, in the tempter, and in the debacle of A.I). 70. The last of the false
internal, in the consent of the will (cf . James Christs in the early Christian eras was Simon
1 : 14; 3:6). (2) The nature of the temptation bar Cochba (A.D.131-135) to whom R. Aqiba
was to query God's word (vss. 2-4a), suspect referred Num. 24: I 7.
God's character and good will (4b-5), and exalt In its broader application, as the phrase "in
ambition, sensuality, and selfishness above my name" (Matt. 24:5) suggests, the term
loyalty to God in his word (5-6). "Man,
false Christs suggests a probleri prompted by
therefore, when carried away by the blas-
consideration of the apparent contradiction be-
phemies o£ Satan, did his very utmost to an-
nihilate the whole glory of God" (Calvin, J"- tween Jesus' claims to lordship and the dis-
stjtt4tes,11, I, 4). (3) The result was death, appointing evidence of his sovereignty inside
banishment, dislocation of the whole natural history. The temptation is to have the chasm
order, and the begetting of an evil progeny. bridged by more patent demonstrations of
Except for the first mentioned Of these results, Jesus' sovereignty rather than to live in con-
they hardly need comment. The Bible teaches stant faith that Jesus Christ's purposes ripen
clearly that sin banishes from God's presence fully not within but outside history.
(Isa. 6:4-5), disrupts nature (Deut. 28), and BIBLIOGRAPHY
is transmitted by natural generation (Ps.
51:5). But what of death? The narrative af-
firms that death (a.iJ.) physical and spiritual, 96a:sEc:}¥:::;tod:;c3;:c8ha3ts-:8e}d:c¥i|:y£,,sc£:;C%%s",¢ah'[r;[s£°::
is not native to man, but a penalty on his sin. FREI)ERICK W. DANKER
FAMILY 214

FAMILY. The family is historically the fasts in both the Old and the New Testament.
first social group to emerge among men and The Israelites fasted when the ark was re-
contains in its primitive form the germs Of stored by the Philistines (I Sam. 7:6). Nehe-
both state and church. It is both a good in miah fasted when he heard of the sorry state
itself and a means for promoting further good. of Jerusalem (Neh.I:4). Joel summoned the
Its purpose is (1) physical - to beget chil- people to return to the Lord with fasting (Joel
dren and (2) moral - to train individuals to 2: 12). Cornelius was engaged in a fast when
sink their individuality in a higher unity. Thus he was told to send for Peter (Acts 10:30),
"education is not primarily the concern of the
who himself may well have been fasting in
school, or even of the state, but of the family" his period of intercession (Acts 10: 10). There
CE. Brunner, The Divine Imperative, p. 5\2). was fasting when Paul and Barnabas were
The Hebrew "i5p67}d, "a family connection commissioned for the first missionary journey
of individuals," comes to mean also clan, tribe (Acts 13:3), and Paul speaks of his own fre-
or nation (Nun. 3:15; Judg.13:2; Amos quent fastings (11 Cor. 6:5; 11:27) and can
3:1-2). In Judg. 6:15 "family" is eze27, i.e., see a place for times of continence, prayer
thousand (as in I Sam.10: 19; Mic. 5:2-). The and fasting within the legitimate maniage re-
usual NT equivalent is p¢trj¢ (from potGr, lationship (I Cor. 7:5). Jesus himself fasted
"father"), occasionally translated "lineage"
(Matt. 4:2) and while he did not require his
(Luke 2:4 AV, RSV) or "kindred" (Acts 3:25 disciples to do so he stated plainly that after
AV). In Acts 7:13 RSV "family" is ge%os his ascension the days would come when they
(AV has "kindred," ERV "race"). should accept this discipline (Mark 2:20).
In ancient Israel the family was an im- The I)roper use of fasting may be easily
portant social and administrative unit. Law gathered from the Bible. It is particularly
and worship remained in the hands of the linked with self-humiliation in repentance (I
"elders," i.e., heads of families, long after the Kings 21 :27; Ps. 35 : 13). But it is also brought
settlement in Canaan. A woman (q.v.) was re- into a close connection with `prayer (Matt.
garded as the absolute possession of her hus- 17:21; Acts 13:3), especially in the pursuance
band, hence the "o7icir, ``purchase-price," paid of Christian work or the seeking o£ God (cf .
to her father (Ex. 22:17). She was valued Acts 10:30). The undertaking of a definite
chiefly for the bearing of sons; failure led to commission for God (Ezra 8:23; Acts 13:3)
the practice of polygamy and divorce. A nobler is an occasion for fasting. This is supremely il-
conception of marriage appears in the creation lustrated in the case of the Lord himself ,
story where Eve is Adam's "helper, matching whose baptism is followed at once by the forty
him," (Gen. 2: 18). Monogamy is implied too days of fasting in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2;
in Gen. 2:24 and in the prophetic insistence cf. Paul's withdrawal to Arabia). In this con-
(e.g., Hosea) that Israel is Yahweh's wife to nection, it is to be noted that the fast is also
the exclusion of all others. a time of temptation and therefore of testing
Christ seems to relegate the family to a (Matt. 4: I, 3 ff.) with a view to the greater
secondary place in Matt. 10:36 f.; Luke strength and constancy in the future ministry.
14:26; but for him too it was "a training As with any religious practice, there are dan-
ground for larger sympathies and duties" gers in fasting which are clearly noted in
(E. F. Scott) and he regarded it as a pattern Scripture. The fast may be regarded as a means
for his new order as the "Our Father" shows. of getting things from God (Isa. 58 :3). It may
All true family life stems from God (Eph. be. substituted for the genuine repentance
3: 15). which issues in amendment of life (Isa. 58:5
See also MARRIAGE. ff.). It may become a mere convention and
BIBLIOGRAPHY therefore an end in itself (Zech. 7:5). It may
become an occasion for a parade Of religion
E:hA£:a::P;::f£{a8„-Paijdsng;c?:tayLm:'£th:#e:,befw:*Tj!°g:aa#Cgh„r;%a£? (Matt. 6:16) and thus finally lead to the
73-75.
self-righteousness which is the very opposite
L. E. H. STEPHENS-HODGE of true repentance and therefore of justifica-
FAST, FASTING. Fasting (Heb. 567", tion before God (Luke 18:12). The imposi-
Gk. 7®Gsfei¢) signifies deprivation of food, nor- tion of set days of fasting is perhaps a mistake
mally as deliberately undertaken for a reli- in this connection,.since it leads to the formality
gious purpose. There are many instances Of which empties fasting of its tnie significance.
215 FATHERHOOD OF GOD

In spite of these warnings, Christian his- ples as his adopted children. His care for them
tory gives ample evidence Of the abuse as well is frequently compared to that of a father
as the proper use Of fasting. From an early (Hos.11:I; Deut.14:I; 11 Sam. 7:14; Ps.
period legalism invaded this biblical and in- 2:7; 89:26; Deut.I:31; 8:5; Isa.1:2). On
trinsically valuable practice, special days and the other hand, a response of filial love ex-
periods being imposed and distinctions made pressed in obedience was required from them
between what might or might not be eaten. (Jer. 3:9; Mal. I :6), and since it was so often
In reaction against this perversion, the evan- refused, a more restricted conception of the
gelical churches have been tempted to remedy fatherhood of God resulted. According to this
the abuse by discontinuing the practice alto- deeper view, he is the Father of the God-
gether rather than restoring it to its proper use fearing among the nation rather than Of the
in individual and congregational life. Yet fast- nation as a whole (Ps.103:13; Mal. 3:17).
ing itself is obviously a biblical practice capable This later mode of thought finds expression
Of a profitable use. In face of corruption, the also in the literature of the intertestamental
true aim should be to restore it to its evangeli- period (Jub.I:24; Ps. Sol.13:8; 17:30; Eccl.
cal setting and purpose. 23: I, 4), and is endorsed by the teaching of
See also AscETlclsM. Jesus. He gave largely increased prominence to
WILLIAM KELLy the doctrine of the fatherhood of God. The
number of instances Of the word F¢t7ier as ap-
FATALISM. The c`ommon meaning of t)lied to God in the Gospels is more than
fatalism is that events happen inexorably, fol- double the number found in the remaining
lowing a blind (i.e., non-rational) cosmic proc- books of the NT. In the Gospel by John alone
ess. In this sense fatalism has no place in 107 occur. Two points in connection with
Christianity, but is commonly encountered in Jesus' use of this title are of special interest.
Oriental religions. The doctrine of providence (I) He never joins his disciples with himself
(a.v.) is not to be confused with fatalism, for
in allusions to his relationship with the Father,
it teaches that the will of God by which in such a way as to suggest that their rela-
events are controlled is good and rational. tionship to God is of the same kind. He was
Westerners who reject Christianity of ten, aware of standing in an intimate and un-
almost unwittingly, become fatalists. Hitler i]aralleled relation. He claimed to be the pre-
frequently alluded to fate. In wars soldiers existent eternal Son, equal with the Father,
speak of bullets inscribed with their names. who became incarnate for the fulfilment of
But sometimes fate is used euphemistically his iturpose of salvation, being appointed by
for God. him sole Mediator between God and men
As a philosoph}' fatalism is dangerous in (Matt.11:27; John 8:58; 10:30, 38; 14:9;
that it is a doctrine Of despair and saps in- 16:28; 3:25; 5:22). (2) When he speaks Of
dividual responsibility. God as the Father Of others he almost always
ROBERT E. D. CLARK refers to his disciples. While accepting the
teaching of the OT that all men are children
of God by creation and receive his providential
FATHERHOOD OF GOD. There is
kindness (Matt. 5:45), he also taught that sin
nothing in the Bible to support the heathen
has brought about a change in men, neces-
notion of a literal divine fatherhood Of clans
sitating rebirth and reconciliation to God
or nations. Several passages Of Scripture im-
(John 3:3; 8:42; 14:6). In accordance with
ply that God is the Father Of angels and men this, the apostles teach that men become chil-
as their Creator (Job 1 :6; 2: I; 38 : 7; Ps. 86:6;
dren Of God by faith in Christ and thus re-
Luke 3:38). But it is chiefly in connection
ceive the Spirit of adoption (John I : 12; Gal.
with Israel, the Davidic king and Messiah that
3:16; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:5). Sonship leads to
references to the fatherhood of God occur in
likeness and inheritance (Matt. 5:16; Ron.
the OT. By the historical event of deliverance
8:29; I John 3:2; Ron. 8: 17). The Father is
from Egypt, God created the nation of Israel
and subsequently cared for them, establishing revealed as sovereign, holy, righteous and mer-
a special relationship with them. Allusions to ciful. Prayer may confidently be offered to him
his fatherly regard for them look back to this in Jesus' name (Matt. 6:32; John 17:11, 25;
crisis as the time Of the nation's origin. Their 14: 14).
emancipation marked them off from other peo- WILLIAM J. CAMERON
FATHERS 216

FATHERS. Ecclesiastically, the fathers are literature outside the NT. The Alexandrian
those who have preceded us in the faith, and school (Clement and Origen) at the end of
are thus able to instnict us in it. In this sense, the second and early in the third century de-
ministers and particularly bishops are often re- serves notice, as do such writers as Irenaeus,
ferred to as fathers. More particularly, how- Tertullian, Hippolytus and Cyprian. The
ever, the term has come to be applied to the fourth century, which was already referring to
first Christian writers of acknowledged emi- the Fathers, provides us with some of the
nence. Already in the fourth century it was greatest Of all in men like Athanasius, Hilary,
used in this way of the teachers Of the pre- Basil, Gregory Of Nyssa, Gregory o£ Nazianzus,
ceding epoch, and later all the outstanding Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom and Jerome.
theologians of at least the first six centuries Among others who may be men-tioned are the
have come to be regarded as fathers. This is Cyrils, Theodoret, the two popes Leo I and
the normal usage of the term today, although Gregory I, and at the every end of the patristic
sometimes the patristic era is extended and period John of Damascus and Isidore Of
Protestants may also speak of the Reformation Seville. But these are only a selection from the
fathers. great company of writers who over a wide and
The question arises how a given author may complex front gave to the church its earliest
be classif ied as a Father. The mere survival magnificent attempt in theology.
of his work is not enough, for many heretical See also ALEXANDRIA, ScHool. oF, and AN-
writings have come down to us, together with TIOCH, SCHOOL OF.
others of doubtful value. Four main character- GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥
istics have been suggested as necessary qualifi-
cations: first, substantial orthodoxy; second,
FEAR. The first mention o£ fear in the
holiness of life; third, widespread approval;
Bible is in connection with Adam's disobedi-
and fourth, antiquity. It is allowed that Fa-
ence. Sin was followed by awareness o£ God's
thers may be in error on individual points, as
displeasure and fear of his judgment (Gen.
necessitated by the many disagreements, but
3: 10). Fear is itself part of sin's punishment
they can still be counted and read as Fathers
(Lev. 26:17; Deut. 28:25, 66). Selfish fear
so long as they satisfy these general require-
unfits for duty (Josh. 2:11) and quickly af-
ments (cf . especially the cases of Origen and
fects others (Deut. 20:8). The man in the
Tertullian).
parable who received one talent failed to use
Various answers may be given to the ques- it because he was afraid (Matt. 25:25). The
tion of patristic authority. From the Roman fearful are among those excluded from the
Catholic standpoint, the Fathers are infallible heavenly city (Rev. 21 :8). The need for cour-
where they display unanimous consent. Other- age in the service of God is repeatedly em-
wise, they may err, but are always to be read
phasized (Josh.I:7, 9; Jer.1:8; Ezek. 2:6).
with respect. Protestants naturally insist that Fear is conquered by faith (Ps. 46:2; 112:7).
the Fathers too are subject to the supreme By far the most characteristic use of the term
norm o£ Scripture, so that their statements or fear, when associated with God, is to denote
interpretations may call for rejection, correc- reverential awe. The ``fear o£ God" is, in fact,
tion or amplification. On the other hand, they a definition Of true religion in the OT. It is
deserve serious consideration as those who have the beginning of wisdom (Ps.Ill:10), the
preceded us in faith and made a serious at- secret o'f uprightness (Prov. 8:13), brings
tempt to express biblical and apostolic truth. about the keeping of God's commandments
Their support is thus valuable, their opinions
(Eccl. 12: 13) and distinguishes the people in
demand careful study, they are to be set aside whom God takes pleasure (Ps.147:11). It is
only for good reason, and their work consti- a gift bestowed by the Spirit upon the Branch
tutes no less a challenge to us than ours to of Jesse (Isa.11:2, 3). In the NT, although
them. a contrast is drawn between the spirit of
To list the Fathers is hardly possible in so bondage and of adoption (Ron. 8:15; .Eph.
brief a compass, nor is it easy to classify them 3: 12), this fear of God is not absent. It con-
except perhaps in terms of the broad distinc- trols the walk of the Christian, conscious of
tion between Greek and Latin. Mention may the comfort of the Holy Spirit (Acts 9:21);
be made of the immediate post-apostolic Fa- it stimulates honest service (Col. 3:2) and ef-
thers who have given us our earliest Christian fort after holiness (11 Cor. 7: I). Nor do rever-
217 FEDERAL THEOLOGY

ential awe and adoration, arising from the ap- Ron. 5. "As in Adam all die," writes Paul,
"even so in Christ shall all be made alive"
prehension of God as holy love, exclude the
fear which is the f itting reaction to a conscious- (I Cor.15:22). Adam, as the first man, was
ness of his displeasure. Jesus counseled his the natural head of the race, and represented
disciples to f ear him who has power to inflict all mankind as the human party to the cove-
ultimate punishment on sin (Luke 12:4, 5). nant of works into which God entered with
Paul also exhorts that salvation be worked out him. As the natural head, he stood in a federal
and service rendered with anxious concern to (foedrs, Latin "covenant") relationship to all
avoid evil and to be acceptable to God (Phil. posterity. His obedience, had it been main-
2: 12; Eph. 6:5-6). tained, would have transmitted an entail of
WII.I,IAM J. CAMERON blessedness to them; his disobedience involved
them with him in the curse which God pro-
FEASTS. Universally man has celebrated nounced upon the transgressors of his law.
the uniformities and seasons of nature. These This argument is developed in Ron. 5: 15-21.
in their Palestinian form were taken up by the The entire human race is summarized in the
Mosaic law, but apart from the minor feast two Adams. The first Adam was the federal
of the New Moon (Nun. 28:11) they cele- head of the race under the covenant of works;
brate God's grace in salvation as well. This is the second Adam, the Lord Jesus Christ, is the
well seen in the Sabbath, though its rhythm federal head of all believers under the cove-
is not that of the lunar month (cf. Ex. 20: 11 nant of grace. Thus as the sin of Adam was
with Deut. 5:15). This is true even of the legally and effectively otlr sin, so the obedience
Feast o£ Weeks (cf. Deut. 16:2). We must of Christ is legally and effectively the right-
distinguish between the pilgrim feasts (bczg): eousness of all believers. The federal relation-
Passover - Unleavened Bread, Weeks and ship in which Adam (q.v.) stood to the race
Tabernacles, and the Sabbath and New Moon, was the ground of the imputation Of his guilt
celebrated at home. To the latter were added to them, and the judicial cause of their con-
Purim (Esth. 9:20 ff.) and the Feast of the demnation. And the law which condemned
Dedication (Zld"tikk4 - I Macc. 4:59, 11 them could not justify them unless an ade-
Macc. 10:8; Jos. A"t. XII. vii. 7). After the quate reparation should be made for the wrong
Babylonian exile the New Year was moved done, a reparation which they were incapable
from Nisan (Abib, Ex. 12:2) to Tishri, the of making because of the corruption which
seventh month, so conforming to the natural they inherited from Adam as their natural and
rather than to the soteriological pattern. federal head. In order to their salvation, the
Occasional fasts were frequent under the needed reparation had to be made by another
monarchy, but only the Day o£ Atonement was who was not of federal connection with Adam,
commanded by the law. This was a major and therefore was free from the imputation of
sanctuary occasion, but in spite of the descrip- his guilt. The Federal Theology represents
tion in the Mishnah tractate Yot7®¢ it had little these requirements as being met in Christ, the
impact on the people as a whole until af ter second Adam, in whom a new race begins.
A.D. 70; hence its non-mention in the historical God had entered into covenant with him,
books of the OT and a mere I)assing reference promising him the salvation of all believers as
(Acts 27:9) in those of the NT. the reward of his obedience. But the obedience
Jewish Christians continued observing the required of him as the Federal Head of his
Jewish feasts, doubtless with a Christian mean- people was more than the mere equivalent of
ing, but except for Passover and Pentecost that required of Adam. His representative obe-
they soon faded out, the more so as their na- dience must include a penal death. And thus
ture aspect dimmed with transplantation to his resurrection victory is also the victory Of
Europe. the new humanity which has its source in
H. L. ELLlsoN him.
FEDERAL THEOLOGY. The name o£ The various theological schools dif fer with
regard to the implications of the imputation
Johannes Cocceius (1603-69) stands in the
closest association with Federal Theology be- of Adam's guilt to his posterity. Pelagius (late
cause of the prominence into which he brought fourth and early fifth century) denied that
it in the theological schools. But Federal The- there was any necessar}r connection between
ology finds clear exposition in I Cor.15 and the sin of Adam and that of his descendants.
FEET-WASHING 218

Cocceius himself did not found his Federal Christ to wash his own feet marks not only
Theology on the doctrine of predestination, pride and lack of respect for him, but also dis-
after the manner Of Calvin. The earlier Ar- courtesy and unfriendliness.
minians held that man has inherited his nat- Despite its place in rites Of hospitality (a.v.),
ural corruption through Adam, but that he is feet-washing never became the ritual observ-
not implicated in the guilt of Adam's first ance in the Jewish religion that hand-washing
transgression. The later Arminians, however, did. Only priests, in I)reparation for approach
particularly those of the Wesleyan following, to God, observed such a rite (Ex. 30:18-21;
admitted that man's inborn corruption also in- 40:30-32).
volves guilt. .Yet notwithstanding these and
The feet-washing in John 13: I-17 invested
other modifications, there is a broad agreement the hospitality rite with deeper meaning. The
between the Roman, Lutheran and Reformed utensils were there, the servants were absent,
theologies that man's loss of original righteous- but no disciple would humble himself to per-
ness is the consequence o£ Adam's first sin as form the act. Quarreling, arising from pride,
the covenant head of the race. "Nothing re- had created tension (Luke 22:24). Christ's
mains," writes Augustine, "but to conclude action, in addition to breaking their pride and
that in the first man all are understood to have antagonism, taught that the mark of greatness
sinned, whereby sin is brought in with birth is service (q.v.), that frequent spiritual cleans-
and not removed save by the new birth." Any ing is needed even of his own, and that serv-
other view tends to break the analogy that is ice must be humbly received from Christ be-
so clearly set forth in Ron. 5:19: "For as by fore it can be given to him (see Win. Temple,
one man's disobedience many were made sin- Readi7tgs ;7! Sf. /oh"'s Gospel, MacMillan and
ners, so by the obedience of one shall many be Co., London, 1950, pp. 209-10).
made righteous." A real imputation of the
Is the command o£ John 13:14,15 to be
righteousness of Christ as federal Head of his
taken literally? I Tim. 5:10 might suggest a
people requires a real imputation of the guilt literal observance in the early church, although
of Adam to his posterity. For, as Calvin argues
hospitalit)7 in a general sense is probably in-
against the Pelagian view, if the imputation o£
dicated. Some sects took the command literally.
Adam's sin means no more than that Adam be-
Some sections of the church (from the fourth
came our example in sin, then the strict appli-
century) observed the Pedilavium ceremony
cation of Paul's analogy of the two Adams
for the newly baptized, and some observed it
would mean no more than that Christ became
on Maundy Thursday. Bernard Of Clairvaux
the example of his people in righteousness,
advocated feet-washing as a saci.ament, but the
and not the cat,.se of their righteousness. Their
church as a whole has understood the com-
vital union with Christ is the cause of their
mand in a symbolic sense.
righteousness and also the guarantee of their
BIBLIOGRAPHY
growth in personal sanctification. G. A. Frank Knight in HERE,. F. L. Anderson in
BIBLIOGRAPHY ISBE.
R. Col.IN CRASTON
De€°C€:i¥:i ,S%';%%ci!?#j"gf d]€o ,i.°a:tds?rep; : I:S+t.fl4'g:"8:

AEI#!,:a;I?i"?E?#;%?t,::?d¥£`;I:t];,%;e£':tghj:"[§;+3g_-:6.o6,;22i6::.%;::£ilo4; FELLOWSHIP. I. WoRDs INvoLVED.

GEORGE N. M. COLLINS The Greek words koi7?o-7¢¢.a and t"efoc73G (and
their cognates) are the principal terms express-
FEET-WASHING. Feet-washing ranked ing "fellowship" in NT literatuie. Both in
high among Eastern hos|)itality rites. Open classical and biblical usage these terms express
sandals on hot, dusty or muddy roads made joint participation in a person or project and
feet-washing on arrival at the tent or house of secondarily association or mutuality of spirit.
a friend a necessity, for which facilities were 11. FELLowsHlp DEFINED. No specific clef-
pro\Jided. A slave, or the guest himself, per- inition is found in the NT. However, this term
formed the act (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32; can be said to designate that social relationship
43:24; Judg. 19:21). If the host wished to existing between Christians who are regen-
honor his guest and demonstrate affection and Crated members of the family of God and their
humility, he could personally perform the act cooperation in the work of the Lord. Fellow-
(I Sam. 25:41). Thus the failure o£ Simon ship posits as its prerequisite a likeness of na-
(Luke 7:36-50) even to provide facilities for ture that transcends external and temporary
219 FELLOWSHIP

differences. True fellowship can exist only Christ's suffering (Phil. 3:10; Heb. 10:33;
among true believers. I Pet. 4: 13). In some mystical way believers
Ill. NEGATIVE FACTORs. Certain relation- enter into the meaning of the suffering of their
ships are described as incompatible with Chris- Lord. (7) Christians partake of the future
tian fellowship. (I) A Christian cannot have glory (11 Col..I:7; I Pet. 5:I). They will
real fellowship with an unbeliever (11 Cor. share in the glory Of their Lord's return (11
6: 14-16). Their natures are radically differ- Thess. 1 : 10).
ent: one is a child of God; the other a child V. SIGNs oF FELLoWsHlp. Certain signs
of the devil (I John 3:10-12). (2) A Chris- always characterize true fellowship. (I) Mu-
tian must not participate in pagan rites and tual love. Christ made the "new command-
ceremonies (I Cor. 10:20-22). Such things ment" Of love the test of Christian discipleship
belong to demonism. (3) A Christian must (John 13:34 f.; 15:12). In opposition to the
"have no fellowship with the unf ruitful works dissension in the Corinthian church Paul wrote
of darkness" (Eph. 5: 11). Light and darkness his hymn of love (I Cot. 13). (2) Bearing an-
have no affinity. The believer is a child of the other's burdens (Gal. 6:2). The stronger
light; the unbeliever dwells in darkness (I Christian must always help to bear the bur-
Thess. 5:4-8; cf. Ron. 13:11-14; I Pet. dens of the weaker brother (Rom. 14; I Cor.
2:9-12; 4:3 I.). (4) A Christian must not par- 8). (3) Unity of faith. There is a "common
ticipate in the sins of another person (I Tim. salvation" (Jude 3) and a "common faith"
5:22). Such participation brought judgment (Titus 1:4; cf. Eph. 4:3-6,13) that instinc-
upon the Gentile and the Jew (Ron. 1 :32 - tively unites all tnie Christians.
2:2); it will bring similar judgment upon the VI. EXPRESSIONS OF CHRISTIAN FELLOW-
Christian (Eph. 5:3-14; I Pet. 4:14-18). (5) sHlp. Many are the ways, tangible and specific,
A Christian cannot have fellowship with God in which fellowship is expressed among Chris-
while walking in darkness (I John I:5 ff.). tians. The following list is merely typical: (1)
This darkness is identified as hatred of a a student shares in the material needs of his
Christian brother (I John 2:9-11; 3: 15). (6) teacher (Gal. 6:6). (2) A church supports its
A Christian must not fellowship with a person minister (Phil.1:5; 4:15 f.). (3) Ministers
who walks contrary to the teaching Of Christ recognize the cooperation of others in the work
(11 John 9-11). Error and truth cannot coexist Of God's kingdom (11 Cor. 8:23; Gal. 2:9;
in the same fellowship : sometimes the errorists Philem. 17; Ill John 5-8). (4) Churches
depart (Acts 20:29 f.; I John 2: 18 £.); some- unitedly help a needy church (Ron. 15:26;
times Christians must leave the external fel- 11 Cor. 8:4; 9:13). (5) Christians spontane-
lowship (11 Cor. 6: 14-18; Rev.18:4). ously share their wealth with other Christians
IV. PoslTlvE FACTORs. There is a founda- (Acts 2:44-45; 4: 32). (6) Christians assemble
tional unity among true believers as evidenced regularly for worship and edification (Acts
by the following particulars: (1) Christians 2:42; Heb. 10:25). (7) They pray for one
partake of the divine nature (11 Pet. I:4). another (Eph. 6: 18).
The divine seed planted in them at the new VII. THE DEEPER DEPTHS oF FELLOWSHIP.
birth makes them new creatures (11 Cor. 5 : 17; The child of God has fellowship with each
I John 3:9). (2) Christians partake of Christ person of the Trinity. (1) Fellowship with
(Heb. 3: 14). The "new man" (Eph. 4:24) is the Father (I John I:3, 6). A Christian must
``created in Christ Jesus" (Eph. 2:10). (3) walk in the light to enjoy this fellowship. (2)
Christians partake of the Holy Spirit (Heb. Fellowship with the Son. Christians are called
6:4). They are the temple in which the Spirit to this fellowship (I Cor.1:9). In the inner
dwells (I Cor. 3:16; 6:19). (4) Christians sanctuary of the soul this fellowship is realized
partake of a heavenly calling (Heb. 3:1). in the Lord's Supper (I Cor.10:16 f., 21).
Their real citizenship is in heaven (Phil. Christians desire to enter into the deeper
3:20); they are pilgrims and strangers here meaning of their Lord's suffering (Phil. 3 : 10).
(I Pet. 2:11). (5) Christians partake of the (3) Fellowship with the Spirit. As a blessing
Father's chastisement (Heb. 12:8). All Of given in the benediction (11 Cor.13: 14) and
God's sons have some o£ God's chastening hand realized in Christian experience (Phil. 2: 1),
applied to them. (6) Christians partake of Christians participate in this blessed fellow-
FESTIVALS 220

shii]. The eternal fellowship will be consum- 339 ff.; R. C. Trench, Notes o# the Mjraclcs, pp. 343 ff.;
WDB, p. 183.
mated in heaven's glory (Eph. 2:21 f.; Rev.
21 : 1-4)' CHARLES L. FEINBERG
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arndt; F. A. Falconer in HDCG,. E. von Dobschuetz FILI0QUE. The term means "and from
in HDAC. the Son," and refers to the sentence in our
WICK BR00MALL Western versions of the Nicene creed which
speaks of the proceeding of the Holy Spirit
FESTIVALS. In the Christian church from the Father and from the Son. Originally
Sunday (q.v.) has been observed from apostolic this was not contained in the confessions
times as the weeklv festival of the Lord's resur- agreed at Nicaea (A.D. 325) and Constantino-
rection, and as a special day of worship; but ple (A.D. 381). It seems to have been first in-
it was not until 321 that the Emperor Con- serted at the local Council of Toledo (A.D. 589)
stantine decreed that Sunday should be a gen- and gradually to have made its way into the
eral holiday. usage of the West. It was denounced, however,
The annual ecclesiastical festivals may be by Photius of Constantinople in the ninth
divided into two classes: (a) the movable century, and formed a main doctrinal issue in
feasts, of which the two most important are the rupture between East and West in A.D.
Easter and Whitsunday, the dates of which 1054. On the Eastern side two I)oints may be
var}T according to the Jewish feasts of Passover made, first, that the relevant verse in John's
and Pentecost; and (b) the immovable feasts, Gospel ( 15:26) speaks only of the proceeding
of which the most important are Christmas of the Si)irit from the Father, and second, that
(Dec. 25) and E|)iphany (Jan. 6). The dates the addition to the creed was never decided
of these were fixed in the fourth century. ecumenically. In favor of the addition two
Other immovable feasts include the various points may also be made. The first is that the
s{iints' days and holy days to be found in the term safeguards the vital Nicene truth that
church calendar. the Son is of one substance with the Father.
See CHRISTIAN YEAR, CHRlsTMAs, EplpH- The second is that, since the Son no less than
ANy, EASTER, and WHITsuNDA¥. the Father sends the Spirit according to John
15:26, we may legitimately infer b}' analogy
FRANK COLQUHOUN
from this relationship in respect of us that the
Holy Spirit proceeds both from .the Father and
FIG TREE. The fig tree (OT te'G%a; NT from the Son within the intra-trinitarian re-
syke-) is nati`'e to western Asia. Canaan is de- lationship. To say otherwise is ultimately to
scribed as a land of fig trees (Deut. 8:8). The divorce the Son from the Spirit in direct con-
first ripe fruit matures in June and sometimes tradiction to the passages which speak of him
earlier (Isa. 28:4 ASV). Late figs are ripe as the Spirit of Christ (cf. Ron. 8:9; Gal.
from August on, growing on the spring shoots. 4:6).
Summer foliage is abundant and exceeds that
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
of other trees of its size (John I :48, 50). The
tree was valued and is mentioned with the FIRE. The Hebrew 'e-5 and the Greek pyr
vine (Ps.105:33; Jer. 5:17; Joel 1:12). Sit- chiefly represent the English fire. The word is
ting under the vine and fig tree is symbolic o£ frequently used both literall}' and figuratively.
pei`ce and prosi)erity (I Kings 4:25; Mic. Fire designates the divine ( I) presence (Ex.
4:4). The barren fig tree (Luke 13:6-9), the 3:2), (2) persons (the Father, Heb. 12:29;
budding fig tree (Matt. 24:32-35 and paral- the Son, Rev.1:14; 19:12; the Spirit, Acts
lels), and the cursed fig tree (Matt. 21 : 18-22) 2:3; Rev. 4:5), (3) perfections (holiness, Isa.
are taken to mean the Jewish nation. The 6:4-7), (4) passions (jealousy, Deut. 4:24;
cursing of the fig tree by our Lord is best un- fury ar`d indignation, Isa. 30:27; 66: 15), (5)
derstood as c`ondemnation upon appearance
punishments (Gen.19:24; Num.11:1 f£.;
without reality. Having leaves, it should have 16:I-35; Rev.18:8), (6) purification (Zech.
had some fruit; the condemnation was not for 13:9; Mal. 3:2 f.; Rev. 3: 18), (7) protection
barrenness but for falsity of profession (Trench,
(Ex.14:24 f.; Zech. 2:5; Rev.11:5), (8)
Notes on the Miracles, p. 349).
predictions (Amos 2:2, 5; Joel 2:30), (9)
BIBLIOGRt\PHY
power (Jer. 5: 14; 23:29), (10) proclamation
59E:B,,sl:,I?P|.I.1:;?ii.b8Hf?;B,p|:,mpn?:.5(i6c3DffE,c,I,p3:(I Kings 18:23 f., 30-39; Amos 7:4 f.).
221 FIRST FRUITS

Fire is used to re|)resent human I)assions by |rrolofokos, which occurs eight times, most
(Prov. 6:27; 16:27; I Cor. 7:9; James 3:5 f.). of them referring to Christ, sometimes his-
Fire is used eschatologicall}r ( I ) to si`gnalize torii`i`ll}7, somi`times figuratively. That the term
the return of Christ (11 Thess.I:8; cf. Rev. js ii mcssi:`nic` title is suggested by the Greek
20:9), (2) to atomize the present world (11 o£ Ps. 89:27. The NT alludes to Christ as the
Pet. 3:7, 12), (3) to I)urify the bclicver's first-born in three aspects. In Col.I: 15 he is
works (I Cor. 3:13,15), (4) to punish the said to bc the "first-born of all creation," and
wicked (Matt. 3:12; 13:40, 42, 50; 25:41; rlcb. I:6 also describes him by this word.
Luke 16:24; Jude 7; Rev. 20:9-15), (5) to The Arians used these passages as evidence
visualize the abode of God (Ezek.I:4,13, thiit our Lord was a created being, but the
26-28; Dan. 7:9 f.; Rev. 8:5; 15:2). proiier understanding is implied by the context
Neither the fires of trials now (Isa. 43:2) in Colossians, viz., that it refers to the pre-
nor the fires of judgment later (11 Pet. 3:7- incarm`tc Christ. Moreover, the term declares
14) can overcome the believer. Christ to be the Lord of creation for as the
WICK BR00MALL f irst-born he is the heir of the created order.
Sec`ondly, Col.I:18 and Rev.1:5 use first-
FIRST AND LAST. This expression is ap- born in a sense similar to the first fruits (cz.v.)
parently derived from several OT itassages of I Cor.15:20. Christ is the first-born from
(Isa. 41 :4; 44:6; 48: 12) referring to the God the dead because he was the first to be raised.
of Israel. It refers to the eternity and su- Thirdly, Ron. 8:29 teaches that Christ is the
"first-born among many brethren," which af-
premacy of the Father.
In the NT the expression occurs three times firms that believers have joined the family of
(Rev.I:17; 2:8; 22:13), and in each occur- whii`h Christ is the eldest Son. Heb. 12:23
rence it is referred to the Son. There can be projects the idea so that all who believe are
little question of its meaning. In the first two given the status of first-born sons and there-
occurrences it is linked with the resurrection fore heirs of God.
of Christ, while in the third it is grouped with DAVID H. WALLACE
other phrases which suggest the eternity and
supremacy of the Son. It is evident that John FIRST FRUITS. Hebrew rG'5€± ("first");
accords the Son a place of equality with the Z7ikktlr€7" ("first rii.e"); Greek clp".c7tG ("be-
Father. He has the prerogatives of God, the ginning"). First fruits {1s required in the law
titles of God, and passages referring to the God of Moses were an acknowledgment that the
Of [Itsrfase[f£::len:Ptph];:dti: %]omn. be called the first land and cill its fruits were a gift of God. Just
as the first-born of man and beast was claimed
and the last in thc. Book of Revelation. The by God (Ex. 13:2), so the first fruits of the
stream of God's revelation finds its consumma- land were to bc I)resented to God (Ex. 22:29).
tion here, as it found its inception in Genesis. The offerings were generally products of the
The Son as the Word o£ God is responsible for soil in the naturt`l state such as grain, fruit,
the creation and also for its consummation. He grapes, honey, and wool, described as that
is supreme in human history, as he said, "I which is "first ripe" (ZH./{kt}H`wc)`(Ex. 22:29;
am Alpha and Omega, the -beginning and the 23:16, 19; 34:26; Dent. 18:4; 11 Chron.
end, the first and the last" (Rev. 22: 13, AV). 31 : 5). First fruits included products of man's
See also ALPHA AND OMEGA. labor sui`h as flour, oil, wine, dough, and
S. LEWIS JOHNSON, JR. bread (Ex. 34:18, 22; Lev. 23:16-20; 11
Chron. 31:5). The distinction between the
"first ripe" (b/.kkt}7.11?]}) as natural I)roducts and
FIRST-BORN. Primogeniture, the exclusive
right of inheritance belonging to the first-born, products of hiiman labor (rg'5i`±) is not main-
is traceable back to patriarchal times. Ishmael, tained in all passages.
though the eldest son of Abraham, was not In general, the first fruits were offerings of
accounted a first-born because his mother was various kinds, esi)eciall}' of 1)roducts of the soil
a slave (Gen. 21 : 10). Esau bartered his birth- and I)repared foods, a I)ortion of which was
right and thereby opened himself to the charge offered to the priest its the divine representa-
of profanity, for he had spurned his right of tive and, except for a smfill i]ortion o[`fered on
inheritance (Gen. 25:33). the altar, were for the priest's use.
The idea of first-born in the NT is indicated The law of the first fruits is recorded in
FLESH, FLESHLY 222

Ex. 23: 16,19 where it is called "the feast of Bit?le D;ctfo"¢ry,. L. S. Chafer, Syst€ii!at;c TJtco]ogy VII,
pp.153-55.
hdrvest, the firstfmits of thy labours" (vs. 16),
imd is mentioned as one of the three principal JOHN F. WALVOORD
feast; to be observed by the entire nation. In
FLESH, FLESHLY. It will be well to
Lcv. 23:9-14 additional instruction is given
commence the study of this very complex no-
conccrnmg the first fruits offered at the time
tion by indicating briefly certain obvious
of h.irvest. Further details are given in Deut.
meanings, literal and figurative, expressed
26:1-11, where an elaborate ritual is pre-
throughout the Bible by the word "flesh." In the
si`ribed. The offerer is commanded to take "the
first I)lace, the words 5e'e-r and Z76€d7. in the OT,
first o£` all the fruit of the ground" (vs. 2) and
and sci7-x in the New, describe the vehicle and
i]k`ce it in a basket and bring it to the priest, circumstances of man's physical life in this
confessing that the Lord had brought him to
world. Thus, in Phil.I:22-24, Paul contrasts
the land, that God had brought Israel out of
abiding "in the flesh" with departing to be "with
Eg}'i)t by his I)ower, and had given them this
"land flowing with milk and honey" (vs. 9). Christ." Regularly, "flesh" is used along with
"bones," "blood," or "body" (e.g., Prov. 5:11;
The offeriri\g of the first fruit is followed by
I Cor. 15:50) to isolate for inspection the
instructions to tithe all the increase (vss. 12-
physical aspect of man's nature. From its use
19).
for the outer covering of the body (Gen.
In the history of Israel in the OT, the ob- 2:21), there arose a figurative sense of "out-
servance of offering of first fruits seems to ward appearance," "worldly standards" (I Cor.
hi`ve been neglected at`ter Solomon, but was 1:26; Eph. 2:11). More important is the r
revived by Hezekiah (11 Ghron. 31:5) and ognition of the contrast between two modes
Nehemiah (Neh. 10:35, 37; 12:44). Elisha being signified by the words. "flesh" a
in the time o£ Israel's apostasy received "bread "spirit" (Isa. 31:3; Jer.17:5; John 1:13).

of the firstfTuits" as well as grain which was comi)arison with God, mankind is seen as sh
miri`culousl}' multii)lied to feed one hundred ing in a common flesh, and the ex
men (11 Kings 4:42-44). flesh" customarily acknowledges the solidarity
In its figur,ative use in Scripture, Israel is of the race (Gen. 6:12; Matt. 24:22; I Pet.
designated "the first fruits of his increase," i.e., I:24). It is no distance from this to the use
as hol}' to the Lord (Jer. 2:3). Frequent use of "flesh" to mean "next of kin" (Lev.18: 12)
of the figure is found in-the NT. First con- or, more remotely, "human ancestr}'" (Rom.
verts in an area were designated "firstfruits" 4: I).
(Rom.16:5; I Cor.16:15). Christians gen- Turning more particularly to the OT, the
erall\' are described as "a kind o£ £irstfruits of first thing which becomes clear from its use
his Creatures," i.e., a first fruit of created be- of the word "flesh" is its outright oi)position
ings (James I : 18). In both James and Revela- to anything that savors of Gnosticism. While
tion the implication is that those described as there is general recognition that man is psy-
first fruits are hy this description made holy chical as well as physical -Ps. 63:I shows
to God. So also, the 144,000 of Rev.14:1-5 man, in both aspects, longing for God -there
are described as "£irstfruits" (vs. 4). The work is total absence of any suggestion that these
of the Si)irit in Christians now, in contrast to are separable as far as a doctrine of human
their ultimate perfection. is described as "the nature is concerned, or that "flesh" is lower in
first fruits of the Spirit" (Rom. 8:23), i.e., the scale of personality than "spirit." In fact,
tokens of the harvest to come, the resurrection man's psychical c`apac`ities are, more often than
of the body and complete deliverance from not, instanced by ri-ference to ph}Tsical org.ins.
the world. Thus, Ps. 73:26 speaks of the end of earthly
One of the most important figurative uses life and hope as the failing o£ "flesh" and
"heart," and the corresi)onding .use of "reins"
of first fruits in the NT is in reference to
Christ who is described as "the firstfruits of or "bowels" is too well known to need exempli-
them that are asleep" (I Cor. 15:20; cf. fication. The unity of human I)ersonalit}7 in
15;23), i.e., the first who rose from the dead its ps}7cho-ph}'sical nature could not bc seen
as the promise of the full harvest, the resur- more clearl}' than by recalling that, according
rei`tion of all the saints.
to the Bible, the act 6f sexual intercourse is
BIBLIOGRAPIIY
spol`en of as "knowing" (Gen. +: 1), and the
A[ticles on "First Fruits" in ISBE, SHERK, UiigcJr's result of that act is that "the}' sh£`ll bc one
223 FLESH, FLESHLY

flesh" (Gen. 2:24; Matt.19:5; I Cor. 6:16). dren of wrath" (Eph. 2:3). Very different are
"To know" is not here used euphemistically those who have experienced God's regenera-
but literally. Marriage (q.v.), in God's plan, is tion. They remain "in" the flesh, but they are
intended to bring two people into the deepest no longer "after" the flesh (11 Cor.10:3; Gal.
and most intimate knowledge of each other. 2:20). They need to be watchful. For the
This ultimate interpenetration of personalities I act Of the f lesh means dullness Of spiritual
is called becoming "one flesh." While there is perception (Ron. 6:19), and though the
nothing in the OT corresponding to the NT Christian need pay none Of the claims of the
view Of the "flesh" as the central and dynamic flesh (Ron. 8:12), yet he must remember
principle of fallen humanity, yet we can see that in his flesh there is nothing good (Ron.
that the OT, with its emphasis on man's 7: 18), and that if he should repose his trust
``flesh-personality," offers the background there again (Phil. 3:3; Gal. 3:3) he would
against which the NT can paint its picture of lapse into bondage (Ron. 7:25). He has be-
human nature held in thrall by a dynamism come the recipient of a new |]rinciple of life
which has captured the citadel of its essential sufficient to oust the old principle of death
unity. This, in turn, illuminates the con- (Ron. 8:4, 9,13; Gal. 5:16-17), ``the life Of
stantly fleshly terms in which the holy life Christ" in his "death-bound body" (11 Cor.
is expressed. In Gen. 17:13 God says that 4:10,11).
his covenant is "in your flesh," and the proph- We have thus traced the notion of the f lesh
ets (e.g., Jer. 4:4) use the same symbol of from its pure conception in the Creator's plan
circumcision to express a consecrated return to to the depths of its self-wrought comiption,
God. There can be no salvation of man which and to the recreation in Christ. It remains to
is not a salvation Of his "flesh," and when show how the work of Christ is expressed in
Ezekiel looks forward to God's act of regenera- the same terminology. Here also Christ re-
tion, he declares that God will "take away the deemed us from the curse by becoming the
stony heart out of your flesh, and will give you curse himself : "The Word became flesh"
an heart of flesh" (36:26). Herein he implies (John I:14). The sinlessness of Jesus is pre-
what Paul states: that the flesh has become served by the careful statement that God sent
perverted, and that God plans for man that his Son "in the likeness of sinful flesh" (Rom.
which we have learned to call the "resurrec- 8:3; cf., Heb. 4:15), and the blessed truth
tion of the body." is declared that the Son became one with us
The NT doctrine of the flesh is chiefly but at the point of our need (Heb. 2: 14) in order
not exclusively Pauline. The "flesh" is a dy- to deal with sin at the point of its strength
namic principle of sinfulness (Gal. 5: 17; Jude (see Ron. 8:3, ERV). ``Flesh" is constantly
23). The unregenerate are "sinful flesh" used to teach the genuine manhood of the
(Ron. 8:3); they are ``after the flesh" (Ron. Saviour (Ron.I:4; 9:5; I Tim. 3:16; Heb.
8: 5). In them the flesh, with its "passions and 5:7). Yet it is not his flesh as displayed in its
lusts" (Gal. 5 :24), works ``death" (Ron. 7: 5). perfection, but his flesh as "given" (John
The flesh, producing ``works" (Gal. 5: 19) in 6:51-56) which avails for the life of the
those who live "after the flesh" (Rom. 8: 12), world. It was by his being made "an offering
is characterized by ``lust" (I John 2: 16; Gal. for sin" that he condemned sin in his flesh
5 : 16; I Pet. 4:2; 11 Pet. 2: 10), which enslaves (R-om. 8:3, ERV). The flesh is the sphere
the bodily members and also dominates the and instrument of his redeeming work (Col.
mind (Eph. 2:3), so that there is a complete 1:22; I Pet. 3:18; 4:1). This was the sub-
mental affiliation called "the mind of the lime purpose of the incarnation (Heb.10:5-
flesh" (Ron. 8:5, 7). Under these circum- 20). He took flesh in order that in and by
stances, life is given to fleshly satisfactions
his flesh he might loose us from the bondage
(Col. 2:23) and is described as "sowing unto
the flesh," whence is reaped a harvest of flesh- of "the flesh" and fulfil the prophecy by mak-
ly corruption (Gal. 6:8). Such people are ing us "epistles of Christ . . . written not with
dominated by "sinful passions" (Ron. 7:5); ink, but with the Spirit of the living God; not
unable to obey God's law (Ron. 8:3) or to in tables of stone, but in tables that are hearts
please God (Ron. 8:8). Even their religious Of flesh" (11 Cor. 3 :3; Ezek. 36:26).
practice is astray from God's will because Of BIBLIOGRAPHY
fleshly thinking (Col. 2: 18). They are ``chil- tio9scoarfar .8:J]B:% Jp¥r#!;9t;' frf. %eresm:r' :: Eefi¥rfieKC;
FOLLOWING CHRIST 224

W:P..DP:±i:Si,Psat:''p:?,fjsR#?eb;g;.Ctz#;;:;;sPFpi.cs}.7-a3„5ti makes it clear (I Pet. 2: 19-25) that following

Spirit.
Jesus in mart}'rdom does nothing to procure
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER forgiveness of sins for us or for another; only
Jesus bore the sins of others in his own body
FOLLOWING CHRIST. This phrase is on the tree. Often this limitation is forgotten:
best understood by noticing how the meaning our following J.esus in suffering and death
becomes increasingly intensive and how easily benefits others and brings us reward here and
it passes from the literal to the metaphorical. hereafter, but it secures no one's forgiveness as
In the least intensive sense of simply going did Jesus' death. Countless individuals in the
to see and hear him, great multitudes followed earl}r Christian centuries consciously followed
)esus (Matt. 4:25; 8:I; 12:15; 19:2; 20:29, Jesus by d}'ing for him (e.g., Ignatius, Poly-
etc.). More intensive is Jesus' use of "Follow carit) and during the Middle Ages, it was be-
me" to invite men to become disciples (Mark lieved, many experienced his death mystically
I:17; 2: 14; 8:34, etc.). "It was not only the through the nail and thorn prints of Christ
practice of the Rabbis, but regarded as one of (stigmata) in their flesh (see IMITATloN,
the most sacred duties for a Master to gather etc.).
around him a circle of disciples" (Edersheim, The three cases in Luke 9:57-62 indicate
Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, vat. \, that to follow Jesus in daily discipleship im-
p. 474). This transition in meaning is made plies: (I) utter self-denial and voluntary
clear by comparing John I:37 ff., where fol- homelessness in this world, (2) immediate
lowing implies a short walk and visit, with obedience in giving Jesus' program priority
Mark I: 17 ff., where it means for the same over family duties, and (3) undivided alle-
men quitting their occupation and becoming giance. The rewards of following Christ are
apprentices to Jesus for the new work of fish- illustrated in John 8: 12 (daily guidance), in
ing for men. Mark 10:28-31 (spiritual kinsfolk and posses-
Because following Christ becomes synon- sions with persecutions) and in Ron. 8: 17-18
}unous with discipleship this phrase gains dis- (eternal glory). See also DlsclpLE.
tini`tive meanings from the teachings and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atndt., HDB; HDCG.
exami]le of Jesus. From among the many fol-
lowers Jesus chose twelve to live with him TERREI.I.E 8. CHUM
and to re|)resent him (Mark 3:7-15). For FOOL, FOOLISHNESS. The Hebrew
these, discipleship now meant receiving in- words 'e-w#, k€s€! and 7t6EJ6} represent the ideas
struction (Sermon on the Mount, parables of expressed by fool and foolishness. In the NT
the kingdom and conduct), announcing the negative terms are used: cz7zoelos, "unmindful";
gospel message (the Twelve sent out, later the c!pJiro-", "senseless"; asophos, "unwise"; ¢sy7®etos,
Se\'enty), casting out demons, healing the sick "unintelligent." Mo-ros` generally means "fool-
and I)er forming water baptism (John 4:2). ish" or a "fool."
Howe\'er, some outside the Twelve also cast Foolishness is defined in Eccl. 7:25; a fool,
out demons in Jesus' name and were approved in Isa. 32:6. Nabal (I Sam. 25:25) and the
by him (Mark 9:38-41). rich fool (Luke 12:20) illustrate a fool's
After Peter's confession Jesus spoke plainly philosophy.
of his coming sufferings and death (Matt. A fool is often contrasted with a wise man
16:21). He now said, "If any man will come (Prov. 3:35; 10:8). A fool's moral obliquity
af ter me let him deny himself and take up his is far more evident in his heart than in his
cross daily and follow me" (Luke 9:23), head (Ps.14:1). His spiritual depravity viti-
meaning literally a daily readiness to travel ates his mental processes.
with him up to a hostile Jerusalem (Mark Among many traits, a fool may be described
]0:32-34)
'for and to
his sake (cf.suffer
Lukedeath whenwith
9:24-26 necessary
Mark as a lustful (Prov. 7:22; 9:13), loqu.acious
(Prov. 10:8; 15:2; Eccl.10:14),litigious
10:38-39 and Phil. 3:10). The following of (Prov. 20:3; 29:9,11), listless (Eccl.10:15),
Jesus b}7 d}'ing for him was Peter's premature libelous (Prov.10: 18) loggerhead.
I)rofession (John 10: 37-38). Jesus' subsequent The term is so pregnant with sinister con-
prediction (John 2] : 18-22) and Peter's actual notations that its promiscuous use is sternly
experience years later according to tradition forbidden (Matt. 5:22). The preaching Of the
(e.g., in ,Qwo V¢cZ;s). But note also that Peter cross is foolishness to the world (I Cor.I: 18,
225 FOREORDINATION

21, 23, 25). Christians may sometimes act thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past,
foolishly (Gal. 3: 1, 3). Even Paul, ironically, and as a watch in the night" (Ps. 90:4).
acted "as a fool" to chide the Corinthian Hence the events which we see coming to pass
church (11 Cor.11: 16,19; 12:6,11). Preach- in time are those which God appointed and set
ers must become "fools for Christ's sake" (I before himself from eternity. Time (q.v.) is
Cor. 4: 10; cf. Acts 26:24). Any foolishness thus a property of the finite creation and is
that 3s foolishness must be scrupulously avoided objective to God. He is above it and sees it,
by Christians (Eph. 5:4). but he is not conditioned by it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Scripture teaches very explicitly that God
wa4E:9tinG|.s¥£: £n HDBj. H. Bulcack in HDAc,. w. L. acts according to a plan. And, knowing that
WICK BROOMALL plan, he knows the future. "The counsel o£
Jehovah standeth fast forever, the thoughts of
FOOTSTOOL. The word is used literally his heart to all generations" (Ps. 33:11). "I
on two occasions: (1) Of the accessor}' to the am God and there is none like me; declaring
throne of Solomon (11 Chron. 9:18). It was the end from the beginning, and from ancient
made of gold, emblematic of the magnificence times things that are not yet done" (Isa.
of his empire. (2) Of an article of furniture 46:9, 10).
in a Christian synagogue, expressive of con- Probably the most difficult problem in re-
descension toward a poor visitor (James 2:3). gard to foreknowledge relates to the free
Several figurative uses are noted: (I) The agency and moral responsibility of men. The
earth (Isa. 66:I; Matt. 5:35). The lesson to Bible teaches both the sovereignty o£ God, in
be gathered is that of the majesty of the Al- which he is represented as foreordaining and
mighty, with a suggestion of omnipresence. controlling all events, and it also teaches the
(2) The sanctuary in Jerusalem, the center of free agency of man, in which he makes his
worship for Israel (Isa. 60:13; Ps. 99:5). own choices and is morally responsible (Acts
(3) The mercy seat, where God manifested 4:27, 28, Eph. 1:11; Ron. 8:29, 30; Ps.
his hol}' presence (I Chron. 28:2). (4) Mes- 33:11; Isa.14:14; Luke 22:22; Dan. 4:35;
siah's enemies (Ps. I 10: 1, quoted several times Job 43:2). No attempt is made to give a full
in the NT). explanation of this mystery. Calvinistic theol-
EVERETT F. HARRISoN ogy emphasizes the doctrine Of the sovereignty
FORBEARANCE. See LONGsuFFERING. o£ God while at the same time insisting that
man is free within the limits of his nature and
FOREIGNER. See STRANGER. that he is morally responsible. Arminianism
(a.v.), on the other hand, substitutes fore-
FOREKNOWLEDGE:. In theological lan- knowledge for predestination. Some acknowl-
guage the word foreknowledge designates the edge that God foreknows all things. Others say
prescience or foresight of God concerning the that he foreknows all events that are knowable,
entire course of future events. The constant
representation in Scripture is that God knows but that the acts of free agents by their very
all things, actual or possible, past, present and nature are uncertain. But this does not solve
future. Whereas human knowledge is very the problem. For i£ God's foreknowledge of all
limited, and is derived from observation and things is acknowledged the acts of men then
from a process of reasoning, divine foreknowl- become as certain as if foreordained. But i£
edge is unlimited and is intuitive, innate, and God's foreknowledge is limited, he is then
immediate. It involves first of all a knowledge represented as ignorant of much of the future
of God himself in all his relations, and see-
and as gaining vast amounts of knowledge
ondly a knowledge of all the things that are
every day, and his plans are then subject to
included in his eternal plan. It thus provides
the basis for prophecy.
change to meet the changing circumstances.
That which we term "past," "present," and BIBLIOGRAPHY
"future," is all "present" in the divine mind. It C. \\7. Hodge in ISBE; A. Ste``'art in HDB.

can best be described as an eternal "now." LORAINE BOETTNER

Isaiah describes God as ``the high and lof ty
one who inhabiteth eternity" (Isa. 57:15); FOREORDINATION. See PREDESTINA-
and the Psalmist says, "A thousand years in TION.
FORERUNNER 226

FORERUNNER. The word p]-odro7"os ready forgiveness as is shown in the prodigal

("one who goes before'') is found only in Heb. son or "Gracious Father" parable (Luke
6:20 in biblical Greek. Christ precedes be- 5 : 11-32).

lievers into heaven (cf. John 14:2 £.). There is only one sin for which the Father
John the Baptist is commonly designated as does not promise forgiveness: blasphemy
"the forerunner of the Messiah." His ministry against the Holy Ghost (Mark 3:28; Matt.
illustrates the features of a true forerunner: 12:32). The contexts suggest this to be the
(I) authorization and prediction (Mal. 3:1; sin of attributing to unclean spirits the work of
4: 5); (2) specific mission and definite message the Holy Spirit, but many interpreters (includ-
(Mal. 4:6; Luke 1:76-79); (3) performance ing Augustine) have understood it to include
of a necessar}' preliminary work (Matt. a deliberate persistence in Such evil. This sin
3:1-17); (4) identification of the I)erson he is also considered by some to be the un forgiv-
precedes (John 1 : 19-34). ing spirit (see Matt. 18:34-35). It might be
A forerunner may be a person (as Noah) the "sin unto death" of I John 5:16 (see
or an event (as signs preceding the second Westcott; cf. Heb. 6:4-6).
advent); it ma}7 be constructive or destructive There are to be no limitations whatever to
in intention and execution. forgiveness of one's fellows. In Luke 17:4 it
WICK BROOMALL is to be "seven times in a day," and until
"seventy times seven" in Matt.18:22, both o£

which signif y limitles5rc-ss. It is to be an atti-

FORGIVENESS. There are seven words
in Scripture which denote the idea o£ forgive- tude of mind even before the offending party
asks for pardon, as is implied by Je,sus, "if ye
ness: three in the I-Iebrew and four in the
f orgive not every one his brother from your
Greek. In the Hebrew OT they are 7€dp"., "to
cover''; 7tGs'd', "to bear" - "take away" -(guilt); hearts" (Matt.18:35).
and sjiz¢¢, "to pardon." N65G is used of both For man to receive forgiveness, repentance
divine and human forgiveness. The other two, is necessary (Luke 17:3-4). For the holy God
k6pc!r and sdz¢¢, are used only of divine for- to extend forgiveness, the shedding of blood
gi;eness. In the Greek NT the words for for- (Heb. 9:22) until no life is left (Lev.17: 11)
is prerequisite - ultimately, the once-for-all
giveness aT:e apolyein, chai.iz:esthai, aphesis,
and pczresis. ApoZ}Jej7¢ is found numerous times (Heb. 9:26) spilling o£ Christ's blood and his
as "to put away," e.g., a wife (Matt. 5:31); rising again (Ron. 4:25).
but only once to signify forgiveness (Luke BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bruder, Grcck Co"corda7Ic€,. W. C. Morro in ISBE;
6:37). Pares;s is also found only once (Rom.
3:25), and suggests "disregarding," but with-
Ei,;gl:ti;":.:sf?Zcn!,.ett":;oe;:j#i::ivac;I::;F::;:i;::Ee:!g;c:iif!:c:
out any suggestion of indifference. C7i¢ri- onciliation.
zest7ic!j is used only by Luke and Paul, and JOSEPII KENNETH GRII)ER
only by the latter in the sense of "to forgive
sins" (11 Col. 2:7; Eph. 4:32; Col. 2:13;
FORM, LIKENESS. The Hebrew words
3 : 13, etc.). It specially expresses the gracious- in this group are scarcely distinguishable in
ness of God's forgiveness. significance: Se}e" (probable root "to cut
The most common NT word for forgiveness (out)"); dp7t¢#£ ("to resemble"); fclky74€! (``to
is czp7iesjs. It conveys the idea of "sending build"); and te77ci^4#a (related to "kind," or
"species," suggesting resemblance by kinship).
away" or "letting go." The noun occurs fifteen
times. The verb with the same meaning is used It does not seem possible that some of these
about forty times. refer to material, and the others to immaterial,
likeness, as suggested for Seze77¢ and c!C77¢#£
No book of religion except the Bible teaches
that God completely forgives sin. But in it we respectively in Gen. I:26, because in Dan.
read, "I will heal their backslidings, I will love 3:19 Seze7" means "outward appearance re-
them freely" (Hos. 14:4); "God for Christ's vealing inner character" and in 11 Kings 16: 10
sake hath forgiven you (ec7®c!risafo, graciously
dc7##£ parallels f¢!"€! in a material sense.
Deut. 4: 16 identifies tciz77¢€t with te77¢#7¢4. The
forgiven)" (Eph. 4:32); and ``Their sins and
iniquities will I remember no more" (Heb. OT, therefore, stresses -visible form, material
10: 17). The initiative in this forgiveness, too, likeness.
is with God, especially in Paul's use o£ Phil. 2:6-8 associates 7#orp]7g ("form"),
c7tarjzesthclj (11 Cor.12: 13; Col. 2: 13). It is a ho7#oio-7"cl ("likeness'') and sc77gt7co ("£ash-
227 FORM CRITICISM

ion"). E. H. Gifford (Tj3e J"c¢r„atio#, Hod- ments and community-rules, (d) sayings intro-
der and Stoughton, London, 1897, p. 22 ff.) duced by "I," (e) parables.
says: "Morphe-is . . . the Divine Nature actually Pronouncement stories (as Vincent Taylor
and inseparably subsisting in the Person of calls them) partake of the character of both
Christ." Lightfoot urges that 7io7„o;o-77®¢ speaks narratives and sayings. In them a i]artic`ular
of relation to others of the same kind, and that situation gives rise to a pointed saying of Jesus
"the oworp7.G is contrasted with the schg7"cz, as
(an "apophthegm," in Bultmann's terminol-
that which is intrinsic and essential with that ogy), for the sake of which the incident was
which is accidental and outward." Other im- remembered and recorded. Frequently the sit-
portant words are ejko-77, signifying correspond- uation is controversial; something done by
ence with prototype (Matt. 22:20; Col. I : 15), Jesus or his disciples is criticized, and Jesus
and ejdos, stressing visibility (Luke 3:22). reitlies to the cri[ii`ism with a decisive i]ro-
How are form and likeness used of God? r)ouncemcnt, e.g., "The sabbath was made for
There is a visible "form" I)ro|)er to God. Moses man, not man for the sabbath" (Mark 2:27).
(Nun.12:8; cf. Ps.17:15) sees the te"#roj3 Dibelius called these narratives "paradigms"
of the Lord. Israel saw no tc7#47.C;, for this because they served as illustrations in ci`rly
cannot be granted to those who might debase Christian itreaching.
the Godhead to visible rei)resentation (Deut. Pronouncement stories sometimes overlap
4:12). This hell)s to explain the creation of other subdivisions, e.g., the incident of the
man in the likeness of Cod. Redeemed man is
I)aralytic of Car)ernaum (Mark 2:I-12) is a
to be "renewed after the ejko-71 of him that
pronouncement story because it lecids ui) to
created him" (Col. 3:10), inwardly (Ei]h. the sa}'ing "the Son of man has authorit)' on
4:24), outwardly (Phil. 3:21), as Christ is earth to forgive sins" (Mark 2:10), but it
"formed" (7"o7.phot/7c) in him (Gal. 4:19).
might also bc classified as [i nil.acle stor}', more
Jesus is the e;ko-7? of God (11 Cor. 4:4) from specificall}' !` he:`ling story. Healing stories can
which man fell (see FALL); and ``in the like- be readily rec`ognized; all over the world they
ness (homoi6ma) of sinful flesh" (Rom. 8:3) follow a recurrent r`orm which stresses the
he came to recreate man into his image (11 intractabilit}' of the dise£`se, the comi]lctc`ncss
Cor. 3: 18). of the c`ure, the cffcc`t on the si)ci`ti`tors. But
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER the fai`t thi`t i` st()r}' reprt)dui`cs this stcrc()t}'|tcd
form tells us nothing £`bout its hist()rii`it)'. This
FORM CRITICISM. Form Criticism should bc I.emcmbcrcd not onl}' in healing {1nd
(German For7itgescJ".c74te, "form history") is a other miri`i`Ic stories, but in those other "stories
method of approach which has been applied to fibout Jesus" (like the bar)tism, the temi)tation,
biblical and non-biblical literature alike; within the transfiguration, the resurrection ai)I)ear-
the Bible it has been applied to both Testa- ances) sometimes called "m}Jths" or "legends."
ments (e.g., in OT, to the Pentateuch and The ascription of these designations to the
Psalter), but pr.e-eminently to the Gospels. It Gospel stories mtly obscure the fact that form
endeavors to get behind the written Gospels criticism makes a judgment about fol-7#, not
and their literary sources to the oral stage of about sttbsfcz72ce.
the Gospel tradition, and to classify and exam- Similarly, the classification of sayings of
ine the various "forms" or types of story, utter- Jesus according to form can throw little light
ance, etc., represented in that oral tradition. on their authenticity; much more depends on
The 1)ioneer of this method was Martin the individual form critic's view of the person
Dibelius, whose Die Fo7.7"gescJijc7}te des Ev#7¢- of Jesus.
ge!jw"s api]eared in 1919, followed in 1921 11. FRAMEwoRK. Many form critics envisage
by Rudolf Bultmann's independent study Die the S}'no|)tic tradition as consisting of unre-
Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition. lated incidents and sayings, woven into a con-
I. CLAsslFlcATloN. The main division in tinuous narr£`tive by means of editorii`l sum-
form-classification of the Gospel material is that maries devoid of independent historic`al value.
between narratives and sayings. Narratives have (It is .1llowed, however, that the I)i`ssion n{`r-
been subdivided into (a) pronouncement stor- rz`tive existed as a continuous rec`ord from
ies, (b) miracle stories, (c) stories about Jesus: earliest days, being re|)c£`tcd at ever}' cuchi`ris-
sayings into (a) wisdom sayings, (b) prophetic tic meal, according to I Cor.11:26.) I}ut
and apocalyptic sayings, (c) law-pronounce- Charles Harold Dodd ("The Frtlmework o[` the
FORNIC ATION 22 8

Gospel Narrative," ExpT 43, 1931-32, 396 necessarily those of form criticism. Form criti-
ff.) showed that the ``editorial summaries" else- cism is of value not only because it provides
where in Mark, when put together, constitute a fresh classification for the study of our Gos-
a separate outline of the Gospel story, com- pel material, but also because it underlines (a)
parable to those outlines which can be recon- the inadequac.y of documentary hypotheses
structed from the speeches in Acts and pas- alone to account for the composition of the
sages in the Epistles. Gospels, (b) the universal tendency in an-
tiquity to stereotype the forms in which re-
Ill. LIFE-SETTING. Again, many form critics ligious instruction was given, and (c) the fact
explain the various elements in the Gospels that no discernible stratum o£ Gospel tradition
as arising out of situations in the experience of knows any Jesus but the Messiah, the Son of
the early church; e.g., the mission charge o£ God.
Matt. 10: I ff. reflects the methods adopted by BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jewish Christians who preached the gospel
throughout Palestine between A.D. 30 and 66,
or the controversial incidents reflect disputes
!tt:;¥;;:t,e;:i:,,i;:ji;;:i&:tt;;;Tio::I;;:3igt.;i;:gojf,tot;tie:oj!£,:r!;Fii:;-
between legalist and liberal groups in the early dition®
Palestinian church, or between Christian and FREDERICK FYVIE BRUCE
non-Christian Jews. But why then was this
FORNICATION. In its more restricted
practice not carried out more widely and use-
fully? Why has the circumcision question, sense fornication deriot.es voluntary sexual com-
which bulked so largely in Christian debate munion between an unmarried person and one
around A.D. 50, not left a more distinct mark of the opposite sex. In this sense the fornica-
in the Gospels? tors (pot."oj) are distinguished from the adult-
erers (two;choz) as in I Cor. 6:9. In a wider
Early Christians, in fact, made a clear dis-
sense por"e;a signifies unlawful` cohabitation
tinction between actual pronouncements Of
of either sex with a married person. In this
Jesus and their own judgments on disputed meaning it is used interchangeably with
points (cf. I Cor. 7: 10, 12, 25). After all, for 7#ojc7ieja, as in Matt. 5:32, where Christ says
three or four decades after A.D. 30 many peo-
that anyone who divorces his wife except for
plc could still remember what Jesus had said
and could have protested against the ascription po"ei¢ causes her to become the object of
adultery (t#oi.c7iett£7tG"cli) since he who marries
to him of views which he had not expressed.
her commits adultery (7"ojc7ijifaj). The same
There is justice in Vincerit Taylor's observa-
use of por#e;c] in the sense of adultery
tion: "If the Form-Critics are right, the dis-
("ojcb6tcli) is found in Matt. 19:9. In its
ciples must have been translated to heaven im-
widest sense por#e7.a denotes immorality in
mediately after the Resurrection" (The For7"a-
tjo" of f73e Gospel Trac!jtjo7®, London, 1933, general, or every kind of sexual transgression.
In I Cor. 5: I por7tefa is rightly translated in
p. 41). This consideration holds good outside the RSV by jt""orc}1;ty, which term it properly
the church as well as within it: a strong point
uses also in I Cor. 5 : 11, where the word stands
in early apostolic preaching is the appeal to
without any further modification (cf. 6: 18).
the hearers' knowledge of the story of Jesus
The pLula\ fornieations (d3a tas poTneias) is
(Acts 2:22; 10:36).
best taken in the sense of ``temptations to im-
No doubt a life-setting in the early church morality" (I Cor. 7:2; cf. RSV). While other
- in preaching, in fellowship meetings, in de-
sins must be overcome by spiritual crucifixion
bate - explains why many sayings and inci- of the flesh (Gal. 5:24), the sin of immorality
dents in the Gospels were put on record.
(pomejci) is one from which the Christian
When a question arose about divorce, for ex- must flee in order to keep pure (I Cor. 6: 18).
amitle, or paying the temple tax, it was natural Since God's close relation to his people is
to recall what Jesus had said on the subject; regarded as a marriage bond (Eph. 5:23-27),
but such a setting in the life of the early all forms of apostasy are desigllated in Scrip-
chui.ch does not exclude an earlier setting in ture as adultery, and this indeed very fittingly
the life of Jesus. as the pagan cults were usually connected with
IV. CoNCLusloN. The radical positions to immorality (Hos. 6: 10; Jer. 3:2, 9; Rev. 2:21;
which form criticism often seems to lead are 19:2). The use of the verb por#et4ei7i and Of
the positions of certain form critics and not the noun por#os (and por7¢e-) is similar to that of
229 FREEDOM, FREE WILL

the abstract port?el.¢. It proves the greatness of effort or achievement, either military or politi-
divine grace in Christ Jesus that our Lord per- cal, but on the quality of lsrael's obedience to
mitted Rahab (Heb.11:31; Matt.1:5) and God. Freedom was a supernatural blessing,
other fomicators to be numbered in his God's gracious gift to his own people, un-
genealogy. merited and, apart from God, unattainable in
See also ADULTERY. the f irst instance, and now maintained only
BIBLIOGRAPHY through God's continued favor. Disobedience,
Amdt; JSBE; JetvEmc. whether in the form of religious impiety or so-
J. THEODORE MUELLER cial injustice, would mean the loss of freedom;
FOUNDATION. The English term is divine judgment would take the form of na-
usually a translation of some form of the He- tjonal disaster and subjugation, and ultimately
brew ydsad and the Greek kczf¢bolG and tJ7e7"e- of de|>ortation into a land in which no token
J;oS. The usage may be summarized as follows:
of God's favor could be expected (see Deut.
28:15 ff.; Amos 5; 11 Kings 17:6-23). The
I. LITERAL. That part of a structure which
theological idea of freedom thus comes to
supports the rest is its foundation. That which
is supported may be mountains (Deut. 32:22), mean, on the one hand, deliverance from all
the temple (I Kings 6:37), walls (Ezra 4: 12),
created forces that would prevent men from
a house (Luke 6:48), etc. serving and enjoying their Creator, and, on
the other, the positive happiness Of living in
11. FIGURATlvE. The following may here be
cited as illustrative uses: (1) the foundation
fellowship with God in the |]lace where he is
or beginning of the world (Matt. 13:35; I)leased to bless. It is a free gif t of grace, be-
25:34; Luke 11:50; John 17:24; Eph.I:4;
stowed on those who serve God according to
his covenant. The condition of freedom from
Heb. 4:3; 9:26; I Pet.I:20; Rev.13:8; 17:8);
bondage to the created is therefore bondage to
(2) Christ as the foundation of the church (I
Cor. 3: 11; cf. Isa. 28 : 16; Matt.16: 18); (3) the
the Creator. Freedom is God's gift to his own
slaves. This is the essence of the biblical con-
prophets and apostles as foundations of the
Cel)t.
church, with Christ as the cornerstone (Eph.
2:20; cf. Rev. 21:14,19 f.); (4) one's minis- This concept was given its Christian refer-
try (Ron. 15:20; I Cor. 3:10); (5) the ence, in outline at least, by Christ himself,
security o£ God's seal (11 Tim. 2: 19). who opened his public ministry by announcing
himself as the fulfilment of lsa. 61:I: ". . .
In addition to the uses c`ited above, the word
he hclth an()inted me . . . to I)reach delivcr<1nce
foundation is often used in theological litera-
to the captives. . ." (Luke 4: 16 f`f.). Ignoring
ture in different connotations. Sometimes, for
Zealot hankerings at`ter national deliverance
example, it is used for "foundational studies"
from Rome, Christ declared that he had come
(that is, Apologetics); sometimes for the
"fundamentals" (that is, the basic beliefs of to liberate the slaves of sin and Satan (John
8:34-36, 41-44); to overthrow the "prince of
Christianity); sometimes for "foundation-pas-
this world," the "strong man"; and to release
sages" (that is, the passages of the Gospels ac-
his prisoners (John 12:31-32; Mark 3:27;
ceitted by modern criticism as absolutely re-
Luke 10: 18). Exorcisms (Mark 3:22 ff.) and
liable); and in many other ways.
healings (Luke 13: 16) were I)art of this work
WICK BROOMALL
of dispossession.
FREEDOM, FREE WILL. The ordinary Paul expands the thought that Christ lib-
idea of freedom as the happy state of not be- erates believers, here and now, from destruc-
ing a slave is common throughout the Bible. tive influences to whit.h they were previously
The unique biblical development of it sprang in bondage: from sin, the tyrant whose wages
from reflection on the unique privileges Of for services rendered is death (Rom. 6: 18-23);
Israel. God, in sovereign mercy, had brought from the "power of darkness" (Col.I:13);
the Israelites out of bondage, made them his from polytheistic superstition (I Cor. 10:29;
peo|)le, given them his covenant, settled them Gal. 4:8 f.); from the law as a system of
in the promised land, and undertaken to main- salvation (Gal. 4:21 ff.; 5:I; Rom. 7:6); and
tain them there in political independence and from the burden of Jewish ceremonialism (Gal.
economic prosperity as long as they eschewed 2:4). To all this, freedom from ithysical cor-
idolatry and kept his laws. This meant that ruption and death will be added in due course
Israel's freedom would depend, not on human (Ron. 8 : 18-21). This comprehensive freedom
FRIEND 230

Duesbery in RTWB,. D€iss LAE, pp. 326 ff.; H. Wedcll

is the gif t of Christ, who bought his people in AThR 32, pp. 204-16.
out of bondage (I Cor. 6:20; 7:22-23), just JAMES I. PACKER
as, by a legal fiction, Greek deities "bought"
slaves for their manumission. It is creatively FRIEND. The English word is derived
conveyed to believers by the indwelling Spirit from the Saxon freo7®d, meaning one loved or
of Christ (Ron. 8:2; 11 Col. 3: 17). It is the freed. Its Greek counterpart, phjzos, bears this
royal freedom of God's adopted sons, to whom idea in its use in the NT, especially in John.
accordingly the Spirit witnesses as a Spirit, not There the friend is one who has been freed
of bondage, but Of adoption (Rom. 8:15-16; (John 8:31-36) by the knowledge Jesus has
Gal. 4:6-7). The obverse of Christ's gift of imparted (15: 15). The disciples are hence-
freedom (e!et/t71erja) is the Christian's freely forth no longer slaves but friends who now
accepted bondservice (c!ot4lejci) to God (Ron. share in Christ's glory (17:22).
6:22), to Christ (I Cor. 7:22), to righteous- Of importance is the phrase "friend Of God,"
ness (Ron. 6: 18), and to all men for the sake serving as a title Of distinction (e.g., Abraham
of the gospel (I Cor. 9:19-23) and of the in Isa. 41:8; adopted by Christianity, as in
Saviour (11 Cor. 4:5). The ``law of liberty" James 2:23, and Islam). Judaism confened
(James I:25; 2:12), which is the "law Of this honor upon Moses (Ex. 33:11) and Is-
Christ" (Gal. 6:2; cf. I Cor. 9:21) for his rael. Philo (Mjg. 45) included the prophets
free servants, is the law of love (Gal. 5:13- in this category, but in the Greek sense of
14), the principle of voluntary self-sacrifice every sophos being a "friend of God."
without limit for the good of men (I Cor. Among Alexandrian Christians ``friend Of
9:I-23; 10:23-33) and the glory of God (I God" was ascribed to martyrs and monks, grad-
Cor. 10:31). This is the essential NT ethic; ually receiving a mystical significance which
a life of love is the response of gratitude which was expanded in the mysticism Of the Middle
the gospel Of grace both requires and evokes. Ages.
Christian liberty is precisely freedom to love BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Peterson, "Der Gottesfround.," ZKG (1923), 161-
and serve, and is therefore abused when it is 202.
made an excuse for loveless license (Gal. 5 : 13; HERMAN C. WAET]EN
cf. I Pet. 2: 16; 11 Pet. 2: 19) or inconsiderate-
ness (I Cor. 8:9-12). FRUIT. In a literal sense "fruit" cx:curs
The historic controversy about "free will" is many times in the OT, less frequently in the
connected with the biblical concept Of freedom NT. In Gen.I:11 the Hebrew classification
only indirectly. It concerns the question of vegetation as grasses, plants or herbs and
whether fallen man's slavery to sin is so radical fruit-bearing trees first appears. See full treat-
and complete as to make him wholly unable to ment in Moldenke, Pha"£s of t7.e Bible, Chron-
ica Botanica Co., Waltham, Mass., 1952. This
perform spiritual good or to avoid sinning, or
to repent and put faith in Christ. Reformed entry treats particularly figurative uses of six-
theology follows Augustine in affirming, on teen Hebrew and three Greek words translated
the basis of such passages as Ron. 8: 5-8; Eph. fruit and their theological significance.
2: I-10; John 6:44; 15:4-5, that man's will is Typical examples of fruit used metonymous-
not in fact free for obedience and faith till ly are: fruit Of the ground or land for agri-
freed from sin's dominion by regenerating cultural products generally (Gen. 4:3; Lev.
grace. Only on this basis, it is claimed, can 25:19; Ps. 72:16; Jer. 7:20); fruit of the
human merit be excluded and God's sov- womb, loins or body for children or descend-
ereignty acknowledged in the matter of salva- ants (Gen. 30:2; 49:22; 11 Kings 19:30; Ps.
tion, and justice be done to the biblical in- 21 : 10; I.am. 2:20; Luke I :42 -in this case,
sistence that we are saved by faith alone (with- Christ; Acts 2:30; Mic. 6:7; Rev.18: 14 figura-
out works, Ron. 3:28), through grace alone tive children); fruit of cattle or serpent for
(not human effort, Ron. 9: 16), and for God's their offspring (Gen. I:22, 28; 8:17; 9:I;
glory alone (not man's, I Col.1:28-31). Any Deut. 28:4,11; Isa.14:29); fruit of the vihe-
alternative view, it is said, makes man a de- yard or vine for grapes or wine (Deut. 22:9;
cisive contributor to his own salvation, and so 11 Kings 19:29; Isa. 65:21; Matt. 26:29).
in effect his own Saviour. Samples Of metaphorical use are: fruit Of
the table for food (Mal.I:12); fmit of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arndt; MM; H. Schlier in TWNT,. J. P. Thomton- lips or mouth for speech (Prov. 13:2; 18:20,
231 FULFIL, FULFILMENT

21; Isa. 57: 19; Heb.13: 15); fruit of the stout Ezek. 17:23; a once fruitful vine in Ezek.
heart for boasting (Isa. 10: 12); fruit of lies or 19: 10-14 and Hos. 9: 10 and 10: I, still to be
evil thoughts for God's just punishments (Hos. fruitful in Isa. 27:6.
10:13; Jer. 6:19); fruit of one's hands for Most commonly theologians use fruit in the
handmade articles or monetary gain (Prov. context of Jesus' usage and Paul's writings.
31 : 16, 31); fruit of God's works for his crea- Jesus taught that good and bad trees (teach-
tion (Ps.104:13); fruit in season for true ers) are distinguished by their fniit (Matt.
prosperity (Ps.I:3; 92:14; Jer.17:8); fruit 7:16-20,12:33), that is, by teaching of truth
for seeming prosperity of the wicked (]er. or deceit. The word o£ God is seed sown in
12:2); £mits of righteousness (Matt. 21:48; the human heart bringing forth fruit in pro-
Phil.I:11) or of repentance for good deeds portion to our way of receiving it (Matt.13:8,
(Matt. 3:8; contrast Amos 6:12); eating the 23). By abiding in Christ, the vine, the be-
fruits of one's doings for experiencing the con- liever as a branch produces fruit (cf. Hos.
sequences (Prov.I:31; Isa. 3:10; Jer.17:10; ]4:8), which is a steadfast Christlike life in
Mic. 7:13). The full fruit of the removal of words and deeds, issuing normally in convert-
Jacob's sin will be the exile, an expiating judg- ing others to Christ (John 15:I-16; cf. Ron.
ment according to Isa. 27:9. The wicked are I : 13). In Pauline terms the Holy Spirit pro-
fruitless trees (Jude 12). duces fruit in us (Col.1:6,10) a possibility
Fruit is used for a charitable contribution for every Christian (Phil.I:8-11) in contrast
in Ron.15:28; 11 Cor. 9: 11; in Dan. 4: 12-21 to the gif ts of the Spirit which are to be
for Nebuchadnezzar's generous provision for his coveted (I Cor.12:31) but are distributed to
subjects. particular individuals by God in sovereign will
In Eden God forbade man to eat the fruit of (I Col.12: 11). Paul lists (Gal. 5:22-23) the
the tree of the knowledge of good and evil fruit(s) of the Spirit (nine virtues as a single
(Gen. 2:9 ff.) to test his obedience. A literal cluster, but love is the fruit pre-eminent).
tree is implied by the physically edible fruit Note Paul's contrasting of unfruitful work of
(whether fig, ap|)le, poisonous or whatever is darkness with the fruit of light (Eph. 5 :9-11),
unknown), but its significance is symbolic, or fruits Of flesh (Phil. I:22; Ron. 6:20)
suggesting the inevitable experience of evil with fruit unto holiness (Rom. 6:22; Phil.
mixed with good as the penalty of disobedience I:11), and fruit unto death with fruit unto
to God's command. The tree of life (Gen 2:9; God (Ron. 7:4-5).
3:22 ff.) must likewise have been a literal BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mst; HDCG,. M. S. and ]. L. Millet., Et.c)J. of Bible
tree with edible fruit and in this case symbolic I-jfe, pp. 198-219.
of the everlasting life to which man was de- TERRELI.E 8. CRUM
nied access af ter Adam's sin except by way of
repentance and sacrifice. In Prov.11:30 the FULFIL, FULFILMENT. These words
idea of ``righteous" would include observing appear in the English versions of the Bible as
Mosaic sacrifices. In Rev. 22:2 the tree of life translations of the Hebrew 7„d!e-' and the
again appears, bearing leaves of healing and Greek pzgroo- and pl6I.o-7wcz. The root "6lg' is
fruit for each month to symbolize the eternal used with various significations. It may (I)
sustenance of God's people in the holy city. have the connotation to fill, e.g., Gen.1:22
Many Reformed Church theologians regard ("fill the waters in the seas," LXX, p!e-ro-safe);
the tree of life as a sacrament of the covenant to fill something with something else, e.g., I
of works, and analogous to the bread and wine Kings 18:33 ("fill four barrels with water,"
used by Melchizedek (Gen.14:18) and to Qal, LXX laz7e!e), I Sam.16:I ("fill thine
the Christian Eucharist (Matt. 26:29) in the horn with oil," Pj`G!). The root is also used in
covenant of grace. the P;`GZ in the sense to fill a person with
The fig tree which was withered by Jesus' something. Thus, Ex. 28:3, ". . . whom I have
curse because it was fruitless is probably meant filled with the spirit of wisdom" (LXX,
to suggest the nation Israel, its failure to re- eneplesa).
pent, to confess Jesus as Messiah, and to bring (2) Prominent in the OT also are the
forth truly righteous rule of the people (Mark stative <ind passive forms of the verb, as, for
11:14). Similarly Luke 13:6-19. Israel is example, in 11 Kings 4:6, "when the vessels
represented by a once fniitful olive tree in Jer. were full." The stative is also employed with
11 : 16 and Rom. 11 : 17-24; a fmitful cedar in reference to days, and is apparently based on
FULNESS 232

an Akkadian idiom, t^4iize jti}lw ("the days is fully set in them" (lit., "the heart -is filled
filled"). Thus, it is said o£ Rachel, "And when in them"), Eccl. 8: 11; "And Jehu drew a bow
her da)'s to be delivered were fulfilled" (Gen. with his full strength" (lit., "and Jehu filled
25:24a). The thought is that the days had his hand and the bow"),11 Kings 9:24a.
become full so that there were no more of The usage in the NT is on the whole sim-
them. When one day had become full that ilar to that of the Old. The verb p!6i-oo- is also
day wits regarded as comi)leted and conse- used in the sense "to fill," "to be filled" as in
quently as I)ast. This thought is also expressed Acts 2:2; 13;32 and Ron.15:13. It is also
by the I)assive, as in Ex. 7:25 (LXX, ¢7ceple-ro-- employed with the connotation "to bring to
tJ7Gsfl7®). Cf. also Gen. 6:11,11 Kings 10:21. completion" as in Ron.15:19; 11 Cor.10:6
(3) The stative form of "6[g' is also em- (passive) and Phil. 2:2; "to bring to an end,"
ployed to express the thought that something as in Acts 12:25. One usage, prominent in
may be filled with something else, e.g., ". . . the the NT, and based upon OT passages such
earth is filled with violence through them . . ." as Jer. 44:25, has reference to the fulfilment
(Gen. 6: 13b). The earth is here represented o£ OT prophecy, e.g., Matt.1:21, where cer-
as a container which holds and is completely lain events are said to have occurred in order
filled with violence. To paraphrase: "the earth to fulfil prophecy. The thought is that the
is in the condition of being filled full of vio- thing spoken in prophecy has now been ac-
lence." Similar in import are Ex. 8:17 and complished, and in such passages the word
"fulfil" is a I)ractical equivalent of "accom-
Deut. 34:9.
(4) In the Pi`el stem '7"ji!G' may also be ren- plish," "complete." We may also note the
usage of the noun p!e-ro-t7tc} in Gal. 4:4, ren-
dered to fulfil, as in Gen. 29:27a, ``fulfil her
week." This is actually the converse o£ (2)
dered "fulness of the time" AV. Here the noun
above. Jacob is to fill the week full, and then
is equivalent to "the state of being full." Time
it will be regarded as accomplished. Somewhat had been filled full, i.e., the necessary time
similar is the thought of fulfilling a promise,
had passed, so that God might send forth his
as found, e.g., in Jer. 44:25 (LXX 51:25,
Son.
ep]6ro-sate). In this passage the word fulfil is Revelation is I)rogressive. The revelations of
the equivalent of "to accomplish." Cf. also the OT, although genuine, nevertheless were
Ps. 20:6, where the reference is to the ful- partial and incomplete. In the NT they re-
filment, i.e., the performance or accomplish-
ceived their enrichment and completion, as
ment of a petition. A slight variation of this
the type gave way to antitype, the partial to
connotation is found in I Kings 1:14 where the complete, the preparatory to the final.
AV renders "confirm." This concept cif progressive revelation lies at
the heart of biblical theology.
A number of passages do not actually fit BIBLIOGRAPHY
into the cibove categories and probably repre-
sent idiomatic usages of` the verb. In most Of R.A#g.KTEsk%,.TG*eKo`,edmEees\t,aEnreo,,.,t,ts3£at#g#e,#,Eeesfta;.
11,ent.
these, however, it is possible to perceive how EDWARD J. YOUNG
the idiomatic connotation was obtained. We
may note IsLi. 40:2, "her warfare is accom- FULNESS. The Greek word plGro-t„ci de-
plished," i.e., is filled full (LXX ep}GstJ.G). notes that which fills, fulfils or completes. In
Of particular interest are Josh. 3: 15, "for Jor- classical and hellenistic Greek it may mean
dan overfloweth all his banks . . ." (lit., "is the entire contents, or sum-total. It is used,
full upon his banks"); Num. 14:24b, "and e.g., of the full strength of a military corps, or
hath followed me fully" (lit., "and he filled of a ship's complement. Philo applies it to the
after me"). C£. also Nun. 32: 11, and I Sam. collection of animals in Noah's ark; he also
18:27, "and they gave them in full tale," (lit., describes a soul as having a full cargo (plBro-"c!)
"and they filled them"). Of interest too is the of virtues.
expression translated "gather the shields" AV, I. NON-THEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCES IN THE

(lit., "fill the shields'') in Jer. 51:11. The NT. Of the seventeen instances of plgi.o-"ci in
following also should be noted, "consecrate the NT, eleven have no technical sense; they
yourselves today" (lit., "fill your hand today"), may be classified as follows. The word is used
Ex. 32:29; "and consecrate them" (lit., "and (a) of the patch put in to "fill up" the rent
thou shalt fill their hands''), Ex. 28:41; also in an old garment (Matt. 9: 16 = Mark 2:21);
Ezek. 43:26, "the heart of the sons of men (b) of the leftover fragments which "filled"
233 FUNDAMENTALISM

`gave him, Christ, I say, as the fulness of him

several baskets after the miraculous feedings
(Mark 6:43; 8.:20); (c) of the earth's con- who is filled with (or in respect of) all things'
tents, in a quotation from Ps. 24:I (LXX - or middle, `who fills the universe with all
23:1), representing Heb. "el6' (I Cor. things.' `The fulness of him,' i.e., the fulness
10:26); (d) of the final sum-total of believing of God, is what Christ is here said to be. This
Jews and Gentiles respectively (Rom.11 : 12, view seems suppoi.ted by Col.I:18" (Derek
25); (e) of love as the "fulfilment" of the law D. W. Mowhraly, C. I. Voughan [1816-1897]..
(Ron.13: 10); (f) of the "fulness" of Christ's Bjz7Ze Expos;tor, unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
blessing which Paul hoi]es to bring to Rome University o£ Sheffield, 1958, Vol. 11 [Ap-
(Ron. 15:29); (g) of the completion of an pendix], p. 216). For the same view cf. A. E.
<1ppointed I)eriod of time (Gal. 4:4). N. Hitchcock, ExpT 22, 1910-11, p. 91;
11. THEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCES IN THE Charles F. D. Mou]e, ExpT 60, 1948-9, p.
NT. The remaining six instances have the fol- 53. It involves unnecessary awkwardness in
lowing connotations : construing the text.
(a) The "fulness" o£ Christ (John I:16), Ill. GNosTlc USAGE. In Valentinianism
i.e., the inexhaustible resources of his grace p!6ro-7ri¢ denotes the totality of the divine at-
(``grace upon grace") on which his people may tributes. These attributes are ex|)ressed mytho-
freely draw. logically as thirty ``aeons" emanating from God,
(b) The ``fulness" of Christ (E|)h. 4:13), but distinct from him and from the material
i.e., that s|)iritual maturity to which believers world. They correspond to the Platonic "ideas";
attain as members of his body. sometimes each aeon is called a pzgi-67"cz by
(c) The "fulness" of God (Eph. 3:19), contrast with the defectiveness of its earthly
i.e., the full realization in believers of that copies. Ag€`in, an individual's spirit-counter-
eternal purpose towards which God is working. part is called his pie-ro-t7®&; in this sense Hera-
cleon on John 4:16 sa}'s that the Samaritan
(d) The "£ulness" which by God's decree
resides in Christ (Col.1:19), i.e., the "ful- woman was told to fetch her pze-ro-7"a. Each
ness" of deity which is embodied in him (Col. of the aeons imparted its peculiar excellence
2:9). In Colossians Paul refutes an incipient to Jesus, so that he appeared on earth as "the
Gnosticism which evidently used pZ€r67"cz as a perfect beaut}7 and star of the pzgr6"a" (Ire-
technical term, denoting the 1)lenitude of the naeus, Heresies i.14.2). In the Valentinian
divine nature as distributed among several Gospel of Trtlt7t the Word comes f`orth from
emanations, intermediaries between God and the ple-ro-7"cr, which is its place of repose.
the world. Paul insists that Christ, the one BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mediator bet.ween God and men, embodies the co?o:s`:`];i,t,!s Gfl.,.tpe#.Ig„,i(;`„,TPTT; 7M|lt|;; ,J.. ,I.. ±jogJ::Tfs?o°nt;
fulncss of the Godhead, and in addition im- Ep}i.'sja%s, pp. 255 ff.; C. A. A. Scott, Clirjstia"ity ac-

parts his fulness to his people. Without him

they remain incom|)1ete fragments; incorpo-
rated in him they share a common life in ii:j!;{j;;£'`:3;i;I;;tp'::{e±:{J]`#ipt:Ee:2S;,::;:'.::i:&§;#:;a;;:::it;#:;t;{`;;::;;
.gpo,,:3s3EEs a\n6d+ cfoft3ss£;ns¥.pp=tT2PSF£F, 2to`g £=,. 2F3.2 P."cc,
which he and they complement each other as
the head does the body and the body the head. FREI)ERlcK FyvIE BRUCE
(e) This last thought probably underlies
the use of plgro-7"c] in Eph.I:23, where the FULNESS OF TIME. See ADVENT oF
church, the body of Christ, is called "the fti!- CHRIST.
7}ess Of him who fills all in all" - or (as
others translate) "the co"¢pze7"e7ct of him who FUNDAMENTALISM. The term denotes
is being perpetuall}' filled" (with the fulness a movement in theolog}7 in recent decades de-
of deity). Whether the verb is middle ("fills'') signed to conserve the princiiiles which lie at
or passive ("is being filled"), "fulness" is the foundation of the Christian s}'stem, and to
probably in apposition with "body." Another resist what were considered dangerous theo-
view treats the clause "which is his body" as logical tendenc`ies in the movement calling it-
parenthetical and takes "fulness" in apposition self Modernism. Its tenets are not those dis-
with "him" (vs. 22), making Christ the Fa- tinctive of an}' Protestant denomination, but
ther's plgro-7"cl or ``complement." So, accord- comprise lhe verities essential to the Christian
ing to Charles John Vaughan, pZGi.o-7"¢ in Eph. gospel as inherited from all branches of the
I:23 "seems very likely to refer to C7irjst - Reformation.
GALLICANISM 234

The movement found literary expression in deity and virgin birth of Christ, (4) the crea-
and received its name from the publication, tion and fall of man, (5) a substitutionary
between 1910 and 1912, of T7ie Fw7®dat74e7¢tc}ls.. atonement, (6) the bodily resurrection and as-
A I.estj7"o"y to t7ie Ti.t4t)?. The authors of this cension o£ Christ, (7) the regeneration of be-
series of twelve volumes sought to enumerate lievers, (8) the personal and imminent return
and expound the verities which are essential to of Christ, and (9) the i.esurrection and final
Protestant orthodoxy. assignment of all men to eternal blessedness
Organizationally, Fundamentalism took or eternal woe. W. 8. Riley was president of
shape as a consequence of the World Confer- the Association until 1930, Paul W. Rood
ence in Christian Fundamentals which con- from 1930 to 1952, at which time it merged
vened at Philadelphia in May of 1919. Taking with the Slavic Gospel Association.
the name, The World's Christian Funda- BIBLIOGRAPHY
mentals Association, the organization required
1?::fn:dFp%;ff:alliiR#alcn;odcfijF##o%#%,P,epdl#ialcRktf;,
of its members adherence to nine points of doc-
trine, namely: (I) the inspiration and in-
errancy of Scripture, (2) the Trinity, (3) the HAROLI) 8. KUHN

GALLICANISM. The name given to an 2:16), and of the Lord as taking possession
ecclesiastical movement in France which since of a person (Judg. 6:34; cf. Job 38:9). This
the thirteenth century has consistently resisted idea is given greater meaning by the special
the infringement of liberties by the See o£ use Of 'gz6r, "waist-cloth," to describe the rela-
Rome. The term is now more broadly applied tionship of Judah and Israel to the Lord. Since
to a similarly independent attitude on the part the waist-cloth was always worn next to the
of any national church. `The promulgation of skin, it emphasizes the closest possible position
the Gallican articles on March 19, 1682, was (Jer.13: 1 ff.).
precipitated by the action of Louis XIV in ex- Dominant characteristics of a person are
ercising his right of Regalia in the matter Of of ten designated by the use of garments, as
episcopal appointments. The Declaration mere- things which are worn in everyday life. The
ly served to codify the insistences o£ Philip IV, messianic king will be characterized by faith-
the Councils of Constance and Basel and the £ulness and righteousness because these things
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. will I)e his "girdle" (Isa.11:5; c£. 59:17;
A. SKEVINGTON WOOD 61:10; Job 29:14; Eph. 6:14 ff.). Paul, in-
deed, sees one's whole nature as something
GARMENT. The garment was first used which clothes a person (Col. 3:7-10; cf. I Cor.
in the Garderi of Eden where the girdle 15:53 ff.). And when one rends his garments
(¢dg67.6) of fig leaves was an attempt to hide it is a sign of deep mourning (Gen. 37:29;
the-nakedness of the original parents. This use Isa. 36:22) or of indignation (Matt. 26:65).
of clothing as a means of concealment finds its According to Mosaic regulations the outer
expression in such a passage as Matt. 7:15, garment (Sit"Zd,. NT, 7}j77¢atjo7t), if taken in
where the false prophets are described as ap- pawn, was to be returned before sunset so as
pearing "in sheep's clothing, but inwardly are to give covering for sleep (Ex. 22:27). But
ravenous wolves"; that is, they conceal their Jesus taught that his followers must be pre-
real purposes by a lamblike exterior (cf . Gen. pared to give up even that garment which the
20:16; Isa. 50:3). law allowed as an expression of Christian love
The garment is also used as indicative ol` (Matt. 5:40; cf. I Col. 6:7).
ROBERT 8. LAURIN
close relationshi|), just as clothing clings to the
body. Thus it is figurative of a wife (Mal. GEHENNA. See HELL.
235 GENTLENESS

GENERATION. The word ``generation" uncleanness (Acts 10:28; 11:3; John 18:28).
(or "generations") occurs in the AV over 200 Yet proselytes (q.v.) were made by the Jews
times. It is used to translate the Hebrew words from among the Gentiles, and a court was
d6r (also translated "age" and "posterity") and provided for them in the temple. One of the
f6Zed6! (in one place translated "birth"), and bitterest struggles in the early church was over
the Greek words ge"e¢ (meaning a begetting, the question of the inclusion of gentile con~
birth, clan), ge7®esjs (source, origin, birth, verts to Christianity. Were they to be admitted
creation), ge#os (race, family, stock), and via the portal o£ Judaism, or directly into the
ge""e-mcz (progeny, offspring, that which is fold? The verdict of the a|>ostles in confer-
begotten or born). Basicall}', therefore, genera- ence with the church at Jerusalem was in favor
tion has to do with creation, the act of beget- of Paul (Acts 15: 19). No Jewish rites were
ting; but it has variant applied uses in both demanded exceiit the admonition to eat clean
Testaments. For example: (I) it is used in food and abstain from moral impurities.
relation to the time process, to denote an age The mystery o£ Jewish unbelief and the ad-
or successive ages (so Gen. 9: 12; Ex. 30: 10; mission of the Gentiles to the church of God
Ps. 102:24); (2) in Matt. 24:34; Mark is treated in Romans 9-11, where the figure of
13:30; Luke 21 :32, it might mean the race, or an olive tree is used (cf. Jer.11:16; Hos.
those living at one time - either the time 14:6). Some of its branches have been broken
when the words were spoken, or when the off because of unbelief.. Shoots from the wild
signs begin; (3) it is used in the sense of olive have been graf ted to the root. This is a
offspring, descendants from the same stock (so
picture of Jew and Gentile. Dr. Ramsay has
Acts 2:40; I Pet. 2:9). shown that when an olive tree ceased to bear
In dogmatic theology generation (ge"#gsjs) fruit, cuttings from the wild olive were grafted
is used of the Son's relation to the Father in to the stoi`k. The Gentiles stood by faith.
the Godhead. The terms w7cZ7egotte#, begotte7i, There was no place for boasting, but a solemn
and proceed!."g are apt)lied to the nature of the obligation to communic.1te the gospel to the
being of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit re- wide world and esi)ccially to the Jew.
spectively. The Nicene formula is: "We be- Paul called himself "the ill)ostle of the Gen-
lieve . . . in one Lord Jesus Christ the Son of tiles" (Ron.11:13; Ei]h. 3:3; Acts 22:21).
God, begotten (ge"7cGtJle"fa) of the Father, Yet the dti}' of gentile oi)i)()rtunit}' is limited in
only-begotten (7"o7toge7ig) . . . of one substance the I)uri)osc of God (Luke 21 :24).
(ho"oows;o7c) with the Father." RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN
See also ONLY BEGOTTEN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY GENTLENESS. "Gentle," "gentleness" are
Arndt; A-S; BDB; HDB; MM; R. L. Ottley, TII.J Doc`-
used in the English versions for several words.
The AV, RV and RSV transl:`te ep€.ejke-s thus,
;';;s:tlg:ef;ctahgco£:;cfsrj:?,;jt°iT;te.g:;T„J3r#ic3.}5;:'*.8[c:.;wG;n!;
the meaning of which is dealt with under
OWEN R. BRANDON MODERATloN. Moffatt and the RSV (on oc-
casions) translate pr¢ofGs similarly, although
GENTILES. The Hebrew g6yj7% desig- "meekness" (q.v.) is more usual.
nates non-Jewish peoi)les, rendered by the AV In the OT, '`gentleness" occ`urs only once
as ``nations" or "heathen," by the RV frequent- (11 Sam. 22:36=Ps.18:35). The RV mg.
ly as "Gentiles." The "I)Col)le," `c}", is usually renders "condescension," whic`h more accurate-
confined to Israel. The LXX makes a similar ly gives the sense, the thought being of Al-
distinction between et7.74os and Laos (Luke mighty God condescending to visit the lowly
2:32). The Suffering Servant of the Lord in-
(cf. Isa. 57: 15).
cludes both groups in his mission of salvation A NT word for which "gentle" is clearly
(Isa. 42:6; 49:6; 56:6-7). right is Gpjos (I Thess. 2:7; 11 Tim. 2:24).
Israel as the people of God developed a The tenderness of ``a nurse among trying chil-
strict exclusiveness from other peoples at the dren or a teacher with refractory pupils" (J.
time of the restoration from captivity. This at- Denne}J in HDB) is indicated.
titude gave great offence to the gentile world, In Gal. 5:22, one of the fruits of the S|)irit
but was really a safeguard against the influ- is cJii-Gstotc?s "gentleness" (AV), "kindness"
ence of gentile ways. For a Jew to enter the (RV). It occurs in eight I)laces (only in Paul-
house of a Gentile, or eat with him, involved ine writings), usually being translated "kind-
GIFTS 236

ness." Gentleness, therefore, signifies a patient of him (6: I ff.) included both the perception
and kind condescension, but the distinctive of sensible features and the nature o£ God,
qualities of epjejkGs and praotGs should be particularly his holiness (c£. John 12:41). The
noted. intrinsic worth of God, his ineffable majesty,
R. COLIN CRASTON constitutes the basis of warnings not to glory
1n ches, wisdom or might (Jer. 9:23) but in
GIFTS. See SplRITUAI. GIFTs. th God who has given all these and is greater
GIRDLE. See ARMOR. th his gifts. In the prophets the word glory
is ten used to set. forth the excellence of t'he
GLORY. The principal word in the He- messianic kingdom in contrast to the limita-
brew for this concept is ke-E76d, and in the tions of the present order (Isa. 60: 1-3).
Greek doac¢, which is derived from dokeo-, "to 11. NT USAGE. In general doaca follows rath-
think" or ``to seem." These two meanings ac- er closely the pattern established in the LXX.
count for the two main lines of significance in It is used Of honor in the sense of recognition
classical Greek, where do3ccz means opinion or acclaim (Luke 14: 10), and of the vocalized
(what one thinks for himself ) and reputation reverence of the creature for the Creator and
(what others think about him), which may Judge (Rev. 14:7). With reference to God,
shade into fame or honor or praise. it denotes his majesty (Ron.I:23) and his
I. OT USAGE. Since kGZ76d derives from perfection, especially in relation to righteous-
k6¢e-a, "to be heavy," it lend-s itself to the idea ness (Rom. 3:23). He is called the Father Of
that the one possessing glory is laden with glory (Eph.1:17). The manifestation Of his
riches (Gen. 31 : I), power (Isa. 8: 7), position presence in terms of light is an occasional
(Gen. 45:13), etc. To the translators of the phenomenon, as in the OT (Luke 2:9), but
LXX it seemed that do?c¢ was the most suitable in the main this feature is transferred to the
word for rendering kdfy6d, since it carried the Son. The transfiguration is the sole instance
notion of reputation or honor which was pres- during the earthly ministry, but later mani:
ent in the use of k6Z76d. But kdz?6c! also de- festations include the revelation to Saul at the
noted the manifestatio-n -of light by which God time of his conversion (Acts 9:3 f£.) and to
revealed himself, whether in the lightning John on the Isle o£ Patmos (Rev.I:12 ff.).
flash or in the blinding splendor which of ten The fact that Paul is able to speak of God's
accompanied theophanies. Of the same nature glory in terms of riches (E|)h.1:18; 3:16)
was the disclosure of the divine presence in and might (Col. 1 : 11) suggests the influence
the cloud which led Israel through the wilder- of the OT upon his thinking. The display of
ness and became localized in the tabernacle. God's power in raising his Son from the dead
So c!ox¢, as a translation o£ J€d¢6d, gained a is labeled glory (Ron. 6:4).
nuance of meaning which it did not possess Christ is the eff ulgence of the divine glory
before. At times /€6Z)6cZ had a deeper penetra- (Heb.I:3). By means of him the perfection
tion, denoting the person or self.. When Moses of the nature of God is made known to men.
made the request o£ God, ``Show me thy When James speaks of him as the Lord of
glory" (Ex. 33 : 18) he was not speaking of the glory (2: 1) his thought seems to move along
light-cloud, which he had already seen, but he the lines of the revelation o£ God in the taber-
was seeking a special manifestation of God nacle. There the divine presence was a gra-
which would leave nothing to be desired (cf. cious condescension but also an ever-present
John 14:8). Moses had a craving to come to reminder of God's readiness to mark the sins
grips with God as he was in himself. In reply, of his people and to visit them with judgment.
God emphasized his goodness (Ex. 33:19). So the readers of James' epistle are admonished
The word might be rendered in this instance to beware of partiality. The Lord is in the
"moral beauty." Apart from this the eternity midst of his people as of yore.
o£ God as a subject of human contemplation The glory of Christ as the image of God,
the Son of the Father, was veiled from sinful
#gshets?set£:Psreeesifnpg];tTf:isti:Ci8::tti:?otv£,g eyes during the days of his flesh but was ap-
glory is not confined to some outward sign parent to the men of faith who gathered
which appeals to the senses, but is that which around him (John 1 : 14).
expresses his inherent majesty, which may or Even as the pre-incarnate Son had dwelt
may not have some visible token. Isaiah's vision with the Father in a state of glory (with no
23 7 GNOSTICISM

sin to mar the perfection of the divine mode (hawc73¢o"¢a;) where the meaning is to boast,
of life and intercourse), according to his own as in Gal. 6: 14.
consciousness (John 17: 5), so his return to the BIBLIOGRAPHY
Father can properly be called an entrance
into glory (Luke 24:26). But more seems to
be involved here than a sharing with the
Father of what he had enjoyed in ages past.
God now gives him glory (I Pet.1:21), in #§;::§#ta}:i::;i;;;:;e:i§§°:'i:;:ifd;::;#o:i;¥::£Sn;e:£::::1;g;2!ttii
some sense as a reward for the faithful, full EVERETT F. HARRISoN
completion of the Father's will in relation to
the work of salvation (Phil. 2:9-11; Acts
GNOSTICISM. A very dangerous heresy
which came into the church like a flood in the
3:13). So it is that both the taking up of
second century. By the beginning of the third
Christ from the earth (I Tim. 3: 16) and his
century nearly all the more intellectual Chris-
return (Col. 3:4; Titus 2: 13), and the repre-
tian congregations in the Roman Empire were
sentations of his presence and activity as the
markedly affected by it. Its errors are clearly
future judge and king (Matt. 25:31) are also
referred to in the NT, e.g., I John 2:22; 4:2-
associated with a majesty and radiance which
3, where reference is made to those who de-
are largely lacking in the portrayals of Jesus
nied that Christ had "come in the flesh." The
in the days of his humiliation.
system was eclectic and its materials were
While the contrast is valid, therefore, be- drawn from many quarters such as the myth-
tween the sufferings of Christ and the glory ologies of Greece, Egypt, Persia, and India,
(literally, the glories) to follow (I Pet. I : 11), and from the philosophies and theosophies of
John's Gospel reveals a further development, these lands. Many of its leading ideas had
namely, that the sufferings themselves can be existed before the Christian era but its votaries
viewed as a glorification. Jesus was aware Of felt that in the Christian religion were valua-
this and expressed himself accordingly. "The ble elements which could be worked into their
hour is come that the Son of man should be scheme of things. Their aim was to reduce
glorified" (John 12:23). This word hour in Christianity to a philosoi)hy and relate it to
the fourth Gospel points regularly to the death various pagan teachings as well as to the OT
Of Christ. Jesus was not seeking to invest the which they distorted.
cross with an aura of splendor which it did not The term Gnostic comes from the Greek
have, in order to conjure up a psychological word g7?osjs which means "knowledge." The
antidote to its pain and shame. Rather, glory Gnostic claimed special esoteric or secret
properly belongs to the finishing of the work knowledge. It could be possessed only by that
which the Father had given him to do, since section of humanit}7 which was "I)neumatic,"
that work represented the perfect will of God. or si]iritual. They alone were inevitably led
Eschatological glory is the hope of the back to the realm of light of the Supreme
Christian (Ron. 5:2). In this future state he God. There was a second class of men, those
will have a new body patterned after Christ's who were only "psychic" and could not get
glorified body (Phil. 3:21), an instrument su- beyond faith. The prophets and other good
perior to that with which he is presently en- Hebrews belonged to this class but the)T in
dowed (I Cor.15:43). Christ within the be- be eternally in a sphere much inferior to th
liever is the hope of glory (Col.I:27). He is occupied by those who had "gnosis." A th
also the chief ornament of heaven (Rev. class represented the overwhelming mass
21,23). human kind. They were merely "h}'lic" (i.e.,
The word glory is found in the plural to de- subject to matter) and their case was utterly
note dignitaries (Jude 8). It is not easy to de- hot)eless for they were in endless bondage to
termine whether the reference is to angels or Satan and their own lusts, and their end was
men of honor and repute in the Christian to be completely destroyed. Here was one of
community. the worst features of Gnosticism, the elevating
A somewhat specialized use of the word is of a limited number into a specially privileged
that which it has in the doxologies, which are class, and the consigning of the vast majority
ascriptions of praise to God for his worth and of mankind to unredeemable destruction. This
works (e.g., Ron. I I : 36). was totally contrary to the teachings o£ Chris-
On several occasions glory is used as a verb tianity.
GOD 238

We encounter several very distinct schools was never incarnate. He could not be, because
of thought among the Gnostics. It is exceed- matter was so evil. The heavenly Christ re-
ingl}r difficult to make a satisfactory classifica- turned to he€`ven before the crucifixion, so it
tion of these. They have been divided into was onl\' a man who died on the cross. An-
ascetic and licentious; monistic and dualistic; other \'6rsion was that the heavenly Christ
S\'rian and Alexandrian. H. M. Gwatkin onl}r had the semblance of a body.
C'Eai.ly Chiti-cl. Histoi-y, Vo\. 11, p. 20) pro- The two greatest Gnostics intellectually
`7isionall}' describes Gnosticism as "a number were Valentinus and Basilides, both of Alexan.
of schools of philosophy, Oriental in general dria, and both hellenic in outlook. The former
i`har;`cter, but taking in the idea of a redem|)- was at the zenith of his fame about A.D. 150.
tion through Christ, and further modified in He lived in Rome A.D. 138-61. Basilides was
diffcrcnt sects by :` third element which may at his height about A.D.130. He differed from
be Judaism, Hellenism, or Christianit)7." The Valentinus in that he taught that every de-
clcissification of the Gnostic sects in this way velopment of God {ind the world was brought
is as good as an}', but not entirel}' satisfactory. about from below upwards, and not by emana-
tions from above. The gi.eat Syrian section of
In general, all the varied schools taught that
Gnosticism was founded b)' Saturninus at An-
matter was utterly and irretrievably evil. They
tioch. He flourished about A.D. 125. One of
agreed that the God of the Jews, the Creator
the earliest Gnostics was Cerinthus, a contem-
of the world, was not the Supreme Being but
a vcr)' inferior being whom they called the porary of St. John at Ei)hesus. He was half
Ebionite. Marcion of Sino|)e (ca. 140) was
Demiurge. The Supreme Being, the Absolute,
one of the most Christian Gnostics, yet he
is the unknown and ineff able one of whom
inutilated the Sc`rti)tures wholesale, and re-
nothing can be 1)redicated. He is Bythos, dwell-
ing imf initel}' remote from the world, in the jected all the apostles except Paul.
The Ophites were a Gnostic sect which
spiritual light of the Pleroma which is the
vcneratcd the seri]cnt. The)' taught that God
fulncss of God. The problem was to explain
was bad and the seri)ent good. One school of
how this inef fabl)7 pure Being could have
thought turned the Scriptures ui)side down,
originated a material world, seeing that matter
teaching that Pharaoh and Ahab were saints
is essentially evil. The difficulty was sur-
while Moses and Elijah were sinners. Alto-
mounted b}7 postulating a series of thirty
emanations (or "aeons") from Bythos, each of gether, Gnosticism was a deadly |]eril in the
church for about 150 years.
these originating the next in order. The aeons
BIBLIOGRAPHY
were attributes thought of as personal, and
took the place of the abstract ideas of Greek tjflr.[o££Oa;:,i;:`t,.H[f.Rij.Jc,\i,..`tlk},+`,:I,u`]]jit:.,:7?,i`k€}.,,„,I:t,I,JJ.liz.€!:I;.!.,:;
Vol. 11.
philosoi)h}'. When one of these aeons was ALEXANDER M. RENWICK
sufficientl}J remote from the Sui)reme God,
2ind was on the borderland of light and dark-
GOD. Since the topic GocZ is unmanageably
ness, he created the world and did it badly.
immense, this article will sim|)lify matters by
This was the Demiurge or God of the OT.
a division between the biblical data and the
Sometimes he was regarded as activel}7 hostile
philosophical problems they raise. Of course,
to the Supreme God, and in ever}J case was
this division is slightl}7 arbitrary. Biblical the-
regarded as the producer of a very evil rna-
olog}7 must systematize its material to some de-
terial woi.ld. It contained, however, certain
gree; and systematic theology, if definitely
germs of a higher life, rays of immortal life Christian, constantly ai)peals to the text o£
from the glorious light of the Pleroma above.
Scripture. Nevertheless there is a difference.
These were ever struggling to be free. Thus
Biblical theology stays closer to the text in its
there was a constant struggle between good
chronological development and is easier to un~
and evil, life and death, matter and spirit.
derstand; systematic theology follows a logical
Here we have Eastern dualism. Some had in-
order, draws out implications, and can become
finitel}J more of this divine life than others.
highly technical.
They were those who had "gnosis."
I. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.
The historical Christ was a mere man, but
he was taken possession of by the heavenly A. TJ?e Ncz7%es of God. The first word for
Christ who was the brightest of all aeons. This God in the OT is EloJi7.i7t. It is also the most
heavenly Christ acted in the man Jesus but general and least specific in significance. Thus
239 GOD

it would corrcsi)ond to T72eos in Gri`ck and to Bc`ing of Greek I)hilosoi]hy. Quite the reverse,
GocZ or Dei.ty in English. Unlike Je7.oi7HJz, ex- whcri`i`s Elt)him di`signatc`s God's universal ac-
plained below, Elohim cfm be used for pagan tion, JIIV[I is the name used in connec`tion
gods (Gen. 31 :30; E,\'.12: 12). with God's choic`c of, rcvclation to, and si)e-
Since it is so used €`nd sini`e it is a I)1ural cial c`are for his c()vcnant I)col)lc. It is the
noun, some critics have seen in it an indica- term alm()st :`lwa}'s used in theoi)hanies, ilnd
tion of an original polytheism. This theory is almost always revel:`ti(in is "the word of
not well founded because the singular form, JHV[1." Or, more briefly, JHVH is the ref
EZoflh, is poetic and rari`. In I)rose the I)lural dem|)tive name o£ God.
has to be used, whether I)ol}'theistic.ill)J or I-]ighcr i`ritii`isin h£`s often tried to mi`intain
monotheistically, because there is no other suit- thi`t one i`uthor c()uld not possibl)I h£`vc used
able word. Therefore its use cannot prove an both ni`mi`s f`or G()d, <ind that thercforc the
underlying I)olytheism in biblical religion. first i`hz`i)ter of Genesis was written b}' ()nc
On the other hand, some Christians have lnan fmd the second by another. The theory of
exi)lained the plural as an anticipation of the two authors is not needed to explain the use
Trinity. But agclin, without a commonly used of` thcsc two n£`incs. The first c'n{1i)tcr tells of
singular no one in OT times could have de- God's goneri`l rck`tion to the world, i`nd thi`n
veloi]ed trinitarian ideas from the word alone. the second begins to reli`tc his siti`ciul i`i`rc for
The plural would suggest polytheism more men who b\' Adam's fall soon were in need
readily than trinitarianism were it not for hints of redemi)ti6n. God in his wisdom furnished
other than the word itself being used with a thcsc two ni`mcs as tl i`onvcnicnt method o£
singular verb. This is not to si`}J that material summarizing what the Sc`rii]turcs teach i`bout
in the OT i`£`nnot hint at some distinctions God: EZoJH.7", his work of crL`ation; and Je7io-
within the Godhead. vczJi, his work of redemption.
The pluri`l form is better understood i`s in- 8. God as Ci.cc]toi.. The Bible oiicns with
dic`ating a I)leni[ude of I)ower. Though the the :lccount o£` God's i`rcatin`g the univcrsc.
et}'molog}' is ()bscure, the word ma}' have come The first c`h£`|)ter of Genesis Lszi\'cs the im|lrcs-
from a root meaning sti'o71g. Its I)oetic singu- sion that, £`sidc from God himself, everything
lar, EZoaJ2, seems to mean an objec`t of terror. that e,xists h£`s bccn created. God alone is sc`l£-
In any case, this name is used chiefl}7 in con- cxistcnt. N()thin`¥ else exists t)£` its own right,
nection with God's `{I()\Jcrnz`nce o£` the world indci)cndentl}', ()r without beginning. This in-
and m{`nkind in general. iti{`l impression is c`orr()bor:`ted b}' mi`n}' lc`ter
Another word, Ej, whic`h is not reli`tcd di-
pi`ssi`ges. Neh. 9:6 st£`tes, "Thou, even thou,
rectly to Elohim, occ`urs more than 200 times, £irt Lord :`lonc; thou h£`st made hcfivcn, the
chiefly in Job, P.scilms, i`nd Isaiah. It is often heaven o£' he!`\Jcns, with i`ll their host, the
accompanied by some descri|)tive term or in ei`rth, and all things that are thcrcin, the scz`s,
such combinations as EZ-SJic]d4!fli., God Al- and {`11 th:`t is thcrcin, and thou I)rcscrvcst
mighty, or EZ-EZ,yo7e, God Most High. thc`m i`ll; and the host ()f hea`'en worshii)I)cth
In c`ontrast with this most gencrcll name of thee." Cf. Ex. 20:11; Isa. 42:5; John 1:3;
God there stands JCJzoi7ft7t, the most si)ecific`. Hcb. 3:4, ef c!!.
Jehovah is an artificial Enghsh word I)ut to- The c,`prc.ssions of Sc`rii)turc as [o the cx-
gether from the four Hebrew consonants tcnt of God's i`rcative ac`t £1ri` so co`Ini)rehcnsivc
JHVH and the vowels of the Hebrew word that \`'L` s£`}' God created clll things ex 7iz.7!j!o,
AcZo74¢!., or Loi.d. Before the time of Christ the out o[` nothing. Before zmy natur€`l i]roccsscs
Jews develoi)ed a superstitious dread of i]ro- began, God i`re£`ted £`bsolutcl}'. rle made no
nouncing JHVH; when they came to it in the use t)f I)rior existing material to f€`shion the
text, they pronounced Adonai instead; then uni\'crsc i`s a scull)tor mi`kes a bci`utiful sti`tuc
later the vowels of Adonai were written into out of .in ugl)' bloc`k ot` stone; but "8}' the
the manuscri|)ts, and in modern times I)eople word ()f the Lord were the heavens m£`di`, imd
have been sa}'ing Jehovah. The original pro- {ill the host ot` them by the breath of his
nunciation was probably Yahveh. mouth" (Ps. 33:6); and "God said, Let there
A basic explanation of the name is given be light, £`nd thc`re was light" (Gen. I :3), ``f`or
in Ex. 3:13-15: "I am that I am," or, bet- h(` spakc`, i`nd it \v£`s done" (Ps. 33:9). This
ter, "I will be what I will be." The hellenistic is usuall}7 called f7.flf c`rez`tion (q.v.). This is not
Jews wrongly identified JHVH with the Pure to si`}' thi`t i`fter bringing the universe into
GOD 240

existence, God did not use previously created people, but most particularly and in a manner
substanc.e in completing his creation. The Bible impossible in the systems of Spinoza and
specifically states, for example, that "God Hegel, he speaks to man. We lean the nature
formed man of the dust of the ground." and attributes of God, not by a scientific study
Since speaking and creating are voluntary of nature, but by a verbal revelation (a.v.).
actions, the first chapter o£ Genesis teaches the The idea of revelation or divine communica-
personality o£ God. God is not a physical, in- tion of knowledge, as well as the righteousness
animate, mechanical First Cause. Nor is he a and love by which that revelation so sharply
descripti`7e princii)le abstracted from the phe- distinguishes God from the imaginations of
nomena of nature. He arranges the parts of the heathen, comes to clearest expression in
the universe for a purpose (Gen.I:14,16, the works of providence and redemption. For
26, 28). Intelligence and volition are personal. the moment, however, the implications of
Most religions have preserved some notion creation require further development.
of a personal God. In modern times even pan- 1£ God has created all things of nothing,
theists, like Spinoza and Hegel, though they simply by his word, his fiat, his command, it
deny creation and identify God and the uni- follows that he is omnipotent. Neither a great-
verse, consider their All or Absolute a living er power nor a more impossible task is con-
being. In antiquity Aristotle taught that the ceivable. The biblical concept of God Almighty
First Mover thinks. All these views show a differs radically from paganism and idolatry.
trace of personality, but only a trace. Spinoza Where there are many gods, each limits the
denied that God had a will, and Aristotle de- others. Since no one of them is the creator
nied that God knew history. In fact, the of all, no one of them is in complete control.
polytheists often seem to have a better appre- The Lord God Almighty, who created the
ciation of personality, even if their divine per- heavens and the earth, has a power and con-
sons are more limited and human than divine. trol that is universal in extent and total in
It ma}r also be said that a universal creation depth. Omnipotence, first seen in creation, is
presupposes, not polytheism, but the unity of stated and exem|]lified throughout the Bible.
the Godhead. All the miracles come to mind. When Abra-
There are levels or degrees of heathen ham despaired of having a son by his wife
idolatry. The Ephesians (Acts 19:35) believed Sarah, God introduced his promise by sa}7ing,
"I am the Almighty God"; and, "Is anything
that Diana herself lived above. Jupiter was
supi)osed to have thrown down to earth a too hard for the Lord" (Gen.17:1; 18:14).
wooden image of Diana. In Paul's day the Because Abraham believed this, he was will-
Ephesian silversmiths had developed a lucra- ing later to sacrifice Isaac, "accounting that
tive trade making small replicas of this image. God was able to raise him up, even from the
Thus the Ephesians clearly distinguished be- dead" (Heb. 11:19). After Abraham there
tween the goddess and the images. But in were Moses' dealings with Pharaoh, the water
other cases the depravity of the idolatrous in the wilderness, the car)ture of Jericho, the
mind was such that, though its psychology is works of Elijah, I-Iezekiah's shadow, and the
an enigma to us, the distinction between the miracles o£ Christ and the apostles. Conversely
inanimate idol and the god or goddess became the attacks on miracles by secular authors are
blurred. Somehow or other the two were prac- uniformly, though not always explicitly, based
tically identified. If and when this identifica- on a prior rejection of omnipotence.
tion was made, the Psalmist's sarcasm would be In` addition to these examples of omnipo-
exceptionally biting when he says, "Their idols tence there are many doctrinal or abstract state-
. . . have mouths but they speak not; eyes have ments of it. "I know that thou canst do all
thc}', but they see not; . . . they that make things, and that no purpose of thine can be
them are like unto them" (Ps.115:4-8). Cf. restrained" (Job 42:2, ASV). "Whatsoever
Isa. 44:17; 45:20; 46:7. See also GODs. the Lord pleased, that did he in heaven and
In contrast with both ancient paganism and in the earth" (Ps.135:6). "He doeth accord-
modern I)antheism, the Scriptures ascribe to ing to his will in the army of heaven and
God a full and complete personality. Not only among the inhabitants of the earth: and none
did he create all things, not only dces he con- can stay his hand or say unto him, What
trol the universe, not only does he think and doest thou?" (Dan. 4:35). "Who worketh all
know, not only does he hear the prayers of his things after the counsel of his own will" (Eph.
241 GOD

1:11). Cf. Deut. 32:39; I Chron. 29:12; Ps. most essence of mori`l obligation. It w.is a test
62:11; Isa. 45:5-7; Jer. 32:27; Matt.19:26; of pure obedience to divine authority. Had
Rom. 9: 18-24; et ¢]. God commanded Adam not to murder Eve,
Omniscience, as well as omnipotence, is he might have obeyed because she was so fair,
involved in creation. The one cannot be sep- or he might have disobeyed beci`use she wi`s
arated from the other. At the very least, if an fi shrew. In either case his action would have
omnipotent God could be thought to be ig- had mixed motives. But the tree was cis indif-
norant of something, he still would be able ferent as an object can be. No motive could
to learn it; otherwise there would be some- be involved except that of obedience to the
thing he could not do. But even a momentary Creator. The rightness and the wrongness were
ignorance would be a momentary limitation I)urcly i` matter of divine legislation. There
upon omnipotence. Therefore the two at- was nothing in thc' trcc itself to make the eat-
tributes are inseparable. ing wr()ng. God could as well h£`vc chosen £`n-
Omniscience is more itarticularl}J related to other tree. Similarlv the Mosaic ritual became
creation in that the works of creation and obligator}' b}' divin'e legislation. The apt)oint-
providence follow a I)lan eternall}7 existent in mc`nts of the ti`bcrnac]e and the details of the
the divine mind. Control of all things presup- si`crificcs could have been quite different.
i)oses knowledge of all things. "Known unto Thc}' `vi`rL` what they were, and they were to
God are z`ll his woi.ks from the beginning of bc` obscr\'cd, onl}' because of their divine im-
the world" (Acts 15: 18). This knowlcdgc in- position.
cludes the minutest details: "The very hairs Devoiit Christiiins wht) have been brought
of your head are all numbered" (Matt.10: 30). up in the nurture imd i`dmoniti()n of` the I.ord,
Volitional and purposeful action (Eph. I : 11), imbue(l with the I)rinc`ii)lcs of monogi`my,
since it initiates a series of concatenated events, honest}', :md truth, sometimes think thz`t thcsc
requires a lmowledge of. the futurc`. Isi`iah obligations iirc indci)cndcnt of the divine will.
sitcaks of God £`s "declaring the end from the Thc}' sui]pt]sc thi`t God i`ould not have crcatcd
beginning" (46:10). Ai)art from knowledge a r£`ce for which I)ol}'gam}r would have l>ccn
tlnd c`ontro] of all future details there could be beneficial; it i`si`iii)cs their attention that God
no trustworthy I)roi)hecy. Hence all the pre- might htlve m{ide men like the clngL`ls, with-
dictions in Scripture exemi)lify this point. A out m`rrii`gc, so thclt the fif.th imd scvi`nth
few other statements of omnisc`ience are: "All i`()mmi`ndmcnts would bi` null imcl v()i(I. Yet
things are naked ilnd opened unto the c}'es non-Christii`ns tod;`\7 ri`mind us thi`t G()d
of him with whom we have to do" ([Ieb. mi`¥ht hi`vc ai)pro\'i`d ()f dcstro}'ing the ill i`nd
4: 13). "He that i]1anted the car, shall he not £`gcd, cind might not h{`ve ai)I)roved of` I)rivatc
hear? He that formed the eye, shall he not propcrt}7. Wc must remind them in return
see?" (Ps. 94:9). "The eyes of the Lord are th£`t .ilthough God might have done so, i`c-
in every I)lace, beholding the evil and the tually he did not. The c()mm£`ndmcnts t`or
good" (Prov. 15:3). Cf. Ps. 139:1-6, 12;
this world i`rc est€`blishcd.
147:5; Prov.15:11; I John 3:20. To view moralit}' tis fi.\'ed indei)endently of
Creation exemi.lit.ies another of God's pre- God's will is inconsistent with the i`oni`c|)t of
rogatives. Actually it is an aspect of omnipo- omni|)otcnce. Plato i`nd Leibniz attcmi)ted to
tence, though not usually thoughtr of as such. conceive God fis subordinate to indci]endent
In the Genesis account God is presented not moral itrincii)lcs. Thus they limited God by a
only as creator of the I)hysii`al universe, but i`eality external to him. No suc`h view is coun-
also as the creator of moral distinctions. When tenanccd in the Bible. The highest norm Of
God created Adam and Eve and placed them nor.ility is the law of God. It is God's com-
in the garden, he made certain demands ui)on mand that mclkcs i`n tact right or wrong. This
them. Adam was to cultivate the garden; with is substantiated throughout the Scrii)ture by
one excel)tion Adam and Eve were to eat of the threat of I)unishment, as in the i`ase of
the fruit of the trees; and they were to repro- Adi`m, b}' the I)romise of reward, as in the
duce and populate the earth. This "covenant case o£ Abraham and many others; and by the
of works," including the threat of penalty for constant insistence on obedience to God's pre-
disobedience, is the original moral legislation. cepts.
The prohibition to eat of the tree of the For this reason secular philosophies fail to
lmowledge of good and evil displays the in- solve the problem of ethics by their appeals to
GOD 242

a categorical imperative, to the greatest good wrathful God of the OT and a different lov-
of the greatest number, or to values allegedly ing God of the NT, evinces a blindness to
discovered in experience. the actual words of Scripture. Divine love and
C. God ¢s Reczee7I¢er. Thus far God has choice are combined with human unworthiness
been considered only as Creator. Biblical the- in the verses: "The Lord thy God hath chosen
ology reveals much more about God as Re- thee to be a special people . . . The Lord did
deemer. Naturally the two activities often ex- not set his love upon you, nor choose you, be-
hibit the same divine attributes. For example, cause ve were more in number . . . but be-
t-he biblical plan of redemption wou,ld neces- cause t.he Lord loved you . . ." (Deut. 7:6-8).
"In his love and pity he redeemed them" (Isa.
sarily presuppose the personality of God; some
conceivable plans even though they involved 63:9). "When Israel was a child, then I
future events might not necessarily require loved him . . . I drew them with cords of a
man, with bands of love" (Hos. 11:1, 4).
omniscience and omnii)otence; but there is no "Yea, I have loved thee with an everlasting
question but that the biblical plan does. At
love" (Jer. 31 :3). And the loving-kindnesses
the same time, redemption reveals much more
lhan these particular attributes.
and tender mercies set forth in the Psalms
There is one factor, obvious but only im- are too numerous to mention. They are all
summed up in the statement, "God is love"
|]licit in the account of creation, which, though
explicit and emi)hasized in the plan of redemp- (I John 4:8).
tion, is not always so obvious to sinful minds. In both the OT and the NT the love o£
It is divine sovereignty over all - absolute God is depicted under two figures of speech.
sovereignty. As no external force compelled Sometimes God is called the father of his
or motivated God to create, so also the initia- children; sometimes the husband of a wife.
tion of redemi)tion is God's choice alone. The fatherhood of God (cj.v.) is a most im-
When Adam violated the covenant of works, portant idea. It exhibits God's love for his
God with perfect justice could have executed children. Jesus taught his disciples to pray,
"Our Father . . ." (Matt. 6:6, 8, 9). The fowls
the full I)enalty immediately. No obligation
rc.sted ui)on him to talk to Adam again. Nor of the air neither sow nor reap, but "your
did Adam seek God and I)eg for a visit. On hea`'enly Father feedeth them . . . for your
the contrary, Adam tried to avoid the meet- heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need
ing. "There is none that seeketh after God of all these things" (Matt. 6:26, 32). "If ye
. . . no, not one" (Ps.14:2; 53:2; Ron. 3: 11- then being evil know how to give good gif ts
12). The initiative is God's alone. to your children, how much more shall )Tour
Abraham is another example. God called the Father which is in heaven give good things
idolatrous Abram; Abram did not seek God. to them that ask him?" (Matt. 7:11). C£.
God might have called some other citizen o£ Matt.10:20, 29; 13:43; 18:14; 23:9.
Ur; or he nigh-t have called an Egyptian. Like all important biblical conce|)ts the
The initiative and choice was entirely God's. fatherhood of God has been distorted. First,
"Blessed is the man w.horn thou choosest and
God hfis been regarded as the Father of all
causest to approach unto thee" (Ps. 65:4). men. This misinteri7retation confuses the re-
"Ye have not chosen me, but I have chosen
lcition between Creator and creature with the
)7ou" (John 15:16). relation between God as redeemer and the
This initiative is love, a divine attribute elect. Since the gospel requires men to be
born again, natural birth is clearly not suffi-
pervasively emphasized in both the OT and
NT. This love is unmotivated by any worth cient for entrance into the family of God. The
in its object. God does not love anyone because Epistles make use also of the idea of adop-
of what he is, but in spite of what he is. tion (q.v.). "They which are the children of
The merits of man are ``as filthy rags" (Isa. the flesh, these are not the children o£ God"
64:6). hfan is an enemy of God (Col.I:21); (Rom. 9:8). "For as many as are led by the
but yet while "we were enemies, we were Spirit of God, they are the sons of God; for
reconciled to God" (Ron. 5:10). "God com- . . ye have received the Spirit of adoption,
mendeth his love toward us, in that, while we whereby we cry, Abba, Father" (Ron. 8: 15).
were yet sinners, Christ died for us" (Ron. Cf. Rom. 9:4; Gal. 4:5; Eph.I:5. Then, too,
5:8). Jesus rebuked the unbelieving Jews, "Ye are
Whoever draws an antithesis between a o£ }'our father the devil" (John 8:44). The
243 GOD

idea of a universal fatherhood o£ God is thus prominent. However, the church is said to be
inconsistent with the Scripture and is destruc- the bride of Christ (11 Cor. I I :2; Rev. 21 :2;
tive of grace and redemption. 22: 17). Not quite so explicit are Matt. 25: 1-
A second misunderstanding of the father- 13; John 3:29; Gal. 4:26-28; Eph. 5:23-25.
hood of God occurs when it is made a new The covenant interpreted as a marriage con-
idea first enunciated in the NT by Jesus. On tract emphasizes another aspect of God's na-
the contrary, the fatherhood of God is an OT ture. The marriage contract, however much
idea, and the essential identity of the message it may reflect the love of the parties, is at
of both Testaments should not be broken. "He the same time a legal obligation. Violation re-
shall cry unto me, Thou art my Father" (Ps. sults in liability to punishment. Beyond the
89:26). "Thou art our Father" (Isa. 63:16; covenant relation as well, man is subject to
64:8). "Yet shall call me, My Father" (Jer. God's laws, and their infraction carries with
3:19). Cf.11 Sam. 7:14; I Chron. 29:10; it a penalty. Thus the Scriptures represent
Mal.I:6. man as being under the wrath and curse of a
Usually the fatherhood of God relates to righteous God. The Christian concept of God,
the redeemed individually and distributively; the plan of redemption, and even the love of
but when the people or the church is con- God, cannot be understood apart from the at-
ceived collectively, God is pictured as a hus- tribute of righteousness. God therefore is not
band or bridegroom. This figure of the mar- of a character simply to forgive and forget.
riage relationship is a particular application of Forgiveness alone could be unrighteous. And
the pervasive notion of the covenant (q.v.). when a human judge frees a guilty criminal,
God made a covenant with Noah, Abraham, the act of mercy may in some sense be justi-
David and with their seed after them. When fied by extenuating circumstances, but the
this posterity is thought of as a nation, God is strictness of the law has been ignored.
pictured as the husband, the nation as the Since God is righteous, his plan of redemp-
wife, and the individuals as the children. The tion must maintain the majest}r of the law.
interpretation of the covenant as a marriage Righteousness and a bare disregard for sin are
bond is especially prominent in Hosea; but it incomr>atible. Therefore the penalt}r must be
also occurs in Isa. 54:I; 62:5; Jer. 31:32; executed. An atonement (`q.v.) or satisfaction
Ezek. 16:8. Yet it is not a late invention of must be made. This was the teaching of the
the prophetic age. Implicitly it underlies the Mosaic ritual; this ritual also taught that God
condemnation of idolatry as "going a-whoring
provides a substitute to suffer the I)em`lty.
after other gods" (Ex. 34:15,16; Lev.17:7; The Atonement therefore is an expression both
Nun.15:39; Deut. 31:16). For this reason of love and of righteousness. For the I.uri)ose
strange worship, like adultery, is a violation of of redemi)tion God set forth Jesus Christ to
the law. The terms of the contract have been be a propitiator}' s£`crifice in order to declare,
broken (Hos. 4: I; 8: 1; Amos 2:4).
publish, and e,xemplify his righteousness, so
All this sharpens the concept of God as a that God, when he justifies a sinner, might
jealous God. Strange as it often appears to remain just in doing so (Ron. 3:25-26; 5:8;
modem minds, jealousy is one of the attributes 11 Cor. 5:21; I Peter 1:18-19: I John 2:2
the Bible ascribes to God. Ex. 34: 15,16, re- et al).
ferred to above, is introduced by the com- The crucifixion of Christ as a sacrifice of
mand, "Thou shalt worship no other god: for the Lamb of God to satisfy the justice of the
the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous Father brings out one ful.ther feature of deit}'.
God" (E.\'. 34:14). This idea, of course, is At the beginning the personality of God was
embedded in the Decalogue (Ex. 20;5). Cf.
pointed out. r\Tow it is evident that God is not
Deut. 4:24; Nab.I:2. This concept of jeal- one Person, but more than one. If the Son is
ousy is consistent with the sovereignt}' of God. sent from he;`ven, while the Father is not
An}' ascription of divine prerogatives to an- sent; it` the Father lo\'es the Son and the Son
other is a violation of the first and basic com- lo`'es the Father; if the Son scicrifices himself
mandment. "I am the Lord . . . and m}' glor}' or I)a}s fi ri`nsom to the Father; it follows that
will I not gi\'e to another" (Isa. 42:8). the Father and the Son arc' different Persons.
In the NT the covenant idea retains the Thus, with the other biblical materi£`l on the
same imi)ortance (Gal. 3 :6 ff.), but its api]ear- Hol}' Si)irit, the concei)t o£ God is the conce|)t
ance in the form of a "`rriagc vow is not so of a Trinit}' (q.i7.).
GOD 244

Some dim anticipation of the Trinity can be indicates that he thought the whole argument
found in the appearances of the Angel of the to be formally valid and that the conclusion
Lord to the patriarchs. Since the definite arti- necessarily follows from the premises. The
cle is used, this Angel must in some way be philosophers David Hume and Immanuel Kant
different from other angels. When the Angel contended that the "cosmological argument"
appeared to Hagar, she called him the Lord was a fallacy. Some Protestant theologians
and spoke of him as God (Gen. 16:7-13). seem to accept the argument, while others ad-
In an appearance to Abraham the Angel calls mit that it is not "mathematical" (strictly logi-
himself the Lord (Gen. 22:11,15). When cal), but that it is of some value. The present
the Angel spoke to Jacob, he again called writer believes that the argument is worthless
himself God (Gen. 31:11). The passages in- because (I) it is circular, in that the existence
dicate a unity of and a difference between the of God is itself used to disprove an infinite
Angel and the God who sends him. Neither series of causes, which disproof is necessary to
these passages nor later ones concerning a prove the existence of God; (2) its premises
coming King, a Messiah, a suffering Servant, use the term existence in a spatial and ten-
were explicit enough to produce the trinitarian poral sense, while the conclusion uses the
concept in the minds of the Israelites. The NT term in a different sense; and (3) an argument
clarifies the obscurities of the OT. All the from effect to cause can assign to the cause
I)assages that teach the deity o£ Christ bear on only sufficient attributes to account for the
the doctrine of the Trinity (Matt.11:25-27; effect by which alone it is known, and this
)ohn 1:1,14; Ron. 9:5; Phil. 2:6; Col.I:13-
would give us a God who is neither omnipo-
19; 2:9 et a].). The well-known benediction tent, omniscient, nor perfectly righteous.
also (11 Cor.13:14) would be incongruous St. Anselm at the beginning of the twelfth
unless these three Persons were equal in power century constructed the "ontological argument"
and glory in the one Godhead. for God's existence. It is not based on an ob-
11. PHILOSOPHICAL THEOLOGY.
servation of nature but on an anal}'sis of the
concept of God. As a man who would deny
A. Theology Proper. The first half of this
that a triangle contains 180 degrees simply
article has been a brief summar}' of what the
does not understand the meaning of triangle,
Bible says about God. Its statements are de-
so one who denies the existence of God has
ceptively simple in form; the ideas are pro-
not gras|)ed the concept of God. God, as the
found and their implications have puzzled
being than whom a greater cannot be con-
many minds, both devout and irreligious.
ceived` cannot be conceived not to exist; for
Therefore the descri|)tive method of biblical
if God could be conceived not to exist, it
theology must give way to a more s}'stematic
would be possible to conceive of an existing
and philosophic anal}7sis. But, again, as the
being greater than God; but to conceive of a
descriptive summary was brief , so too this see-
being greater than the being than whom a
ond half can barely indicate the labor of cen-
turies on these problems. Only three types o£ greater cannot be conceived is a self-contradic-
tion.
problem will be mentioned: theology proper, Immanuel Kant did not like the ontological
science, and ethics.
argument either, but his underl}7ing prejudice
Since the Bible everywhere asserts the exist-
that God is beyond the grasp of human con-
ence of God, the first question of s}'stematic
cepts is itself highly vulnerable.
or philosophic theology concerns the proof of
A mystical assurance o£ God's existence is
this assertion. Does our belief in God's exist-
ence depend solely on scriptural authorit}', or difficult to discuss, for mysticism is a very
ambiguous term. Loosely it could refer to
does it depend on some sort of proof? If the
latter, is the "proof" a direct mystical experi- jumping to a conclusion by a hunch; in the
strictest meaning of a non-rational trance, it
ence o£ God, or is it a syllogistic process that
has nothing intelligible to communicate.
starts with observation of nature?
The Thomistic philosoph}' of the Roman If then rational arguments do not demon-
Catholic Church, derived from Aristotle, be- strate the existence of God (as one demon-
strates a theorem of geometry by valid infer-
gins with sensory experience of bodies in mo-
tion and by an intricate series of arguments ences from axioms), then we must accept
concludes with the existence of an Unmoved God's existence solely on scriptural authority,
Mover, God. The language of Thomas Aquinas or we must take it as the first and therefore
245 GOD

indemonstrable principle of our thought; and The impossibility of knowing what God is
these two may be the same thing. has also been argued f ron a theory of defini-
Some philosophers virtually imply that the tion. When an apple tree or a squirrel is de-
existence of God is not such an important fined, it is placed in a genus. An apple tree
issue as is commonly thought. Spinoza and is a species of rose, and a squirrel is a species
other pantheists identify the universe as God. of rodent. But God is not a species of any
We grant that the universe exists. Professor genus. "To whom then `will ye liken me, or
H. N. Wieman has defined God as "that shall I be equal? saith the Holy One" (Isa.
character of events to which man must adjust 40: 18, 25). Since knowledge of what a thing
himself in order to attain the greatest good is, is its definition, it follows that God cannot
and avoid the greatest ills." We grant again be known. The theist, to avoid this conclu-
that events have characters. And so, by a sort sion, must produce a different theory of
Of ontological argument, i.e. by definition, God definition; and its desirability may be empha-
must exist. Atheism has become impossible. sized by pointing out that if species only can
The important question therefore is not, Is be defined and known, genera, especially the
there a God? Of course there is. But the im- highest genera or genus, remain unknown.
portant question is, What is God? And this But can the finite hope to grasp the infinite?
returns us to the description Of biblical the- The negative assertion f lies in the face of or-
ology. dinary mathematics. Infinite series are per-
Although the proofs o£ God's existence have £ectly well understood; their infinity does not
been prominent in theological discussion, they prevent us from knowing the law of their`
are but part of a more general problem: Can construction, their sum or limit when they
God be known? Some secular philosophers, have a limit, "and many other cheerful f acts
e.g., Kant and Spencer, have asserted the exist- about the square of the hypotenuse." What-
ence of unknowable entities. A philosophic ever else may be the case, it is not God's in-
Absolute may be thought to be so transcendent £inity that keeps us from knowing him.
as to be 'Deyond thought. Or, as in Thomas Plato and Hegel constructed theories of
Aquinas, the human mind, taking its rise from knowledge which, if pressed to their logical
sensory experience, may be essentially incapaci- extreme, imply that man must be either om-
tated to know much if anything of an eternal niscient or completely ignorant. If every item
Being. Or, more popularly, the finite mind Of knowledge is so intimately connected with
cannot grasp the infinite God, simply because every other that its true nature cannot be seen
the finite cannot grasp the infinite. except in its relation to all, then either we
know all or we know nothing. Plato and Hegel
Those who assert the existence of unknow-
both had a hard time escaping this dilemma.
able objects seem to contradict themselves, for
if the object were quite unknowable, one could Now Moses said, "The secret things belong
not know either that it existed or that it was unto the Lord our God; but those things whic-h
unknowable. Then too this type of philosophy are revealed belong unto us and to our chil-
is usually suspected of making all knowledge dren forever" (Deut. 29:29). The Bible,
impossible, even knowledge of arithmetic and therefore, both here and everywhere, assumes
the weather. Skepticism is thus self-destructive. that we can know some truths without know-
Those who, like Thomas Aquinas, base ing all tniths. Accordingly it is incumbent
knowledge on sensory experience find it neces- upon us to develop an epistemology in which
sary to assign an important role to mental pie- the relationships are not such as to limit us to
tures or visual images. Some philosophers have the disjunc.tion of total ignorance or om-
taught that all knowledge consists of sensory niscience.
images. If so, man could never have a concept This epistemology may follow Augustine's
Of God because God is not a sense object and view that Christ is the light of every man:
no image of him is possible. Either then a be- that is, mankind possesses as an a priori en-
liever in God must reject empiricism and find dowment at least the rudiments of knowledge,
some a I)riori basis of knowledge, or he must so that whenever anyone knows anything he is
struggle, as Thomas did (with such little sue- in contact with God, who is truth. Or, the
cess) to bridge the chasm between concepts epistemology required may be more skeptical
abstracted from sensation and a knowledge Of as to geometry and science and simply insist
the timeless and spaceless Spirit. that God, being omnipotent, can by a verbal
GOD 246

revelation make his truths understandable to manence. At one time some of them were
me. See also EplsTEMOLOG¥. designating God as the Wholly-Other. But this
For a dictionary article Of this type these takes God completely out of the world, negates
subjects are too technical to pursue further. the image of God in which man was created,
The aim here can be merely to call attention and reduces the whole religious problem to
to some of the more important issues. an insoluble paradox (q.v.).
In the twentieth century the discussion con- Orthodox Christianity sees no conflict be-
c.erning our knowledge of God has assumed a tween immanence and transcendence. The sov-
different form; and because of its timeliness ereignty Of the creative fiat is evidence of tran-
some special mention of it will not be out of scendence; and because of creation God's pow-
er extends everywhere. This is his immanence.
place.
Reaction against the ambitious rationalism In fact, instead of saying that God is in the
of Hegel and later disillusionment with the world, it is better to say that the world is in
superficial optimism of modemistic theology God, for in him we live and move and have
have in these days produced the scrcalled our being.
school of neo-orthodoxy (q.v.). Earth and Brun- Let this suffice for an example of the prob-
ner teach that rational language expresses ab- lems of theology proper. The Trinity and other
stract knowledge about things, while there is subjects are discussed under separate headings.
another sort of knowledge not rationally 8. Scje7ec€. The next type of problem is
scientific. With the rise of modern mechanis-
grasped in concepts. This is direct confronta-
tion with a person. Therefore biblical concepts, tic science in the seventeenth century the pos-
apart from any historical errors that destructive sibility of miracles was called into question,
critics may allege, cannot be knowledge o£ and with the popular acceptance of evolution
God. Intellectual concepts can be only point- (q.v.) since the middle of the nineteenth cen-
ers - they cannot be the real truth. When tury the whole theistic world-view has been
we talk az7ot4t God, we are not talking about subjected to a massive attack. What had pre-
God. viously been a naturalistic speculation was now
Earth in particular holds that all religious presented as an assured result of infallible
expression is figurative or symbolic. Logic and science.
mathematics are merely human constructions, A Christian might reply that the evolu-
and perhaps this allows of literal meaning; but tionists have produced no empirical evidence
all language about God is a parable. Since an that life spontaneously arose from inanimate
interpretation of the parable would itself be matter. He might also remark that operation-
a parable (for this too would be religious alism no longer looks on science as infallible
language), or, in other words, since the ex- or as descriptive Of antecedent reality. At the
planation of a symbol would itself be symbolic, same time he might humbly admit that he
does it not follow that a literal knowledge o£ was mistaken in supposing the fixed species of
God is impossible? Not only so, but if there is Linnaeus to be the special creations o£ Genesis.
no literal norm by which to test the adequacy And finally he might very well claim that as
of parables and symbols, the Koran would the opponents covertly assume the falsity of
seem to be as satisfactory as the Bible. theism in order to undermine creation and
The Hegelian system, with its completely miracles (and thus beg the question), these
knowable Absolute and its prior rejection Of latter points cannot be profitably discussed
the idea of creation, is a form of pantheism. until all the presuppositions are brought into
The divine principle is not outside the uni- the open.
verse. No doubt the universe depends on it, C. Ethics. In addition to theology proper
but also it depends on the universe, as a tree and science a third area in which problems
depends on its leaves and its leaves depend arise for theism is that of morality and evil.
on the tree. Thus the Absolute (or God) is The biblical concept of God as sovereign
an immanent and not a transcendent principle. Creator and in some instances all concepts o£
Opposing this pantheism as destructive Of God have been repudiated because of the man-
true religion and humble worship, as blind to ifest evil in the world. Early in Christian his-
the reality of evil in human nature, and as tory the objection was stated: either God wants
disdainful of free grace, the nco-orthodox stress to but cannot eradicate evil, or he can but
the transcendence of God and deny his im- does not want to; in the first case he is good
247 GOD

but not omnipotent and in the second he may development the crucial point became the
be omnipotent but he cannot be good. In identification of the values. Can many articles
modem history John Stuart Mill, even more Of the creed be discarded as the husks and his-
than David Hume, vigorously attacked Chris- torical trappings Of Christianity, while Schleier-
tianity on this score. macher's feeling of absolute dependence pre-
Roman Catholics and some Protestants have serves what is essential? Or must this early
made feeble replies by trying to account for modernist value give place to the later ideal
evil as the result of the free will o£ Satan or of integration of personality? Should the Trin-
of Adam. This Of course does not answer the ity be abandoned and God be defined as "that
objection, for if God be omnipotent he still character of events to which man must adjust
could eradicate the evil if he wanted to - in himself in order to attain the greatest goods
fact, he could have prevented it in the first and avoid the greatest ills"?
place by creating a different type of world or Humanism developed out of modernism be-
even none at all. cause modernism did not consistently base its
The problem is so vexing that many Chris- ideals on experience. Modernism had an in-
tians decide not to think about it in hopes consistent attachment to Jesus. Rejecting this
that their opponents will not bring it up. irrationality, humanism concluded that Jesus
The paradox o£ God's goodness and the had no a|)preciation of intelligence or of
manifest evil, with the aggravation of the pains science, that he had no political theory, and
of hell forever, is partly the result of a theme his view of labor relations was positively bad!
taken from pagan nature religions. Primitive Honesty requires us to accept other ideals. The
heathenism generally lcoks upon God as a Christian life is at best a semi-moral life.
God of nature. Sometimes God is identified Humanism claims that its ideals (a collec-
with nature. Therefore when reflection has tivistic society, independence of an imaginary
proceeded a little distance and some notion of God, materialistic security, etc.) are found in
nature's regularity is grasped, it is concluded c.xperience. Yet even humanists admit that
that God must treat everyone alike. Nature is ideals change from age to age. There are no
everywhere uniform. Then if goodness is at- absolute norms, no fixed truths, no universal
tributed to God, it follows that God must be principles. Ethics, and therefore economics and
good to all. sociology, are relativistic.
This divine impartiality not only conflicts In actual history this reduc.es to the simple
with the idea of grace, but more fundamental- question as to whose ideals will dominate a
ly it denies divine sovereignty by implying that given age and society. Dictators answer this
creatures impose a moral obligation on the in concreto.
Creator. Socialistic destruction of political liberty
The Scriptures, however, teach that God is with the brutality that totalitarian governments
the potter, who, from the very same lump of have always exercised forces attention on a
clay, can fashion one vessel for honor and an- point that humanists hardly consider. Regard-
other for dishonor. ``Behold therefore the good- less of which set of ideals an individual or
ness and severity of God" (Ron.11 :22). society may accept, is it worth the trouble try-
Now, finally, the problem of evil (a.v.), so ing to realize them? Or, in otlier words, is li.fe
far as human conduct is concerned, centers in worth living?
the. identification of right and wrong. It was In times of relative peace, prosperity, and
shown in the first part of this article that right freedom the question is set aside as silly or
is what God commands and that sin is any perverse. Life is pleasant. But in ethical theory
want of conformity unto or transgression of the it is basic. The mere fact that several people
law of God. or a great many find life pleasant does not
If some phases of philosophic theology are make it universally worthwhile. This is mere-
embarrassing when we confront modern un- ly personal preference, not normative theory.
belief , this is one where the enemy is soon On the humanistic position why should I not
put to rout. shoot my best friends to end their futile exer-
When modernism, f ollowing its founder tions and then commit suicide?
Schleiermacher, repudiated the Scriptures to To this humanism has no answer. The only
base its theology on experience, it believed that theory which guarantees value to life itself
it could still preserve Christian values. In the and makes suicide immoral is a theory in
GODLINESS 248

which God has f orbidden murder and punishes the Greek plural in 11 Pet. 3:11, godly acts.
disobedience in a future life. Normative ethics Godliness also is the standard by which teach-
depends on sovereign legislation and omnipo- ing is tested (I Tim. 6:3; Titus 1 : 1).
tent sanctions. BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. E. Garvie in HDB; Arndt s. v. eusebeia.
If other phases of theology, philosophy, and
science are sometimes hard to work out, here J. CLEMENT CONNELL
at least biblical theism is easily vindicated. GODS. The biblical world had a multitude
See also ATTRIBUTEs, TI]E DlvlNE. of gods, as many as men could invent. In the
BIBLIOGRAPHY ancient world, there was only one religion
with similar characteristics (H. Frankfort, A7®-
cie#t Egyptia" Relig!.o7®, Columbia University
Press, New York, N.Y.,1948, p. 3). Orig-
inally, religion was monotheistic, but became
i;e;i;4:C5;;i;!e':ii;%i;i°{;:;ibiijt:;§jjj;i:#:a|ia:i;i:;i:i:§ii: debased through idolatrous worship, and the
CORDON H. CLARK true God and his attributes came to be repre-
sented by idols, cult objects, and fetishes. Be-
GODLINESS. The noun ewsez7ej¢ is char- cause God was unseen and transcendent, men
acteristic of the Pastoral Epistles and occurs set up idols as a materialistic expression of him.
elsewhere in the NT only in Acts 3:12 Soon the created thing was worshiped as a
(Peter's speech) and 11 Pet.I:3, 6, 7; 3:11. god instead of the Creator. Thus, each nation
Theosez7ejo is used in I Tim. 2: 10. Godliness had its chief god and as many more as they
is not used in the OT, but occurs in the felt were necessary. Not only were idols used,
Apocrypha (e.g.,11 Macc..12:45). but also various forms of nature as the heaven-
In general ewsez?e;a means piety, reverence, ly bodies, mountains, seas, rivers, insects, birds,
whether towards men or God, but Christian and animals.
ewsez}ei¢, like t7®eosez7eia, is restricted to the I. EG¥pT. In Egypt, the supreme god was
Godward use. Al ford on Acts 3: 12 claims that worshiped by dif ferent names depending upon
€t4sez7eio ``bears jn it the idea of operative, cul- the religious center. At Heliopolis, he was
tive, piety, rather than of inherent character," called Aten-Re-Khepri (sun god); at Elephan-
and here renders it "meritorious efficacy," but tine, Khnum-Re; at Thebes, Anon-Re (king
the AV "holiness" and the RSV "piety." Of the gods); and at Tel el Amama, Atun-Re,
Eusebius (Praep. Evflng. i. p. 3) defines it the solar disc. The beetle, Khepera or Khepri,
as "looking up to the one . . . God and life ap- was accepted generally as a form o£ Re, the
I)ropriate to him." These definitions give due supreme god. The most commonly found idol
weight to both elements in godliness, right atti- is that of the beetle, known as the scarab,
tude towards God and right conduct appro- which kept its sacred meaning though used for
priate thereto. E. F. Scott regards it as right other purposes.
belief coupled with right mode Of action, but The supreme god was the head Of a triad or
godliness is devotion rather than belief and the trinity as Ptah and Sekhmet and Nefer Ten,
action is not coupled with, but springing from i.e., father, mother, and son; Amen-Re and
that devotion, generated by an inner power Mut (mother goddess), Khensu (moon god),
(11 Tim. 3:5; 11 Pet.1:3). father, mother, and son; and also that of Osiris
The spiritual depth of et4sebeic} appears in (`god of the dead), Isis (his wife), and their
I Tim. 3: 16, ``the mystery of godliness," where son, Horus (the sky god). The thought of a
both Arndt and the RSV have "the mystery of trinity forming a family relationship was an
our religion." The translation "religion" is un- ancient conception with the Egyptians.
satisfactory here and for theosebejci in I Tim. There are lesser gods that should be noted
I : 10, for it suggests our way of belief, but I as: Apis or Serapis, the deified bull of Men-
Tim. 3 : 16 indicates ``the implied comparison phis who was the god that the children Of Is-
between the practical godliness previously en- rael worshiped as a golden calf (Ex. 32; I
joined on church officers and the inner char- Kings 12:25-33); Hapi, the Nile god; Hathor,
acter of its revealed secret (owysfe-r;o") described the goddess of love and beauty; Maat, the
here" (D. Guthrie, The Pastorcil Ep;stles, The goddess of right and order; Sothis, the dog
Tyndale Press, London, 1957, p. 89). The star; Sekor, the god of the underworld; Shu,
outward activity of godliness is emphasized by the god Of air; Thoth, the scribe of the gods,
249 GODS

besides a host of sacred animals and birds. In The goddess, Ishtar, is associated also with
all, the number of gods mentioned in the these three deities. She is earlier designated
Pyramid Texts are over two hundred while in by her Sumerian name, Innina. She became the
the Book of the Dead and other writings about chief female goddess superseding the wives Of
twelve hundred. Since Pharaoh was the de- the six great gods. Yet, closely connected with
scendant and successor to the supreme god, he her is Tammuz (Sumerian name, Dumuzi), the
was considered divine and entitled to receive god of plants and vegetation, as her husband.
worship. The descent of Isthar into the underworld to
search for him and their return to earth is the
11. MEsopoTAMIA. In Mesopotamia (which
story of the death of vegetation in the winter
land includes the Sumerians, Babylonians, and
and the rebirth of new vegetation in the
spring. As a fertility goddess as well as of love,
?fssgy:iasT%,vetrh:e;::aEit::.£dwf::tipbee:na|i:,oes:
her descent to the underworld prevented the
in Babylonia. It is to be noted that as the land
begetting of offspring during her absence. She
was conquered, the conquerors accepted the
is the most important of all the goddesses and
gods they found, adding them to their own her relationship to the six great gods and
pantheon. In some instances, the same god Tammuz shows the low conception of moral
would have a Sumerian name and a Baby-
standards. The worship of Tammuz was prac-
lonian name. Here, as in Egypt, the same gen-
ticed in Israel even at a late date (Ezek.
eral conception of a creator was maintained.
7: 14).
The concept of monotheism is not as apparent
for there was a succession of great gods, wor- Other important gods and goddesses were:
shiped sometimes conjunctively in the same the goddess Ereshkigal (Semitic Allatu),
city. They had the same creative power and ruler of the underworld; Namtar, the herald
were given credit f or the creation of the uni.- god of death with his train of sixty diseases;
verse, the earth, and man, as well as the lesser Irra, the plague god; Kingsu, goddess of Chaos;
and her husband, Apsu, the god of the under-
gods.
The first great god is Anu (the god of the world ocean; Nabu, the patron god of science
heavens), of whom there is no pictorial repre- and learning; and Nusku, the god of fire. The
sentation. He is called "Father and King of confusion in the Mesopotamian pantheon is no
the gods." His wife was Antu and their chil- doubt due to the conquest of the land by di-
dren are numbered among the lesser under- verse invaders -. the Sumerians being Hami-
world gods. Antu was later superseded by lsh- tic and the Assyro-Babylonians being Semitic.
tar, the goddess of love. Anu's chief center Of In addition to Tammuz, the following Meso-
worship was Lagash. potamian gods are mentioned: Adrammelech,
The second great god was Enlil (god of the god Of Sepharvaim (Sippar), was perhaps
earth), who was later superseded by Marduk. Adad-Milki (11 Kings 17:31); Anammelech,
Enlil's chief center of worship was Eridu. His also a god o£ Sepharvaim (Sippar), was per-
wife was Damkina and their son was Mar- haps Anu-Melik (11 Kings 17:31); Bel, men-
duk. This latter group formed a trinity of fa- tioned in Jer. 51:44, and in Jer. 50:2 found
ther, mother, and son. When Babylon rose to in association with Merodach (Marduk) and
the supremacy, the earlier great gods were in Isa. 46:I with Nebo; Merodach (Baby-
superseded by the Semitic named god, Mar- lonian, Marduk) as above noted in Jer. 50:2;
duk. There was a confusion as to the creative Nebo (Nabu), mentioned in Isa. 46:I (a
acts of these chief gods. Other gods and god- mountain in the Abarim range east of the
desses shared with them. The mother goddess north end of the Dead Sea bears his name);
Ninmack or Aruru was associated with Ea in Nergal, patron god of Gutha (11 Kings
the creation of man. Ashur became the chief 17:30), found compounded in the name of
god of Assyria, taking the place of Ea. the Babylonian general Nergal-Sharezer (Jer.
Three other great gods, which were Semitic, 30:3,13); Nisroch, an Assyrian god who was
are to be noted. They were Sin (or Nannar, so important that there was a temple to him
under his Sumerian name), the moon god; in Nineveh (11 Kings 19: 37); Succoth-Benoth,
Shamash, the sun god, and son of Sin; and a god of the men of Babylon, who has yet to
Adad or Hadad, the storm god. The wife of be identified (11 Kings 17:30); and Tartak,
Sin was Ningal and mother of the sun god, a god Of Awa, yet to be identified (11 Kings
Shamash. His chief cities were Ur and Haran. 17:31).
GODS 250

Ill. PALESTINE AND SYRIA. In Palestine and (Greece and Phoenicia), and Venus (Rome),
Syria, only Yahweh (Jehovah) makes the queen of heaven (Jer. 7:18; 44:17-19, 25),
claim of exclusive Creator of the universe, and also goddess of fertility. She is known
heaven, and man. The gods of the neighboring throughout Bible lands by the above names
nations of the Hebrews were not in the rank (Judg. 2:13; 10:6; I Kings 11:5, 33; 11 Kings
of the gods of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and other 23: 13). The goddess "Lady of Byblos" whose
world powers. They all seem to be of a na- idol wears the head dress Of Hathor, the god-
tional level and as has been noted, these na- dess of love, shows Egyptian influence. Besides
tions also worshiped gods of the larger powers, these above mentioned there have been found
together with their own. Yahweh stands aloof in Ugarit several unknown goddesses showing
and superior, with his lof ty claims and holy their vile fertility worship.
spiritual nature with highest moral demands Among the male gods are:` Dagon, the half
of his worshipers. fish and half man god, a supreme god among
The gods o£ Syria were also known and wor- the Philistines who held that Baal was the son
shiped by the people o£ Palestine so that they of Dagon (Josh.15:41; Judg. 16:23; I Sam.
will be discussed together. 5: I-7); Ashima, the god of Hamath who was
deported to Samaria by Sargon 11 of Assyria
The pantheon of Ugarit shows El as the
supreme god who was later superseded by his (11 Kings 17:30); Chium, a planetary god,
named for Satum and mentioned in Amos
son Baal, the storm and vegetation god. After
5:26 AV; Acts 7:43; Gad, a god of fortune
winning triumph over the god Mat, the lord
that was worshiped by the Israelites (Isa.
of the sea, he established his right to reign over
65:11), his name being found as a god in
all the gods as their king. This supremacy
Phoenician, Assyrian, and Aramaic; Men, per-
was evidently acknowledged by most of the
haps of Egyptian origin (Menu), the god Of
people of Syria and Palestine (Nun. 22:41; destiny and good luck, possibly an astral god,
I Kings 18.; 11 Kings 17:16; Hos.11:2; Ron.
one of the Pleiades or representing that entire
11 :4; and fifty-eight other references in the
OT). In Tyre he was supreme, and during group of stars, named with Gad in Isa. 65: 11;
Mekal, the chief god of Bethshean, shown
the reign of Ahab he was the chief god o£
holding the "ankh," Egyptian symbol of life,
Israel. His name was coupled with that Of the
which shows Egyptian influences; Milcom, the
Palestine Baalzebub, god of the flies; Baal of "abomination" of the Ammonites (I Kings
the lightning; Aleyan Baal, the storm god, and
11 :5, 33; 11 Kings 23: 13), their god and per-
Baal Sapuna in Ugarit. Towns as centers of
haps the same as Moloch (Moloch or Molech
his worship coupled Baal with their name, as
was the god who was designated ``Melek"
Baal-peor in Moab (Hos. 9:10; Ps.106:28).
This was the center of worship of the chief [king] whose worship demanded human sacri-
fice burned with fire, Lev.18:21; 20:1-5);
god, Chemosh
"lord," was soofapplicable
Moab: Since Baal, meaning
to other gods, it Rimmon (Rammon, Thunderer), the chief
shows that he became a composite deity com- god of Damascus (11 Kings 5: 18) akin to the
Mesopotamian god Adad (Hadad); Resheph,
bining a number of important activities. Even
the Syrian war god, not only accepted by
the plural form, Baalim, is used in the OT
Syria-Palestine, but found scull)tured in Egypt
with referenc.e to him in his various forms. His
holding the "ankh," the Egyptian emblem of
sister was Asherah, the goddess of Tyre, who
life.
also was worshiped in Samaria by the Israel-
ites. (I Kings 15:13,18,19; 11 Kings 21:7; Besides all these gods, there were sun
23:4). In the AV and the LXX the name o£ images; snake worship as seen in "Nehushtan,"
Asherah was translated "groves," but inscrip- the brazen serpent, which was worshiped by
tions found more recently have proven her to the Hebrews (11 Kings 18:4); sacred trees or
be a goddess. The goddess Anat was her sister groves as the terebinth and the tamarisk trees;
and was worshiped in Syria, espec.ially in the host of heaven (11 Kings 17: 16), and the
Ugarit. There were many goddesses, as Qa- teraphim, which were household gods of every
desh, called the "lady of the skies and mistress sort (Gen. 31 : 19; Judg.17: 5).
of all the gods in Syria;" the Syrian goddess IV. CRETE. In Crete, the chief object of
Min; Hepa, a goddess whose idol was found worship was a mother goddess who was evi-
in Ugarit that could have been Hurrian; Ash- dently Cybele, the great mother of the gods.
toreth, also known as Ishtar (Egypt), Astarte Her worship is thought to have originated in
251 GODS

Asia Minor and one Of her places of abode and female arts, and industries was called by the
worship was Mount Ida, the highest moun- Romans Minerva. She was emphasized as the
tain of Crete. Virgil in his "Aeneid" held that goddess of war. With her the Romans wor-
Cybele originally came from Crete. Cybele is shiped the god Mars, their god of war and agri-
identified with Rhea, the mother goddess Of culture. Apollo was the artist god, poet, musi-
Greece and mother Of Zeus. In the Mediter- cian, and especially the god of prophecy. The
ranean religions she is the embodiment of the Romans later worshiped him as the god Of
earth's fertility. This is in accord with the light and heaven. Adonis was the god Of love
Cretan belief, as she has as many aspects as and linked with the Semitic god Tammuz.
nature itself . She was so associated in art with Aphrodite (Roman Venus) is but the Greek
the heavenly bodies, vegetation and rocks`of name of Ishtar or Astarte. She was the goddess
earth, with reptiles, birds, and animals, besides of love and beauty, and like her Semitic coun-
the weapons and dress of man, that she seems terparts, the goddess of vegetation and fruit-
to have taken over all the functions of the fulness. As among their Egyptian and Semitic
other gods. If the Philistines came originally neighbors, the sun was worshiped in the per-
from Crete and the other Mediterranean son Of Helios, the sun god. To him a colossal
islands (H. R. Hall, C¢7"Z„jdge A"cje7®t Hjs- statue was erected over the harbor entrance o£
fory, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, Eng- Rhodes. The goddess Artemis (Roman Diana)
land), the transition was natural to adopt the was the goddess of chastity and the hunt as
Semitic gods they found in Palestine. well as of agriculture. In Ephesus, she was
V. PHILlsTINE, HITTITE. Astarte was a fer- worshiped as the goddess of productivity and
tility goddess even as Cybele or Rhea, and her Of all nourishing mothers (Acts 19:23 f£.).
consort was Dagon, the chief god of the Philis- Ceres was accepted both by the Greeks and
tines. The Hittites came into Palestine during Romans as the goddess of the growth of food
the nineteenth century B.c. and brought with plants. Dionysus (Roman Bacchus) was a na-
them their gods. These, even their chief gods ture god of wine and also of fruitfulness. His
such as Teshup, the weather god, and Khepa, worship led to extreme debauchery and drunk-
the sun god, are not mentioned. It is to be en orgies. Janus was the Roman two-faced god
noted that the Hittite pantheon contained of entrances and beginnings. His idol was
among their tho'usand gods those of their neigh- |>laced at doors and entrances of buildings and
bors - Semitic, Hamitic, and lndo-European. thought of as the beginning of periods of time,
Thus in Palestine, they worshiped the Semitic e.g., the first month of the Roman year was
named after him.
gods in their pantheon.
Aesculapius (Roman Asklepius) was wor-
VI. GRAEco-ROMAN. The Graeco-Roman
shiped as the god of medicine and healing. As-
religion was an anthropomorphic polytheism
sociated with him and encircling his staff was
whose gods had the form and mind Of man.
a serpent. Associated with him either as his
Ideals and desires were deified in the person
wife or sister was Hygeia, the goddess Of
of the various gods. They were worshiped
health. The twin gods, Castor and Pollux, chil-
wherever Greece and Rome rule.d. The chief
dren o£ Zeus and Leda (the swan goddess)
god was Zeus (Roman Jupiter or Jove) who were the gods of sailors (Acts 28: 11).
became the main god of popular belief , almost
monotheistic. He was the creator of the uni- With the death of Julius Caesar, emperor
verse and father of both the gods and men. worship had its beginning. In his death, he
Homer recognized him as a god Of pity and was deified and thereaf ter it became manda-
mercy. Associated with him as his consort and tory to worship the living emperors Of Rome.
wife was Hera (Roman Juno). She was called It is to be noted that, "For the Greeks,
the queen of heaven and goddess of marriage. Christianity had been in a certain way con-
To her also was ascribed the title of goddess of tinuous with paganism. It might be said that
air, earth, and moon. Hermes (Roman Mer- the old deities and heroes who had protected
cury) was the god of fertility, the protector of their cities were still their guardians, under
cattle and sheep as well as patron of music. the new forms of saints (sometimes imaginary)
When the Romans adopted him he became and archangels and perf ormed for them the
their god of merchants and merchandise, and same kind of miracles. Pagan idolatry was re-
speaker for the gods (Acts 14: 12). placed by Christian image worship, which by
Athena, the virgin goddess of counsel, war, the Christians of many parts o£ Asia Minor, as
GOEL 252

well as by the Mohammedans, was regarded them. Every true prophet from Moses [o
as simply polytheism" (E7ccyBH.t, Encyclo- Malachi preached with all the vehemence and
pedia Britannica, Inc., Chicago, Ill., 1954, power he possessed to turn the people from
Vol. 19, p. 438). the worship of idols.
``Yet, the more the prophets called them,
VII. THE ISRAELITEs AND II)oLATRy. The
question is asked, Why did the Israelites want the more they went from them" (Hos. 11 :2).
to follow af ter the idols of their neighbors Both Israel and Judah went into exile as the
when they had the true God? What were the last great punishment because they went after
reasons that they should be thus allured to other gods (11 Kings 22: 17). It took this terri-
polytheistic worship? We name seven reasons: ble judgment to wean them from idolatry and
( 1 ) It offered them a definite materialistic and it had its desired result. When they returned
tangible object of and for faith. (2) The from captivity to their land under Zenibbabel
elaborate ritual and colorful ceremonies and they never again as a nation returned to the
costumes appealed to their aesthetic natures. worship of other gods.
(3) The idea of the mother goddess, playing BIBLIOGRAPHY
on the family idea, e.g. the triad of father,
mother, and son, transferred this idea of family
to that of gods and the mother goddess who I-:-= ---:--:---: ----:--:---:--i--:i: _---
was mother of gods and man. (4) Sex appeal
and extreme immoral orgies appealed to the
animalistic nature in the worshipers. (5) The 18.
deification of the attributes and functions of E. LESLIE CARLSON
the supreme God did away with his transcend-
ence. (6) There was the appeal to the mysteri- GOEL. This word is the active participle
ous by use of secret initiations and ceremonies. of a verb meaning to recover or redeem. It is
(7) The stress of need for abundant crops, cat- found in several senses:
tle, sheep, and other necessities made attractive (I) It is used of the regaining possession
the gods of crops, weather, fertility, and pro- of a property which has been sold for debt
ductivity. (Lev. 25:25).
The ten commandments given by God at (2) It is used Of the restoring or preserving
Sinai stress that he is a jealous God and brooks of the name of one who has died without off-
no interference as to loyalty, love, and wor- spring: his brother is then to take his wife
ship of himself (Ex. 20:3-5; Deut. 5:7-9). To (levirate marriage), and raise up seed to him,
turn from him and worship idols was stressed that his name be not forgotten in Israel (Deut.
by the prophets as spiritual adultery. God 25:5; cf. Gen. 38:8). Boaz is the most
spoke through his prophets and they, moved familiar example Of this (Ruth 3-4). As such
by his Holy Spirit, demonstrated by word and the goel is called the kinsman.
deed his attitude. This was shown in the (3) Since murder means the cutting off of
severe punishment of the Israelites when a man from his earthly kin and possessions, it
Moses found them worshiping the golden calf was the duty of his relatives to avenge him.
(Ex. 32:25); the zeal of Phinehas in slaying The goez is then the revenger or avenger Of
the man of Israel and the Midianitish woman, blood (Nun. 35:12-34; Deut.19:1-3).
besides the twenty-four thousand that died of (4) In its highest sense Goe! is used Of
the plague at Baal-peor (Nun. 25: I-9). Judg- God, who is the author of life and whose pre-
ments came upon individuals by punishment, rogative it is to redeem from death, both phy-
by illness, persecution by enemies, enslave- sical and spiritual. "Redeemer" occurs most
ment, and death. Nationally, the Israelites frequently in Isa. 40-66. Job 9:25, "I know
were made captives of their enemies to serve that my redeemer liveth" is a very familiar in-
as slaves in foreign lands. Besides, many were stance.
tortured or slain, their homes, lands, and OSWALD T. AI.LIS
crops plundered or destroyed, their cities pil-
laged and left in smoking ruins, their crops GOOD, THE GOOD, GOODNESS. In
destroyed by drought, insects (Joel 1:4-20), the OT "gcod" renders the Hebrew word .t6P.
fire, floods, and storms. It seems that every Its germ meaning is pleasant. Only derivative-
kind Of punishment came as judgment u|)on ly has it an ethical connotation. Good, in the
253 GOOD WORKS

sense of moral goodness, emerges progressively When we say God is good, we mean that
in the Bible. God is love, is the culmination of he is good in the same sense in which we
the self-disclosure o£ God in Jesus Christ. use this word of men, only in the highest de-
A great variety of usages attend the word gree. God's goodness always actively promotes
good in Holy Scripture. God's work in crea- truth and righteousness. Some severity is neces-
tion is seen to be good (Gen. I). A more sary to make sinful men good.
ethical meaning makes it equivalent to right BIBLIOGRAPHY

(Deut. 6: 18). It has the meaning of benefits

in Job 2:10. In the NT the Greek words 9..P:Ea..t°iMOR#,b:#i'':#.p:a;h%:tyg?i`d`&v?.'§:ahv'fdu#S#£i
dativns of Ethics.
¢g¢t7!os and k¢los are rendered by "good." ALBERT VICTOR M'CALLIN
In none of these usages has it its full ethical
content. GOOD WORKS. A good work, theo-
In contrast to Greek ethics the Bible cen- logically s|)eaking, is any activity of a moral
ters goodness on God. It is true that both Plato agent which proceeds from a right motive
and Aristotle make "the good" central in their (love), is in accord with a proper moral stand-
systems of thought. "The essential Form of ard (law), and aims at the glory of a worthy
the Good is the highest object of science" object (God). The first and the third qualifi-
(Plato, Repwbljc, Bk. VI). "If it is true that cations tend to run closely together: the love
in the sphere of action there is an end which motive and the love object each, in the ul-
we wish for its own sake, and for the sake ot. timate sense, being divine. That is, according
which we wish everything else - it is clear to Christian theology, "we love because he
that this will be the good or the supreme (Christ or God) first loved us" (I John 4: 19;
good" (Aristotle, Et7tjcs, Bk. I). Noble as cf. Rom. 5:6). In other words, it is God in
these ideas are of the nature of the Sw7"7""iti the soul who is the source of the motive of
Bo"m they do not lead to a living personal love and this, in turn, directs the soul back to
God as the ground of the good. In the Bible, God as the object. The other qualification,
however, God is declared to be good because law, must be from the Creator if it be valid
of his acts of redeeming love. This is not a for the creature; however, this is external, or
conclusion arrived at by conceptual thinking, objective. We may, therefore, think of a good
but by personal religious insight on the part work as an activity of a moral being which is
of those who have been enlightened and up- good, or God-produced, in its internal (or sub-
lif ted by the grace of God mediated through jective) and external (or objective) aspects.
Christ. An activity of a moral agent may con-
I. GooDNESs ANI) VALUEs. Beauty, truth ceivably be sound internally and defective in
and goodness are of ten referred to as the three its outward expression. That is, it may proceed
ultimate values. Many Christian theologians from love of and to God, but still be mis-
consider this triad is reducible to one funda- directed or contrary to the law of God. If a
mental value, viz, goodness. Doubts arise as loving person were misinformed about the law
to the value of some truths. They may bc of God his love would lead him to act accord-
trivial or worthless or harmful. Not every beau- ingly, that is, according to his misinformation.
tiful thing ought necessarily to exist. But good- Therefore, he would unintentionally disobey
ness is, in the fullest sense, an absolute value. the law. It is out of the reach of this brief arti-
"What constitutes any of these values is pre-
cle to consider whether a moral agent with
cisely the goodness they share in common" perfect love to God could ever be capable Of
CF. R. Barry, Relevance of Cl.ristianity, Nis- misunderstanding the will of God (we think
bet, London, 1936, p. 172). not); but it is apparent that such an agent
11. Col) AND GooDNEss. Moral goodness with some love of God, but not a perfect love,
can only exist for personal minds. The ideal could be capable ()f misunderstanding the law
of absolute goodness can only exist in a mind of God.
from which all reality is derived. Goodness Consequently, a man could, with at least a
cannot be explained on naturalistic or evolu- partially good motive, perform an outwardly
tionist grounds. It is distinct from the useful bad act. Such an activity we would call a good
and the pleasant. Even though we do not al- bad work (that is, good with respect to inten-
ways follow the good, we acknowledge its ab- tion; bad in expression). On the other hand,
solute claim upon us. a moral agent with an evil motive is, con-
GOSPEL 254

ceivably, capable of performing an outwardly them men may be led to glorify God (Matt.
good work, that is, something which externally 5: 16). With reference to them the Lord will
corresponds to the law of God. "Ye then being dispense rewards (I Cor. 3: 14; Rev. 22: 12).
evil know how to give good gifts . . ." (Matt. Pragmatism is the doctrine that truth is de-
7:11). Such an activity we would call a bad termined by good works. That is, that which
good work. This is because the good (in the leads to good works is true. While Christianity
with respect to expression). With reference to teaches that "by their fruits you shall know
the doer, the good bad work is a truly good them" (Matt. 7:20) it is not "pragmatic." In
work; while the bad good work is not a truly such a statement it does not mean to say that
good work. This is because the good (in the we determine what truth is by the way a per-
good bad work) belongs to the doer (that is, son behaves, but simply that one determines
it is his true motive or desire); but the bad what a person really believes to be true by
(in the good bad work) does not truly belong how he behaves. If he behaves wickedly, this
to the doer (it is not his intention or doing verse implies, he believes wickedly, that is,
at all). erroneously. Truth, according to Christianity,
Men can observe the outward acts of others is determined by revelation (natural and super-
but not their inner motives. Consequently they natural). Deeds are then judged by their cor-
cannot be infallible judges of morality, so far i.espondence to the revealed standard of truth.
as the doer is concerned. God, on the other Summarily speaking, pragmatism judges truth
hand, not only can discern the thoughts and by works, Christianity judges works by truth.
intents of the heart but glories in his ability The criticism of the pragmatic theory is
to do so. He makes the secrets of men mani- this: If one does not have an initial definition
of truth, he cannot say whether a given be-
:::ta,i:esth:a,qasyee°f,h;ui::sen.tfsfist]:ago:::: havior "works" or not. For example, if a cer-
(Rom. 2: 11). tain theory, being believed by a certain person,
According to Protestant doctrine, justifica- leads him to commit murder, one cannot con-
tion (q.v.) is by faith alone without any merit cludc from that, that the theory is wrong -
deriving from any good work of the recipient unless he knows, to begin with, that murder
either before or after justification. Justification is not good. But this evaluation is not deter-
is on the basis of good works - the good mined by the commission of the deed but by
works of Jesus Christ. But the benefits of his ethical judgments made independently. If you
redemptive work are received by the believer do know in advance, as is usually assumed by
who has no merit of his own to contribute. pragmatists (contrary to their own avowed
Nothing which he ever does, even after justifi- principles) that murder is wrong, you may
cation, merits anything; because nothing which conclude that a theory which leads to it is un-
he does is ever perfectly good. That is, nothing true. If you did not know, in advance, the sin-
which he does proceeds from a perfectly good fulness of murder, you could not learn any-
motive, is directed perfectly according to the thing about the theory from the fact that it
led to murder.
good standard, and is aimed perfectly at the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
glory of God. Nothing short of this is truly
Joseph Butler, Works; I-Ieinr]ch Denzinger, E"chjrjdjot®
good. Since no justified person, in this life, Syiiibolori.t"„ 26th ed., (1946); William James, Prog-
ever does anything which meets such stand- rmatism; Jof`.n Murraiy, Principles of Conduct.

ards he does no meritorious good work. There- JOHN H. GERSTNER

fore, he never has any merit to claim which
in any way supplements the merit of Christ. GOSPEL. The English word "gospel"
This was the crux of the Reformation differ- (from the Anglo-Saxon gocz-spell, i.e., God-
ence with Roman Catholicism, which regards story) is the usual NT translation of the
good works done before faith as having "merit Greek etMgge!jo72. According to Tyndale, the
of congruency" and good works done after renowned English Reformer and Bible transla-
justification as having "merit of condignity." tor, it signified "good, mery,. glad and ioyfull
Good works are enjoined on the believer as tydinge, that maketh a mannes hert glad, and
ordained of God (Eph. 2: 10; Titus 2: 14) and maketh hym synge, daunce, and leepe for ioye"
useful to those who benefit from them (Titus (Prologt/e fo NT). While his definition is more
3:8-9). They are the proper fruit of the right experiential than explicative, it has touched
use of Scripture (11 Tim. 3:17). Because o£ that inner quality which brings the word to
255 GOSPEL

life. The gospel is the joyous proclamation of of his own mission (Luke 4:18-21; 7:22).
God's redemptive activity in Christ Jesus on They expressed that same sense of liberation
behalf of man enslaved by sin. and exultation which was the true character-
I. ORIGIN. Et"ggezjo7® (neut. sing.) is rare- istic of his messianic proclamation. What was
ly found in the sense of "good tidings" outside at first simply a literary allusion came easily
of early Christian literature. As used by Homer to represent the actual message which was
it referred not to the message but to the re- being proclaimed. E"¢gge!jo77 was the natural
wai.d given to the messenger (e.g., Od. xiv. result of the LXX's etlflggeljzej7c. Thus Mark
152). In Attic Greek it always occurred in the could write that Jesus came into Galilee "her-
alding the etlaggczjo71 of God" (Mark I:14).
plural and generally referred to sacrifices or
thank offerings made in behalf of good tid- 11. EUAGGELloN IN THE GospELs. Upon
ings. Even in the LXX et4¢ggez;o7? is found for examining the four Gospels we find that the
sure but once (11 Kings 4: 10: Eng. versions, word e"c!ggezJ.o7t is used only by Matthew and
11 Sam.) and there it has the classical meaning Mark. The concept, however, is not foreign to
of a reward given for good tidings. (In 11 Luke. He uses the verb form twenty-six times
Kings 18:22, 25, e"¢ggezio7¢ should undoubt- in Luke-Acts, and the noun twice in the latter
edly be taken as fern. sing. in harmony with book. In the Fourth Gospel there is no trace
verses 20 and 27 where this form is certain.) of either verb or noun.
Ewflggezjo7t in the sense of the good news it- In all but one instance, Matthew further
self belongs to a later period. Outside o£ Chris- describes et4aggeJjo7c as the gospel "of the
tian literature the neuter singular first appears kingdom." This gospel is not to be distin-
with this meaning in a papyrus letter from an guished from what Mark calls the "gospel o£
Egyptian official of the third century A.D. God" (many MSS read "the gospel of the
(Deiss LAE, pp. 366 f£. In the plural it is kingdom o£ God") and summarizes in the
found in a calendar inscription from Priene words, "the time is fulfilled, and the kingdom
about 9 B.c.). It is not until the writings of o£ God is at hand" (Mark I:14,15). On the
the Apostolic Fathers (e.g., Djc!¢c7te 8:2; JJ other occasion Matthew writes "tJtc.s gospel"
Cle„i. 8:5) that we sense a transition to the (Matt. 26:13) -the context indicating that
later Christian usage of ewcigge!jo7¢ as referring Jesus is i`11uding to his coming de{`th. The
to a book which sets forth the life and teach- I)hri`se, "preac`hing the gospel of the kingdom,"
ing of Jesus (Justin ApoZ. i. 66). is twii`c used in summar}' st€`temcnts of the
Against this background, the frequenc`y with ministry of Jesus (Matt. 4:23; 9:35). This
which e?4¢ggelz.o7? occurs in the NT (more gos|)i`l is to be I)rc:li`hcd throughout the entire
than 75 times) with the specific connotation world I)rior to the c`onsumm.1tion of the i`gc
of "good news," is highly informative. It sug- (Matt. 24:14; cf. Mark 13:10).
The way in which Mark uses etwzgge!I.oy3 is
gests that e¢i¢ggezio7¢ is quite distinctively a
NT word. Its true significance is therefore suggested b}' his opening words, "The begin-
found, not by I)robing its linguistic back- nin`g of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of
God." Here e"aggez;o7t is a semi-technical
ground, but by observing its specific Christian
usage. term meaning "the glad news which tells {`bout
This is not to deny, of course, that the Jesus Christ." Where Luke writes, "for the
basic concept has its rightful origin in the sake of the kingdom of God" (Luke 18:29),
religious as|)irations of the nation Israel. Some the Markan |>tirallel is, "for my sake and for
seven centuries before Christ the prophet the gospel" (Mark 10:29). This gospel is o£
Isaiah had delivered a series of prophetic utter- sui`h tremendous import that for its sake a
ances. With vivid imagery he portrayed the man must be willing to enter upon a life of
coming deliverance o£ Israel from captivity in complete self-denial (Mark 8:35). In the long
Babylon. A Redeemer shall come to Zion ending of Mark, Christ commands his discipl?s
to "I)recic`h the gosi)el to the whole creation"
preaching good tidings unto the meek and
liberty to the captives (Isa. 60:1, 2). "How (Mark 16:15).
beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of Ill. THE GOSPEL ACCORDING To PAUL.
him who brings good tidings" (Isa. 52:7). Over against the six occasions (discounting
Jerusalem itself is pictured as a herald whose parallels) on which e"¢ggelio7e is used by the
message is good tidings (Isa. 40:9). Gospel writers, it is found a total of sixty
Jesus saw in these prophecies a description times in the writings of Paul. Ewczgge[jo7i is a
GOSPEL 256

favorite Pauline term. It is evenly distributed road. Thus he speaks of "my gospel" meaning
throughout his epistles, missing only in his his own personal apprehension of the gospel.
note to Titus. On other occasions he can speak freely of "our
Paul's ministry was distinctively that of the gospel" (11 Cor. 4:3; I Thess.1:5).
propagation of the gospel. Unto this gospel he For Paul, the et„ggez;o# is pre-eminently
was set apart (Ron.1 : I) and made a minister the "gospel o£ God" (Ron.1 : 1; 15: 16; 11 Cor.
according to the grace o£ God (Eph. 3:7). His 11:7; I Thess. 2:2, 8, 9). It proclaims the
special sphere of action was the gentile world I.edemptive activity .Of God. This activity is
(Rom.16:16; Gal. 2:7). Since Paul accepted bound up with the person and work of God's
the gospel as a sacred trust (Gal. 2:7), it was Son, Christ Jesus. Thus it is also the ``gospel
necessary that in the discharge of this obliga- of Christ" (I Cor. 9:12; 11 Col. 2:12; 9:13;
tion he speak so as to please God rather than 10:14; Gal.I:7; I Thess. 3:2. Verses 16 and
man (I Tim. 2:4). The divine commission 19 of Ron. 15 indicate that these are inter-
had created a sense of urgency that made him changeable terms). This gospel is variously
cry out, "Woe to me if I do not preach the expressed as "the gospel of our Lord Jesus"
gospel" (I Cor. 9:16). For the sake of the (11 Thess.I:8), "the gospel of the glory of
gosi)el Paul was willing to become all things the blessed God" (I Tim.I:11), "the gospel
to all men (I Cor. 9:22, 23). No sacrifice was of his Son" (Ron.I:9), and "the gospel of
too great. Eternal issues were at stake. Those the glory of Christ" (11 Cor. 4:4). It is a
whose minds were blinded and did not obey gospel of salvation (Eph.1:13) and peace
the gospel were perishing and would ulti- (Eph. 6: 15). It proclaims the hope of eternal
mately reap the vengeance of divine wrath life (Col. 1:23). It is "the word Of truth"
(11 Cor. 4:3; 11 Thess.1:9). On the other (Col.I:5; Eph.I:13). Through this gospel,
hand, to those who believed, the gospel had life and immortality are brought to light (11
effectively become the power of God unto Tim.I:10).
salvation (Ron.I:16). IV. THE AposTOLlc PREACHING. If we wish
Because Paul, on occasion, speaks of his to investigate more closely the specific content
message as "my gospel" (Ron. 2:16; 11 Tim. of the primitive gospel, we will do well to
2: 8), and because in his letter to the Galatians adopt the basic approach of C. H. Dodd (T7ie
he goes to some pains to stress that he did not Apostolic Preacl.ing and its Developments,
receive it from man (Gal.1:11 ff.), it is Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1936). While
sometimes maintained that Paul's gospel Dodd refers to the message as kGryg#ccz, he is
should be distinguished f ron that of apostolic ready to admit that this term is a virtual
Christianit}7 in general. equivalent of etlaggc!jo77. (Kel-yg#®ci stresses
the manner of delivery: ettcigge!jo71, the essen-
This does not follow. I Cor. 15:3-5 sets
tial nature of the content.)
forth with crystal clarity the message of primi-
ti\'e Christianity. Paul, using terms equivalent There ai.e two sources for the determination
to the technical rabbinic words for the recep- of the primitive proclamation. Of primary im-
`portance are the fragments of pre-Pauline tra-
tion and transmission of tradition (M. Dibe-
1ius, Fi.o7# T7-fldzt;o74 fo Gospel, Scribner's, dition that lie embedded in the writings of the
New York,1935, p. 21), refers to this message apostle. These segments can be uncovered by
as something which he had received and the judicious application of certain literary and
formal criteria. While at least one purports to
iiassed on (vs. 3). In verse eleven he can say,
"Whether then it was I or they, so we preach be the actual terms in which the gospel was
and so you believed." In Galatians, Paul tells preached (I Cor. 15 : 3-5), others take the form
how he laid before the apostles at Jerusalem of early Christian hymns (e.g., Phil. 2:6-11),
the gospel which he had preached. Far from summaries of the message (e.g., Ron. 10:9),
finding fault with the message, they extended or creedal formulae (I Cor. 12:3; I Tim.
3 : 16).

2o,95imwEhae,;iguitmt::?b;`h:sel::::ehriprei:rakl; A second source is the early Petrine speech.es

is that the charges against his gospel as a mere in Acts. These speeches (on the basis of their
human message were completely fraudulent. Aramaic background, freedom from Paulinism,
The revelation of the full theological impact and the general trustworthiness of Luke as a
of the Christ-event was God-given and historian) can be shown to give reliably the
stemmed from his encounter on the Damascus gist of what Peter actually said and not what
257 GRACE

a second generation Christian thought he BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Friedrich in TWNT; R. H. Strachan, "The Gos-
might have said.
These two sources combine to set forth one #.,,jib.;`if pT:I',j', -i%; X.Ill. p,:. R3a"Ti'nsyn., E::c,I:,y.,PCT,I;
Brjt(mJ®j£`a, X, pp. 536 ff; M. Burrows, JBL, XLIV, pp.
common apostolic gospel. In briefest outline, 21-33; W. Milligan, Thcss., Note E, pp. 141 ff; Har-
this message contained: (I) A historical proc-
lamation of the death, resurrection, and exalta- £i%i:'g;;:;,¥{£'i£;"B:#hif"i'sAtphpeen%gs5::;„Ppin27£i;;„l;
tion of Jesus, set forth as the fulfilment of ROBERT H. MoUNCE
prophecy and involving man's responsibility;
(2) A theological evaluation Of the person Of GRACE. In the OT many words convey
Jesus as both Lord and Christ; (3) A sum- one or more aspects of the doctrine of grace.
mons to repent and receive the forgiveness Of The two which most comprehensively express
sins. the NT word c7i¢ris are hG" and 7}esed. The
It will be noticed that the essential core of former bears the predomihant sens; of- favor,
this message is not the dawn of the messianic with an undertone of meaning that the favor
age (as Dodd implies) - although this is most is undeserved. Thus Moses said to the Lord:
"1£ I have found gr¢ce in thy sight, show me
certainly involved - but that sequence of re-
demptive events which sweeps the hearer along now thy ways, that I may know thee, to the
with compelling logic towards the climactic end that I may find gr¢ce in thy sight" (Ex.
confession that Jesus is Lord. 33 : 13). The word Z!esed, most often translated
"lovingkindness" or "mercy," has also, though
The gospel is not tlic product of a bewil-
dered church pondering the theological sig- not invariably, the association of the covenant
nificance of Good Friday. It is rather the re- that God makes with his people: "The Lord
sult of a natural development which had its appeared of old unto me, saying, Yea, I have
origins in the teachings of Jesus himself. The loved thee with an everlasting love: therefore
Passion-sayings of Jesus - far from being with lovingkindness have I drawn thee" (]er.
"prophecies after the event" (c£. R. Bultmann, 31:3); "the Lord thy God shall keep with
Theology of the NT, Scribner's, Now York, thee the covenant and the mercy which he
1951,I, p. 29) -are undeniable evidence that sware unto thy fathers" (Deut. 7:12). (For
the other words forming the nexus of the con-
Jesus laid the foundation for a theology of
the cross. In his teaching regarding his own cept Of grace in the OT, see C. Ryder Smith,
The Bible Docti-ine of Gi-ace, Epworth Press,
person, Jesus furnished what R. H. Fuller
has aptly termed "the raw materials o£ Chris- London, 1956, chap. 2).
wlogy" CThe Mission and Achievement of The most common NT word is cJicirjs. Its
basic signif icance is to be f ound in joyfulness,
Jestts, A. R. AIlenson, Chicago, 1954, pp. 79-
117). The resurrection was the catalyst which whether in regard to the appreciation of things
or of people. But as used by the NT, it con-
precipitated in the minds of the disciples the
total signif icance o£ God's redemptive activity. veys the combined meanings of {®G7® and Ziese¢:
It released the gospel! e.g., for the former; "But if it is by grace, it
is no more of works: otherwise grace is no
This gospel is power (Rom.1:16). As an
more grace" (Rom.11:6), or: "the exceeding
instrument of the Holy Spirit it convicts (I
riches of his grace in kindness toward us"
Thess.I:5) and converts (Col.I:6). It can-
not be fettered (11 Tim. 2:9). Although it is (Eph. 2:7); for the latter: "where sin
abounded, grace did much more abound"
good news, it is strenuously opposed by a re-
bellious world (I Thess. 2:2). Opposition to (Rom. 5:20).
the message takes the form of opposition to The essence of the doctrine of grace is that
the messenger (11 Tim.1 : 11,12; Philem.13). God is for us. What is more, he is for us who
Yet those who proclaim it must do so boldly in ourselves are against him. More still, he is
(Eph. 6: 19) and with transparent simplicity not for us merely in a general attitude, but has
(11 Cor. 4:2) -not with eloquence lest the effectively acted towards us. Grace is summed
cross of Christ be robbed of its power (I Cor. up in the name Jesus Christ.
I:17). To those who refuse the gospel it is It is quite clear that the NT overwhelming-
both foolishness and a stumbling block (I Cor. ly associates the word grace with Christ, either
I:18 ff.), but to those who respond in faith directl}' (``the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ"),
it proves itself to be ``the power of God unto or else by implication as the executor Of the
salvation" (Ron. I : 16). grace o£ God. It does this, not in any spirit of
GRAVE, THE 258

Christomonism, but because it is in his in- to regard grace as divine indulgence. Grace
carnate Son that God puts into effect his does not mean the weak and careless forgive-
being for us, shows us that he is for us and ness of sins; for pardon was effected only by
reconciles us to himself , bringing us over to the judgment and condemnation of the inno-
his side, to be for him. Since all this comes to cent and voluntary sacrifice. Grace means
pass only by the incarnate activity o£ Christ, God's tuning to man by undertaking the re-
we may say that grace means Jesus Christ, sponsibility for the enmity against himself .
and Jesus Christ means grace. He is the grace Grace would be an impossibility if Christ had
of God towards us. I.ot satisfied the holiness of God in his obe-
Jesus Christ is God for us. We may consider dient self-offering.
this in terms of the covenant (¢esed). In his Because grace is God's fre.e decision upon
Son God binds himself freely to us to be our us in Christ, proceeding from his graciousness,
God, and binds us to himself to be his. By be- it follows that we have no ability to win his
coming our God he becomes to us what he is grace or favor. This is why grace is opposed
in himself - loving, holy, merciful and pa- to the works of the law tacitly throughout the
tient, in a word, gracious. As he is God in him- NT and expressly in such passages as Ron.
self , so he will be God toward us, for our 3:19 ff.; John 1:17; Gal. 2:11-21; Eph. 2:8-
benefit. He will assume the responsibility for 9. On the contrary, grace must be acknowl-
our past, present and future. He, no longer edged for what it is and accepted with hum-
an enemy, stands with us against our real ble and joyful gratitude. This human decision,
enemies, and that effectively: "If God be for involving acknowledgment and acceptance, is
us, who can be against us?" (Ron. 8:31). the faith which corresponds to God's grace.
"By grace are ye saved through faith" (Eph.
But all this is true because Christ has come,
2:8).
died and risen again: "grace . . . came by
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Christ Jesus" (John I:17). The incarnation
11. Heppe, Rc'formed Dog"Iatics, chap. XII, "The
of God's Son, his obedient suffering, his sacri- Co`.enant of` Grace"; D. Bonhoeffer T7!tJ Cost of D;s-
ficial death and triumphant resurrection, do c*#..ee,s±tr%`,.„=S,€pbf,6r,:Seas:*yt,f=era±f;:o,oG&y%.jBeqrrt=BgS,.

not merely show us that God is gracious but is K. Earth: C7ittrch Dogft]afics,11/I, pp. 351-68; IV/I.

itself God's act of grace, in which he turns to T. H. L. PARKER

us and effects this relationship. In what Christ
docs and suffers, God's grac`e overi`omes sin GRAVE, THE. The burial of our Lord is
and enmity .ind sets up the covenant fellow- typical of the method of burial throughout the
ship. We are not to suppose, however, that Bible. There is also exact equivalence of usage
God began to be gracious to us only when of the Hebrew and Greek words. The OT
sin had been dealt with, and that previously uses main,ly qe9ei- and qegiAtl.d, with some as-
he had been against us. God is gracious to us sistance from 5¢dyc}!,. the NT uses 77i7cg7"ci,
because he is gracious in himself first of all. 7"#g"e;o7i, and fclpj7os. The words chiefly sig-
Of his graciousness he is gracious to us in his nify the place of burial - grave, tomb, sepul-
Son. chre; the}7 also have interesting metaphorical
Moreover, it is of the essence of grace that sidelights, i.e., human characteristics or occur-
it is free. If grace were an obligation on God's rences which were thought of as "deadly" in
effect (e.g., Ps. 5:9; Jer. 5:16; Luke 11:44;
part, i[ would no longer be grace. But it is in
Ron. 3:13). Where 5cz7?¢t is used (e.g., Ps.
his divine freedom that God is gracious to us.
He is not forced to show grace; he does so 16 : 10) it signifies the gr;v-e as the place where
freely. We sinners deserve only to have God the body corrupts. The references given show
against us. God's animosity to sin is plainly re- that for the OT the grave marked a terminus
vealed in the cross. But we are sinners, irre- be}'ond which faith hardly pressed. On this,
trievably and inexcusably. Therefore, God and on the occasional use o£ "the grave" as
meaning "the abode of the dead," see HADEs,
should be against us. Yet, wonder of wonders!
HELL, DEATH.
he sends not a destroyer or a judge, but himself
comes to save by letting himself be destroyed JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
and judged. There could be no plainer dec- GRECIANS, GREEKS. See HELLENlsM.
laration that God is for us, i.e., declaration of
the grace of God. At the same time, the course GREHK ORTHODOX. Greek as distinct
of Christ into suffering and death forbids us from the Latins of the West, and Orthodox as
259 GUILT

opposed to uniate Romanists and heretical ture. Vegetable growth is included, caused by the
Monophysites or Nestorians, the Eastern Lord God (Ps.104: 14). Growth is expressed
Churches comprise a family of independent by words signifying "to increase greatly" (Gen.
units which claim to have preserved the orig- 48: 16); "to become firm" (Job 38:38); "to be
inal faith intact. They are located in Turkey, fruitful" (Gen. 47:27); "to flourish" (Hos.
Greece, Cyprus, the Balkans, Russia and the 14:5); "to become great," like a cedar in
Near East, with patriarchates at Constantino- Lebanon (Ps. 92:12); "to triumph" (Job
ple, Alexandria` Antioch and Jerusalem; the 8:11); "to go up" (Mark 4:7); "to be nour-
first of these was granted a certain pre- ished" (Ps.144:12); etc. A people's trespass
eminence in 4.51, and a patriarchate o£ Mos- can be "grown (g6d¢l) up unto the heavens"
cow was added in 1589. In doctrine they ad- (Ezra 9:6).
here to the seven ecumenical councils of un- Of most particular interest is the Greek
divided Christendom, paying particular honor word ¢itx¢7to-, "to increase," "grow up." So the
"word of God grew and multi|)lied" (Acts
to the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed. Christ
is held to be the sole Head of the church, and 12:24) and "mightil}' grew" (Acts 19:20).
in 1054 they finally broke with Rome, re- And so the whole body of Christ "groweth un-
jecting papal supremacy, purgatory and the to an holy temple in the Lord" (Eph. 2:21).
cult of images (though they allow holy I)ic- Newborn babes, also, are to "desire the sincere
tures called jko7¢s), and giving as I)articular milk of the word" that they might "grow there-
grievances the Latin addition of fjzjoqwe to the by" (I Pet. 2:2). The same woi.d is used when
Creed (see also PRocEssloN oF THE SplRIT Peter urges Christicins to "grow in grace, and
and FILloQUE) and the Western use of un- in the knowledge of our Lord and Si`viour
leavened bread in the Mass. They accept the Jesus Christ" (11 Pet. 3:18). Paul tiffi,`:is a
seven sacraments, baptism being normally by prei)ositiom`] prefix to the word, makinti it
immersion and immediately followed by con- h,i'peJ-flilxa74o-, and says: "We . . . thank God
firmation, even in the case of infants, while in . . that }7our faith groweth exceedingl}'" (11
the Communion, which is administered in +hess.I:3)'
both kinds to all, a definite transmutation of RIBLIOGRf\P[IY
Gi`o. A. Coi', HERI.: E. Stanley J()nes, Gi.owjiig Spir-
the elements is taught. Inferior clergy are al- j(!ItlzJ)',. Basil +\liller, Gi.otu;7ig j«to Ljfc.
lowed to marry, but once only and that before
JOSEPH KENNETH GRIDER
ordination; the bishops are always celibate and
usuall}+ monks. Worship, conducted in archaic GUILT. Words like "guilty," "guiltlc`ss,"
forms of the `'crmeular, is elaborate and `'guiltiness," occur al)out thirty times in the
lengthy, but instrumental music is I)rohibited Bil]lc. "Guilt}'" or "guiltiness" usiiall)J render
i`ind preaching occupies ii subordinate i]lacc, the Hebrew 'd5dtli which is a common word
while |]rayers both to and for the dead are for "trespass offc`ring" and frequentl}' desig-
offcrcd. The human will is held to co-operate natcs the trespass for which the offering was
with divine gr£`cc, and I)redestimtion to be
given. In the NT, "guilty" translates J}y|7od;/{os
founded on divine foreknowledge. Scripture "under judginent" in Ron 3:19 :md cj?oc.Jios
and tradition arc i`lil`c rcs|)ei`tcd, but the ul- "worth}' of I)unishment" in the trial of Christ
timatc source o£ :`uthorit}' tends to bc found in
iind I Col. 11 :27; James 2: 10.
the unchanging common mind of the Churches
In connection with the sin and trc`si)ass of-
as guided by the IIol)' Ghost. Since the time
ferings, Lev. 4:13; 5:2 sa}' that bre£`king an)'
o£ Constantine, the Et`stern churches have al-
o£ God's commands, ceremonial or moral,
wa}'s been closel}' dcpcndcnt on the state, and
I)rings guilt. Jztmcs 2:10 em|)hasizes that to
this rclationshii] has subsisted even under non-
offend in one point of the law makes one
Christii`n go\'ernmcnts. Contact with Western
guilt), of all,
Christians has been increased b}' groui)s of
r\To great progress need be traced in the de-
exiles in the present century.
\7elopmcnt of the concei)t of guilt. C£`in was
BIBLIOGRAPI IY
\\'. I. f\dene}', TJltJ (,).ttiJ/{ //iifl lit/`lt.I.n (,`/iHi-i'li{.`,.
as `guilt}. i`s I)i`vid. The earl}' law distinguished
Artjcli`s "I_..asterii Cliui.ch," "GI.i.I.k Oi.thodox CI`.iircl`I" motive (Ex. 21:12-14). Guilt was individual
and "Russian Church" in HEI:I=..
(11 Kings 14:6) iis \`7ell as c`ollective (Dim.
G. S. M. WALKER
9:5). The sufferin`g ser\'ant is the i]rophcsied
'fl-5dii!, or offering for guilt (Isa. 53: 10).
GROW, GROWTH. There is a many-
R. LAIRD I-IARRIS
sidedness to the concept of growth in Scrip-
 H

HADES. Almost without exception the Chron. 20:6; Acts 7:50; Heb.I:10); 1)rodi-
LXX uses h4c!Gs to translate 5C'6!, the OT gies (E,`'. 3:20); providence (Ps. 31:15); pro-
name for the abode of the dei]arted (see vision (Ezra 7:6; Ps.145: 16); protection (Ps.
HELL). This background, which commits the 139: 10; Isa. 51 : 16; John 10:28 f.); prediction
Greek word to no doctrine of reward or i]un- (Isa. 11:11); iiunishment (Ps. 75:8; Isa.
ishment, shows itself in the majority of the 40:2: 50:11; Hi`b. 10:31); I)leading (Isa.
oci`urrences (e.g., Acts 2:27; Rev. 20:13). 65:2; Ron.10:21).
Oni`c (Matt.16: 18) Hades signifies the head- Si`c also oRDAII`T, LAYING oN oF HANDs.
quarters of oi)position to the church. This pre- WICK BROOMALI.
pares us for Matt. 11:23 (I)arallel, Luke
10: 15) and Luke 16:23, in which Hades un- HARDENING. Passi`'e forms of pczcJiytlo-,
doubtedl}' signifies the place of punishment "to make fat," "dull" (Matt.13:15 and Acts
of the wicked. In this connection the above- 28:27, quoting Isd. 6:10), of pot.oo-and
mentioned equivalence of Hi]dcs and Sheol is sJ{!GI.)'7zo-, "to hardcn`.' |Rom. 11:7; 11 Cor.
specially noteworth}'. The OT contains only 3: 14; Acts 19:9), the substantives po-I-o-s].s and
a suggestion of di`'ersit}7 of destiny for the sklgi.otc-s, "hi`rdness" (M:`rk 3:5; Rom.11:25;
godly and the ungodl}', but no sooner does 2:5) and the adjective sklGI.oft.ocJ]clos, "stiff-
Christ "bring life and immortality to light" necked" (Acts 7:51) designate the condition
than he also re`'eals eternal loss and death, of the hearts of thi` Jews (and the Gentiles:
so that even Hades, otherwise equivalent to Ei]h. 4:18, using i)o-i.o-s7.s); for the OT see
Shcol, cannot refuse the further significance. TWNT V, pp. 1024-32. 1[ is Goc!'s work to
This simultaneous maturing of truth concern- harden (John 12:40; cf. Iscl. 6:10; Rom.
ing eternal gain and loss is ignored b}' ever)' 9 : 18 : acti\'c forms of 1)o-I-o6 and skzel.,i'"o-). But
attempt to divest the NT of its grim doctrine this does not exclude man's responsibilit}': the
of eternal punishment (see DESTRucTloN). heart of a disciple who does not }'et under-
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER stand Christ is hardened (pcpol.o-wie7!g, Mark
6: 52; 8: 17). Christians are warned not to fall
HAND. The Hebrew i'dd and kflp and the back into the wa}.s of the Old Israel by hard-
Greek cJ7eji. represent t.he- English- "hand." ening (skler}-n6) "themselves" (Heb. 3:8,13,
Some of the man}' uses of hand are illustrated 15; 4:7, quoting Ps. 95:8). Si)eaking in Ron.
in the following exami]les: supplication (11 9-11 of the "unsearchable . . . judgments
Chron. 6:12 f.; Ps. 28:2); swearing (Gen. (11:33) of God, who has merc}' on whom-
14:22; 24:2, 9; 47:29; Ezra 10:19); sloth ever he wills and hardens the heart Of whom-
(Prov.10:4; 19:24); ser`ritude (Judg. 2:14; e`'cr he wills" (9:18), Paul (9:17 f.) refers
Jer. 27:6 f.); suret}7 (Prov. 6:I ff.; 22:26); to the hardening of Pharaoh by God fl#d by
sealing (Rev.13:16); silence (Judg.18:19: himself (Ex. 4:21; 7:3, 22; 8:15; 9:12, 35;
Job 40:4); sin (Mic. 7:3; Rev. 9:20); sanc- 10;I; 14:4, 8,17). A final hope remains for
tification (Job 17:9; 31:7; Ps. 24:4; I Tim. the hardened Israel, "if the}' do not persist
2:8; James 4:8). in their unbelief . . ." (Ron.11 :23).
The "la}7ing on of hands" is associated with BIBLIOGRAPIIY
blessing (Gen. 48:14 ff.; Matt.19:13 ff.);
wac,'iee':T;}nJ.[!Ea£;f'kg.Sf.n€n£.hs|..P`:]`§:1,i::idJt]?nB'.T}};iv±:
succession (Nun. 27:18-23); substitution
(Ex. 29: 10; Lev. 16:21); punishment (Esth. MARTIN ANTON SCHMII)T
3:6; 8:7; Acts 5:18); healing (Mark 6:5;
8 :23; Acts 9: 12; 28:8); baptism (Acts 9: 17 £.; HATE, HATRED. The I.rimary meaning
19:5 f.); the Holy Spirit (Deut. 34:9; Acts of the words €df¢iic, t"jseo- in the Holy Scrip-
9:17); ordination (Acts 6:6; I Tim. 4:14; 11 tures is holding in very strong dislike. It in~
Tim.I:6); a special commission (Acts 13:3). cludes anger, fear and disgust not just mo-
God's hand is associated with power (11 mentarily but as an enduring tendency.

260
261 HEAR, HEARKEN

The word £"'d for hatred expresses the con- directed by the Head (Ron. 12:3-8; I Cor.
dition of ill will and aversion toward the ob- 12:4-31; Eph. 4:11-16). A similar figure de-
ject of hatred and fear or anger at his ap- scribes Christ as the Head Of his church as the
proach, joy when he is injured and anger bride (Eph. 5:23-33) based on the headship
when he receives favor. of man over woman, and is prophetic of the
Hate rs the opposite of love. It may be be- future union of Christ and his church in glory.
tween person and person (Gen. 27:41). It is JOHN F. WALV00RI)
also used of God hating evil (Prov. 6: 16), of
the righteous hating evil (Ps. 97:10) and of HEAL, HEALING. Healing in the NT
the wicked hating the light (John 3:20). It is Of two kinds, (a) physical healing (e.g.,
is one of "the works Of the flesh" (Gal. 5 :20). Matt. 4:24; 10:8; Luke 5:17; John 4:47)
A less strong use of the word hate is ob- and (b) spiritual healing (e.g., Heb.12: 13).
served in regard to God's choice of agents of The two main words used are t7ierapewo-
his purpose. ``1 loved Jacob and I hated Esau" (which is used ten times in reference to our
(Mal.1:2-3). St. Paul comments on this in Lord's miracles) and jao7w¢j, and in both of
Ron. 9: 13. Hate here means ``not chosen" in these words is contained the idea of restoration.
the context of the dissertation on predestina- In most instances of our Lord's healings there
tion and election. was an implicit demand for faith to be exer-
Another usage is in the passage "hate not cised by the sufferer (Matt. 9:29; Mark
his father . . . and his own life also" (Luke 10:52; Luke 17:19), although there are ex-
14:26). The disciple must be ready to suffer ceptions (e.g., John 5: I-9). It is important to
the loss of all things for Christ and the gospel. observe that our Lord's healings are never
AI.BERT VICTOR M'CALLIN portrayed as mere wonders. Whereas the
Synoptic Gospels bring out the motive of com-
HEAD. As the most important physical part passion, thetheFourth Gospel this
specifies them as
"signs." In early church healing minis-
of man and the seat of human intelligence,
the word head is used to represent man him- try was continued by the apostles, while in I
self, especially as chief , leader, commander, or Corinthians it is enumerated among the char-
one in authority. Figuratively it is used of ismatic gifts (12:9, 28, 30).
God and of Christ (I Cor. 11:3; c£. Eph. In both Old and New Testaments the idea
I:22; Col. 2:19), of human authorities (I of physical healing readily lent itself to an ap-
Sam.15:17; Dan. 2:28; Isa. 9:14-15), and plication in a spiritual and therefore a fuller
Of important cities (Isa. 7:8). Blessing or sense (cf. John 12:40; I Pet. 2:24).
calamity, honor or dishonor, joy or sorrow are See also FAITH-HEALING.
often pictured as falling upon the head (Gen. DONALI) GUTHRIE
40: 13,19; 48: 14,17,18; 49:26; Deut. 33: 16;
Josh. 7:6; Judg. 9:57; I Sam. 4:12; 25:39; HEAR, HEARKEN. The usual sense of
11 Sam.I:2; 13:19; 11 Chron. 6:23; Ps. 3:3; hear, receive sounds, is very frequently found
23:5; 27:6; 83:2; Lam. 2:10; Ezek. 9:10; in both Old and r\Tew Testaments in the
Luke 21:28; I Cor.11:5,10). common verbs 567„c}`, and akowo-. When one
In the NT an important use of the word gives close attention to what he hears, then
describes the relation of Christ as Head of we use the term listen, or in biblical language
the church. As the Head Of the church (Eph. hearken. For the latter the RSV uses both
4:15; 5:23) Christ is joined to the church listen and hearken. The sense of "response"
described as his body (Eph. 4: 12; Col. 1 :24). is conveyed by .`hearken," whether in granting
This relationship is accomplished by the bap- a request (I Kings 8:28), following a sugges-
tism of the Spirit (I Cor.12:13; c£. Ron. tion (Gen. 3:18), believing a promise (Ex.
6:3-4; Gal. 3:27), by which all believers are 4:1), or obeying a command (Neh. 9:16).
placed into the body of Christ. The figure The word 5d7}icl` is used for all these senses,
speaks Of the pre-eminence of Christ, his au- but the OT also frequently has q65¢g, "give
thority, and his living union with the church. attention" (I Sam. 22:15; Dan. 9:19; Mal.
In the same figure the individual believers are 3:16); also translated "attend" to in Psalms
described as having spiritual gifts differing as and Proverbs. "Hearken" occurs nine times in
parts of the human body, but combining their the NT (Acts 2:14; 27:21 etc.) but "hear"
varied contribution in one common endeavor is used also for close attention (e.g., Matt.
HEART 262

13:9; 17:5). In John 18:37 and I John 4:5-6 passions; the center of the thought processes;
``heareth" means personall}' to accept the the spring of conscience. Heart, in fact, is
si7eaker, and in I John 5:14-15 it signifies associated with what is now meant by the
God's acceptance of our i]rayer. cognitive, affective and volitional elements of
J. CLEMENT CONNELL personal life.
The Book of Proverbs is illuminating here:
HEART. I. BIBLlcAL Ps¥cHOLOGT. He- The heart is the seat of wisdom (2: 10; eti`.);
brew and Christian views on the nature of of trust (or confidence) (3:5); diligence
iT`an were developed in a religious setting; (4:23); I)erversencss (6: 14); wicked imagina-
there is no s}'stematized or scientific ps}7cholo- tions (6:18); lust (6:25); subtlety (7:10);
understanding (8:5); deceit (12:20); folly
g}' in the Bible. Nevertheless, certain funda-
mental conceiitions are worth}' of note: (1) (12:23); hea\'incss (12:25); bittcrni`ss
In the OT there is no very marked em|)basis ( 14 : 10); sorrow ( 14 : 13); backsliding ( 14 : 14):
on individuality; but, rather, on what is fre- cheerfulness (15:13); knowlcdgc (15:14);

quently now termed col-pol-ate pei-so"¢[;ty. Yet jo}' (15:30); pride (16:5); haughtiness
(2) A. R. Johnson has shown that a funda- ( 18 : 12) ; prudence ( 18 : 15 ) ; fretfulness
mental characteristic of OT iinthropology is (19:3); env}' (23: 17).
fJle cztu¢I-e7iess of fot¢Z7.I)I. Man is not a body Ill. NEw TESTAMENT USAGE. The NT
word is ktzrdJ.a. It, too, has a `\'ide ps}.chological
iilus a soul, but a living unit of vital power,
a I)s}'cho-ph}7sical organism (Aubre)7 R. John- and si)iritui`l connoti`tion. Our Lord emi)ha-
sof\, T1.e Vitality of tl.e Individual in the^ sized the imi)ortancc of right stati`s of heart.
T)2o"g7„ of A7tc;e74t Js7.ae], Uni\'ersity of It is the I)urc jn heart who see God (Matt.
Wales Press, 1949). (3) The Hebrews 5 :8); sin is first cominittcd in the heart (Matt.
thought of man as inflilenced from without - 5:28); out of the heart proceed evil thoughts
1)}' c\'il spirits, the devil, or the Si]irit o£ God and acts (i\htt. 15 : 19); forgivcncss inust come
~ whereas in modern I)s)'cholog}` ((i.1'.) the em- from the heart (Miltt.18:35); Inen must love
God \`'ith all thc'ir hc'c`rt (i\liitt. 22:37); the
I)hasis has tended to bc 1)laced on d).mmic
factors oi)Crating from within (though, at the \\'ord of God is sown, imd must come to
fruition, in the hetirt rLULe 8: 11-15).
I)resent time, fresh interest is being evoked in
the stud}' of en\'ironmcntal forces as factors in- Paul`s usc. of kt7i.d7.t7 is on similar lines. Ac-
fluencing human bchi``'ior). (4) The stud}` cording to Dr. Robinson, in I 5 cases hcdrt de-
of I)articular words in the Old and New Testa- notes 1)ersomlit}7, or the inner life, in general
ments affords a comi)rehensi`'c view of the (e.g., I Cor.14:25); in 13 cases, it is the scat
underl}'ing Hebrew and Christian conceptions of cmotioml sti`tes of consciousness (e.g., Ron.
of man (q.v.). (See .Tohn Laidlaw in HDB, 9:2); in 11 cases, it is the seat of intellectual
Articles, .`Ps}'cholog}T," "Mind," "Heart," acti`'ities (c.g., Ron.1:21); in 13 cases, it
``Soul," "Spirit," "Flesh," "Body"). is the seat of the volition (e.g., Ron. 2:5)
11. OLD TESTAMENT UsAGE. In the English (H. Wheeler Robinson, TJ]e CJii.isti.fli3 Doc-
t7iJ7c of t\1t?77, 3rd Edition, T. & T. Clark,
versions several Hebrew expressions are trams-
lated "heart," the main words being !efy and Edinburgh, 1926). Paul uses other cxpres-
lebab. In a general sense, heart means in the sions, such as mind, soul and spirit, to aug-
midst, the innermost or hidden part of an}'- ment the concei)tion of man; but, on the
thing (John Laidlaw, HDB,11, it. 317). Thus, whole, it ma}' be said that the f\TT word
k¢rd7.fl reproduces .and e.`'pands the ideas in-
the midst (or heart) of the sea (Ps. 46:2); of
eluded in the OT words lcl7 and ]GZ7fl]J.
heaven (Deut. 4:11); of the oak (11 Sam.
14: 18). IV. THE GOSPEL oF TIIE NEW HEART.
In the ph}'siological sense, heart is the cen- Since the heart is regarded as the center or
tral bodily organ, the seat of i]h}'sical life. focus of man's personal life, the spring of all
Thus, Jacob's heart "fainted" (Gen. 45:26); his desires, moti`'es, and nor.`l choices - in-
Eli's heart "trembled" (I Sam. 4: 13). deed, of all his behavioral.trends -it is not
But, like other anthropological terms in the surprising to note that in both Testaments the
OT, heart is also used very frequently in a divine appeal is addressed to the "heart" Of
man.
ps}'chological sense, as the center or focus of
man's inner 1)ersonal life. The heart is the The subject is too broad to allow of full
source, or s|)ring, of motives; the seat Of the treatinent here; but the leading ideas ma}' be
263 HEATHEN, THE FATE OF

outlined thus. The evil imagination, according emerges: Is it not unjust of God to damn a
to the rabbis, is located in the heart (Gen. person who has had no opportunity to be
6:5); the heart is engraven with sin; it is de- saved? Why is it? Assuming that God does
ceitful and desperately sick (Jer.17:I-10); damn such persons, why is it unjust of him to
but it can be cleansed (Ps. 51:10) and re- do so simply because they have no opportunity
newed (Ezek. 36:26), and can be made to to be saved? If these persons are damned they
bear the impress of the divine law (Jer. are damned because they are sinners; they are
31:33). God searches the heart (Ron. 8:27); not damned because they have had opportunity
he shines in our hearts with the light of the to be saved and have not utilized it. Their op-
knowledge of his glory in the face of Jesus portunity, or the lack of it, has nothing to do
Christ (11 Cor. 4:6); it is the pure in heart with their being damned; they are damned
who attain to the beatific vision (Matt. 5:8). because they are sinners. What is unfair in
The important point is that, whether in Old God's damning sinners? If God damned them
or New Testaments, or in rabbinic teaching, because they did not believe the gospel, they
it is in the heart, in the innermost recesses of could legitimately protest that they had no op-
his being, that man is illumined, cleansed, portunity to believe the gospel; but, if God
renewed, by attention to the word Of God. It damns them for other sins, what does the fact
is an inward renewal, a new birth, a regener- that they did not commit this sin of unbelief
ation. in the gospel have to do with it?
V. CoNCLusloN. In view of modem trends Some will say: Granted that God could
in psychology, it is instructive to note this em- damn men for the sins they have committed
phasis on the heart in early Hebrew and Chris- even though they did not hear the gospel and
tian literature. True, these early writers tended there would be no injustice in that as such.
to think of man as influenced from without; But, does God not have an obligation to offer
but they saw clearly that it is in the heart of a way Of salvation to everyone? But, we ask,
man that moral and spiritual battles must be why? Why does God have any obligation to
fought and won. Hence the Psalmist's prayei. offer salvation to any sinner? Grace, by defini-
(Ps.19:14): "Who can discern his errors? tion, is undeserved. If it were deserved, it
Absolve me from faults unknown .... May would not be a gospel; it would not be grace.
the words of my mouth and the meditation of If it is a gospel Of grace it must be uncle-
my heart be acceptable in thy sight, 0 LORD, served. If it is undeserved how can it be said
my strength and my redeemer." that God owes it to anyone?
BIBLIOGRAPHY All right, some will reply, but inasmuch as
God (who did not owe the gospel to anyone)
5;:'i3j:c;;st:A,-,¥:`,i:ttotbpEir,:Zt;,I:t-Eo#fe:'i:;;i;L;dEf,''if„hug:;e?I did give it to many, is he not under obligation
to offer it everyone? But why? If a person
:t:a:c:el:y:,::i,h::epLa?,i::;Se:,',d7L;.e%::.:i„hc;ivr|:::,iTfh,#;g;#;who
does not deserve it receives a gif t, does
Life in the Body of Christ, pp. \03 ff . another person who does not deserve it there-
OWEN R. BRANDON by gain a right to a gift? If he does gain a
right to it, is it still a "gift" or a "gospel"?
HEATHEN, THE FATE OF. By "hea- But, it is further urged, this makes God a re-
then" in this article we refer to adults who specter of persons. Indeed it dues; but the re-
have not heard the gospel of Christ. Whatever specter of persons which the Bible condemns
their culture or country, their unbelief in is an unfair respecter of persons. God is not
Christ is circumstantial; that is, they have had a,n unfair respecter of persons and this is no
no opportunity to believe. This fact raises the instance of an unfair discrimination. He gives
question about their "fate." If Christ is the a gift which he does not owe; that puts him
only way of salvation and these persons do not under no obligation to give a gift, the same
so much as know of the existence of Christ, gift, to everyone to whom he does not owe it.
are we to conclude that they cannot possibly Being a respecter of persons, if it is a fair dis-
have salvation, being necessarily lost or crimination, is not evil. Cf. the Parable of The
damned? If they are damned, is that not un- Laborers, Matt. 20: I ff., which speaks to this
fair and unjust of God inasmuch as they have very point: "Is it not lawful for me to do
no opportunity to be saved? what I will with mine own? Is thine eye evil,
Let us meet the question right where it because I am good?" (vs.15).
HEATHEN, THE FATE OF 264

All of the above is by way of facing the pate in that duty, although some persons may
objections which are commonly made to the be lost through their negligence, they will
doctrine that the "heathen" are lost. Such, we perish with them and with far greater pun-
believe, is the teaching of the word of God. ishment because they have themselves sinned
``Faith cometh by hearing, and hearing by the against the far greater light which they have
word of God" is the teaching of Ron. 10: 17 had. In other words, the "fate" Of the "hea-
in which context the necessity of missionaries then" is inextricably connected with the "fate"
is being argued. The world by wisdom knew of "Christians" in this era.
not God but it pleased God by the foolishness The view of this article is the general view
of` preaching to make his wisdom known (I of the church except that there have always
Cor.I:21). The wrath o£ God is revealed been Christian theologians such as Ulrich
from heaven against all the unrighteousness of Zwingli and John Wesley, who have hoped
men who hold the truth in unrighteousness, (more often than they have affirmed) that
but the gospel is the power of God unto salva- Christ, the only Saviour of the world, may
tion to ever}'one that believeth (Rom.1: 17). sometimes, admittedly rarely, work independ-
Christ is the light of the world. All the world ently of the means of grace. Nco-orthodoxy
is in darkness until he shines into it (John inclines to a universalistic position which
8:12; 9:5). There is none other name given teaches the salvation of the heathen.
under heaven whereby men must be saved but BIBLIOGRAPHY
the name of Jesus (Acts 4:12). He is the
wa}', the truth and the life, no man coming to pp:}78}:?#r;GB`::£e;:Ire;i:d;pr::`,cdrL£:d`":s'"i::ktJZ:?di}cj8;;]rafl:I:f:::
God but b}7 him (John 14:6). 485 f.
Christ in teaching this doctrine himself, JOHN H. GERSTNER
brings out an aspect of the truth which has
not }-et been mentioned in this article. In HEAVEN. The most frequently used He-
Luke 12:47-48 he tells us that the disobedient brew word for heaven in the OT is 567#c}yj7",
man who does not know will be beaten with signifying "hea`'ed up things" or "the heights."
1`cwer stripes than the disobedient man who In the Greek NT it is ot!r¢7?os, which denotes
"sky," or "air." These words refer to the at-
docs lmow. That js to sa}', that those who do
not lmow the gospel are guilty because of the mosphere just above the earth (Gen. I:20,
light which they ha`'e and which the}7 have etc.); to the firmament in which the sun and
transgressed (cf. especiall}' Ron. I), but they moon and stars are located (Gen. I : 17, etc.);
are not so guilt)' as those who have had the to God's abode (Ps. 2:4, etc.); to the abode
light of the gosi)el as well as the light of na- of the angels (Matt. 22:30). The OT has no
ture and ha\'e sinned against that also. Their word for universe, and to express the idea
light having been so much greater their hard- there is the frequcnt "heaven and earth." We
ness of heart was so much more developed in read of "the heaven and the heaven of heav-
resisting it and their guilt is much the more ens" (Deut.10:14), and of a man's being
"caught up into the third heaven" (11 Cor.
<tirievous. Therefore, according to Matt.10: 15;
`12:2), but such references are probably to be
11:22, it shall be more tolerable for Sodom
and Gomorrah (who arc in hell though the}' thought of metaphoricall}7.
sinned onl)7 against the light of nature) than What is existence in heaven to be like?
for Car)ernaum and Chorazin (who are in hell Not as for Plato, one in which naked minds
with far greater condemnation because they will intellectually contemplate the eternal, un-
have violated a light so vastl)I greater than the changing Ideas. The whole person survives, in
heathen transgressed). the biblical teaching. Even the body is raised
In conclusion, it may be well to cite the again, so that, if it is no longer flesh and blood
remark of the great Ba|>tist theologian, A. H. (I Cor. 15:50), it nevertheless has a con-
Strong: "The question whether the heathen tinuity with the present bod}7, a sameness in
\\'ill ever be saved jf we do not give them the form if not in material element (see Matt.
gt)si)cl, is.not so serious a one £`or us as the 5:29, 30; 10:28; Ron. 8:11, 23; I Cor.
(jthcr question whether we ourselves will ever 15:53). So there is nothing in the Bible (nor
be sa`'ed if we do not gi\'e them the gospel." in the main creeds of the church) about dis-
That is to sa}': Christians have an obligation embodied spirits in the next world existing j7i
to evangelize the \`7orld. If the)' do not partici- u`c]ctto. Yet there is no eating nor drinking
265 HEILSGESCHICHTE

(Ron. 14:17), nor appetite Of sex (Matt. HEILSGESCHICHTE. Heilsgesc7tichte is

22:30; Mark 12:25; Luke 20:35). Feasting a German term meaning the "history of salva-
there is evidently to be understood symbolical- tion." It sees the Bible as essentially such a
ly, according to Matt. 26:29 where Jesus history. While the Bible says much about other
speaks of that day when he will drink the fruit matters, these are merely incidental to its sin-
Of the vine "new" with the disciples in his gle purpose of unfolding the story of redemp-
Father's kingdom. In heaven the redeemed tion. It traces in history and doctrine the de-
will be in the immediate presence of God; velopment of the divine purpose in the salva-
will forever feed on the splendor of God's tion of men. Considered as a somewhat dif-
majesty, beholding the Father's face. In the ferent approac.h from the "proof-text" method,
present life men "see through a glass, darkly; which uses the Bible as the raw material for
but then face to face" (I Cor.13:12). And the shaping of a systematic theology, Hejls-
the sons of God will see Christ "as he is" (I gesc7};c7ite stresses a more organic approach.
John 3:2). The childlike in faith, even as the Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752) is re-
angels do now, will "always behold the face" garded as the father of this approach. How-
of the Father (Matt.18:10). They will not ever, it is interesting that his contemporary in
so much glory in the presence of Supreme New England, Jonathan Edwards (1703-58),
Reason, as the Greeks anticipated, but in the also conceived of I)resenting a "Rational Divini-
wonder Of the All-Holy One (Isa. 6:3; Rev. ty" along these ver}' lines and his posthumous-
4:8). And this God is a Father, in whose ly published H¢.story of Redeowptjo7® may be
house (John 14:2) the redeemed will dwell, considered as the first work of the American
where "they shall be his people," and where Hej]sgesc7H.chfe school. His interest was ap-
"God himself shall be with them" (Rev. 21 : 3).
parentl}7 spontaneous since there is no evi-
There will be activities in heaven to engage dence that Edwards knew of the work of
man's highest faculties. For one thing, there Bengel. If we remember further that John
will be governmental ministries. The "spirits Wesley was influenced by the work of Ben-
of just men made perfect" (Heb. 12:23) will gel we can see the significant fact that Gcr-
be in the "city of the living God, the heavenly man, English and American pietism showed a
Jerusalem" (Heb. 12:22), and men are to simultaneous concern for our subject. It is not
assist in governing the whole. Thus in the to be sup|)osed, however, that this outflowcr-
parable of the nobleman the good servant, who ing of He].Igesc7zjcJcfe was from a dr}7 ground,
has been "faithful in a very little" on earth, is i.or anticii]ations ot` the viewi)oint are earlier
in heaven to be given "authority over ten seen in Iren{1cus, Joachim of Flora, Luther,
cities" (Luke 19: 17). In Matthew the servant Cocceius and many others. Furthermore, paral-
who had been given five talents and who had lel developments ai)I)cared in the new science
"gained beside them five talents more" is told:
"Well done, thou good and faithful servant: of the Histor)' of Doctrine (over against the
Romm contention that ecclesiastical dogma
. . . I will make thee mler over many things: was incapable of imi)rovemcnt, being infalli-
enter thou into the joy of thy lord" (25:20- ble). In the realm o£` ai)ologctics, to take but
21). Perha|)s new songs are to be written and one more cxcimi)le, the teleological argument
sung (Rev. 5:9). The "redeemed from the came to be concc`rncd more with the purl)osi\'e
earth," too, are to Jefll-74 a "new song" (Rev. structure of the whole universe than with the
14:3). And the kings of the earth are to "bring marvelous I)rc.cision ot` its parts.
their glory and honour into it" (Rev. 21 :24).
While the cightccnth centiiry advocates of
So while there is to be on the part of the re-
Hej!sgescJ'zjcJ}te used this api)roach as an ally
deemed a continuous worship in heaven, it
of, rather than as substitute for, s}'stematic
seems to be in the sense that all activities
thcolog)' and had no intention of circum`Jcnt-
engaged in will be for the sole glory of God
ing the authorit}' of` the individual texts by
and will therefore partake of the nature o£
the more general and organic view of Scrii)-
worship.
turc as a wh()le, some lz`tcr adherents, es|)ccial-
BIBLIOGRAPI IY
C. IIarris, "State of tlie Dca(I (Chrj`tian)," Jlt'l{E;
ly in this c`cntur}', have so cmploycd Hejls-
\`'. G. IIeslo|), [Jc'zJiJ.' ..,. Ecl``.in Li'\`.js, A ,`'i'w II.J<i`'tJ.. gescJ%.c7ite. The Roman Church c`harges Prot-
atttl a ,NCJw I-artJi (in(liriictly rc'1atetl); Richar(1 Lci\`'is,
A i\'cJw Vjs{'c;rl of Aitot/iL'r JJ{'civ['JI; I). L .\luoti}, estantism with teaching that the Bible is au-
I-ltJavc..1; K. Schilder, He¢ve": WJiat ls Jt? thoritativc only with rcsi]cc[ to "f`aith and
JOSEPH KENNETH GRIDER morals" and, by im|)lici`tion, abandoning vcr-
HEIR, INHERITANCI] 266

bal inspiration. While every Protestant is not and possession was conditional upon faithful-
guilty as charged there can be no denying ness to God (Deut. 4:26 ££.; 11:8, 9). Al-
that many Protestants defend the Bible in the though given to Israel, the land also remained
area of Hej!sgesc7ijc7.£e alone, not concerned the inheritance of Jehovah, his special portion
with its accuracy in history, astronomy, geology out of all the earth (Ex.15:17; Lev. 25:23;
and.`the like. This is not an essential of the I Sam. 26:19; 11 Sam. 21:3; Ps. 79:I; Jer.
Hejzsgesc7tjc7tte approach but merel}' a per- 2,7).
version of its original form that has become Alongside and developing from this concept
common today. of the land as Jehovah's inheritance is the
Man}' modern scholars are working in this thought that Israel, whom he has chosen and
field. Oscar Cullmann says: ". . . I always put in the land, was also his inheritance
come again to the same conclusion, namely, (Deut. 4:20; 7:6; 32:9). Likewise, Israel, and
that the real centre of early Christian faith and particularly the faithful of the nation, came
thought is redemptive history (Heilsgesch3chte) to regard Jehovah himself, and not merely the
. . ." W. G. Kuemmel of Marburg, C. H. land, as her inheritance (Pss. 16:5; 73:26;
Dodd, W. Vischer, G. von Rad, W. Zimmerli Lam. 3:24). Indeed, the Levites never had
and others are absorbed with the same sub- any inheritance but Jehovah (Nun. 18:20-
ject in terms of I)romise and fulfilment. On 26). However, the earlier thought of the pos-
the other hand, Rudolf Bultmann is an im- session of the land was not lost, for in the
placable foe of HejJsgesc]tjchte. messianic kingdom such i]ossession is envisaged
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Ps. 37:9; Isa. 60:21).
In the NT "heii.," "inheritance," represent
4 i,.ois?,. iB8e;`9g;e`b.Gs':°8'i:iidst'°.1'iroTp`i::%'}',"'£:Ill:,' FL',`]%.[[,t`::::::
kzGI-o#o7"os,
`[A2:8€*2y7[?t'o.C%`ut[`'}[,],:I::Trna,r}i.,,[„]e£'t',`r:`.:?e8ii:,S,::.,,,.£`}onJ:'ti:':,i J{Zgj.o7¢o7i®jcl, and derivatives (also
used in LXX for 7tdJ?.clz and y6I.a5). So basic
Ed``'ards, A Hl.stol-.`' of tJic' Work of l`{'(ic'ilipti.OJI; G.
Vos, Bjb!ic¢l Tjlco]og.`J; Gusta\r \\7eth, D;tJ ]Iii|.l`s`li{.- an idea in the Old .Covenant as inheritance
scliicl\te.
must have its counteri)art in the New Cove-
JOHN H. GERSTNER
nant. The Epistle to the Hebrews, particularly,
HHIR, INHERITANCE. The OT terms shows that as Israel received her inheritance,
for heir, inheritance, do not necessarily bear so in the New Covenant a better inheritance
the special sense of hereditary succession and is to be possessed by the New Israel. Further-
more, as is to be expected, the inheritance is
possession, although they are found in laws "in Christ." In Mark 12: I-11 Christ claims to
concerning succession to the headship of the
family, with consequent control of the family be the heir of God. This is confirmed in Heb.
I:2 and implied in Ron. 8:17. Here, more
property (Gen.15:3 ff.; Nun. 27: I-11; 36: 1-
12; Deut. 21:15-17). The main roots are clearly than "6!cczJ or ,iJdi-cz5, klgro#o"4os con-
7?dhHZ (the substantival form, „c}¢dIA, occurs veys the thought of hereditary possession.
nearly 200 times) and y6rc]5. Both signify Ron. 8:17 shows that those "in Christ" are
possession in a general sense, though the joint-heirs with Christ Of the inheritance.
former means receiving as one's share by lot. Whereas the inheritance is his by right, in
that he is the only begotten Son, it is pos-
Heleq, "portion," has the same idea.
sessed by the believer by grace, as he is
A development of thought and spiritualizing
adopted as a son in Jesus Christ.
of the concept of inheritance is apparent in the
The inheritance is the kingdom of God with
OT. From the first, the inheritance promised
all its blessings (Matt. 25:34; I Cor. 6:9; Gal.
by Jehovah to Abraham and his descendants
5:21). While enjoyment of it begins in this
was the land of Canaan (Gen.12:7; 15:18-
life, in so far as the kingdom is already pres-
21; 26:3; 28:13; Ex. 6:8). Israel's possession
ent, the full possession must be future (Roxp.
of the land rested solely on the gift_ Of Jeho-
8:17-23; I Cor.15:50; Heb.11:13; I Pet.
vah, and, though only entered into with hard
I :3, 4).
fighting, was not hers by self-effort (Josh.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
21:43-45; Ps. 44:13). Furthermore, the in- W. H. Bennett "Heir" and Alex. Martin "Inheri-
heritance had to be divided by lot among the tance" in HDB,. C. E. 8. Cranfield, RTWB.
tribes, the allotting having divine sanction R. COLIN CRASTON
(Nun. 26:52-56; 33:54; 34: 13; Josh.14: I-5;
18:4-9). The land was to be possessed "for HELL. I. THE OLI) TESTAMENT. AV,
ever" (Gen.13: 15), yet continued enjoyment ERV, translate Se'6Z as "hell," whereas ASV,
267 HELLENIST, HEI.LENISM

RSV correctly give "Sheol," the niimc of the they i`oulcl not rcmin untouched b}' it. Jews
iilace of the dci)arted (Gen. 37:35). The who spoke Greek are ctilled Hellenists. Those
i]{iri`llel use of 5#!t#! ("pit," "cormption") as living outside of P:ilcstine had to si]eak Greek.
in Job 33:24 and Ps. 30:9, indicates the hor- On thci basic thcologici`1 truths of the OT
ror with which men viewed their inescai)able they agrec`d with Palestinian Jews who si]oke
(Ps. 89:48) sojourn there. Earthly distinctions Ar£`mi`ic. YL`t the Greek kmguage and culture
survive (Isa. 14:9) but those in Sheol are gave them a different outlook.
cut off from God ancl man (11 Sam. 12:23; The noun He!Jczs in(`ans Greece. In popular
Job 7:9). God is I)resent in Sheol (Job 26:6; us£`gc it dcsigmted the Roman I)rovince known
Ps.139:8) but cannot be contacted (Ps. 6:5). officially as Ach:`ia (Arndt, p. 251). This is
Though the transhtion ``hcll" is misleading, its meaning in Acts 20:2.
there are references c`onnecting Sheol with Another noun HcZ!€# (usually found in
wic`kedness of life (Ps. 9: 17; Prov. 5:5); Isa. the plur£`1) occurs twenty-six times. Twice it
14:15 and Ezek. 32:23 may indic£`te sitecial is used of a man o£ Greek language and cul-
I)arts of Sheol designed for the wii`ked (see ture. Paul is debtor to the Greeks and to the
DESTRuc,TloN). Similarl)', light begins to shine barb.arifms (Ron.I:14). iMankind is here
for the righteous (see HADEs) (Pss.16:10; divided between those who speak Greek and
49:15; Prov.15:24). those who do not. It is a linguistic-cultural
11. THE NEw TESTAMENT. Gee7c72c} is trans- di`Jision. The new man is being renewed unto
lated "hell." The Hebrew gc`J„.737to-i" ("valley knowledge on the basis of the image of the
of Hinnom," 11 Kings 23:10) explains the one who created him. Where such renewal
name, and the use ot` the I)lac`e - a common c`.\'ists there is neither Greek nor Jew - cul-
refuse dump, a I)lace of perpetual fire and tural divisions; circumcision or uncircumcision
loathsomeness - exi)lains the usage. The final - ceremonial or religious divisions; Barbarian
indignity off`ered to the executed criminal was or Scythian - a iierson of non-Greek culture
that his body was flung into Gehenna (Matt. or a savage; slave or free - social divisions
5 :22). Hence its use of the final spiritual state (Col. 3:11). These contexts suggest that a
of the ungodl}' in Matt. 10:28 and Mark person immersed in Greek culture was an en-
9:43 (see DESTRucTloN). thusiastic e,xr)oncnt of this way of life.
In a looser sense, Hez!g7?es (Greeks) refers
JOHN ALEXANDER MOTYER
to all those who c<1me under the influence of
HELLENIST, HELI`ENISM. Hellenism Greek culture.
may be defined.as the culture, language, and The term is used in two places of proselytes
philosophy of life itrevalent in the Graeco- (a.i7.) i.e., God-fearing Gentiles who had
Roman world during the time of Christ. turned from paganism to Judaism. Reitresenta-
The Christian faith owes a great debt to tives of these sought out Jesus near the end
one aspect of Hellenism. Christianity used the of his ministry (John 12:20-21). Such peo|)le
Greek language to spread the Christian faith were open to the Christian message. Many
throughout the Mediterranean world ~ the were I)ersuaded by Paul's preaching to become
same language by which Hellenism was spread Christians (Acts 17:4).
throughout the same territory. Certain ingredi- In a looser sense the term He`ZJe-"es is used
ents played strategic roles in Hellenism: com- o£ Gentiles (i.e. those who are itagans or hea-
mom customs, cultural traits, religious ties, free then), as well as those who speak Greek and
exchange of ideas in philosophy, religion, and thereb}r exhibit some contact with Greek cul-
politics. Hellenism, though born in Greece, ture. In certain contexts in Ac`ts referring to
was inherently international in character. The Paul's missionar}7 work in cities (Acts 14:I;
theatre, games or athletic contests, sculpture, 18:4; 19:10,17) and in Romans, men are
architecture, literature - these were all I)rod- divided into Jews and Gentiles (Rom.1:16;
ucts of Hellenism. Hellenism embodied the 2:9,10; 3:9; 10:12). Gentile refers to the
individual's spontaneous expression in social, non-Jew. In such large categories, the cultural
political, economic, or philosophical realms. denotation of IJezz€-"cs is weakened or is lost
This freedom to act and to think brought to while the term Jew retains its cultural-religious
those who were "Hellenized" a new way of significance.
life. Although groups or individuals often re- In other conte,xts where Hel]G77es should be
fused to accept much that Hellenism brought, translated "Gentile," the suggestion of Greek
HERESY 268

culture is clear. The Jews speculated that Jesus opinions), used in the NT (a) of the Sad-
would teach the Gentiles (John 7:35). Men ducees and Pharisees (Acts 5:17; 15:5), (b)
of Cyprus and Antioch spoke to Gentiles in of the Christians (Acts 24:14; 28:22; in
Antioch (Acts 11:20). Some texts read 24: 14 Paul substitutes ``way" for "heresy," pos-
"Greek-speaking Jews" in place of Gentiles,
sibly because he himself had given the word
but the context certainly favors "Gentiles." the bad meaning), and (c) a sect or faction
Mixed marriages emphasize cultural differ- within the Christian body (being synonymous
ences. Timothy's mother was a Jew and his with "schism" in I Col.11:19; Gal. 5:20),
father a Gentile (Acts 16: 1, 3), meaning that and resulting not so much from false teach-
he spoke Greek and was a representative of ing as from the lack Of love and from self-as-
Greek culture. This does not necessarily mean sertiveness, which lead to divisions within the
he was a Greek national. But to translate Christian community. It is the meaning given
Helle-tcos as "Greek" implies this. On the other to 7ifliresis in 11 Peter whicli came to predom-
hand, when Paul says that the Jews ask for inate in Christian usage. "Heresy" is a de-
signs and the Hez!G7€es seek after wisdom, the liberate denial of revealed truth coupled with
translation "Greek" is as good as "Gentiles" the acceptance of error (q.v.). The creeds were
or better. Although the context indicates a two- considered to contain the standard of truth and
fold division of mankind, the seeking af ter correct belief, and themselves formally contra-
wisdom favors the translation "Greeks" (I Cor. dicted various false teachings, e.g., Arianism,
I :22, 24). Apollinarianism, Nestorianism and Eutychian-
ism. The union of church and state after Ni-
speT!:ngni::.I:.%„;sltlG:h:ej:gwnsatl:;i:g::e,ehk: caea led in time to legal penalties against here-
dispersion were Hellenists. Even in Palestine tics. Paul's and Luke's usage (#3 above) sur-
there were some. The early Christian church vives in, e.g., Eusebius' HE X. v. 21-22, where
made many converts among this group. The Christianity is "our most sacred heresy," and
murmuring of the Greek-speaking Jews against Augustine Ep. 185, a valuable commentary on
the Aramaic-speaking Jews threatened to break the early Christian idea of heresy.
up the church (Acts 6:I). But the wise ap- The Roman Cathohc Church distinguishes
pointment of seven Greek-speaking Jews as heresy from schism (disunity through lack of
deacons brought harmony and increased power. love) and apostasy (abandonment o£ Chris-
Hellenistic Jews who did not respond to the tianity). Heresy may be either "formal" (ad-
Christian message were very hostile (Acts herence to false doctrine by a baptized R.C.)
9:29-30). Those who did respond made good or ``material" (false doctrine held in ignorance
material for missionaries, especially to the by a non-Roman).
Gentiles (Acts 11:20). see also scHlsin.
When Paul told the Corinthians to give no BIBLIOGRAPHY
offense to the Jews, or to the Gentiles, or to Augustine, Dci Do.t., Ep. 185; Cyprian, Dc Unitate
Eccl.,. Standard histories of the earl}' church; G. L.
the church of God (I Cor. 10:32) he spoke
of the two divisions that existed prior to the P[r.esSfcghe]'terF"£ti'Ciswa#,. Hocbe6£€;; J. V. Bartlet in HDB;
incarnation o£ Christ and of the church as M. R. W. FARRER
consisting of a third order drawn from the HERMENEUTICS. See INTERPRETATloN.
first two categories. In the church the barrier
between Jew and Gentile has been broken
HERMETIC LITERATURE. This title
down forever (Eph. 2: 11-22).
designates a body of writings associated with
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ariidt; H. Wiiidisch, TWNT,11, pp. 501-I+; W. W.
Hermes Trismegistos, whom a popular account
Tarn, He'Ue.iistic Civili~.ation. Std edition. quoted by Lactantius equates with the fifth
A. BERKELEY MICKELSEN Mercury, called Thoth by the Egyptians. Al-
though a man, he was very ancient, and his
HERESY. The Greek word 7}c}jresjs means: vast learning earned him the title Trismegistos
(I) a choice, e.g., Lev. 22:18, 21 (LXX), (Thrice-great). He wrote many books on the
where "gif ts according to their choice" means knowledge of divine things, speaking Of one
free-will offering; (2) a chosen opinion, the God as Father, as Christians do (Divj7ie J#sti-
only NT example being in 11 Pet. 2: I, where tt4tes i. 6). The Greek Hermes was thus as-
``destructive opinions" are caused by false
similated to the Egyptian god Thoth. Hermes
teaching; (3) a sect or party (holding certain was associated with astrology in Alexandrine
269 HOLINESS, HOLY

cults (Clement of Alexandria Stroowcitejs vi. high priest alone was able to discover the
4), and Festugiere has shown the place Of divine will. The uniqueness of his position is
Hermes Trismegistos in Egyptian magical lit- suggested by Nun. 35:25 and his inability to
erature. delegate his functions for the Day of Atone-
Of religious works, a corpus of eighteen ment. Lack of archaeological information led
Greek tractates, including the notable Po;7"fl"- the Wellhausen school to misinterpret the vir-
di-es, has been preserved; another, Asclepjt4s, tual non-use of the term in pre-exilic history
survives in Latin, while M. Puech announces and so to claim that it was an exilic invention.
a Coptic version found with Christian Gnostic The frequent mention of individuals as "the
works at Chenoboskion, where two more Her- priest" (e.g., Josh. 19:51; I Sam. I:9; 11
metic opuscula have been found, (Coptic Kings 11:9) was sufficient for those living
Studies 3n Honor of W. E. Crum, Boston, against the I)re-exilic cultural bai`kground.
1950, pp. 91 ff.); and Stobaeus and others The office was apt)arently strictly heredi-
quote fragments of other works. tz`ry. The itroblem of two contemporary high
Most of these writings belong, by common |]riests, Abiathar and Zadok, under David is
consent, roughly to the second and third cen- probabl)7 best explained by the Samaritan tra-
turies A.I). They are mystical, dee|)ly influ- dition that Eli stole the office (cf . E. Robert-
enced by Platonic. and Stoic thought, but not son, The Old Testament Problem, p. \76 i.).
always self-consistent. The use of the LXX The opposition of the Qumran Covenanters to
seems indubitable, and the cosmogony of tlic Hasmonean high priests was largely due to
Pot.7"a"c!res I)resu|]|)oses Gen. I-2. The Logos Onias Ill having left a legal heir.
(a.v.) figures largely, and there are striking
The Melchizedek royal high-priesthood of
Christ implies that the ideal of one man as
parallels of language with John's Gospel: di-
rect borrowing either way is improbable, sole rei)resentative of God had been realized.
though Christianity perhai)s influenc`ed some H. L. ELLlsoN
licrmetica.
HOLINESS, HOLY. I. OLD TESTAMENT.
There is no evidence of a Hermetic "church."
From qGd6`¥, "holy," and qo-de`¢, "holiness,"
The literature represents one asr)ect Of the
which occur more than 830 times. Obscure in
movement of Gnostic I)ersonal religion as the
et}'mology, the root idea of the I-Icbrcw word,
Christian mission began. It is therefore es-
religiously viewed, is that of withdrawal i`nd
sentially syncretistic. Whatever John and
consecration: withdrawal from what is com-
I.Icrmes had in common, they could never
mon or unclean, consecration to what is divine,
share the cross of the I)ersonal Logos.
sacred, pure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
R. Reitzcnstein, Poiiim.ttlrc's; A. D. Noc`k and A. J. A. Appll.ed fo God. It signifies (a) his
E:::`:i.ie::: nsfa: i-gil; , #.`''''.I `' i::'s','l`:ie fe , v.o;s.R.,(vt.?,:t,:..„a :S separation
from, and transcendency over, all
HcrttlGs Trjsillt;gjstc, I: C. H. Dod(I; TJ!t' BjB]i' a"tl lJIL' his creation; in fine, his supremacy, majesty,
Grccks; Tlie Foilrth Gospel, pp. 10-53.
and awesome glory, as in Ex. 3:4, 5; and (b)
ANI)HEW F. WALLS
the ethical spotlessness of his character, as in
Lev. I I :44, reiteated in I Pet. I : 16.
HIGH PLACE. See GODs.
8. Applied to objects and institutions. They
HIGH PRIEST. This is an ai)proximate arc "holy," not in themselves, but in their use
rendering of J2¢-ko-he-7£ Zic}-gdd6l, literally "the as things withdrawn from common em|)loy-
great priest," cf. Heb. 10:21 ASV. ment and dedicated to God's service. Typical
Melchizedek, king-priest of Jerusalem (Gen. is the rei)eated use of "holy" in Exodus and
14:18), represented the norm for most of ls- Leviticus, in reference to such assorted objects
rael's neighbors during the OT period; the as the tabernacle and its furnishings, offerings,
king was supreme head of both civil and re- water, I)riestly vestments, and land.
ligious life; other priests held office as his C. AppZI.ed to 7Iie7c. Their "holiness" is re-
deputies. In Israel religious and civil authority garded, most frequently, as their ceret"o#ia!
were by God's will separated; in conformity sanctity issuing from approi)riate acts of con-
with the established pattern Aaron's sons were secration, as in Ex. 29:1 ff., or, occasionally
purely his deputies. This is shown by the and at a deci)cr level of significance, their
ephod and its breasti)late containing the Urim ethical righteousness, as in Ex.19:2; Ps.15: 1
and Thummim (Ex. 28:6-30), by which the ff.; Isa. 57:15.
II0LY COMMUNION 270

In the main, it is in the Psalms and the the word o£ God or even the mediation of the
Prophets that the ceremonial significance of Son o£ God.
"holiness" is downgraded and the conception
C. Socrc}me"f¢! holiness, as in the case of
for which it stands is enriched with moral Roman Catholicism with its teaching of grace
reality. as objectively conveyed in the sacraments and
11. NEw TESTAMENT. Expressed by 7i¢gjos, meritoriously achieved in the works-process Of
its derivatives and cognates. sanctification.
A. Ge"er¢]ly.. a carrying forward and a D. Ascet;c holiness, as in monasticism where
comi)1eting of the spiritual-ethical aspect o£ it is held that a life of withdrawal is holier
sanctity in the OT. than one of common labor or vocation.
8. Specifically: \. The status of those who, E. Positio7®¢! holiness, where the Christian
by faith, have been joined to Christ, chase is seen to be ``holy" in virtue of his being "in
perfect righteousness is ``made over" to them, Christ" while yet inescapably sinful, but still
so to speak. Cf. I Cor.I:30. This imputation under bonds to Christ to strive for full sancti-
of righteousness, however, is not regarded as fication through the means of grace and obe-
valid except as it is accompanied by that im- dience to the commandments.
parted holiness which must result from the F. Exper;i7ie#t4I! holiness, as in the view of
believer's union with Christ, who is repre- those who, treading a fine line between sinless
sented as being himself the negation and de- perfection (which is repudiated as belonging
struction of sin. C£. I John 2:I-6. 2. The only to Christ) and sinful perfection (which
moral quatity of tl®e character and actions of is rejected as not doing justice to the rezecise
those who, through the indwelling of the Holy and victory passages of the NT) teach the
Spirit, share Christ's nature and copsent to be_ pure heart as now realizable, through the pow-
i.t{lecz Z7y ;f. Cf. Ron. 6:22; 11 Cor. 7:I; I er of the Holy Spirit, in a communion with
Thess. 5:23; I John 1:7; 3:6-9. Implicit in God in love.
the natu`re of the Christian's relation to Christ Note: Those desiring to assess both sides of
is the moral impossibility of a willing continu- the question of whether the holiness of the
ance in sinning. Christ and sin cannot be at believer, as viewed, for example, in the First
peace in the same heart. Note: The measure Epistle of John, is at best but a religious ideal
of holiness available to the Christian (whether with exacting implications or is an attainable
to the extent of partially and progressively ex- experience within the limits of human frailty
tirpating, effectively counteracting, or entirely should read R. N. Flew, The Jde¢ of Perfec-
I)urging the evil in man's nature) is a ques- t7.o7? j7c C7irjstia" T7teology, Oxford University
tion on which theological tradition divides, Press, London,1934, pp. 92-117; G. G. Find-
the principal variant lines being Augustinian- lay, Fellowship In The Life Eternal, Hoddet
Calvinist and Arminian-Wesleyan. 3. T7ie and Stoughton, London, 1909, pp. 253-69,
ideal and inptieit character of the whole body and Charles Gore, The Epistles of St. John,
of Chi-ist, the church, wherein the corporate
John Murray, London, 1920.
sign of sanctity is seen in the fact of the BIBLIOGRAPHY
cluli.ch's relationship to God through Christ.
Cf. E|)h. I :4; I Pet. 2:9.
Ill. CHURCH HlsTOR¥. The following are
i%¥:!t;i;!`:£;tB;8;;3;]g37£;53,I::£68]£:t]:n:¥s:::ge;+e'ig:S!r£,£ijs{
particular emphases to be found in the teach- PAUL S. REFS
ing and practice of Christian groups:
A. Occw!S holiness, as in the instance of HOLY COMMUNION. See LORI)'s Sup-
early Gnosticism, in which the material order PER.
was held to be evil, and holiness lay, there-
fore, in a certain insight, or g7?osjs, imparted HOLY 0F HOLIES. This, the sanctuary
to the.initiated, namely, that the soul's sane- of Jehovah, could be approached only through
tification consisted in its e,xaltation above the the holy place, from which it was divided by
world of sense and its immersion in the divine a curtain. It was a cube (of ten cubits in the
pie-].o7#¢, or fulness. tabernacle, of twenty in the temple) and might
8. Mystjcoz holiness, as in the experiences be entered only by the high priest, and that on
of those who exalt union with God in pure the Day o£ Atonement only. It was apparently
feeling and vision above the instrumentality o£ completely dark (cf. I Kings 8:12) and its
271 HOSANNA

furniture was the Ark overshadowed by the duces the moral fruits Of (a) joyful confidence
cherubim of the ``mercy seat," considered to be in God (Ron. 8 :28); (b) unashamed patience
the throne of Jehovah. In the second temple it in tribulation (Ron. 5:3); and (c) persever-
was completely empty. Heb. 9:4 considers ance in prayer. (4) It anticipates an actual
that the altar of incense, though outside it, be- righteousness (Gal. 5:5) and is thus good (11
longed to it. See also TABERNACLE. Thess. 2: 16), blessed (Titus 2: 13) and glori-
H. L. ELLlsoN ous (Col.I:27). (5) It stabilizes the soul like
an anchor by linking it to God's steadfastness
HOLY SPIRIT. See SpmlT, Hot.¥. (Heb. 3:6; 6:18-19). (6) It was generated
in the OT fathers by God's promise first given
HONEST, HONESTY. The word kedos to Abraham (Ron. 4: 18), then embraced by
has various shades of meaning; moral excel- Israel (Acts 26:6-7) and proclaimed by Paul
lence, sincerity and the sense of fairness in as the hope of the gospel.
moral, social and commercial dealings. Se77®-
The one in whom hope is placed is some-
77otgs has the meaning of gravity or venerable-
times called ezpis, e.g., Jesus in I Tim.1:I;
ness. It occurs three times in the Bible (I Tim. the Thessalonians in I Thess. 2: 19; or God in
2:2; 3:4; Titus 2:7). An honest man will au-
Jer. 17:7. Similarly the thing hoped for is
tomatically be grave in his bearing. e!pis (I John 3:3; Col.I:5), i.e., hope stored
ALBERT VICTOR M'CAI.I.IN up in the heavens, expectation focused on the
p¢rot4sjG and voiced in the cry Maranatha.
HONOR. The words cZo?Gcz and ti"G express
EZp;s is a collective hope in the body of
the sense of worth for both God and man. God
Christ. The Thessalonians are exhorted to hope
in his holiness is to be worshiped and so re-
for reunion with their deceased brethren (I
ceive the honor due to his name. Man, as a
Thess. 4: 13-18) and ministers hope for their
child of God, is precious in his sight and
converts (11 Cor. 1:7), desiring to present
therefore is to be esteemed.
them perfect (Col.I:28). Christ as the chief
ALBERT VICTOR M'CALLIN
Shepherd expresses this hope that his own will
together behold his glory (John 17:24), and
HOPE. EJpjs (Hebrew Z7dfazl) had in this consummation is guaranteed by the earnest
Greek and Roman times a neutral meaning as of the Spirit within Christian hearts and the
expectation of good or evil. Some, like Thucy- church (Ron. 8: 16-17).
dides, treat it cynically, others, like Menander, BIBLIOGRAPHY
extol it; Sanskrit poets class it among evils. Arndt; HDB; HERE,. JCC on Ro"a#s,. R. Bultmann
Paul characterizes the gentile world as ezpida and K. H. Rengstorf, TWNT,11, pp. 515-31.

owe ecJio#£es. For OT writers (except Ecclesi- DENIS H. TONGUE

astes?) God is "the Hope o£ Israel," (Jer.
14:8). They trust in him (Jer. 17:7), wait HOSANNA. The Greek form of the He-
passively upon him, (Ps. 42:5), or actively brew salutation meaning, "Save now, we be-
anticipate his blessing (Ps. 62:5). Some Is- seech Thee" (see Ps.118:25). The six occur-
raelites cherished materialistic hopes for a rences of the word in the NT are all in con-
messianic kingdom; but the Anglican Article nection with the triumphal entr}- Of Jesus into
VII denies that the old Fathers looked only Jerusalem. The cry was taken up not only by
for transitory promises, since such as Daniel the multitude that followed our Lord but also
anticipated the resurrection (Dan. 12:2). by the children in the temple (Matt. 21:9,
Christ himself is described as the Christian 15). These Gospel references indicate that the
hope (I Tim. I : 1), and by his resurrection the expression, while originally a prayer addressed
specifically Christian virtue of hope is be- to God, also assumed the f orm of a shout of
stowed on the regenerate, who abound in hope homage or greeting, equivalent to "Hail" or
"Glory to.„
through the Spirit (Ron.15:13). (1) This
hope relates to salvation and is an essential The word Hosanna early passed into liturgi-
grace like faith and love (I Cor.13:13); but cal use in Christian worship as an interjection
where faith refers to past and present, hope of joy and praise. It is thus found in the
includes the future (Ron. 8:24-25). (2) Its D].cZczche (10:6) -"Hosanna to the God of
object is the ultimate blessedness of God's David!" It occurs in the Latin Mass in a form
kingdom (Acts 2:26; Titus 1:2). (3) It pro- which links it with the Gospel story: "Hosanna
HOSPITALITY 272

in the highest! Blessed is he that cometh in provision was made f or him and his party,
the name of the Lord!" On account of their freeing the local church leaders of this re-
association with the Roman dogma of transub- sponsibility (Acts 21: 16). The highhanded
stantiation, these words were omitted by the conduct Of Diotrephes in refusing to receive
English Reformers from the Prayer Book of properly recommended brethren marked him
1552. out as a church "boss" `(Ill John 10).
FRANK COLQUHOUN A hint that hospitality might become bur-
densome lurks in the injunction of I Pet. 4:9
HOSPITAljlTY. In part the biblical prac- to practice it ungrudgingly. In the second cen-
tice simply reflects proverbial Eastern gener- tury the church found it necessary to lay down
osity toward strangers. Abraham (Gen. 18) tests to separate true serva'nts of the Lord from
and Lot (Gen. 19) are early examples. The those who saw in Christian generosity an op-
law made special provision for the stranger
portunity for support without work (Djdac7ie
(not merely the casual traveler, but the local xi). Yet the church surmounted these irrita-
1.esident who did not belong to Israel). He tions and continued to be notable for its
was to be treated on an equality with the He- benevolence to strangers of all types (Justin
brew, both because of God's love for him and Martyr, Apology lxvii, 4).
because o£ Israel's experience as sojourners in
Christian bishops took the lead in establish-
Egypt (Deut.10: 18,19). He was to be loved
ing hospitals (from the fourth century on),
in all sincerity (Lev. 19:33, 34). Hospitality
whereas at a later period monks developed the
could be demanded as a right (I Sam. 25:8).
hospice, in connection with the monastery, as
To proffer it freely and fully added to one's
a refuge for travelers.
reputation for goodness (Job 31:31, 32). Oc-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
casional interference by outsiders with the pro- 8. S. Easton in ISBE; G. Bonet-Maury in HERE; D.
tection offered to strangers brought resentment W. Riddle in /BL 57:141-54.

and punitive action (Judg. 19-20). EVERETT F. HARRISON`

Consonant with this historical background,
Jesus bade his disciples go forth without spe-
HOUR. In the NT the term ho-rcl is used of
cial provision, counting on entertainment along
the way (Mark 6:7-13). As bringers of good
a twelf th part Of a day, of the period from
sunrise to sunset (John 11 :9; Matt. 20: I-12).
news and of healing for the body, the disciples
had the more abundant reason to expect a cor- The night was similarly divided (Luke 12:39;
Acts 16:33; 23:23). For references of interest
dial reception. This I)recedent doubtless set
the pattern for the early church, which de- to different hours see Acts 2:15 (the third
hour), Acts 10:9 (the sixth hour or noon),
pended on hospitality both for its missionary
expansion and for the entertainment of its and Acts 3:I (the ninth hour, the hour of
itinerant teachers (Acts 9:43 -11:18; 16:15; prayer). The character of the NT revelation
as a revelation in history is clearly indicated by
Ron.16:23; Titus 3: 13). The conversions of
whole households to the faith is intimately its temporal setting, a setting of ten expressed
connected with the reception of the servant of by the term bo-r¢ (c£., e.g., Mark 15:25, 33,
34).
God into the home. Apart from the extension
of hospitality the local church could not func- Special interest attaches to the use o£ 776ro
lion, for the church in the house was the rule in connection with our Lord's "hour," the time
for the first two centuries. of his death and the glory that was to follow
The OT injunction to love the stranger car- (John 7:30; 8:20; 13:I: and see also John
2:4; 12:23-27; 17:I; Matt. 26:45; Mark
ries over into the life of the church, where the
14:35, 41; and cf. Luke 22:53). The refer-
emphasis is not so much on the duty as on
the love of hospitality (Heb.13:1, 2; Rom.
ences to Christ's "hour')' help to place his whole
12: 13). The word here is p7}j]oxe7tj¢. To be ministry in right perspective and point to the
an overseer of the church one must qualify in correct interpretation of his death.
this respect (I Tim. 3:2; Titus I:8). The term hour is also used with important
Variations from the norm are indicative of eschatological reference. It is employed, e.g.,
unusual conditions. Hostility to Paul at the of the time when the exalted Son o£ Man will
time of his last journey to Jerusalem seems to return (Matt. 24:36, 42, 44; 25:13; and see
be reflected in the care with which advance Dan. 7:13,14).
273 HUMILIATION OF CHRIST

BIBLIOGRAPHY ff.), and Luke traces it back, through David

HDA8}Gd;`.'Hpepheo.I:etL?n"|fsnBEgDTS`8;eREtim'm=chM"±tin and Abraham, to Adam, the first man (Luke
3:23 ff.). In accordance with prophecy (Isa.
JOHN H. SKILTON
7: 14) Jesus is miraculously born of a human
HOUSE (HOUSEHOLD). The words mother who is a virgin (Matt.I: 18 ff.; Luke
house or household usually represent the He- I:26 ff.; cf. Gen. 3:15). The incarnate Son
brew Z7ay}.I and the Greek ojhos and ojkja. The does not, indeed cannot, c`case to be truly God,
biblical usage may be classified as follows: but becomes at the same time truly man: he
I. LITERAL. The physical building in which is now both Son of Man and Son of God
a family dwells is called a house (Gen. 19:2- (Matt.16:13,16, etc.). The genuineness of
4). The temple as the abode of God's pres- his humanity is further attested by his growth
ence is a house (Matt. 21 : 13). from infancy to manhood (Luke 2:40, 52), by
11. FIGURATlvE. By extension the terms are his experience of temptation (Matt. 4:I ff.;
applied to those who are united together with Luke 4: I ff.; Mark I : 12 f.; Heb. 2: 18; 4: 15),
some inner bond of unity. A house or house- of hunger (e.g., Matt. 21 : 18), Of thirst (John
hold, therefore, may include ( I) the members 4:7; 19:28), of fatigue (John 4:6; Mark
of a family (including servants) who are liv- 4: 38), of grief (John 11 : 35), of suffering and
ing together and who recognize one head especiall)' of death (see the accounts of his agony
and crucifixion). It is important to notice that
(Gen.14:14; Heb.11:7); (2) the descend-
ants of a man (Gen.18:19; Luke 2:4); (3) our Lord's humanity is retained after his resur-
members of the same racial or religious group rection (cf. Luke 24:38-42). His ascension
into heaven is a bodt.!y ascension and his re-
(Isa. 7:13; ]er. 31:31).
Ill. SplRITUAL. The following ma}' be cited turn will also be a Z7odjly return (Acts
as illustrations: (1) believers as "the house- I:I f., 9 ff.). It is f).e Sorl of Ma" whom
hold of the faith" (Gal. 6: 10; c£. Eph. 2: 19; Stephen sees standing in heaven at God's right
I Tim. 3:15; Heb. 3:6; I Pet. 2:5; 4:17); hand (Acts 7:55 f.). The famous Totlle of
Leo (fifth centur}') will repa)' study.
(2) the famil}7 of God in heaven (John 14: I);
(3) the believer's glorified body (11 Cor. 5 : I); PHILIP EI)GCUMBE HtlGHES
(4) the whole church (Heb.10:21).
There are outstanding theological problems HUMILIATION OF CHRIST. )csus u7z`s
involved in these terms, such as the debate constantl}' subjected to humiliation in his
as to whether "house" in such I)assages as Acts c'arthlv life. He wz`s born in a stable to a fain-
16:31; 18:8 includes infants. The question of il\' in `the midst of which he became intim{`tel}'
infant bar)tism is involved. Usage would sure- .icqufiinted with the circumstances of I)ovcrt}',
ly seem to indicate that a "house" includes all .1nd he belonged to a `'illagc of little no[c
who are in a famil}' -regardless of their age. (John I:+6). Thrt)ughout his later min.str}'
There is also the problem regarding the inter- he was homeless (Matt. 8:20), {`nd dei)cndent
on the charit}' of others (Luke 8:3; 22: 11; cf.
pretation of "the house o£ Israel" in Hebrews
8:8 ff. (a quotation from Jer. 31:31 ff.). It j\Iatt. 27:59-60).
would appear that there is refercnce here to His acc`ci]tance of the call to fulfil his
the church, rather than the literal Israel. ministr}' in`.ol`'cd him in inisunderstanding
WICK BROOMALL with his famil}' (John 7:3) and his friends
who thought him mad (Mark 3:21), in rejec-
HUMANITY 0F CHRIST. The humani- tion b}' his own \'illage (,\lark 6:3; LULc
ty of Christ is clearly taught throughout Scrip- 4:28), in being officiall}' regarded as a fanati-
lure. It is the seed of the woinan who is to cal and blasphemous impostor (Luke 11:15;
bruise Satan's head (Gen. 3:15); in AZ7i.a- 15:2), and finall}' in desertion b}. his disc`ii)les
7ia7ii's seecz all the nations of the earth are to who h`id constantl\' misunderstood him, £lnd
be blessed (Gen. 22:18), iind that si`cd, as in bcm`\.i`l bv one 6f his intimates for i` sm£`ll
Paul explains, is uniquel}' Christ (G`l. 3: 16); sum (i\'h`tt.` 16:22; 26:14-16, 69-75; ,\Ialk
the promised Messiah is to belong to the tribe 14:50). \\7hi`t suc`cess or I)oi)ularit}. he had
of I.Idah (`Gen. 49.. \0) and to be of the 1-o_)Ial \`Jfis also humbling, for it ended soon in failure
!jtte of David (Isa. I I: I,10; Jer. 23:5). Thus and bitter disai)I)ointment (John 6:66; Mi`tt.
Matthew traces Christ's genealog}' forward 27:31). All this culmimted in his being re-
from Abraham, through Da`'id (.\Iatt. I:I viled, and spat ui)on and mocked (Mi`tt.
HUMILITY 274

26:67; John 19:I-5) and made to suffer as God-given (Luke 16:1-12; 19:11-27), and
shcimeful death by being crucified - to which in such ministry for Christ humilit}' is the
his burial added the final touch. ke}7note (I Pet. 5:3~6; I Cor.15:10; Luke
This earthly career of humiliation (his 17: 10). Humblemindedness characterizes suf-
}c!pe;7to-sis, Phil. 2:8) is reg£`rded by Paul as fering (Job I:21; Phil. 4:12; I Pet. 3:14,15;
the outcome and completion of his self-empty- 5:5, 7) and the proper fellowship of the
ing (7€e"o-sz.s, Phil. 2:6~7) as the Son o£ God church (Ron.12:16; Eph. 4:2; Phil. 2:3;
in ac`c`ci)ting the incarnation and the form of a Col. 3:12). Only Col. 2:18, 23 alludes to a
sc`r\':tnt of the flesh. His stooping to give low- false humility, a misguided, self~conscious as-
1)' service to his disciples and all men is a re- ceticism which reappeared in subsequent
flec`tion of his self-humiliation in coming into church histor}'. Calvin (Jttsfjfiifes 11. ii.11;
this world as Redeemer (Matt. 20:28; John Ill. vii. 4; xii. 6, 7) should be noted for
13: I-5). Such humiliation is an aspect of his patristic quotations and a Reformed statement.
self-identification with sinners, alongside of GEORGE I. C. MARCHANT
whom he had to stand in saving them (7¢ote
liis baptism). HYPOCRISY, HYPOCRITE. The NT
I-Iis self-em|)t}7ing involved not the giving concept of h}'pocris}7 has prob£`bly been influ-
up of his deit)', but rather the `7eiling of it so enced b)7 two sources: ( I) the Hebrew ¢d7Ie-p,
"polluted," "impious;" (2) the Attic Greek
completely that he appeared to many to have
nothing divine about him (Matt.11:25-27). 7typokrisjs, "an actor's response," hence stage-
Yet it is within and through this vcr)7 form of playing or acting. Pedersen lists the root ¢7ep
humiliation that his glory is manifested (John among words which denote "antagonism to
12:23) in such a way as to leave man able what is sacred" (JSJ-czez, Oxford University
to come to faith without being overwhelmed Press, London,1940, Ill-IV, p. 271). In
b), sight. Job, where the majorit)7 o£ OT occurrences are
BIBLIOGRAPHY found, the word parallels "all who forget God"
G. A\exz\ndel ±n HDCG; A. 8. BIuce, TIIc' H..iiiilia- (Job 8:13), "wicked" (Job 20:5; 27:8), etc.
t!.oll of CJ!rjst; K. Bai.th, Cjtllj.c`71 Dogiilatics, IV/I, pp.
157-211; H. Heppe, Rcfor7It€d Dogiiiqtjcs, Chap. XIX. The LXX renders ¢d71Gp with a variet}r of
words meaning lawles;ness and impiety:
RONALD S. WALLACE
¢77o77ios (Isa. 9:17), czsebe-s (Job 8:13; 20:5,

HUMILITY. In classical writings humility etc.), paraJzo77®os (Job 17:8), etc. Occasionally
was despised as servile (J. 8. Light foot, Co7„- J¢y|7o7<JifGs is used (Job 34:30;.36:13). The
mentary on Philippians 2,..3), but it is given RSV "godless" and ``godlessness" convey ac-
high place in biblical teaching and example, curately the OT idea th<it hyi)ocris}' is not so
as in Abraham (Gen. 18:27), Moses (Nun. much duplicity or insini`erit}' as im|)iet}' and
12:3)., the proi]hets (Mic. 6:8), and John the disregard o£ God's law.
Baptist (John 3:26-30). The NT brought In Christ's stern denunciations of the scribes
tcipej"ophrosy7!6 from obscurity (apart from and Pharisees in the S}.noptics (the only NT
cognates in the LXX Prov. 29:23; Ps.130:2) occurrences of 7}}'pokr;te-s), the OT meaning
"godless" is strongly felt, e.g., Matt. 22:18;
into importance. Before God, man is humbled
as creature (Gen. 18:27) and sinner (Luke 23:13 -29, and 24:51, where the parallel
18:9-14) having nothing to boast in (Ron. (Luke 12:46) has "unf`aithful." Furthermore,
7: 18; Gal. 6:3). Corresponding to the humili- while Mark 12:15 reads "hypocrisy," Matt.
ty o£ Christ in redemption (Phil. 2:8; 11 Cor. 22: ]8 and Luke 20:23 have "wickedness" and
"craftiness." As A. G. Hebert h{1s noted, Jesus'
8:9), humility is the essence of saving faith
(Rom. 3:27). The Christian calling by the point is not that the scribes were deliberately
Holy Spirit (I Cor. I;29-31) excludes all acting a part, but that, while outwardly re-
ligious, inwardly they were profane and god-
I)ride of race or religion (Phil. 3:4-7), social
status (Matt. 23:6-11; Mark 10:43-45) or less (RTWB, p.109). In Gill. 2:13 it is

I)erson (I John 2:16). Positively, Christ's probably not so much acting a part as un-
teaching gives us a model of unselfconscious principled action that Paul condemns.
humility in the child (Matt.18:I-4; Mark Elsewhere, the Greek idea of acting appears
9:33-37), and an example of it in selfless serv- to be in the forefront. Hypocrite in Matt. 6:2,
ice (John 13: I-17; Luke 22:24-27). Christian 5, 16 seems to mean play-actor as does the
stewardship involves taking all opportunities sole occurrence of the verb 72ypoJ€i-j7test77¢j in
275 IDENTIFICATION WITH CHRIST

Luke 20:20. The adjective a#ypokrjtos, ``gen- undivided substance or essence o£ God (q.v.),
uine," "sincere," "without hypocrisy" (Ron. and especially the one unified personality of
12:9; I Tim.1 :5; James 3: 17, etc.), also seems Christ the Son in his two natures, human and
to reflect the influence of the Greek drama. divine. The classic Chalcedonian definition of
It is not impossible that both NT concepts God, one essence in three hypostases (ti®I.a
"godlessness" and "play-acting" may be ex- owsja, trejs h,ypostasejs), was unfortunately
translated into Latin as "one substance (Greek,
plained from Hebrew or Aramaic without re-
course to Greek thought, for dy6"Gp in the past- hypostosjs) in three persons" (t47!4 s«Z7sta«fjfl,
biblical period comes to mean h;pocrite, flat- tres perso#¢e). This not only confused three-
terer, or insincere. fold substance with the one ot4s;a (Latin,
BIBLIOGRAPHY esse«t7.a, "essence"), but the Latin word per-
And(; W. L. Walker in ISBE. so"¢ ("face" or ``mask'') sounded like Sabel-
DAVII) A. HUBBARD lian modalistic monarchianism to the Greeks'
The Council of Alexandria (362) tried un-
successfully to resolve the conflict by defining
HYPOSTASIS. The word is a translitera-
hypostasjs as synonymous with the very differ-
lion Of the Greek hyposfasjs, "substance," ``na-
ent word perso#¢. Although much confusion
ture," "essence" (from hyphl.stosthaj, ``siand
still reigns, orthodoxy has generally held to the
under," "subsist," which is from Jiypo, ``un-
one substance of God, known in the three per-
der," and hjsto#aj, "cause to stand") and de- sons of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
notes a real personal subsistence or person. In BIBLIOGRAPHY
philosophy it signifies the underlying or es-
sential part of anything, as distinguished from
attributes which may vary. It developed thecr
logically as the term to describe any one of the Ec:a:„:;::g%tth;;;;:,::f:;;;;i;;I:;pc;.::£,{s§:tt:ti::,jj;c,a%:.¥;:¥:a;::;,:±o;;:.
three real and distinct subsistences in the one WAYNE E. WARD

ICONOCLASM. The word, meaning lit- IDENTIFICATION WITH CHRIST.

erally "image breaker," was brought into popu- The theological doctrine of identification with
lar use in the eighth century by Leo Ill. Legal Christ is derived from various Scriptures which
sanction was given to the practice by the regard Christians as being "in Christ." In a
Synod Of Constantinople (A.D. 745) on the general way Christ is identified with mankind
basis of the Decalogue and NT teaching on as the second Adam, and identified with Israel
idolatry. Many in the Eastern Church came to as the predicted Son of David. In these cases
Support lconoclasm when they realized that the identity is a physical fact. In contrast to
both the Jews and the Moslems saw them as these relationships the theological concept of
idolaters because of their use of images. Un- identification with Christ relates a Christian
fortunately these early Iconoclasts retained su- to the person and work of Christ by divine
perstitious beliefs such as the use of the sign reckoning, by the human experience of faith,
of the cross and intercession through saints. and by the spiritual union of the believer with
The Reformers were also iconoclastic but in Christ ef fected by the baptism of the Holy
a positive way, replacing the use Of images by Spirit.
emphasizing the Scriptures and the doctrine Identification with Christ is accomplished
Of the priesthood of the believer. by the baptism of the Holy Spirit, an act of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
divine grace and power sometimes expressed
as being baptized into (eis) the body of Christ,
F:A!.:hF#Efic,;s#sg;t?#:!6:t!e',":a;on:a:c'i%:,y:'?Tft:o:v;ei;:; the church, (I Cor. 12:13), sometimes de-
44765.
WII.LIAM NIGEL KERR scribed as being baptized into Christ (Gal.
IDOL, IDOLATRY 276

3:27). This new relationship of being "in The identification of a believer with Christ
Christ" was f irst announced by the Lord to his 1.esults in certain aspects of the person and
discii)les in the Upper Room in the statement, work of Christ being attributed to the believer,
"Ye in me /e7c e7i4oj/, and I in you." (John
but this does not extend to possession of the
]4:2d). The new relationship of the believer attributes of the Second Person, nor are the
in Christ is defined as a new position, "in personal distinctions between Christ and the
Christ," resulting from a work o£ God. That believer erased. Tcaken as a whole, however,
it is more than merely a position created by identification with Christ is a most important
divine reckoning is revealed by the companion doctrine and is essential to the entire program
revelation, "I in }'ou." The resultant doctrine of grace.
is embraced in the word „74;o71 which is com- See also UNloN WITH GOD.
monly taken as a synonym for identification. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Various figures are em|)loyed in Scripture
to illustrate this union and identification. The
vine and the branches is employed by Christ ?*,n:gLi.ec.rsRES,i,;fippleo?i3;iygi58P8ol35:.4#o53;3`,fi".CS:-
himself in John 15:I-6. Here the union is
manifested by communion, spiritual life, and JOHN F. WALVO0RD
fruit as a result of the union of branch and
IDOL. IDOLATRY. The Second Com-
vine. The branch is in the vine and the life of
mandment seems to be less concerned with
the vine is in the branch. Another figure is
man's inability adequately to represent God
that of the head and the body (cf. Eph. I :22-
f`nd inore with the implications of his efforts.
23; 4:12-16; 5:23-32). Here also there is or- "Fertile Crescent" religion in the OT period
ganic union of the body and the head, de- was primaril}r the worship of the s|)irits con-
picting the living union of Christ and the trolling the forces of nature. Their representa-
church. Intrinsic in the figure is the thought
lion, either by symbolic objects, e.g., the
that the identification of the bod}7 with the
7"assGZ7d and '65gi-fit, or b}r im,iges, imi)lied that
head does not imply equality but carries with
the si)irits were linked to and in mc:`sure con-
it the obligation of recognizing the head as
trolled by the material things the}' governed.
the one who directs the body.
The imageless worshii) of Jehovah announced
Close to the figure of the head and the body not merely that he was greater than nature but
is that of the marriage rel{`tion of Christ and also that he was unbound by it. The majority
the church presented in .the same section as of the Hebrew words used for the symbols of
the f igure of the head and the body in Ephe- heathen or debased Israelite worship exiiri`ss
sians 5:23-32. Here the relationship is com- loathing or contempt, a fact missed in our
I)ared to the identification of a wife with her translations, and serve to condemn the worship
husband stated in the declaration that they are behind them. See GODs.
"one flesh."
This attitude lies behind the NT usage. Ex-
Various expressions are used to signif y this cept in Acts 7:41 the stress is seldom, if ever,
identification. Most frequent is the terminology on the image but on the deity it symbolized.
"in Christ" (e74 CJtJ-jsto-), but others also are
This enabled the writers in large measure to
used such as "in" or "into Christ" (e;s CJii-isto#), avoid using t7ieos of the pagan deities. Eph.
and "in the Lord" (e# kt4i-jo-). Though some 5 : 5; Col. 3:5 do not suggesl that any tangible
distinction may be observed between the use obj.ect had become an object of greater desire
of the prepositions e7c and eis (``in" and ``in- than God, but that the creation was usurping
to"), the resultant doctrine js much the same. the place of the Creator.
Imi]ortant theological truths are related to H. L. ELLlsoN
the doctrine of identification in Scripture. The
believer is identified with Christ in his death IGNORANCE. This term and its biblical
(Ron. 6:1-11); his burial (Rom. 6:4); his equivalents denote a state of lacking either ( I)
resurrection (Col. 3: I); his ascension (Eph. factual information (e.g., Acts. 23:5); or (2)
2:6); his reign (11 Tim. 2: 12); and his glory the intention of performing an act having the
(Ron. 8: 17). Identification with Christ has character and consequences of the act which
its limitations, however. Christ is identified one actually does perform (as in cases of man-
with the human race in his incarnation, but slaughter, Nun. 35:11, or sins of ignorance,
only true believers are identified with Christ. Lev. 4:2; 5:18); or (3) spiritual discernment
277 IMAGE

to ``see" and grasp the divine revelation that of inspiration is called the illumination theory
confronts one (c£. Matt.13: 13-15). The first and it regards inspiration "as merely an in-
two sorts of ignorance reduce the wrongdoer's tensifying and elevating of the religious per-
guilt. The third, however, dues not, for it is ceptions of the Christian, the same in kind,
itself culpable, being due to active unwilling- though greater in degree, with the illumina-
ness to know God (Ron. I:28) and wilful tion of every believer by the Holy Spirit"
suppression of his truth (Ron. I : 18), whether (A. H. Strong, Systermztjc Theology, the Jud-
that of general revelation encountered via crea- son Press, Philadelphia, 1907, p. 204).
tion (Ron.1:19-21) and providence (Acts Generally the concept of illumination is re-
14: 17), or that of special redemptive revela- lated to the work of the Holy Spirit making
tion given in God's historical dealings with his clear the truth of the written revelation. In
people (Ps. 95 : 10), in Christ (John 1 : 10-11), reference to the Bible, revelation relates to the
and in the Gospel message (Ron. 10:3; cf. material, inspiration to the method of record-
16-21). Such ignorance is not an unavoidable ing the revelation, and illumination to the
natural lack (else it would not be blame- meaning Of the record. The unregenerate man
worthy: John 9:4la); it is a chosen and in- cannot experience illumination in this sense
duced condition, caused by that hardening for he is blinded to the truth of God (I Cor.
(a.v.) Of the heart (Eph. 4: 18) to which it in 2: 14). The believer was promised this ministry
turn contributes. Those who perpetuate their of the Spirit by the Lord before his death
ignorance by denying it thereby confirm them- (John 16:13-16), and he can realize it even
selves in the guilt of ignorance (John 9:4lb); to the extent of understanding the deep things
and the fuller the revelation of which they of God (I Cor. 2: 10). While this illumination
thus cultivate ignorance, the greater their guilt is a work of the Spirit it can be hindered by
is (Matt.10:15; c£.11:20-24). Since actual camality in the life of the Christian, and thus
light is given to all men, all actual ignorance is to a certain extent dependent on the walk
Of God is blameworthy (John 1 :5). One way Of the believer for full realization (I Cor.
in which God begins to punish such ignor- 3 : I-2) (cf. L. S. Chafer, Sysfe7"¢t;c Theology,
ance in reprobates is by so acting as to deepen Dallas Seminary Press, Dallas, Texas, 1947,
it (Matt.13:12-13; Ron.1:28). I, pp. 105-13).
As ignorance in face of an incomplete ac- CHARLES C. RYRIE

quaintance with divine revelation may give

way to knowledge (q.t;-.) and faith (a.v.) under IMAGE. The image of God is a recurring
the influence of fuller enlightenment, so sins theme in biblical revelation. The image is
committed in such ignorance, however griev- man's unique endowment at creation (Gen.
ous, are not unpardonable, but may be for- 1:26), sullied by the Fall but not destroyed
given on subsequent repentance (I Tim. I : 13; (see MAN for the exposition of man in God's
Acts 17:30; 3:17-19; cf. Luke 23:34). image; this article deals specially with Christ
BIBLIOGRAPHY as the image Of the invisible God). The Deca-
James Denney in HDB, C. Harris in IIDCG. logue prohibited making graven images of the
JAMES I. PACKER Deity. As Spirit, God is invisible and incor-
poreal, and cannot be localized in space and
ILLUMINATION. The word appears in time; the unique bearer of the divine image,
only one instance in the AV (Heb.10:32). in the creature world, is man himself.
The verb is phol;zo- and is used of a general Since the universe was fashioned on re-
enlightening which Christ brings to all men demption lines (Rev.13:8), the image of God
especially through the gospel (John I:9; 11 originally created in human nature doubtless
Tim. 1 : 10). It also describes the enlightening anticipated the personal restoration of that
experience of conversion (Heb. 6:4), the un- image by the incarnate Son. Man as the crown
derstanding of Christian truth (Eph. 1:18; of the universe was called into being by the
3:9) and the searching character of future word of creation, a word not simply instru-
judgment (I Cor. 4:5). mental (Gen. I:3, 6, 9 etc.) but personal
Theologically, the word has been applied (John I:3). The eternal Son was an active
to various concepts. In the early church bap- agent in the creation as well as in the redemp-
tism was frequently described as illumination tion of man, and man is himself in some sense
(e.g., Justin, First Apo!., chap. 6l)i A theory a mirror Of the Logos (John 1 :4, 9a). Yet the
IMAGO DEI 278

Scrii)ture always speaks of the Godhead, and different type of experience. Of the thirtyrsix
not of the Son alone, when it specifies the times the word appears in various forms, all
divine image in man. but two carry a distinctly negative connotation.
The eternal Logos unveiled the absolute The word typically refers to schemes or plots,
image of God by himself assuming the form or some kind of evil intent. In the OT the
of man (Jolm 1:14,18). The doctrine of principal words rendered "imagination" or one
divine incarnation (q.v.) centrally means that of its forms are yg.5er (5 times), 5er€rtlf C9
Jesus Christ is the supreme revelation of God, times) and the verb Z1"-5¢g (8 times). A deriva-
the very image of the invisible Father: "He tive of the latter, 7"a!?a-56Z}4, appears three
that hath seen me hath seen the Father" (John times. The second word is used mainly by Jere-
14:9). That Jesus of Nazareth is the supreme miah (e.g., 3: 17; 7:24). He uses it to convey
and express image of God, and not simply a a stubborn persistence in following one's
created image, is the clear teaching o£ Scrip- wicked schemes or inclinations. H65ab stresses
ture. Older dogmaticians contrasted the divine the idea of malicious plotting or. cun-ming im-
image in Christ as J7"¢go st4Z7sfa7£tj¢Zjs, with aginings (Hos. 7: 15). yG5er is a more general
the divine image in man as Jro¢go ¢cc;de7®tfl!I.s. word, implying form, conception, imagination
The term ejfeol¢ is used of Jesus Christ in 11 or mind. It is used to connote evil attitudes
Cor. 4:4 and Col. I : 15-17, whereas Heb. I :2 i. three times (e.g., Gen. 6:5) and is also used
speaks of "the ef fulgence" of God's glory simply to refer to one's inner thoughts and
and the very image or impress of his substance. motives (I Chron. 28:9; 29: 18).
In context, these passages speak o£ Christ in In the NT, the four words translated into
his relation to the Father as the eternal Son, some form of imagination are djalog;s7"os
more than of his role as incarnate Redeemer; (Rom.I:21); d].¢7coj¢ (Luke I:51); Zogjs"os,
hence they support the doctrine of his essen- (11 Cor. 10:5); and me!etao- (Acts 4:25).
tially divine personality and pre-existent God- These lirords appear closest in meaning to
hecid, being descriptive of the glory of his per- }JGser, in that they all imply mental activity,
son. The passage in Hebrews employs thc such as to turn things over in the mind,
term Image much as John 1:I-3 and Col. meditate, imagine, reason, think, comprehend.
I:15-17 employ the terms Word and Son to As such, the terms in themselves are morally
designate Christ as the creator, sustainer and and emotionally neutral. But as they are used
govcmor of all things. they indicate prideful, impenitent self-seeking.
Yet as incarnate Redeemer, and the bearer In short, "imagination" refers to a spirit of
of a full humanity, Christ is the undistorted willful, persistent, disobedient self-seeking in
image of God in human nature. When the the very face o£ God's expressed will and lov-
recreation of man is treated in the NT, Jesus ing call to repentance and holy living.
Christ is consistently depicted as the prototype LARS I. GRANBERG
of redeemed mankind (cf. Phil. 3:21; Col.
3: 10 f.). In and through the Holy Spirit, the IMITATION. The Greek verb 7#;meo"cl;
risen and e,xalted Christ indwells regenerate
(comi)are English "mimic") and noun 7Jtl.1)tGfGs
believers, renewing them in truth and right- are trfmslated "follow, follower" in the AV
eousness. Since Christ overcame sin in the but "imitate, imitators" in the RSV, except I
flesh, and raised human nature to glory in his Pet. 3: 13 where the textual reading zgzolczi is
resurrection and ascension, fallen mankind adopted. Although found in pre-Christian writ-
.igLiin has the prospect of spiritual glor}'
ers among the Greeks and in Philo and Jose-
through a final and complete conformity to
phus, cognate forms occur only eleven times
the image o£ Christ (I John 3:2). in the NT (all in the Epistles) and in the
See also CHRlsTOLOG¥.
LXX (Wisdom 4:2; 15:9). The cognate noun
CARI. F. H. HENRY
t7®ii7®e-"cz, copy or image, not found in the NT
IMAG0 DEI. See MAN. (but in Wisdom 9:8, often in Philo and Jose-
phus) expresses the basic biblical notion that
IMAGINATION. In contemporary usage man is God's child and reflects his attributes.
this word conjures up visions of children hap- Accordingly Christians are to imitate not
pily transforming cardboard cartons into medie- evil, but good (Ill John 11), Paul's conduct
val castles, tree stumps into chargers and broom (11 Thess. 3 : 7, 9; I Col. 4: 16; Phil. 3 : 17), the
sticks into lances. Biblical usage conveys a very apostles, even as they imitate Christ (I Thess.
279 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION

I:6; I Cor.11:I), the heroes of faith (Heb. ond quality" Christians flooded the churches
6:12; 13:7) and God the Father (Eph. 5:1). and the imitation of Christ was confined more
In I Thess. 2: 14 Paul commends the Thessa- and more to the monasteries. Mystical experi-
lonian church for imitating the churches of ences corresponding to those of both Christ
Judea in steadfastness under persecution. and the saints multiplied, culminating in the
From these passages and more particularly stigmata of St. Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), a
from those indicating that man is made in literal physical reproduction of the wounds Of
God's image we derive the popular notion Of Christ. Such mystical experiences continue to
imitating Christ (see DISclpLE, FOLLowlNc our day. (On the subject whether stigmata
CHRlsT). The sad facts of sin teach us all that are self-inflicted or supernatural or psycho-
God's image in man is either partially or totally somatic, see the discussion of "Stigmata" by
destroyed (see FALL). But the Bible declares H. Cowan in HERE.)
that restoration of the image is possible through During the fifteenth century and afterward
Christ. Hence the desire to imitate Christ as the quiet mysticism of Thomas a Kempis'
the only exact and full image (q.v.) of God book, T7}e J7t?itatjo# of CJ17-ist, influenced all
(Col.I:15; 2:9). Likeness to Christ is branches of the church. In our time James
achieved not by legalistically trying to mold Stalker's J7#¢go C7irjstj (1889) is perhaps the
one's actions af ter the divine pattern but by best, although J# His Steps by Charles Shel-
the iriward processes of salvation which change don (1899) has sold more copies. It is debat-
heart attitudes, producing good works and able whether John Bunyan's devotional clas-
Christlike virtues (Ron.12:2; Phil. 2:12~13; sic, Pjlg7-it#'s P7.og7.ess, should be classified
Eph. 2:8-10). The image becomes more like here, but devotion takes many forms; con-
Christ through our attending to him (11 Cor. sciously or unconsciously all of them repro-
3:18) but is not finally completed until we duce an image o£ Christ in the devotee, more
see him on the day of resurrection (I John or less complete, more or less enlightened.
3:2; Ron. 8:29-30). Modern psychology throws much new light
From the be.ginning many desired to imitate on the perennial desire to imitate Christ by
the Master, requesting, for example, a model stressing man's need to identify the self with
I)rayer (Luke 11:I-4) which we still repeat strong personalities (mother figure, father,
today. This ambition I)rompted the zealous saint, etc.) in order to build the personality,
declaration of James and John that they could and by stressing the importance of the sub-
drink Jesus' cup and undergo his baptism conscious as a reservoir from which our ac-
(Mark 10:38-39). It moved Paul, as he sought tions rise.
to let the indwelling Spirit o£ Christ speak BIBLIOGRAPHY
and act through him (Gal. 2:20; Phil.I:21); r\m(lt; \\'. Michaelis, Tl1,'NT,1\', I)I). 661-78.

so he exhorted others to imitate him even as TERRELLE 8. CRUM

he imitated Christ (see references above).
In Acts 7:60 we find Stephen imitating the IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. A Ro-
d}'ing words o£ Jesus (Luke 23:34). In Paul's man Catholic tradition that Mtir}7 VI'as I)reserved
letters the theme of exhibiting Christ's hu- from original sin. The tradition bei`£`me a church
mility, sufferings and death constantly recurs dogma after itrotracted thcologiccil debate.
(e.g., Phil.1 :29-30; 2:5; 3: 10 £f.; Ron. 8: 17, Mar}7 suffered the temporal 1)emlties of Adam's
18, 36) and Peter says exi]licitly (I Pet. 2:21 sin, such as bodil}' limitation, sorrow, and
ff .) that we are to follow in Christ's steps in death. But the active essenc`e of original sin
suffering and death. was excluded from the very moment of her
In the 1)ost-apostolic literature there is a conception. Mar}' was saved b}' the merits of
conscious effort to I)oint out how the mart)7rs Jesus. In her case, and in hers alone, the debt
imitiited Christ in their humilit)', in being be- of` sin was 1)aid in order that the debt might
tri`}'cd, in their Spirit prompted utterances, not be ini`urred. Mar}''s righteousness consisted
and triumphant dying (e.g., Ignatius; Eph. in s£`nctit}', innocence, and justice.
10:3; Ron. 6:3; Martyrdom of Polycarp I : I-2; When the Council of Trcnt (1545-63) 1)ro-
17:3; 19: I; Diognetus 10:4-5). This literature nounced on original sin, it added: ". . . it is
fortified thousands who nobl}7 imitated their not its intention to include in this decree on
Lord during the terrible Roman I)ersecutions. original sin the blessed and immaculate Virgin
When Constantine legalized Christianity "sec- Mary, Mother o£ God .... "
IMMANENCE 280

Pope Pius IX (1846-78) in the bull J"- applies the name to Christ. The name implies
effc!Z".Z!.s De1/s (Dec. 8, 1854) defined the deity ("God") and incarnation ("with us").
position as follows: "We declare, pronounce The views that have been held regarding
and define: the doctrine that maintains that the prophecy in Isa. 7:14 are numerous. A
the most Blessed Virgin Mary in the first in- brief summary must suffice here.
stant of her conception, by a unique grace and I. NON-MEsslANlc INTERPRETATloNs. These
privilege of the omnipotent God and in con- characteristically rule out the predictive ele-
sideration of the merits o£ Christ Jesus the ment and apply the name to some child al-
Saviour of the human race, was preserved free ready born or about to 1)e born of some Jew-
from all stain of original sin, is a doctrine re- ish woman. There is no unit}J of opinion re-
vealed by God and therefore must be firmly garding the child or the mother.
and constantly held by all the faithful." 11. SEMI-MESSIANIC INTERPRETATIONS.
The Vatican Council ( 1869-70) intended to These apply the prophecy to a child Of Isaiah's
define the immaculate conception as a dogma, time and also to Jesus Christ.
but time ran out.
Ill. ME sslANlc INTERPRETATloNs. These
See also MARloLATR¥. views center the prediction in Jesus Christ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Matthew under divine inspiration applies
in:;;cmTi::i3£,Cvoon,:e#,oRfr,;|iion,o&;,CEoaEI.c-I?Ig:::,Fog-the prophecy to Jesus. The circumstances of
EDWARD JOHN CARNELL
the birth (``sign" and "virgin'') point unmis-
takably to Jesus Christ.
IMMANENCE. Immanence is the counter- BIBLIOGRAPHY

part of transcendence. Theologically, the 3]!.. G. Machen, The Virgin BirSb of Christ, pp. 287-
former connotes an indwelling of God within WICK BROOMALL
the world and its processes, the latter the su-
periority of his existence above and beyond the IMMENSITY. See ATTRIBUTEs, DrvlNE.
temporal sphere. Pantheism (q.v.) which pre-
sumes to discover God in all things throughout
IMMORTALITY. The concept of immor-
the natural order, is a familiar form of the tality is expressed directly in the Bible only
theology of immanence. Its effect is to identify in the NT. The words used are: ¢tha7.asic},
¢pht7®arsj¢ and its cognate adjective ¢phf 7.artos.
God with the universe. In contemporary the-
ology immanentism is most commonly dis- Ath¢7®¢sici is the exact equivalent of the Eng-
cernible in the writings of those who, while ljsh immortality and it is used in I Cor.15 : 53,
seeking to avoid confusing the Creator with 54 where it describes the resurrection body as
his creation, maintain that God's activity takes one which is not subject to death: and in I
Tim. 6:16, where God is said to be the one
place solely within the normal course Of na-
ture and that his "creative" operations are dis- who alone has immortality. He alone in his
cernible in the natural development of new essence is deathless. Apht7iarsj¢ has the basic
organic forms in the supposed evolutionary meaning of indesrmctibility and, by deriva-
tion, of incorruption, by which it is rendered
process: divine action is viewed as being from
within rather than from without, as natural in the familiar resurrection paean in I Cor.
I.ather than supernatural. The biblical view- 15:42 £f. in the AV. The translation j7m-
mortci]jfy is used, however, in Rom. 2:7, where
point combines the concepts of immanence and
transcendence: God is immanent in the sense the reference is to the life Of glory and honor
that he is everywhere present (Ps. 139) and to which the believer aspires: in 11 Tim. 1 : 10,
that the order of nature unmistakably reveals where it is said that Christ "abolished death
his handiwork and his eternal power and sov- and brought life and jmtwortazjty to light."
ereignty (Ps. 19; Ron. I:20); God is tram- The adjective aphth¢rfos is used to describe God
scendent in the sense that in being and majes- as not being subject to diminution or decay,
ty he is infinitely above all that is human and (Rom. I :23; I Tim. I : 17); or of things which
temporal. are not perishable, such as the crown awarded
PHILIP EI)GCUMBE HUGHES to the successful Christian (I Cor. 9:25), the
inheritance which is reserved for the Christian
IMMANUEL. This transliterated Hebrew (I Pet.I:4), the seed of which the Christian
name means ``God with us." It is found first is born (I Pet.I:24).
in Isaiah (7: 14; c£. 8 :8,10); Matthew (1 :23) It may be said, therefore, that immortality
281 IMPUTATION

in the biblical sense is a condition in which immortal (4iphfh¢rto#,) inheritance (I Pet.1 :3,
the `individual is not subject to death or to any 4). The inheritance is described as one of
influence which might lead to death. God is glory, honor, incorruption (ap7ctbars;a), and
uniquely immortal in that he is without be- eternal life. To be without the life in Christ is
ginning or end of life and is not in any way not to have immortality, in the biblical sense
affected by change or diminution. Man, on of the term.
the other hand, is immortal only by derivation Immortality, for the Christian, involves the
and when his mortal body has been replaced resurrection and may be fully attained only
by one which is immortal. This article is con- after it. While it is said that believers who
cerned with human immortality. have died are present with the Lord when
The biblical idea of immortality thus differs they are absent from the body (11 Cor. 5:8),
from all others in certain important respects. they are nevertheless to be changed at Christ's
One of these is that in non-biblical teaching appearing. Both those who have died and those
man is inherently immortal. Another is that it who are alive upon earth will receive a body
is the spiritual aspect of human nature only like the resurrection body of Jesus Christ
which is thought to be immortal. The human (Phil. 3:21). Those who are the children of
soul or spirit survives death. A corollary of God will be like Christ (I John 3 :2), perfected
these two is that the human body is usually in righteousness (Phil. 1 :6), from all sin, sor-
thought of as a kind of prison-house of the row, pain or death (Rev. 22:3 ff.) and they
spirit, or, at best, as a very transitory part Of will serve God continually.
the human personality. In biblical thought BIBLIOGRAPHY
man is not inherently immortal; it is the whole
man, body and soul, that is immortal even
though the body must undergo a transforma-
tion in order to achieve immortality. ffTi;;*ic:ff%;.g!?#;?;i:;;;:,i-{::ifffE:i:iorf:
and 22.
In the OT as well as in the New, man is a
DAVID W. KERR
complete being only as his body and spirit are
in union. He is then a living soul, or person IMMORTALITY, CONDITIONAL. See
(Gen. 2:7). While some have understood the ANNIHILATIONISM.
Genesis narrative as teaching that man was
created immortal and that sin brought nor- IMPUTATION. The doctrine of imputa-
tality, it would seem better to interpret the tion is an important revelation Of divine deal-
account as teaching that man would have ing with man. It is frequently mentioned in
gained immortality through a period of testing the OT (Lev. 7:18; 17:4; 11 Sam.19:19;
in which he would be obedient to the divine Ps. 32:2) as expressed by the Hebrew dy65ag,
commands. If death was the penalty for sin, translated variously to impute, reckon, esteem,
life was to be the reward for obedience. purpose, account, be counted, devise, think,
Throughout the OT the dead are described etc., appearing over one hundred times in the
as going down to Sheol, a place of obscurity, Hebrew text. The doctrine of imputation is
forgetfulness and relative inactivity (Job an important element in the sacrificial system
10:20-22, 14:13 f£.; Ps. 88:10-12 et a!.). of the OT. In the NT the doctrine is given
Sheol, however, was not outside the Lord's extensive revelation in the Epistle to the Rcr
purview (Ps. 139:8; Amos 9:2) and it was mans (Rom. 4:6-25; 5: 13) and is mentioned
indicated through some OT writers that there in 11 Cor. 5:19 and James 2:23, using the
would be a deliverance from it (Ps.16:10; verb !ogjzoona; in all passages except in Ron.
49:14 ff., Job 19:25-27). This deliverance 5:13 where e}!ogeo-is found. The book Of
would take the form of a resurrection (q.v.), Philemon is a biblical illustration of imputa-
though this climax of OT hope finds expres- tion, "Put that on mine account" (vs. 18),
sion only in Dan. 12:2. where Paul assumed the debt of Onesimus.
In the NT it is implied that OT believers In its principal meaning of "reckoning to
did not have a full knowledge of the meaning the account of another," it is found in three
of immortality, since our Lord Jesus Christ theological connections in Scripture.
brought life and immortality (¢p7ith¢rsja) to I. IMPUTATION 0F ADAM'S SIN TO MAN.
light through the gospel (11 Tim. I:10). According to the argument o£ Ron. 5: 12-21,
Christians have been begotten in Christ to an the one sin of Adam was imputed to the race
INCARNATION 282

to the extent that "death reigned" (vs. 14), Of God. The righteousness thus imputed meets
all were condemned in Adam (vs. 18), and completely the demands Of a righteous God,
all men were made sinners (vs. 19). The judg- and is the sole basis for our acceptance with
ment ``all have sinned" (Greek aorist tense) is God.
based not on the individual experience of sin BIBLIOGRAPHY
but on the imputation of Adam's sin to the
race. Adam as the fountain of human life was
representative of the race and his sin is the
i:¥=tc:I:i:;::,:,;i;so:§:y;as;;%%t{c;:F§;oe§h:cfp,:§§:;,;p:p::,;;;3.732:,;;
862.
basis Of divine reckoning of all men as sinning JOHN F. WAI.VOORD
in Adam.
11. IMI'UTATION OF THE SIN OF MAN TO INCARNATION. The words incarnation
CHRlsT. In contrast to the imputation Of or incarnate do not occur in the Bible. Their
Adam's sin to the race, of ten considered a two component parts, however, j7! car"e, (e#
rcaf imputation, the imputation of the sin Of s¢rkj), come several times in the NT, with a
man to Christ is considered j.t4djc;al, and re- verb describing either the incarnation in itself
lated to the death of Christ on the cross. Christ or the work of the incarnate Christ. Thus, the
``hath bone our griefs, and carried our sor- Johamine Epistles speak of his "coming in
rows .... But he was wounded for our trams- the flesh" (I John 4:2; 11 John 7), Romans
of his being "sent in the flesh" (Ron. 8:3),
gressions . . . the Lord hath laid on him the
iniquity of us all" (Isa. 53:4-6). "Him who and the ancient hymn in I Timothy of his "ap-
knew no sin he made to be sin on our behalf ; pearing in the flesh" (I Tim. 3:16). On the
that we might become the righteousness of God other hand, the first Petrine Epistle says that
in him" (11 Cor. 5:21 ASV). "Who his own he "suffered in the flesh" (I Pet. 4:I), and
"died in the flesh" (3: 18), Ephesians that he
self bare our sins in his own body on the tree
. . ." (I Pet. 2:24). Though the word impute made peace by abolishing "in his flesh the
is not actually used to express this idea in the enmity" (Eph. 2: 15), and Colossians that ``he
NT, the idea is clearly stated in other words. made reconciliation in the body of his flesh"
Ill. IMPUTATION OF THE RIGHTEOUSNESS (Col. I:21-22). But the central and most
comprehensive verse is John 1: 14, "And the
oF GOD To THE BEI.iEVER. Embodied in the
word became flesh (haj ho Logos s¢ra: ege7eeto)."
doctrine of justification by faith is the im-
We will explain ;#c¢r#¢tjo# by expounding
putation of the righteousness of God to the be- these words.
liever in Christ (cf. Ron. 3:21 -5:21). The
righteous work of Christ manifested in his I. ho Logos. The subject of this sentence,
death on the cross is reckoned to the account Of Ilo Logos receives its meaning and substance
the believer as a gift Of righteousness apart both from its object, sar#, and from the pre-
from human merit or works. The imputation of ceding verses. To him is ascribed eternity: ``In
righteousness is a judicial act by which the be- the beginning was the Word"; relationship to
liever is declared righteous before a holy God. the Deity: "And the Word was with God";
Though this is accompanied by experimental and quite bluntly and directly, Deity itself :
"And the Word was God." He is described as
sanctification, conversion, and other spiritual
manifestations, in itself it is not an experience the maker of all created things: "All things
but a fact Of divine reckoning. Believers are were made by him"; the possessor and im-
declared "justified by faith" (Ron. 5:1), and parter of life: "In him was life and the life
Abraham and David are cited as examples in was the light of men"; and as being the true
the OT (Ron. 4: I-22). light." Hence the Logos who became flesh was
The imputation of righteousness to believers in himself etemal, God, the Creator, life and
in Christ is one Of the most important doctrines light. In considering the rest of the verse, we
Of the NT and rests at the heart of the doc- must not forget for one moment the identity
trine of salvation (a.v.). It is related to the and nature of this subject.
believer's identification with Christ, his posi- The prologue does not make the direct state-
tion in Christ, and his participation theo- ment: "God became flesh." For although it
logically in the substitutionary work of Christ. declares that "the Word was God," it also
Though it is not his antecedently, it is reck- suggests in the sentence "and the Word was
oned to the believer at the moment of faith with God," a certain differentiation, which is
and becomes his forever by judicial declaration here only hinted at but will be explained by
28 3 INDULGENCE

later references in the Gaspel to the Father BIBLIOGRAPFT

and the Son, the Son and the Paraclete. Never-
theless, it is perfectly proper and indeed neces-
a::#:is::pi]Z¥;;;±f:a;dEo.g€§]a:S!;:g,e:::ts:hit:;:.}K|;dcE£#e:;#:
sary, while bearing such a differentiation in
T. H. L. PARKER
mind, to say with Charles Wesley, "Veiled in
flesh the Godhead see! Hail, the Incamate
Deity!" INCENSE. Incense or frankincense is the
Hebrew [eEJ6"6, a resin of a shrub about eight
2. s¢rx. It is not easy to determine the exact feet tall of the genus Boswez]ha growing in
significance Of "flesh" in this context. In the South Arabia and Somaliland. From the same
NT it bears a number of meanings: for ex- area comes myrrh, an aromatic resin from the
ample, the actual physical substance compris- tree B¢tsa7"oc!e7&dro7¢ Myrrha.
ing the animal body (e.g., I Cor. 15:39), or Frankincense was added to the meal offer-
created life on earth (e.g., I Pet.1:24, quot- ing and shewbread (Lev. 2:2-16; 24:7), but
ing Isa. 40:6 ff.), or man's existence as a not to the sin offering or jealousy offering
sinner (e.g., Rom. 8:3). There is no doubt
(Lev. 5:11; Nun. 5:15). It was one of the
that sor# in John I:14 includes the first and
precious gifts offered to the infant Saviour.
second meanings. The Word became a man.
Frankincense with other spices was the in-
In other words, he had, as incamate, the ani-
cense (qef6re!) burned on the incense altar
mal body of a man and also a human soul. His
(Ex. 30:7; I Sam. 2:28). Arabian spice was
incarnate existence was subject to all the needs,
important in antiquity. The temple incense
limitations and sensations of human life. The
was a special mixture for holy uses (Ex.
humanity o£ Jesus must be given no less
30 : 37). Its smoke symbolized ascending prayer
weight than his deity. As to the third sense of
(Rev. 8:3) and shielded the ark from view
the word, the great weight of opinion has been
(Lev.16:13). It was not used in the anoint-
against including sinfulness in the meaning Of
ing oil (Ex. 30:23-25).
flesh here. The assumption of flesh by the Son BIBLIOGRAPHY
of God involved a unity with sinful man suf-
ficient for the bearing and destruction of sin, ciegtussoYt.hvfiTabBi::t*'/`;:;::¥`:;e?i:aAnfer¥cZ[ttrhojr?ettAt:i
SocicJty, 78; 141-52.
and able to do justice to such verses as Ron. R. LAIRD HARRIS
8:3 ("sending his own Son in the likeness of
sinful f`lesh"),11 Cor. 5:21 (``he hath made INDULGENCE. An indulgence, from the
him to be sin for us, who knew no sin") and Latin i7!dt4!ge7it].¢, kindness or tenderness, is
Gal. 3:13 (``Christ . . . being made a curse defined by The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vll,
for us„). e temporal pun-
p. 783, as "a remission of
ishment due to sin, the of which has
3. ege"efo. This word must be taken in ap-
been forgiv`en." Whereas Roman Catholic
position to the four times repeated e-„ of vss. theology and practice both eternal and ten-
I-2. In the beginning the Word u7as, and wfls
with God, and was God. But now the Word poral punishment due sin are remitted in bap-
tism, only the eternal punishment is remitted
beccztt®e flesh. That is, whereas the earlier
in the sacrament o£ |]enance (q.t7.). An indul-
verses had spoken of the continued state and
activity of the Word, a completely new and gence actually provides for a change in the
form of penance, the temporal penalty for sin.
different state and activity is now posited. The
Word was God; the Word now becomes what A plenf.ry or full indulgence cancels the
he was not - flesh. Yet he became this with- accumulated temporal penalty for sin, while a
out ceasing to be what he eternally was - partial indulgence specifies the limits of the
God. Moreover, ege"eto expresses the activity remission. Ir`.dulgences are granted for many
of the Word; not "was made" as in the AV, types of good works. In the first undisputed
but "became." In complete and joyful obe- indulgence, Pope Urban 11 in 1095 promised
dience to the will Of the Father, the Word that all who went to Jcmsalem on the first
freely became flesh for the sake of his loved cnisade out of pure devotion could ``count
creation. No external compulsion moved the that journey in lieu of all penance."
Word to become flesh. He took our flesh of By the fifteenth century indulgences were
his own free will and deliberately, to accom- granted for the dead in purgatory by suffrage,
plish our salvation. and with the rise of the practice of granting
INFALLIBILITY 284

them for money payments for worthy causes which are disputed by other Christians: (1)
the immediate cause Of the Protestant Reforma- that Christ established an office of his "vicar"
tion emerged. Since the Council of Trent, for his church on earth; (2) that this office
1562, money payment for indulgences has is held by the bishop of Rome; and (3) that
been forbidden by the Church, although prac- Christ's vicar is infallible in his declarations
tice has not always conformed. on faith and morals. The grounds upon which
DONALD G. DAVIS the church of Rome bases these assumptions
may be summarized as follows: (I) Our Lord's
INFALLIBILITY. The word infallible oc- saying to Peter recorded in Matt. 16:18:
"Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build
curs in the AV in Acts 1:3 with reference to
the resurrection of Christ. There is no cor- my church," implies that Christ made Peter
responding word in the Greek, however, and the head of the church, or his "vicar on earth."
it is omitted in later versions. (2) Peter was bishop at Rome, and thereby
constituted this see the supreme bishopric over
That the revelation of God in Jesus Christ
the church, transmitting to his successors the
is infallible, in the general sense that it pre-
sents mankind with the infallible way of sal- prerogative of being Christ's vicar. (3) The
vicar o£ Christ must be infallible by the very
vation, would be accepted by all Christians;
nature of the case. All three arguments are
but the seat of infallibility is a matter of con-
necessary to the doctrine of papal infallibility,
troversy. Three main lines of thought may be
and all three display a fallibility which makes
discerned corresponding to the three main divi-
it impossible for the Orthodox and Protestant
sions of Christendom. The Eastern Orthodox
churches to accept them.
Church believes that General Councils of the
Church are guided by the Holy Spirit so as When we turn to Protestant or Evangelical
not to err; the Roman Catholic Church be- thought on this matter, we find that, in so far
lieves that the Pope is personally preserved as it is used at all, infallibility is ascribed to
from error by God; and Protestant thought re- the OT and NT Scriptures as the prophetic
lies on the sufficiency of Holy Scripture as and apostolic record. It is so in the fourfold
the guide to God's self-revelation. We can re- sense (1) that the word of God infallibly
late these three theories in the following way. achieves its end, (2) that it gives us reliable
Christians of all traditions accord to Holy testimony to the saving revelation and redemp-
Scripture a unique place in the determination tion Of God in Christ, (3) that it provides us
of the gospel, and there exists an extensive with an authoritative norm of faith and con-
body of common belief derived from it. This duct, and (4) that there speaks through it the
common belief is further described and de- infallible Spirit o£ God by whom it is given.
fined by the Councils held in the early cen- In recent years concentration upon historical
turies, four of which at any rate command and scientific questions, and suspicion Of the
universal approval. The Orthodox Church con- dogmatic infallibility claimed by the Papacy,
tinues to rely on Councils, the Latin Church has led to severe criticism of the whole con-
has finally come to define the seat of infalli- cept even as applied to the Bible; and it must
bility as the Papacy, while Protestants do not be conceded that the term itself is not a biblical
place their confidence in Councils as such or one and does not play any great part in actual
in the Papacy but look to the Scriptures as Reformation theology. Yet in the senses indi-
the ultimate source of authority. Particular at- cated it is well adapted to bring out the author-
tention must be given to the doctrine of papal ity and authenticity Of Scripture. The church
infallibility, and the Protestant doctrine of the accepts and preserves the infallible word as
sufficiency and supremacy o£ Scripture. the true standard of its apostolicity; for the
The doctrine of the infallibility of the pope word itself, i.e., Holy Scripture, owes its in-
was defined by the Roman Catholic Church in fallibility, not to any intrinsic or independent
the year 1870. It declares that the pope is quality, but to the divine Subject and Author
enabled by God to express infallibly what the to whom the term inf allibility may properly
church should believe concerning questions Of be applied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
faith and morals when he speaks in his official
capacity as "Christ's vicar on earth," or e#
cathedra. 3#;eyTg.7?%h?:a;.#*Ra:iieTa,STa|*°|nn'spi,haeti;%f:%;bjzg.
Behind this dogma lie three assumptions W. C. G. PRoCTOR
28 5 INFRALAPSARIANISM

INFANT BAPTISM. See BAPTlsM, IN- are lost. While not committing themselves to
FANT. a belief in the salvation of all children dying
in infancy, they tend to regard it as an un-
INFANT SALVATION. The possibility contradicted hope.
Of the salvation of infants was recognized The Reformed doctrine of the church car-
from the earliest times of the NT church, ried with it a distinctive doctrine of infant
Irenaeus, for instance, includes "infants and salvation. The church of Christ being, not an
children" among those whom Christ came to external organization, but the true people o£
save. The changing doctrine of the church, God everywhere, it follows that membership
whereby the kingdom of God was identified in this community is acquired, not by the ex-
with the extemal church, and the widespread ternal act of baptism, but by the internal ac-
acceptance of the belief that outside the visible tion of the Holy Spirit in regenerating the
church there could be no salvation, gave rise soul. Zwingli took the position that all chil-
to the doctrine that baptism, the sacrament of dren of believers dying in infancy are saved,
admission to the extemal church, was neces- for they were born within the covenant, the
sary to salvation. No unbaptized infant there- promise being to believers and to their chil-
fore could be saved, although, in the view of dren (Acts 2:39). He even inclined to the
medieval churchmen, the sufferings of lost in- view that all children dying in infancy are
fants are less intense than those of lost adults. elect and saved. John Owen, a good spokes-
Furthermore, Thomas Aquinas and others ad- man of Puritan Calvinism, expresses the be-
mitted the possibility that still-born infants of lief that infants may have an interest in the
Christian parents might, in the grace of God, covenant even through more remote forebears
be sanctified and saved in a way unknown to than parents. And, since the grace of God is
uS. free and not tied to any condition, he has no
doubt that many infants are saved whose par-
The Council Of Trent, which defined the
ants are not believers. Whatever differing
position of the papal church as against the
shades of opinion may be found in Reformed
Protestant position, committed the Church o£
teaching with regard to infant salvation, their
Rome to the view that infants dying unbap-
Reformed Confessions agree in teaching the
tized were damned, although it did not ex-
possibility of infants being saved "by Christ
press a definite view as of the kind and degree through the Spirit, who worketh when, and
of their punishment. Moreover, the belief was
where, and how he pleaseth" (West7"j#sfer
expressed that the desire and intention of
Co„fessjo#). They do not give confessional au-
godly parents to have their children baptized thority to the Zwinglian supposition that death
might be accepted in lieu of actual baptism in
in infancy may be taken as a sign of election,
the case of still-born babes. Eusebius Amort
and thus of salvation, but with reverent cau-
(1758) taught that God might be moved by tion assert that only for which they can claim
prayer to grant salvation to such infants extra- the clear authority of Holy Scripture, namely,
sacramentally. The inconclusiveness of the
that all elect children shall be saved by God's
Tridentine declarations leaves the way open
mysterious working in their hearts although
for widely differing conceptions as to what is
they are inca|)able of the response of faith.
to be understood by the exclusion of unbap-
They have no claim, in themselves, to salva-
tized children from heaven.
tion, but are, as in the case of saved adults,
The Augsburg Confession commits Luther- the subjects of the sovereign election of grace,
anism to the view that baptism is necessary to and the purchase of the redeeming blood o£
salvation, although, in modification of this Christ.
position, Lutheran theologians have taught BIBLIOGRAPHY
that "the necessity of baptism is not intended
to be equalized with that of the Holy Ghost." ETf-.:?4-€H#e:s,f.'!?ea:F!oe,isd,;;::att;I;:?,eT?;i,`,.!,a.Si;?,::::fg;:ai:`;;
Luther believed that God would accept the 27.
intention to baptize the infant in lieu of actual GEORGE N. M. COLLINS
baptism where circumstances made the latter
impossible. Later Lutherans adopt the more INFINITE, INFINITY. See GOD.
cautious attitude that it would be wrong to as-
sume that all unbaptized infants, including INFRALAPSARIANISM. See PREDESTI-
children Of those who are outside the church, NATION.
INHERITANCE 286

INHERITANCE. See HEIR. or functional significance (largely through a

critical dependence on Schleiermacher's artifi-
INIQUITY. See SIN. cial disjunction that God communicates life, not
tniths about himself). Geoffrey W. Bromiley,
INSPIRATION. The theological idea Of translator o£ Karl Barth's CJ®wrc7® Dog7i®atjcs,
inspiration, like its correlative revelation, pre-
points out that whereas Barth emphasizes the
supposes a personal mind and will - in He- "inspiring" Of Scripture, that is, its present use
brew terminology, the "living God" - acting to by the Holy Spirit towards hearers and readers,
communicate with other spirits. The Christian the Bible itself begins further back with the
belief in inspiration, not alone in revelation, very "inspiredness" Of the sacred writings. The
rests both on explicit biblical assertions and on writings themselves, as an end-product, are
the pervading mood of the scriptural record. assertedly God-breathed. Precisely this concep-
I. BIBLlcAI. TERMINOLOGy. Today the Eng- tion Of inspired u7riti7®gs, and not simply of in-
lish verb and noun inspire and inspiration bear spired 7"e#, sets the biblical conception Of in-
many meanings. This diverse connotation is spiration pointedly over against pagan repre-
already present in the Latin j#spjro and j#- sentations of inspiration in which heavy stress
spjrat;a Of the Vulgate Bible. But the technical is placed on the subjective psychological mood
theological sense of inspiration, largely lost in and condition of those individuals overmas-
the secular atmosphere of our time, is clearly tered by divine afflatus.
asserted by the Scripture-s with a special view
While the Pauline passage already noted
to the sacred writers and their whtings. De-
lays proximate emphasis on the spiritual value
fined in this sense, inspiration is a super- o£ Scripture, it conditions this unique ministry
natural influence of the Holy Spirit upon upon a divine origin, in direct consequence o£
divinely chosen men in consequence of which which the sacred record is profitable (cf .
their writings become trustworthy and au- 6pheleo-, "to advantage") for teaching, reproof,
thoritative. correction, and instruction in righteousness.
In the AV the noun appears twice: Job The apostle Paul does not hestitate to speak
32:8, "But there is a spirit in man; and the
of the sacred Hebrew writings as the veritable
inspiration Of the Almighty giveth them under- ``oracles Of God" (Ron. 3 :2). James S. Stewart
standing"; and 11 Tim. 3: 16, "All scripture is dues not overstate the matter when he asserts
given by inspiration of God, and is profitable that Paul as a Jew and later as a Christian
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for in- held the high view that ``every word" of the
struction in righteousness." In the former in- OT was ``the authentic voice of God" (A Mfl„
stance, both the ASV and the RSV substitute ;" CJir;st, Hodder and Stoughton, London,
`1)reath" for "inspiration," an interchange
1935, p. 39).
which serves to remind us Of the dramatic fact
that the Scriptures refer the creation of the Emphasis on the divine origin of Scripture
universe (Ps. 33:6), the creation of man for is found also in the Petrine writings. The
"word of prophecy" is declared to be "more
fellowship with God (Gen. 2:7) and the pror
duction of the sacred writings (11 Tim. 3: 16) sure" than that even Of the eyewitnesses of
to the spiration Of God. In the latter instance, Christ's glory (11 Pet.I:17 ££.). A-super-
the ASV renders the text "Every scripture in- natural quality all its own, therefore, inheres
spired o£ God is also profitable ..., " a transla- in Scripture. While involving the instrumen-
tion abandoned as doubtful by the RSV, "All tality of "holy men," Scripture is affirmed
scripture is inspired by God and profitable .... " nonetheless to owe its origin not to human but
11. BIBI.ICAL TEACHING. Although the term to divine initiative in a series of statements
"inspiration" is of spotty occurrence in modem whose proximate emphasis is the reliability Of
versions and paraphrases, the conception itself Scripture: 1. ``No prophecy Of scripture is Of
remains firmly embedded in the scriptural any private interpretation" (RSV, ". . . is a
teaching. The word theop"et4stos (11 Tim. matter of one's own interpretation"). Although
3 : 16), literally God-``spirated" or breathed out, the passage is somewhat obscure, it provides no
aff irms that the living God is the author of support for the Roman Catholic view that the
Scripture, and that Scripture is the product of ordinary believer cannot confidently interpret
his creative breath. The biblical sense, there- the Bible but requires a dependence on the
fore, rises above the modem tendency to as- teaching ministry of the church. While theologi-
sign the term "inspiration" merely a dynamic cally acceptable, the Scofield Reference Bible
287 INSPIRATION

comment that no individual verse is self-suffi- came (and scripture cannot be broken)." The
cient but the sense of Scripture as a whole is unavoidable implication is that the whole of
necessary, is exegetically irrelevant. Everett F. Scripture is of irrefragable authority.
Harrison notes that gj7¢etc}j has the meaning of This is the viewpoint also of the Sermon on
"emerging," compatibly with 1 :21, and that the Mount reported in Matthew's Gospel:
"Think not that I have come to abolish the
epilyseo-s may point to origination rather than
to interpretation o£ Scripture. But the emphasis law and the prophets; I have come not to
here may fall on divine illumination as the abolish them but to fulfill them. For truly, I
necessary corollary of divine inspiration so that, say to you, till heaven and earth pass away,
while the sen;e of Scripture is objectively not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the law
given and determinable by exegesis, it must until all is accomplished. Whoever then re-
be discriminated nonetheless by the aid of the laxes one of the least of these commandments
same Spirit by whom it was first communi- and teaches men so, shau be called least in the
cated. In any event, the text precludes identi- kingdom of heaven .... " (Matt. 5:17 f£.,
fying the content of Scripture as an original RSV). Attempts to turn the repeated declara-
product of the human writers. 2. "Prophecy tions, "You have heard that it was said . . . But
came not in old time by the will of man" I say to you" into a sustained criticism of the
(RSV, "no prophecy ever came by the im- Mosaic law have not made their case con-
pulse of man"). If the previous passage denies vincingly against the probability that Jesus'
man's ultimate right to interpret Scripture, the I)rotest is leveled rather against traditional re-
present declaration emphatically denies the de- ductions of the actual claim and inner intcn-
pendence of Scripture upon human initiative lion of that law. Indeed, the necessary fulfil-
for its origin. 3. "Holy men of God si)ake ment Of all that is written is a frequent theme
. . . moved by the Holy Ghost." The RSV on our Lord's lips (Matt. 26:31; 26:54; Mark
strengthens the divine quality of the sacred 9: 12 f.; 14: 19, 27; John 13: 18; 17: 12). Who-
words: ". . . men moved by the Holy Spirit ever searches the Gospel narratives faithfully
spoke from God." Only through a determining in view of Jesus' attitude toward the sacred
and constraining influence of the Holy Spirit writings will be driven again and again to the
did the human agents actualize the divine conclusion of Reinhold Seeberg: ``Jesus him-
initiative. The word translated "moved" is self describes and employs the Old Testament
phero- (literally, "to bear along," "to carry"), as an infallible authority (e.g., M£`tt. 5:17;
and implies an activit}' more specific than mere Luke 24..44)" CText-Book of the Histol.y of
Doct].I.7c€, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids,
guidance or direction.
1952, Vol.I, p. 82).
Ill. ]Esus' VIEw oF ScRlpTURE. If the pas-
sages already cited indicate something not only IV. OLD TESTAMENT VIEw. Both in si)cech
Of the nature but of the extent of inspiration and writing the OT |]rophets i`rc miirkecl t]ff
("all scripture"; "the word of prophecy," else- by their unswerving assurance that the}' were
where a summary term for the entirety o£ spokesmen for the living God. They believed
Scripture), a verse from the Johannine writ- thcit the truths the}' utterc`d about the Most
ings indicates something of the intensit)' of High i`nd his works and will, and the com-
inspiration and at the same time enables us mands and exhortt`tions they voic`ed in his
to contemplate Jesus' view of Scri|]ture. In name, derived their origin from him and car-
John 10:34 f., Jesus singles out an obscure ried his authority. The constantly rei)eated
passage in the Psalms (``ye are gods," Ps. formula "thus saith the Lord" is so characteris-
82:6) to reinforce the point that "the Scripture tic of the prophets as to leave no doubt that
cannot be broken." The reference is doubly the}7 considered themselves chosen agents of
significant because it also discredits the modern the divine self-communication. Emil Brunncr
bias against identifying Scripture as the word acknowledges that in "the words of God which
Of God, on the ground that this assertedly the Prophets I)roclaim as those which they
dishonors the supreme revelation of God in have received directly from God, and have
the incarnate Christ. But in John 10:35 Jesus been commissioned to repeat, :`s they have re-
of Nazareth, while speaking of himself as in- ceived them . . perhaps we find the closest
deed the one "the Father consecrated and sent amlogy to the meaning of the theor}7 of vcr-
into the world," nonetheless refers to those in bal inspiration" (Revezcztjo7? c]77cZ Rec!so77, tr. by
a past dispensation "to whom the word of God Olive Wyon, Westminster Press, Philadelphia,
INSPIRATION 288

1946, p. 122, n. 9). Whoever impugns the the Pharisees' rejection of Jesus Of Nazareth as
confidence of the prophets that they were the promised Messiah despite their formal ac-
instruments of the one true God in their dis- lmowledgment of the divine inspiration of
closure of truths about his nature and dealings Scripture; the attribution of inspiration to the
with man is driven, consistently if not neces- vowel points and punctuation by 17th century
sarily, to the only possible alternative of their Lutheran dogmaticians; and a depreciation
delusion. (e.g., in the Middle Ages) of the role of il-
From this same prophetic tradition it is im- lumination in the interi)retation of Scripture
possible to detach Moses. Himself a prophet, ("The Church Doctrine of Inspiration" in Rev-
rightl}r called "the founder of pro|)hetic re- ezc!t!.o7¢ a7td the Bjb!e, Carl F. H. Henry, ed.,
ligion," he mediates the law and the priestly Baker Book House, Grand Rat)ids, Michigan,
and sacrificial elements of revealed religion in 1959, pp. 213 f£.). The Protestant Reformers
the firm belief that he promulgates the verita- guarded their view of the Bible from the er-
ble will of Jehovah. God will be the prophet's rors of rationalism and mysticism. To prevent
mouth (Ex. 4: 14 ff.); Moses is to be God, as Christianity's decline to mere metaphysics, they
it were, to the prophet (Ex. 7: 1). stressed that the Holy Spirit alone gives life.
V. THE OLD AND THE NEw. The NT ob- And to I)revent decline of the Christian re-
servations about Scripture apply primarily, of ligion to formless mysticism, they emphasized
course, to the OT writings, which existed in the Scriptures as the only trustworthy source
the form of a unitary canon. But the apostles of the knowledge of God and his purl)oses. The
extended the traditional claim to divine in- historic evangelical view affirms that alongside
spiration. Jesus their Lord had not only vali- the special divine revelation in saving acts,
dated the conception of a unique and authori- God's disclosure has taken the form also of
tative corpus of sacred writings, but spoke of a truths and words. This revelation is communi-
further ministry of teaching by the Spirit cated in a restricted canon of trustworthy writ-
ings, deeding fallen man an authentic exi)osi-
(John 14:26; 16: 13). The apostles assert con-
fidently that they thus speak by the Spirit tion of God and his relations with man. Scrip-
ture itself is viewed as an integral part of God's
(I Pet. I : 12). They ascribe both the form and
matter of their teaching to him (I Cor. 2: 13). redemptive activity, a special form of revela-
They not only assume a divine authority (I tion, a unique mode of divine disclosure. In
Thess. 4:2, 14; 11 Thess. 3:6, 12), but they fact, it becomes a decisive factor in God's re-
make acceptance of their written commands a demptive activity, interpreting and unifying
test of spiritual obedience (I Cor. 14:37). the whole series of redemptive deeds, and ex-
They even refer to each other's writings with hibiting their divine meaning and significance.
the s.ame regard as for the OT (cf . the identi- VI. CRITlcAL THEORIEs. The i]ost-evolu-
fication in I Tim. 5:18 of a passage from tionary criticism (a.t7.) of the Bible carried on
Luke's Gospel, ``The labourer is worthy of his by Julius Wellhausen and other modern schol-
hire" [Luke 10:7] as Scripture, and the ars narrowed `the traditional confidence in in-
juxtaposition of the Pauline epistles in 11 Pet. fallibility by excluding matters of science and
3: 16 with "the other scriptures"). history. How much was at stake in a weaken-
VI. HlsTORlcAL VIEw. The traditional ing of trust in the historical reliability of Scrip-
theory - that the Bible as a whole and in ture was not at first obvious to those who
every part is the word o£ God written - held placed the emphasis on reliability of the Bible
currency until the rise of modern critical in matters of faith and practice. For no dis-
theories a century ago. W. Sanday, affirming tinction between historical and doctrinal mat-
that the high view was the common Christian ters is set up by the NT view of inspiration.
belief in the middle of the last century, com- No doubt this is due to the fact that the OT
ments that this view is "substantially not very history is viewed as the unfolding o£ God's
different from that . . . held two centuries saving revelation; the historical elements are a
after the Birth of Christ," indeed, that ``the central aspect of the revelation. It was soon
same attributes" were predicated of the OT apparent that scholars who abandoned the
before the New (17®spir¢t;o#, Longmans, trustworthiness of biblical history had fur-
Green, and Co., London, 1903, pp. 392 f.). nished an entering wedge for the abandon-
Bromiley notes certain rationalizing tendencies ment of doctrinal elements. Theoretically such
that have arisen on the rim of the high view: an outcome might perhaps have been avoided
 INTENTION
289

by an act of will, but in practice it was not. tion, affirming in defcrence to the dialectical
William Newton Clark's The Use of the Scr;p- philosoi)hy that divine revelation dor`s not as-
lwres I.# TJ®eology ( 1905) yielded biblical the- sume the form of concepts and words - a
ology and ethics to the critics as well as biblical I)remise that runs dircc`tl}' counter to the bibli-
scie-rice and history, but reserved the teaching cal witness.
of Jesus Christ as authentic. British scholars Whatever must bc said for the legitimate
went further. Since Jesus' endorsement of crea- rights of criticism, it remains a fact that biblical
tion, the patriarchs, Moses and the giving of criticism has met the test of objective scholar-
the law, involved him in an acceptance of shii. with onl)J quz`lified success. Higher criti-
biblical science and history, some influential cism hi`s shown itself far more cfficicnt in
critics accepted only the theological and nor.il creating a naive faith in the existence of manu-
teaching of Jesus. Contemporaries swiftly scripts for which there is no overt cvidcnce
erased even this remainder, asserting Jesus' the- (e.g., J, E, P, D, Q, first{cntury non-sui)er-
ological fallibility. Ac.tual belief in Satan and riaturz`listic "gospels" and sccond{entury sui)er-
demons was insufferable to the critical mind, mturalistic rcdz`ctions) than in sustaining the
and must therefore invalidate his theological Christii`n i`ommrinity's c`onf idence in the only
integrity, while the feigned belief in them (as manuscrii)ts the church has received as a sai`[ed
a concession to the times) would invalidate trust. Perh.1i)s the most signit`icant g{`in in our
his moral integrity. Yet Jesus had represented gcnera[ion is the new dis|)osition to ai)proach
his whole ministry as a conquest o£ Satan z`nd
Scrii.turc in terms of I)rimitive witness instead
a|Jpealed to his exorcism of demons in prco£ ot` remote reconstruction.
of his sui)ernatural missic,n (a.v.). The critics
While it can shed no additional light on the
could infer onl}J his limited knowledge even of mode of the Spirit's o|)cration on the chosen
writers, biblical critic`ism may provide a com-
theological and moral truths. The so-called
Chic.igo school o£ "empirical theologians" ar-
mcntar}' on the nature and extent of that in-
spiration, .ind on the range Of the t"stworthi-
gucd that rest)ect t`or scientific method in the-
ness of Scrii)turc. The admittedly biblical view
ology disallows any defense whatever of Jcsus'
has been assailed in our generation csi)ec`ially
absoluteness and infallibility. Harry Emerson
by an apt)Gal to such textual phenomena Of.
Fosdick's The Moder" Use of the Bjz7le (1924)
Scriptu[c as the S}'noptic problem, and ai)I)al-
championed only ``abidingly valid" experje"ces
cnt discrei)ancics in the reporting of events and
in Jesus' life that could be normatively relived
numbers. Evangelical scholars have rcc()gnizcd
by us. Gerald Birney Smith went another step
the danger of imputing twenticth{`entur}'
in C%rrerot Christ;a% Thit.kjrig (1928); while
scientif ic criteria to the biblical writers. They
we ma}7 gain in.spiration from Jesus, our own
have noted also that the OT canon so un-
experience detemines doctrine and a valid
outlook on life. qualifiedl}' endorsed by Jesus contains many Of
the difficulties of the Synoptic i]roblcm in the
Simultaneously many critical writers sought features of the books Of Kings and Chronic`les.
to discredit the doctrine of an authoritative And the)' concede the proper role Of an in-
Scripture as a dei)arture from the view of the ductive study of the actual phenomena Of
biblical writers themselves, or Of Jesus o£ Scripture in detailing the doctri`nc Of inspira-
Nazareth before them; or, if admittedly Jesus' tion derived from the teaching Of the Bible.
view, they sought to dismiss it nonetheless as See also REVEI,ATloN.
a theological accommodation, if not an indica- BIBLIOGRAPI-IY
tion Of limited knowledge. The internal diffi-
culties of such theories were stated with classic
precision by Benjamin 8. Warfield (``The
Real Problem of Inspiration," in The J#spjra-
t;o# ¢#d Awthorjty of the Bible, The Presby-
terian and Reformed Publishing Company,
Philadelphia, 1948, I)p. 169-226). This at-
tempt to conform the biblical view of inspira-
tion to the lcoser modem critical notions may CARI. F. H. HENRY
now be said to have failed. The contemporary
revolt strikes more deeply. It attai`ks the his- INTENTION. The Council of Trent stated
toric view of revelation as well as of inspira- the doctrine of intention in relation to the
 290
INTERCESSION

sacraments as follows: "If anyone saith, that, the poetical books (see Job I:5; 42:8; Ps. 20;
in ministers, when they effect, and confer the 25:22; 35:13). In the prophets there are nu-
sacraments, there is not required the intention merous instances of intercession, even if those
at least of doing what the Church does, let men were primarily spokesmen for the Lord.
him be anathema" (Canon XI, Sess. VII). In Isa. 6; 25; 26; and 37, intercession spe-
This was in condemnation of the view o£ cially figures. There are such prayers in Jer.
10:23 ££„ and 14:7 £f.; in Ezek. 9:8; 11:13;
Luther that the validity of the sacrament de-
and in Dan. 9:16-19. They are more rare
pends on the faith of the recipient and not on
the intention of the minister, and did not in the Minor Prophets. Jonah makes no plea
touch on the various o|)inions held in the for Nineveh, although the Lord does spare it
schools (see James Waterworth, Ca"07ts ¢7td (Jonah 4). In Mal. 2:7 it is implied that the
Dec].ees of Tre7ct, London 1848). After the priests were failing to intercede. In Joel 2: 17
council, Catharinus defended a view common- the intercessory charac`ter of the priestly office
ly held that, so long as the minister performs is shown: "Let the priests, the ministers of
the external rite proper to the sacrament, in- the Lord, weep between the porch and the
ternal dissent cannot invalidate it. The more altar, and let them say, Spare thy people, 0
Lord....„
common doctrine today is that a real internal
intention is needed, but discussion of the prob- It is in the historical books of the OT that
lem is conf ined to Roman Catholic and Anglo- one finds the most frequent instance of inter-
Catholic circles. Protestants are content with cession. One instance i5 Abraham's earnest in-
the very general consideration that ministra- tercession for Sodom (Gen.18:23-33). Jacob's
tjons are valid if not perforined in obvious play blessing of Joseph's sons is of this nature (Gen.
or mockery. 48:8-23). Moses had a high view of the social
RICHARD J. COATES character of faith, and that leader is found
in the princely act of go-between numerous
times. He pra}'ed for the idolatrous Israel after
INTERCESSION. The Hebrew p6ga`, "to
the}' had made the golden calf : "Oh, this peo-
make intercession," originally meant "to- strike
upon." Later, used in a good sense, it came to plc have sinned a great sin, and have made
them gods of gold. Yet now, if thou wilt for-
mean "to assail anyone with petitions." When
this "assailing" was done on behalf of another, give their sin -; and if not, blot me, I pray
thee, out Of thy book which thou hast written"
its sense was "to interce-de." The Greek verb
(Ex. 32:31-32). Samuel too, as judge, priest
for "to make intercession," e"tygcha73o-, appears
and prophet, is frequently the peoples' advo-
five times in the NT (Acts 25 :24; Ron. 8 :27,
cate. All night he prayed for the sinning Saul,
34; 11 :2; Heb. 7:25). The noun, e7!tet4x;s, is
grieved but still tender (I Sam.15: 11).
found in I Tim. 2:1 and rendered "interces-
sions;" and in I Tim. 4:5, where the only Throughout the NT intercession is urged
possible translation is "prayer" - for one could and practiced. Christ urged it even for those
hardly "intercede" on behalf of "meats" pre- who "despitefully" use us (Matt. 5:44). He
I.ared to be eaten (I Tim. 2:3). The English himself said to Peter, "But I have prayed for
"intercession" is from the Latin i7ttercedo, thee, that thy faith fail not: . . ." (Luke
meaning "to go (or pass) between." That "in- 22:32). His high-priestly prayer for the apos-
tercession" has a specific meaning is shown tles in John 17 is a lengthy instance. In Acts
when Paul writes, "I exhort therefore, that, the young church is frequently so engaged -
first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, for Peter (12:5-12), for Barnabas and Saul
""d giving o£` thanks, be made for all men" (I (13:3), etc. The Epistles are replete with it.
Tim. 2:1). It does not signify praise or peti- In the NT the Holy Spirit also ``maketh in-
tion in general, but a heart concern for others tercession for us with groanings which cannot
in which one stands between them and God be uttered" (Ron. 8:26). And Christ at the
making request on their behalf. When it is present time is in heaven appearing ". . . in
used of Christ's mediation (to be treated pres- the presence o£ God for us" (Heb. 9:24).
ently) there is also the sense of ``acting for A study of intercession in Scripture special-
others.„ 1y points up at least a few things about this
There is no instance o£, nor exhortation to, exalted privilege. One is its naturalness: for
intercession in the Wisdom literature of the to pray for others is to a Christian like breath-
OT, and there are not many examples of it in ing. Another is that one really can be baptized
291 INTERPRETATION (BIBLICAL)

into a sense of the plight Of those he prays it is a time of rest and of blessedness and joy.
for: wince at the thought of their wounds, And for the wicked it involves suffering. The
twinge with the imagination of their deep parable of the rich man and Lazarus represents
hurts. Still another is that one is not to pray Lazarus as conscious and blessed in Abraham's
for a mass of undifferentiated humanity, not bosom, while the rich man is in torment (Luke
simply for all kinds and conditions of men, but 16:19-31). While on the cross Christ prom-
for specific individuals with their fears that ised the penitent thief, "Tod.1y shalt thou be
taunt and their wounds that drip. Intercessory with mc in Paradise" (Luke 23:43). And
prayers, surely, have the odor of heaven on John says: "Blessed are the dead who die in
them. the Lord from henceforth: yea, saith the S|)irit,
BI]}LIOGRAPHY that they ma}7 rest from their labors; for their
works follow with them" (Rev.14:13, ASV).
See also 11 Cor. 5:8 and Phil. I:23. From
these verses wc learn that after the death of
;;a::ca::;:::f:::t!i!':;C;;.;;;A;;,i:::.,;t':ii;c:ki:;S;i:[„:}j;::I;¥,;:I:;:;:,i;,;`::;:t:;:€g;
Tlie Gospc'l of Prayer. the body the s:tints live gloriously in the I)res-
JoSEPH KENNETH GRIDER encc of God and amid the transcendent s|)len-
dor of Par£`dise.
That the intermedi£`tc state is sometimes
INTERDICT. An interdict is an authorita-
c'harac`tcrizcd as a state of rest does not mean
tive prohibition, in the Roman Churi`h, dc-
that those who have a I)art in it are idle or in-
barring a i]1ace or person from divine service,
active. Rcithcr in Scriiiturc the word "rest"
the sacraments, and Christian burial. It was
carries with it the idea of satisfaction in labor,
most common in the eleventh and thirteenth
or joy in accomplishment. All of the un-
centuries under Popes IIildebrand and lnno-
cent Ill who used it tyrannically. The faithful I)lcasant fc.1turcs arc I.cmoved so that the ac-
tivit}7 of the saints is no longer "toil" or "labor."
in the Middle Ages were filled with terror by
it. They believed themselves cut off from the But c`'cn for the righteous the intermc'diate
state is i` time of im|)crfection, first, bcci`usc
grace of God in life and death. Marriages were
unblessed. Neither eucharist nor baptism con- the spirit is without a body, whii`h I.or hum:in
ve}'ed a blessing. The interdicted regarded it beings is an al)norinal condition; i`ncl, scc`ond,
fis siiiritual death. All this happened bec`ause because the ri`w.ards promised to the saints arc
a I)1cice or a I)crson had offended the 1)o|)e. not given in their fulncss until the second
England was interdicted in 1208; France in comin`g o£' Christ. See` Luke 14: 14 i`nd 11 Tim.
1200. 4:8. The I)lessings ot` the intermedii`tc st:`tc,
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK grc;it as the)' arc, i`rc to bc looked upon as
onl)' an cilrncst and £`orctaste of the good things
whic`h are to come.
INTERMEDIATE STATE. By the inter-
mediate state is meant that realm or condition Thc life of mtin is thus rei)resented in Si`ri|)-
in which the soul exists between the death turc i`s I.alling not into two but into three
(q.v.) of the body and the resurrection (q.v.).
states. First, there is the period from birth until
That such a state is a reality is acknowledged death, which is life in the present world and
by I)ractically all branches of the Christian in the natural bod}'. Second, there is life in
church. Di££erences of opinion regarding it the intermedi£`tc state, which is life without
have to do primarily with the nature of the the bod}7. And third, there is life in the resur-
state, as to whether or not it is purgatorial in 1.cction body and in the fulness of heaven
character, whether or not the soul may reform (q.17.), which is the final and eternal state.
and repent, and whether or not the soul is See tilso PuRGATOR¥.
conscious or asleep. BIBLIOGRAPIIY
G. Vos in ISBE; L. Boettiier, JiHii)orl(il;t,`J.
The Bible has comparatively little to say
about the intermediate state, evidently because LORAINE BOETTNER

it is only a temporary condition. Rather it

focuses attention on the return o£ Christ and INTERPRETATION (BIBLICAL). The
the new era that is to follow. There are, how- books o£. the Bible are ancient books, rcflci`ting
ever, several passages which teach that it is socii`l iind cultural env].ronments different from
a state of conscious existence f or both the ours. In this rcsi)cct they need to I)c ex|)li`ined
righteous and the wicked. For the righteous for modern rci`dc`rs lil\c other ancient writings.
INTERPRETATION (BIBLICAL) 292

I. GENERAL PRINclpLEs. Each biblical their eyes is difficult, but it is necessary i£

document, and each part of a biblical docu- we are to understand their actions and words,
ment, must be studied in its context - both their loves and hates, their motives and aspira-
its immediate literary context and the wider tions. Here such a book as Ludwig Koehler's
situation in which it appeared. This requires an Hez7rew M¢" (London, 1956) can be very
understanding of - illuminating; cf. also Eric W. Heaton, Every-
(a) the structure and idioms of the biblical dfly L;fe i# OT Tiwes (London, 1956); Alan
languages. a. Bouquet, Everyday Life in NT Tines
(b) the t}'pe of literature represented. Is it (London, 1953).
prose or poetry, history or allegory, literal or 11. SpECIAL PRINCIPI.Es. Biblical interpreta-
symbolic? Some literary genres found in the tion involves not only the iriterpretation of the
Bible have peculiar features (e.g., apocalyptic) separate documents, but their interpretation as
which call for special rules of interpretation. parts of the Bible; it involves further the in-
(c) the historical background. A sense Of terpretation of the Bible as such, and this in-
history, such as the biblical writers themselves volves an appraisal of the Bible. The Bible, the
had, is necessary for the understanding of their sacred book of the Christian church, records
writings. The historical background of the God's self-revelation to men and men's re-
biblical record is the whole span of Near East- sponse to that self-revelation; it contains ``all
em civilization from the early fourth millen- things necessary to salvation" and supplies the
nium B.c. to ca. A.D. loo, the changes within one trustworthy "ru]? r.f faith and life." We
which from time to time were so sweeping therefore expect to find such a unity in the
that we cannot understand a biblical docu- Bible that each part can be interpreted in the
ment if we relate it to the wrong period. An light of the whole.
appreciation of this will save us, e.g., from This position was accepted in traditional
judging actions of the Late Bronze Age by NT Jewish interpretation of the OT, where the
ethical principles. Again, the Book of Jere- Prophets and the Writings were understood
miah may yield some devotional profit even largel}' cls commentaries on the Torah. Along-
when one ignores the revolutionary movements side the surface meaning of the text (p€56f6')
which took place during Jeremiah's ministry; was the more extended application (dcr65d')
but no one could expound the book without which was sometimes rather far-fetched.
appraising those movements and their relation The NT regards the OT "oracles" as a
to the prophet's message. unity, teaching the way of salvation and pro-
(d) the geographical conditions. The in- viding the believer with all that he needs for
£luence of terrain and climate on a population's the service o£ God (11 Tim. 3:15 ff.). The
outlook and behavior patterns is highly im- basis of this unity is that the men who "moved
portant. The religious conflicts o£ OT times by the Holy Spirit spoke from God" (11 Pet.
cannot be understood apart from some ac- I :21) all bear witness to Christ. In the earliest
quaintance with Palestinian geography. Baal- Christian interpretation of the Bible the OT
worship was the consequence of the fact that is related to the NT as promise to fulfilment.
Palestine depended for its fertility on regular The I)romise is found in the histories which
rainfall (cf. Deut.11:10 ff.; Hos. 2:8; Jer. lead up to Christ as well as in the prophecies
14:22). Baal to the Canaanites was the rain which foretell his coming; the fulfilment is
god who fertilized the earth, and Baal-worship found in Christ. The writer to the Hebrews
was a magical ritual designed to make the rain contrasts the "many and various ways" in
f all and the crops grow. So much, indeed, of which "God spoke of old to our fathers by the
the language of the Bible, literal and meta- prophets" with his perfect and final revelation
phorical, has direct reference to geographical in Christ (Heb.I:1 f.). Paul traces God's
conditions that an appreciation of these con- dealings with the world through successive
dition` is indispensable for understanding the stages associated with Adam, Abraham, Moses
language (cf. James n'I. Houston, "The Gear and Christ. This conception of the biblical
graphical Background in OT Exegesis," /TVJ I.evelation as historical and progressive is fun-
86, 1954, pp. 62 ff.). damental; it goes back to the creative insight
(e) life-setting. What kind of people were of Christ himself, in which are combined "a
those whom we meet in the Bible? The effort prof ound understanding of the essential teach-
to get under their skin and see life through ing ot` the Hebrew Scriptures and a sure judg-
293 INVOCATION

ment of his own contemporary situation" torical findings. Again, the place Of the Bible
(T. W. Manson, "The Old Testament in the in the life of the church has constantly added
Teaching Of Jesus,." BJRL 34,1951-2, 332). to it a wealth of fresh and practical meaning
Biblical interpretation in the post-apostolic which the intexpreter cannot ignore. (C£., e.g.,
age is influenced by a Greek theory of inspira- Row]and Prothero, The Psolms j" Hwma"
tion which had as its corollary allegorical Life, London, 1903.) But if such experimental
exegesis. If a poet like Homer was inspired, application of any Scripture is to have general
then what he said about the gods could be ac- validity, it must bear a significant relation to
ceptable to thoughtful pagans of that day only the true sense.
One form Of allegorization is typological in-
gnitt£:nasotfrea£€hsasoathvee:1;is:]];:::ec;:`efr:S; terpretation, which involves the tracing of cor-
philosophical reasoning. This attitude influ- resi)ondences between the OT and NT so as
enced the OT inter|)retation of the Alexan- to find the essential meaning of an OT passage
drian Jew Philo, and subsequently the biblical in its NT counterpart. The NT writers, for
interpretation Of the Alexandrian Christians the most part, resort to typology (a.v.) to il-
Clement and Origen. To them, much in the lustrate points already established by more di-
Bible that was intellectually incredible or rect means (cf. Paul's treatment of Adam as
morally objectionable, if understood literally, a "type" Of Christ in Ron. 5:12 ff.). The
could be made intelligible and acceptable if it most helpful, and permissible, form of typologi-
was allegorized. By allegorization the intention cal interpretation is that which, viewing the
of the Spirit who controlled the writers could Bible as the recital of God's saving acts, dis-
be penetrated. But this approach actually vicr cerns a recurrent rhythm in this recital. Israel's
lated the original intention of the Scriptures deliverance from Egypt, e.g., is regarded as
and almost obliterated the historical character foreshadowing the redemptive work of Christ,
of the biblical revelation. Over against the and the behavior of the redeemed peoi)lc on
school of Alexandria (q.v.) stood that o£ An- the earlier occasion constitutes a solemn lesson
tiach (q.v.) which, while it did not completely for the redeemed peoi)le on the later occasion
reject allegorization, I)aid much more serious (cf. I Cor. 5:7; 10: I ff.). But when one con-
attention to the historical sense Of the text. sidcrs the lengths to which allegorization has
The distinction between the literal and been carried by Christian interpreters, one may
`higher" senses of Scripture developed into admire the NT writers' restraint.
the medieval doctrine of the fourfold sense - Our Lord's use of the OT may well serve as
(a) the literal sense, which related the things our standard and pi`ttern in biblical interpre-
done and said in the biblical record, (b) the tation; and Christians may further remind
allegorical sense, which deduced doctrine f ron themselves that part of the Holy Spirit's pres-
the narratives, (c) the moral sense, which ex- ent work is to open the Scriptures for them
tracted lessons for life and conduct, (d) the as the risen Christ did for the disciples on the
anagogical sense, which derived heavenly Emmaus road.
meanings from earthl}' facts. Water might thus
See also EXEGEsls.
mean (a) literal water, (b) baptism, (c) moral BIBLIOGRAPIIY
purity, (d) eternal life in the heclvenly Jeru-
salem.
Yet much good work was done on the literal
interpretation of the text in the early Middle
Ages, notably by the school of St. Victor in
France in the twelfth century.
;ig,;i:;i,i.i;.;;i::,s:,,:;i;i,ii::;ii::;,i;t;;i:,::i;:,i;;!j:::;i;f;i:;:fi:;;;i:,,a:;ii:;!
Zjcal li]fi'rp/.t't/7t/.oii,. R. L\I. Grai`t, TIJ.. I.('ftt'/. owd t/I('

The general effect of the Reformation on :,:,.r+,.i,„{,;,.o.i;;.,:I:F+.an\`t;:,`.ft::t:dF.et,,..,`]::*.::I,,::,,;e,„„f`s.„,,.;;

biblical interpretation was to emphasize the tcJrprc.ttitJ'o/I,. I. I). \\'o(xl, TJ!.l Jl!t{'l.pl.{'tatjori of t/l{' B;lJJ('.

primacy of the literal sense, as ascertained by FREDERICK FTVIE BRUCE

grammatico-historical exegesis.
But grammatico-historical exegesis is not INVOCATION. Invocation, in general, re-
sufficient for the interpretation of the biblical fers to the religious act of calling upon deity.
documents in relation to their place in the The opening of mcln}' tyi)es of service is
canon. Theological exegesis is also necessar}r, marked b}' a 1)ra}'er of invocation in which
although it cannot override grammatico-his- God is called upon to bless and guide.
IRRATIONALISM 294

The invocation of the Holy Spirit in the sole basis for enjoying the promises made to
Eucharist involves a difference in practice be- Abraham. Unlike Ishmael, vyhose birth was in
tween the Roman Catholic and the Eastern the usual course of nature, Isaac was born in
Orthodox Churches. In the West the church fulfilment of a specific promise of God (Gen.
holds that the bread and wine become the very 17: 16) and as the result of the supernatural
body and blood o£ Christ at the words of in- working of God (Gen. 21:5-7). All the re-
stitution, whereas in the eastern liturgies the deemed are likewise "the children Of the prom-
change takes place after the words Of institu- ise" who ac.cord with Isaac as "born af ter the
tion when the Holy Spirit is invoked to effect Spirit" (Ron. 9:6-9; Gal. 4:28-29), because
the transubstantiation. their position rests not on national standing
The invocation of saints, praying for the but on God's gracious working to make them
intercession of exemplary Christian dead, heirs according to the promise made to Abra-
sprang up during the early centuries Of the ham.
church and was sanctioned by the Seventh BIBLIOGRAPHY
HDAC, "Isaac"; P. Jewett, WTJ 17, I-20.
General Council, 787, and the Council of
Trent, 1545-64. All branches Of the Reforma- DANIEI. P. Full.ER
tion rejected the practice in the sixteenth cen-
ISRAEL. The word Israel is derived from
tury, as stated, for example, in the Thirty-Nine
the Hebrew root €6r6, bearing the intransitive
Articles (XXII), "The Romish doctrine con-
verbal meaning "to strive," "to contend"
ceming purgatory, pardons, worshipping and
(Fuerst); also "to wrestle" (Davidson); "to
adoration as well of images as of relics, and
also invocation Of saints, is a fond thing vain-
persist," "to persevere," "to struggle" (M. H.
Segal, Hez„ew-E7®gzjs}® Djcfjo7®ary, Dvir Pub-
ly invented, and grounded upon no warranty
lishing Co., Tel-Aviv, 1938); and in Modern
of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word
Hebrew "to wrestle," "to defeat," "to conquer"
of God.„
DONALD G. DAvls (Zevi Scharfstein, Moder7q Heb7'eu7 Dictio7?ciry,
Shilo Publishing House, New York). Scripture
IRRATIONALISM. Irrationalism (better, unfolds Israel in terms of history rather than
7co#-rat;o7c&]is7") is the philosophical belief definition and employs the word with the fol-
which asserts that reality is contacted non- lowing significations: (I) As the name divine
rationally. The Real is either supra-rational or ly bestowed u|)on the patriarch Jacob af ter his
trans-rational and requires, therefore, a non- striving with the "godlike being" (Hosea 12:4-
rational approach to be contacted. The ap- 5, Soncino Press, London) at the crossing of
the river Jabbok (Gen. 32:29 [AV 28];
proach may be by intuition (Bergson), or the
will (Schopenhauer), or by emotion (Romanti- 35:10). The first named Genesis passage
cism),. or by mysticism (Plotinus). marks the initial appearance in Scripture of
Irrationalism in theology is the belief that the word, which is interpreted as meaning "he
God is contacted non-rationally. Religious in- who strove with God." The AV translation
"as a prince hast thou power" is not supported
tuitionalism, mysticism, and existentialism are
forms of theological irrationalism. Liberalism, by e.g., Gesenius, Rosenmuller, Soncino Hu-
rooted in romantic or pantheistic philosophy, mash. (2) The name applied collectively and
has a strong overtone of irrationalism, as does nationally to the whole twelve tribes as the
much contemporary theology which has been descendants of Jacob-Israel (Ex. 3 : 16), usually
influenced by Kierkegaard's doctrines of the called Z7e7¢g yj€rd'G!, "children (or sons) of IS-
].ael" and, poetically, Jeshurun (Deut. 32: 15;
dialectic and the paradoxical, and by existen-
tialism's separation of existence and essence 33:5, 26; Isa. 44:2) derived from a root
meaning "to be upright." Jacob was the de-
(also from Kierkegaard).
BERNARD RAMM scendant of Isaac and Abraham, with which
latter patriarch Hebrew biblical origins essen-
ISAAC. Of Abraham's several sons, atten- tially begin (Gen. 11). The descent into
tion focuses upon Isaac as the prototype of the Egypt Of a group of Hebrews laid the founda-
heirs of the promise made to Abraham. "In the tion for the subsequent Exodus when the his-
person Of Isaac shall there be a posterity to tory of Israel as a people may be said to have
thee [Abraham], which shall pass as such" begun. This people merged into nationhood
(paraphrase o£ Gen. 21: 12 in KD). The dis- forty years later when they crossed over Jordan
tinctive circumstances of his birth indicate the under Joshua. An amphictyony of twelve tribes
295 JACOB

runs through the period of the Judges. The fall or until 586 B.c. when the last king,
term Israel is used in record of triumphs by Zedekiah, and the remainder of the people
Merneptah of Egypt (c¢. 1230). (3) The (except a poor remnant) were taken into cap-
united kingdom developed under Saul, David, tivity in Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar (11 Kings
and Solomon (I Sam. 8 -I Kings 11; I 25). The southern kingdom had nineteen
Chron. 10 - 11 Chron. 9). A representative kings and one queen through a single dynasty.
cross section from Jewish and non-Jewish After Zedekiah, Israel had no national king in
sources yields the following admittedly approxi- the Davidic messianic line until Christ's first
mate chronology: 1095-970 B.c. (Scroggie); advent, but he was not then enthroned. (5)
1040-937 B.c. (/ewE71c); 1020-925 (Orlin- The exiles who returned from the Babylonian
sky); 1020-931 B.c. (Francisco); but Acts captivity which commenced 536 B.c. and
13:21 should be a determinative factor in any which would probably include the residue who
computation attempted. The period under fled into Egypt but were deported to Babylon
David and Solomon was Israel's golden era and when Nebuchadnezzar dethroned Pharaoh
it saw the erection of the temple at Jerusalem. Hophra (568 B.c.), resumed the national
(4) The name appropriated by the northern name Israel and rebuilt the temple destroyed
Israel kingdom formed by Jeroboam (I Kings under Nebuchadnezzar. This Second Com-
12:25 - 14:20) following the disru|)tion un- monwealth of Israel lasted through many
der Solomon's son, Rehoboam. The northern vicissitudes until the destruction of Herod's
kingdom had nineteen kings through nine temple by Titus in A.D. 70, which year wit-
dynasties; the bad character and rule of all re- nessed the beginning of the Great Diaspora
sulted in the prophesied divine judgment when which persisted until the inauguration of the
the kingdom was crushed under the Assyrians Third Commonwealth o£ Israel oTi May 14,.
in 722 B.a. This narrower usage of the title 1948. (6) The name Israel is used with a
Israel is found e.g. I Sam. 11 :8; 11 Sam. 20: 1; finer shading to include laymen as distin-
I Kings 12: 16. There is no Scripture warrant guished from priests, Levites, and other minis-
for views expressed by Anglo-Israel theories. ters (Ezra 6: 16; 9: I; 10:25; Neh.11:3; etc.).
The so-called "Ten Tribes" were not "lost"; (7) The spiritu.al designation bestowed upon
they were merely obliterated as a united peo- Messiah both by application (e.g. Hosea 11 : 1
ple. Undoubtedly the majority o£ Benjamin, with Matt. 2:15) and by implication. (8)
probably the entire tribe of Simeon, and that Applied figuratively to the children of the
portion of Dan proximate to the Southern Is- promise (Ps. 73:1; Rom. 9:6-13; Gal. 6:16)
rael kingdom were included in Judah during which term is extended to include gentile be-
the currency of the northern kingdom (Duff- lievers on equal terms of privilege (Ron.
For:bes, The Bdleful Bubble of British-Is- I : 17-32).
raezjs7"). Chronology is variously computed as BIBLI0GRAPHY
975-722 B.a. (Scroggie); 937-722 B.a.
(./ewE%c); 922-722 B.a. (Albright); 930-723 El:b;;;uT¥]..T%::0::H#r3yi:.;g%;:hg:;Sis:rca`3!;ff¥;:Sbceh:o%:efryi
from the North; Tl. Glz`etz, History of the |eovs.
(Thiele). The southern kingdom continued for
136 years after the northern kingdom's down- LAWRENCE DUFF-FORBES

JACOB. From birth, Jacob (ya`6qo-g7, "sup- ever, God graciously works out his foreor-
planter," BDB) resorts to underhanded means
to acquire the privileges of the firstbom, f:i:n2e3d,Pdue:5:tseeat|:iTnpdarratn:::sa:1des:;:E:oG:hn;
which should, according to human reasoning, extent of causing Jac.ob's sins (which are none-
mean also the enjoyment of Isaac's covenant theless punished) to work towards this end.
relations with Jehovah (Gen. 27:33). How- Thus Jacob is evidence that election to enjoy
JACOBITES 296

£[br;:rak:,'Sbt[te€`;nggr!asc:°{Rboym:a;i:,no+S33?ding

comTFsroaugmhan¥,sfaffi:c£::s:onrakLneg,£s]afoabng¥a
to Israel (yj5rd'GZ, ``God persists," BDB). By
faith he outlines his sons' futures as heads of
Israel's tribes (Gen. 49:3-27; Heb.11:21).
;:I:¥1¥:::3,c:j2;:!j::;i:ii::¥l::¥:i:I:
:::d(tR#a:?5a:I:i£3eo;Supsgvc.teg:3°£;us:i:{£thsfa!:
#hei:'ia',a::rti::cgucenststiondJi:i,aehas`#enis4L::f`.3Z §c:ail)y.tT.eaex::i»j:afuszEfiL¥,[atehdfc£¥n°a:g
which Christ came (Matt.I:2-3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY the same Hebrew and Greek words.
OswAI.I) T. AI,Lls
vac?eE!i5ieaqidTh3:Stotogmy",enptp.T)hoe80.?4¥.pp.64-67,522;G.
DiINIEL P. FULLER JEHOVAH. See Col).
JACOBITES. See MONopHTslTlsM. JERUSALEM. In the reign of David, God
Cchh°r=n.Je3Tg'ep:.flo;2?is3)fmzp£P;e=hab;b::::£o°r:g
JANSENISM. Cornelius Otto Jansen

Si;5n8t.5a]£:£,)i£LS#°t;Yfr:StaTfthth:js}:::;nts¢ ::mac":lot:tye#qz8(3;S.of4.6;47):'3;`,thfeorj°£¥
:eocrea:i:;x;gdt:e:::isj:a;::n;ea:i?nhea::si:t: :a;;s'%ts7h.rsS::esesei;i:;o;uao=eth#se¥::Z±°::i
"written unto life in ]emsalem" (Isa. 4:3

i,i!io:i,I:ii;i:i;i:I:e;:h£::°[e¥a:i;ini§0=:i;;:;iengjrs!=;£:::
B:a:£=d.bepc°:eR°aae['caen%te:C£{aEeco:Voevnetmne:tr
and after Jansen's death its chief leader was §ija;i:i§:;eiin3;i±ii:.';§t£,]sJifi:i|;;ei:i;;;jj£
Antoin Amauld. Pascal attacked the Jesuits Scnnacherib in 701 B.a. (36: I; 49: 14; 50: I),
with his Lettres Provi#cjales (1656), and symbolically to predict the church as the bride

:£]ef:o¥;etr:4:{3;.pe33ec:toer€,bnuutmt:cog:;ntghe:.
Israel had been before (Gal. 4:26-28, G.

i:;e:;:;I;;rffi::ii;:i;:I;,ifis;::Rf:,::nii¥::,£;iij c¥;;'aspa;eo,T&,,E;?ngep'.ice,I,-#-;?'o,gei=ll=
S:;vdeunceudnff%o[:n€aftEOT£,casntcqe..v.I,T Holland, £t
BIBLIOGRAPHY
f;e;i;,ne:see¥le:l!:.i?n:tF:ibL:;gj?.cT:;;:ni
3 : 17).
N. J. Abercrombie, The Or;g;ns of Jaqse»ism.
G. S. M. WALKER

JEALOUS, JEALOUSY, is used in Scrip- ;enTTe::sdf:?io:¥::fil¥eah:¥:sgi::?:ilv#!,r';!

35:10; Zech. 14:4-5; Acts 1:11) and un-
o:I:dee:fi:t:ee:£e,f:oet:;,igf:g£;'£::£3:si,t:he:afnd:::gill:: believers will ravage Jerusalem (Zech. 12:2;
14:2). Christ, however, rescues the purified
fail:nag:Fie:s:£;ce:1;S:rh;:,s:bent:E?eSX::I:i;::::ear:°i; Jewish remnant (Isa. 4:3-4; Zech. 12:10;
14: 5; Mal. 3:2, 5); and at Zion joins them to
his church (Zech.12:5; Ron.11:26, Payne,
34:14); and he is very jealous for his holy Evangelical Theological Society, Papers, 1956:
pp. 55-68).

;e:a;.:uchsa;,E:!|eie:i:1,:n;g:?of;i:dlaifr:i;ao:Tj:g:o.?i;- !e]:j#h;::;6Fe£;ihTsr8e=;i;:]£;e:aai:]#g:t;r#€
29 7 JESUS

a temple for sacrifices, not of atonement

5xTl:?.,:i'e3-2.8n',yiz:t;.4i#i2,::oun,ce.Tsp¥iss: !a:I::as::,lil:£o:ft:tg::iri:n:;tc:;rat::;ed:;I:nit:e
and thanksgiving (Isa. 60:6-7; Jer. 17:20). /q.v.) of his people, the historic deliverances
Christ's peace-making law will go forth from of the past (Exodus and Restoration from
Jerusalem (Mic. 4: I-4), causing submission
(Isa. 23:18; 45:14) and worship (60:3; Eae3?i`aonni:::#;:i:ntof.urns::sefour=rhei.sE:efldegce,i.of
Zech. 14:16-17). At Zion even nature is on the meaning of his name must have been a
affected (Isa. 65:25; Ezek. 47:1-12; Zech. constant reminder to Jesus of his mission (q.v.)
in the world as it probably was to his church
ira:,:som')'`tfh::etev=rrseet:!y:obno-,`ii::I:lleyciauTciil:n- (I Thess.1:10).
Attack by Cog and Magog (Ezek. 38-39)
ag.ainst the "beloved city" (Rev. 20:9) brings cati::CetoJe::SrwLaosr:Cn°e:e:sol:at:amie]::ioa:Plot;
in God's final judgment; but Jerusalem con- lineage and place of residence when full
tinues eternally (Isa. 33:20; Mic. 4:7, cf. identification was needed - ``Jesus, son of Jo-
Heb. 12:27), though now without a temple seph, the one from Nazareth" (John 1:45).
(Rev. 21:22) because of the perfect holiness During the public ministry "Jesus o£ Naza-
(vs. 27) of the new earth (Isa. 65:17-18; reth" was usually sufficient for public use,
Rev. 21:2). In language drawn both from though it might have further adornment under
Eden and Zion (cf. Isa. 54: 11; Rev. 21: 19), special circumstances (Matt. 21:11; John
the final state of the church is identified as 19: 19). To his followers the name itself was
the hol,v city, new Jerusalem (Rev. 21 :9-10). enough. However, in speaking to him, they
BIBLIOGRAPHY seem to have refrained from using it, resorting
to Teacher or Lord instead. The penitent
ifh`:tJ!e:a;#:,tgd:gw!',;":.I:,:£;;T5:o;;:S3i.;F.G?ekierhThf:::% thief, in the extremity of his need, did so em-
J. BARTON PAYNE
3:°[Ztftt(e?t:fkye2t::4t2h)e.Vd:#cnut]tr,;adcfrne%eadttF::
JESUITS. The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus scribes by this mode of address so lacking in
was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanisri deference. Demons addressed him as Jesus of
aristocrat, in 1534, to combat the Reformation Nazareth (Mark I :24) or as Jesus, Son of the
and save his church from ruin. Wounded in Most I-Iigh God (Mark 5:7). Suppliants used
battle, Loyola became asc.etic, practicing hor- Jesus, Master (Luke 17:13) or Jesus, Son of
rible austerities for a time. The Order obeyed David (Mark 10:47).
the Superior absolutely. The discipline was After the resurrection it became common
severe. Every .church statement, however un- practice to link with the human name the
reasonable, was to be believed unquestionably. titles Christ and Lord. He could now be con-
They considered it permissible "to do evil that fidently proclaimed as the (promised) Christ
good may come." Their activities were bound- (Messiah). Before long Christ became so
less. Their intrigues made them hated. The firmly yoked to Jesus, whether as Jesus Christ
Order was suppressed in most Roman Catholic or Christ Jesus, as to be virtually a part of his
countries. In 1773, Pope Clement XIV abol- name. In this way personal faith approved the
ished it. Restored in 1814, it remains exceed- identification given long before by divine an-
ingly influential. nouncement (Luke 2: 11).
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK Occurrences of the name Jesus are not
abundant in the Epistles as compared to the
JESUS. The given name of God's incarnate Gospels or even to the Acts. This circumstance
Son - given before birth by divine intimation makes all the more impressive its use in such
(Matt.I:21; Luke 1:31) and then in due a passage as Phil. 2: 10 (cf. by contrast vs. I I)
course by parental bestowment (Luke 2:21). where it serves to emphasize the truth that the
Jesus is the Greek form of Jeshua or Joshua adoration of which our Lord is worthy in his
(cf. the AV in Acts 7:45; Heb. 4:8) meaning exaltation must keep in full view the obedi-
"the Lord is salvation" or "the salvation of the
ence and humiliation experienced in the days
of his flesh. The rather generous use of Jesus
:roeradt.':VTE;eTi:#::haeftfipsi:yahYi:htohs:tporfedFce- in Hebrews has the same motivation. Though
tions give prominence to the Messiah under nearly all the references are to our Lord in his
JEW, JEWRY 298

present glorified state (13 : 12 is an exception), John's message had a twofold emphasis:
(I) the imminent appearance of the mes-
sianic kingdom, and (2) the urgent need for
p¥Le¥s:t:h¥dLdehnua:aen:tuyLtsw¥::Lhth;a:tr:SL:aT¥onE=
:e:¥):t::C:mte°p::;Phaert:cf£°arshfishe£¥e:otnc(e¥tatotf
the nature of the kingdom was not that of the

¥o:yu]f:I:¥eri:inr€*tehtu;u?::ihiae:::npe#;:d:aiii
:;:in;:;iiia:ig;ij:i:;tt:ii;i);:e;Si;jt;{e;a[aigc:ii¥;:!j :;:i:el,aJ:is:en!;:i:a:I:e:i:?e:o::t|E:hc:k::I:e;d:::|d,:rb:j
The Revelation of John uses the name Jesus
those who exhibited righteousness by the way
several times, especially in the phrase, ``the
witness of Jesus" (I:9; 12:17; 19:10; 20:4),
::sydliirveec:;dTa:;ic:i:,I?e,s.safaeeo,`ewr:¥.:ta&c:
was going to purge Israel as well as the world
::Phheas;::Fhgfutih:n:°:i:u;:;::se°£asJ;S:I;'aswir£
(Matt. 3:7-12). When Jesus appeared on the
servants' fellowship in his sufferings. The
bond between Jesus and his church is fim
and enduring (cf. Acts 9:5).
;;£J#:n±rh¥;(;:£s:i:?nn2y:e)tr:Wtahsec::c?Leot;
The baptism o£ John complemented his
::::0;£;tieeb];;¥¥[:itfyct[:#e:s=:,w:e¥ntht:ed]qseu:::
BIBLloGRAPHY
!£pfrfitcorayc,tfa.srk.th`enc|ie:n?ians;ca=anyseofitsinTa:n3

£??¥:;e;d¥ayn:gs.t`,`eKT?i;A.=FLi6eGa;`:a;:£'g:;:?£hnT#:¥'a;:h¥t
-Names of Jesus, pD. 5-9.

EVERETT F. HARRISoN
[aikth3:th;:;:a;zC:o;:;,i¥:nd::sin:s;,e::j|fiif:fTui,i_
est sense it was an eschatological act preparing
JEW, JEWRY. See JUDAlsM.
one for admission into the messianic kingdom.
Thus when the Pharisees and Sadducees came
JOHN THE BAPTIST. The son o£ Zech-
ariah, the priest, and Elizabeth (also o£
i°ereb:rpotfma]:°*nra:£d;o"¥£:»W:#::t.y3T7;:
:I;:it:?o€e;::::):nBdo£::]atL£:eh[:ic¥uanrytrytho:
i,,essep£:i:'.a5C.Co2u,n:sol,J:t:'asn::p*:a(th4:ti#:
Judah, his birth having been foretold by an

:nngteh]et::]tE±:e]s:::.,I,uE:as¥E:khefs]e:a8r;y,.yfi: g:srt]Ega:Foant]ttsop:o¥e=pownaftowptrhov]ad:aa¥e:]£}
accomplished inward change. The historical
Phueb]:Cm=[rno£:tr¥£?eerg::{nco:h:.£:£t£;;thwz::r£:`
Psahckp¥o°s:Fydtet°b#::,b:P;tasm]o££npre°Eapbh[Zs£,z::j
suddenly appeared out of the wildemess.
by this that both Jew and Gentile were cere-
The Gospels look upon John as the fulfil-
ment of the Eljja72 Red;vjvws expectation, for

#n'aj(`e#,c:oc:;:nT3:i5`,is:S,:tah!ete.:gx;.£aTn::p::n?i
}:st:stteM::fo;:|Ci¥3;n8efr(e:sT;eta]jg]h7t)ti:si as a sign that Jesus needed repentance, but
Furthemore, John's garb of a "gament Of rather that by this act he was identifying him-
CwaaTset};S(hMa;rt't.a3n:d4)aJ::t:£e:£]ga;rrdt]oetfre°*sshj; self with mankind in the proper approach to
God's kingdom.

E:[£:ehd.(t[h[£sKtfdne8nst£]£:c8a)tio£]t(h]:£ih]J:°2h]:2¥£)Tsaea{
tim):t:i±::t8edbe;:thfe:iethftss!:t:,Wbea:a:tse°::
his ascetic habits and his location near the
::ltiien,ie:sT,`y(,t:h:eil:Z3`)S,ai,?,h'=a`;Voi:e,i:,tE:
chief settlement of the sect. This has been

i::i,.!:e::f`egft'.n::st:h;e|riTJ:fr£?o:T,n|fg::oe:eTze.i::: g;;len:tfegsre:teetrwe¥nss;]b;L£:y aEyd ttE: r£::gnj§::

was the explicit promise of the angel. Scroll (Qumran) sect, an Essenish group
299 JOY, REJOICE

which dwelt on the northwest shore of the

Dead Sea. This connection is certainly possi- ;:::.dH¥:|Tfrea¥x:ipT]F£?efotifefecc:mdivinnefc:g]:
ble, for both John and the Qumran sect
resided in the wildemess o£ Judea, both were :tut:£s?irot::b::#hgth¥rei=£L:iytheextsepirii.s[£tmf
larities in experiences justify his being regard-
3£patfspmrie:ts]yadEfagr:ctoefr,£nbwotahrd]afc:::pnhg:sisboo£ ed a type of Christ, but possibly as an OT ideal
were ascetic, both thought in terms of im- man he may have prefigured the perfect Man,
minent judgment, and both invoked Isaiah who lived without sin and by whose active
40:3 as the authority for their mission in life. and passive obedience his people were saved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3;ttha:tis::,g?nJ:Eene¥.a|??;vgeesb::nhi:f].Tf::`chei:

:al|i;stFroTisetfi::g:eeat::;tJsoh=;ssr:!t:I::.e,seoehnn- %1:oi}:i¥:;i;h;:':'ii:d:;?:'i;393;o:#:';;;;i;;;b}[hop#i;:c¥e;;a;:L;ij
:;:hef.eawp,:blicec:`else::.I,e.¥:tapn.=iaitE:dseac:
exhibition of repentance in the affairs of ordi- ;!iil;!.f;.:::;,f!eg,::!d,,i"3:d::?ii3ii;ijse:s,:e#oi:eiioffs':£„:es;;i
nary life; the sect required submission to the History of Jc)seph.
rigors of its ascetic life. John introduced the BURTON L. GODDARD
Messiah; the sect still waited for his manifesta-
tion. JOY, REJOICE. Scripture abounds with
references to joy and rejoicing: natural joy
John's denunciation of Herod Antipas for
his marriage was the cause of his death by (gladness, contentment, satisfaction, mirth,
cheerfulness); moral joy (peace, serenity); and
spiritual joy (joy of faith, rejoicing of hope).
#:a#th(a¥:iti.s:i:k]-:i2a2;Ja°t#uf:r::eHS:;
Machaerus near the Dead Sea. The Mandeans In the OT, ten different Hebrew terms ex-
were influenced by John, for he plays a large press the idea of delight of mind in the good.
Kaufmann Kohler (/ewE7®c, i" loco) states that
part in their writings. This connection may
have come through John's disciples, who exist- no language has as many words for joy and
ed for at least twenty-five years af ter John's rejoicing as Hebrew. Most common is €j"¢¢
death (Acts 18:25; 19:3). ("gladness," "mirth"); then g41 or g€! ("to
rmLIOGRAPFT
;girc£[PnggJ*:':;`apeow#:<],'t'?'s#£S:;S(;J:°!ii;;`,:;:
Shouting was associated with joy (Neh.
12:43). Contrary to paganism, joy is coupled
#;jhM#:I::#;§j:;;C;jb#s§j3:0;t#;kcefy:::B¥%;;#; with moral rectitude. Pure joy is joy in God
ROBERT 8. LAURIN as both its source and object. God is a God of
joy (Ps. 104:31); the joy of the Lord is
JOSEPH. The eleventh and favorite son strength (Neh. 8: 10); in his presence is ful-
of Jacob, Rachel's first-born. His life story is ness of joy (Ps.16:11). The highest expres-
told in Gen. 30-50, with commentary in Ps. sions of joy in the OT are found in Psalms.
105:17-22; Acts 7:9-16, and Heb. 11:22. In the NT, c7®arG ("joy") and c7iairo- ("to
God's providence took him from Mesopotamia rejoice") are most common. Ag¢Z1;flsjs ("exul-
tation"), ewpJ"j#o- ("to make glad," ``well
;°roptha::::imf:ist:iyE8a¥::.sesd°,]d±inptr°£s:]na:;,ryhtywhf pleased'') and ewpJ?rosy"6 ("gladness," "joy''),
yet providentially brought to high office and as well as hawc7i¢o7#¢i ("to glory") are also
succored his brothers in time of famine. used.
The NT regards joy as essentially a divine
fai::.H;:;.::i|,Jobs:p:asisp:onspeo.Tdebxeac::::f: bestowal: it is the proper response of the soul
was pure in heart and feared God. He walked to the gospel (Luke 2: 10); closely related to
with God, and God was with him. His was the work of the Holy Spirit in Acts and the
the first OT record of a choice o£ God and Epistles; listed as one of the fruits of the Spirit
chastity over lust. His fraternal dealings em- (Gal. 5:22); and has an eschatological aspect
phasize the doctrine of forgiveness and suggest as a feature of the world to come (e.g., "the
that confession of sin must precede true re- joy of thy Lord" in Matt. 25:21, 23, and ``my
conciliation. Through him, the sovereign God joy" in John 15:11; 17:13).
JUDAISM 300

As a gift of God, joy is unknown to the discredited

the apocalyptists like those o£
world (I Cor. 2:14), but paradoxically the Qumran; the Zealot leaders were dead or in
believer may rejoice in afflictions and suffer-
£tn£:tsw5jTjo[y[6::*%:I;paent:I:::[8:£4:g]]:¥ *£adsfn£'a:nfat:raBi::P°Br;r.::tg%ni:e::bg£:::
leaders felt strong enough to exclude those
they considered heretics (the tm€7®€7#), includ-
I:fy£So;`n::±faa,;etzDTfthM°rtEg£°w°aTas:u]tstE£,V£,f; .Lnyg2Egb;eewyhcahdr£:;i:n£]]:rdoEet::a;I:raygo#
loco).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CB; K. Kohlcr, JeovE"c.; D. M. Edwards, ISBE. ## ;Pees°)I,°8;C:]on[;oa:tg Or interest (the
WESTLAKE T. PURKISER

JUDAISM. I. DEFINITloN. The term is

sometimes used of every form of Jewish reli- ±E:eEth::¥:¥:::h::;:e:t:I;v]:;a§::et;t::=:r£::;;:e:rro{j
gi°;8a6ft::cT[etgee:=uC£:°t:er°ftos:::#Sftt:oma`: ru£:haist±e;::e%:i::ai:;tchoeex¥eanrsa££vt:S'wr£:Eb£¥:
Jewish people. This lasted until modem ra-
tionalism and secularism made rapid inroads
into Judaism.
Ill. THE THEOLOGY oF lul>AlsM. It has

ii::e;i;:s:;;::t:u:i:;;:i;¥§i§t::x:jjjc;::t;]i:I;t!:dea§°§t :e:ge:]eong£;do?y,:daa:?mt,habtuttheaeish:sS:Le:t:e:
££:who:r!u:eaist:[yw|£.CD?::°mchethem¥&£:n:Fgth°: }¥e:±t:a:;;:£cne:p;s::!]Tefda::gdfi;gen::::lain:tour:;n::
nineteenth held the loyalty of all but an in-
significant fraction of the Jewish people. out of its beliefs; if its members conformed
Where it is necessary to distinguish it from strictly to the rules deduced from these con-
other forms of Judaism, it is generally called
Rabbinic, Traditional or Orthodox.
11. THE BEGINNINGs oF Jul)AlsM. The re- ::up;T],tehcn:oea[qc::n:c:::pt:sTwa::tEa:s];;gdwg;i::o:¥eht:¥r::
striction of sacrifice to Jerusalem by Josiah, rabbinic Judaism has no meaning, are so de£-

!:s,::jig:ct:1:d:,su¥:;a:fnetn:,;:|JP::al:gE8i:::.;g.:o:: ;§L:ttectfa:dLe££r:#;::t::haetcm:i'in:¥L;S:££::%:elr:s!
;::#:mTrtomuagiEe5h;::e:i::Feyr:Fe,ecwui:Fsrei: £aand;:yb:::,:8:°:£g;eF:Ire:I::i:yt|adt£Sati:C:;I::ri£;
pre-Christian and those that arose after A.D.
£:::na:t]aeb¥:teofgE:£e¥frfe::]pvte:£se::£F#: 70.
o:n;ls:I:o::ilfeoits::e|act,in:o::y::a;t:::ps:effe£::s:a;rs:: A. Pre-Christian Elements in ]udalsrm.

"re]innl£:»Jtee:;hTger:f£:h:°oe¥£d£:€ebgeant:hne.
derstood, that ``they are not all Israel, which
are o£ Israel" (Ron. 9:6). While proselytes

::rdeeT::::rna::;pet::ecEtuwnhdee:£r::::i,d:tp£:escs]:::
:;i;§i:tt;;;i:n:ihi;p:iij};e§iera;i:;iiii:t;je:ts;ii:;:;¥£:ifi: that ethnically the Jew was considered as
having an abiding, privileged position.
kings. In the NT period the Pharisees were
2. T7?e Tora7i. The five books of Moses, or
:hn:yp:°tsa£:Ills::o:fp,thteh:;e¥;dth;::hrite?es¥::= Torah, to be rendered Instruction rather than
°£ Ahf:erpe°thp:e.destruction of the temple R.
Feav:{atToenreofregaor£.edTha:;hr:pE:ert:ec;e:endon£]£;a:
Yochanan b. Zakkai set out to make this con-
:]Onns`mfitoa:¥honthtehe:hoT:doefntehcees8aiy]PsyoTaun::
ieapdt!:p:i:::t,ineJperye?:TfhemefT::ntsceo`a:aD.hz3 questioned authority, the inspiration of the
301 JUDAISM

Torah has always been placed higher than ixi|e|::::|ohfasdiavisnhearjeuding=:tboT|i::hc:riser,,,

Fa:v:ea::gt:;3:i::t:a!|S:ts:ne::edl;:i::::r|F;l!:c:Fza:o:
agent in it, for whose sake man was created. ::!rgtsBoeef::i:e;I?ae:„:t:ssep#;rt::re?eo;eTuedef|,slit
These developments were deliberate efforts to by creating a monolithic body. On the one
make the Torah a counterweight to the person hand they expelled dissident elements,
of Jesus. frowned on Gnostic speculation and reduced
3. The Orol L¢w. To the written Torah the area of individual freedom. On the other
they so transformed certain basic areas o£
(t6r4 5e-bjE.t6!) was added the oral Torah
(t6r4 Se-Z7e`al-pe). In its origin this was the Jewish thought as to make acceptance of Jesus
as Messiah and Saviour virtually impossible.
rabbinic application of the law o£ Moses and
of some customs of immemorial antiquity I. U7®jfort7ijty. The bitter disputes between
(e.g., the washing of hands) to everyday life. the schools of Hillel and Shammai were set-
Before A.D. 70 this was only one of rival in-
terpretations (c£. that of the Qumran sect), ;i:ed3;ddtehdeucpt::::Ssfr°ofmc°ieerin¥or¥£¥oh°::p::
and we can easily understand why the rabbis dited that by ca. 200 R. Yehuda ha-Nazi was
claimed that it had been handed down from able to codify the oral law and reduce it to
Moses, who was given it on Mt. Sinai. After writing; this is known as the Mishnah (q.v.).
the triumph of Rabbinism this tradition made The process was carried further in the Gemara
any major change impossible, even had it been
wished. The underlying concept was that since
Clod had revealed his will in laws, it should E::n::;::LeLffecr¥:p;Stu:sEsebdz::3d:L±Tt¥e:jFw#shh:t::

::ve¥:S:b:£ef|°hmo]:hoe£Se[,£te°.]dtefou]::waed]at¥atc:i: 3nu€ge:::ant:tge;:;;ft::]at*ec::]tTOT]€ntgq.]v£.£,:
study o£ Torah was man's stl7""it47" Z7o"w". (the hGha-bd) that was fixed. Also the devcr
The process was: (a) the discovery of the tional aspect of Bible study was forced into
c.ommandments given - it is claimed there are rigid molds by the authoritative position given
613: 248 positive, 365 negative; (b) the pro-
tection of these commandments by the making :?o:h(:ag#;S:i|h:I;t:r;:i:£rboeod£:y;:8theeE¥:
of new ones that would guarantee their being 2. T7ie Doctri#e of God. Faced with the
kept - this is known as ``making a hedge Christian doctrine of the Trinity, the rabbis
transformed the monotheistic doctrine of the
:Eau|tg:Ee,:wo:a:;';a(|f).:i:e:5apJi:atsisEe::sthaens:
possibilities of life. £Tth£:t°Goadre°a%£S:;dthjanttoexac]:r€:Sscaennydednftvaf;££s°:
4. The Messjfl7?. Though concepts of the
Messiah varied greatly, there was general :hat;ym€::Sj::ainecaam;ti:]no#csastfb;er.£n€£rpa]€:
agreement that his work was above all the the unknowable.
setting up of the kingdom of God by the 3. The Docfr£#e of Mc[". The Fall was not
perfect enforcement of the Torah. Earlier it taken seriously; it marred but did not break
was thought that he would modify it, but this
conception was gradually dropped, when the
rabbis were faced by Christian teaching on ::e::#sg,:an:a::ct::o::G:¥,sshT:e;:g;!nu:t,:;arv::.;
Christ and the law. own salvation. Hence the incarnation is un-
5. The Reswrrectjo7!. The teaching of a necessary.
resurrection of the dead was generally held. A 4. Sin, Sacrifice and Mediation. Pharisalism
clear distinction was made between the `6Z67# had already before A.D. 70, in its stress on the
ha-ze7® ("this world") and the `6ha-7" 72a-Z7d' keeping of the Torah by the individual, tend-
("the world to come"). The Days of the Mes- ed to regard the cultus as being of secondary
siah were conceived of as limited in length importance; both the stress on the letter of the
and as connecting the two epochs, there being law and its exaltation above the cultus led to
no agreement as to which they belonged to. an underestimate of sin. This tendency be-
In any case the `61dt" ha-Z76' is earthly, not came quite understandably dominant once the
heavenly. With a few exceptions there was temple had disappeared. Sin became regarded
 302
JUDAIZE, JUDAIZER

a:o:::te=:]±yore:]t]£rte£¥t,atTeatst;:aogfo::tefo]TtsLr:;t£:: coricemed with a more inward service o£ God

than knowledge of him. Most of vital modem
the Day of Atonement shows clearly that the Orthodox Judaism has been influenced by it.
sense of the need of God's grace for the for- V. Mol)ERN TRENDs IN JUDAlsM. The con-

giveness of sin has never been lost in Judaism.

The loss of sacrifice (q.v.), the decreasing
sense of sin and the Christian stress on Jesus
as mediator between God an.d man has led to
a complete denial of the need for a mediator,
except perhaps among the Chasidim. ;;e:at:a:;o:;=i:ae!:::I:;ii:£::;::ic;aI:;i:;i:e;;iiij:oni.:!ia;:n;:nil
in Eastern Europe and Moslem lands much
Li:a§:as::e:v:#;:,:ab));La:i§st;a§!i::i:tief];f;:%iig:eL;°;i

ir;a;Ctti};h;tieio;ri:S;t;is:tl;i:f§£!ih§::'];:i::]i:i:tit;ii¥i|:i! turning its back on the modern world.

(c£. AV and RV in Matt. 6: 1). This is equiv-
a;:a::t:ot&oijy;:t:oi?aa:totir:o::e8]:°c:t::}ises:i::a:.i`;!tte°: The bulk of religious Jews have accommo-

to man far more than to God. It was taken for ::::eedi§;ed=i:n:LVTeri=:°fa:tdh8eraye;I:e;re:[=L£:Sc€i:i:a:t:°:

ments which seem to have lost their meaning.

rhtep¥oe;ireTs|:Tor(e"LhL?e+aoL:'aina::Ltrae]tna}n?Loa:;;
i;¥r:d;e;::b;y:o€nhie;;e£:i#:::;;i:¥°:u;:::pe::;;eL;E¥:¥:;_ those customs of the past which he can ration-
]oafr]r¥cihieTpert;otsa?,£gtehneer::;tohnesrso;v;:ewray.source alize.

ske[t¥i%:CgK,:e:°]:::i:=]Sr;s[:e;::tebe°efntha:

Phui:e]tyhe]r:gaa[r;:t;tcw:Sj:;ns°re°afst::s.believed.For
A. Mofjve. Though the Torah consists o£
:::;;:;i:i::;;€a[ii;£si:s:=±:)ii:£ei;::!r;;:°:::t;±iu§je§:::i:t:§P;i
BIBl.I0GRAPHY

g;i::I:E:voip;,#£;„LTg8!;#Jhg##jy:€3dG¢°;![;:h;°g±£yf:%£e#;:::
TTends in Jewish Mysiictsm.
;:::::[`L}::t;i;:;[j:):i§::eb¢i,i:i;;;::i;or;at}:::s:t:)::::::;;o:tit H. L. ELLlsoN
they might bring. In fact for them the love o£
God is the true motive, because of the grace JUDAIZE, JUDAIZER. When Paul with-
he has shown in the choice of Israel and in stood Peter at Antioch (Gal. 2:11-21), he
the giving of the Torah - the latter is regard- maintained that Peter's conduct in withdraw-
ed as supremely an act of grace. L§jtr:L€:t;):§s:ti¥a:£:Cim;;az:C):Lt:°::hh:):Pe=ni:iL!:¥L;t§vt:°::

:loci:V:n#e}if£La:S:at#c:i;1:P:rLlt:£dwaapslna:y:ipe:a:otl:t::S:
would have to observe Jewish customs, would

:hn:o:¥hghcaEheem=nr;trmck:i:e;:tet:Ex:p:rteast¥o:n;:[ss:t:#L§ :::lent,Eel.tvyepeas.fJ;eTls6wis`h.tFef:oive;ehitcohepnejtoe:
movement was Kabbalism with the Zohflr as
its masterpiece. Contrary to widespread ideas
?:a|S:s:Je:n:::eTx:#¥|ef:Ch:e:T.b::i.:::g;?::#aobaa::i
don not only the liberty of the gospel (q.v.)
but the gospel itself (c£. Gal. I:6; 2:16;
;e;::ib,I;::i:;;e:c:ts:ni:;o`::ige::ti;:a:;:TIS:sp¥i:':ot!i 5 : 1-3).
A party in the church, originally Pharisees,
century Chasidic movement, which was more
303 JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION

which, it is likely, entered after the death of verdict (Luke 7:43; Acts 15:19), (2)
Stephen, did insist that it was necessary for di¢kri7co-, to distinguish, to discriminate (I Cor.
Gentiles to be circumcised and to keep the law I I:31; 14:29), (3) a7®¢kri"o-, to investigate,
o£ Moses, at least in part, in order to be saved scrutinize (I Cor. 4:3). The Christian con-
(Acts 15:I; Gal. 5:2; 6:12,13). From their science makes ethical judgments unavoidable
efforts to induce Gentiles to observe Jewish and imperative. "He that is spiritual judgeth
customs, to judaize, they have been designated all things" (I Cor. 2: 15). The NT seems to
]udaizers. They agreed with many points in teach that a Christian should not judge his
the apostolic proclamation, but their defection brother. Jesus gave the command, "Judge not"
on the matter of salvation by grace alone (Matt. 7: 1). Paul says that he that is spiritual
caused Paul to regard their message as no is judged of no man (I Cor. 2:15). But an
gospel at all (Gal.I:6-10). In the Epistle to examination of the contexts of these passages
the Galatians Paul overthrows their attack on shows that what Jesus had in mind was that
his gospel and his apostleship, and exposes one must not judge another without first
their unworthy motives (Gal. 4:17; 6:12, judging oneself, and that Paul means that a
13). The Jerusalem leaders stood with Paul spiritual person cannot be judged by a natural
in the controversy (Acts 15: I-33; Gal. 2: I-10; man in spiritual things. It is impossible to
I Cor.15:11). The destructive influence of inake an ethical judgment without passing
the Judaizers seems to have declined sharply judgment upon the one who performs the act.
before long. It is indeed reflected in I and 11 Jesus made such judgments (Matt. 16:23;
Corinthians, but in the epistles of the first John I:47; 6:70). A Christian's judgment
Roman imprisonment it is not noticed, unless should reflect the mind of Christ and should
perhaps in Phil. 3:2 £f. begin with an examination of self (Matt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 7:3-5).
ARNOLD C. SCHUI.TZ

;h2€¥:"i;a?7jb?I;a*o¥S):§je:t¥¥N%:p:bpoi:3§fi:eshl:Og,;t#e:#t: JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION.

JOHN H. SKILTON The basic fact of biblical religion is that God
pardons and accepts believing sinners (see
JUDGE, JUDGMENT. The Hebrew word Pss. 32: I-5; 130; Luke 7:47 f£.,18:9-14; Acts
10:43; I John I:7-2:2). Paul's doctrine of
::;e:`j:gege::S:°=PeG.''wi:Peparrosn::£ng:::][gnt°orI:ive:
justification by faith is an analytical exposition
that is, one who spoke for God. This is clear of this fact in its full theological connections.
from Ex.18:13,15,16. But in the same As stated by Paul (most fully in Romans and
chapter, verses 25-26, it is evident that even- Galatians, though see also 11 Cor. 5:14 ££.;
tually elders .were appointed to take care of Eph. 2:1 ££.; Phil. 3:4 f£.), the doctrine of
the many cases that had arisen where counsel
justification determines the whole character of
was necessary. The word consequently came Christianity as a religion of grace and faith.
to have a broader application than it had in It defines the saving significance of Christ's
life and death, by relating both to God's law
3i|ei,?eesgi:fniTg;i::greeg:I:rn:onqsu::ethce,eraerspo(Esi (Ron. 3:24 ff.; 5:16 ££.). It displays God's
23:6-8; Deut.16:19). His decisions were to
justice in condemning and punishing sin, his
be given without prejudice or partiality. He mercy in pardoning and accepting sinners, and
was to see that absolute justice was done,. re- his wisdom in exercising both attributes har-
ject bribes, and guard against the influence o£ moniously together through Christ (Ron.
popular opinion upon his judgment. In the 3:23 ff.). It makes clear what faith is -be-
period of the Judges justice was administered lief in Christ's atoning death and justifying
by leaders in whom the people had confidence resurrection (Rom. .4:23 ff.; 10:8 ff.), and
(Judg. 4: 5). Samuel organized a circuit court trust in him alone for righteousness (Phil.
for the purpose of judging (I Sam. 7:16). 3:8 f.). It makes clear what Christian moral-
One of the responsibilities of the king was to ity is - law-keeping out of gratitude to the
judge (I Sam. 8:20; 11 Sam.15:I-6). Saviour whose gift of righteousness made law-
The idea of judgment appears in various keeping needless for acceptance (Ron. 7: 1-6;
contexts in the NT, usually in the ethical 12: I f.). It explains all hints, prophecies and
sphere: (1) krj"o-means to judge, to give a instances of salvation in the OT (Ron. 1 : 17;
JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION 304

3:21; 4: 1 f£.). It overthrows Jewish exclusiv- it was faith which secured Abraham's accept-
ism (Gal. 2: 15 f£.), and provides the basis on ance as righteous (vs. 23; c£. Ron. 4:3 ££.,
Gal. 3 : 6 £f.). The justification which concerns
*i:I(CRhoris.t£:?;]tg;3:C2°9mfe.S).a[tre£]s]gti:enhfe°arrttho:

:?¢e„tgs°S::I,.cLa::h„et:sJ:::I,¥s,taeer,T:dcitu:crijc:+:: :;¥£€;s¢;nbn:o:£tt:a:t:ue;:;e::u:;sn]t:;#t:::s:]c:c:ep:te;rnEc.,:
lapses from it can scarcely be called Christian. nology, not thought, that James differs from
Paul.
I. THE MEANING oF JtlsTIFlcATloN. The
There is no lexical ground for the view of
%Pe]:Ck:I:±axn]nagn:£#:t££dy,';a{oHo_;br:sW'to$6:"I:i
nounce, accept, and treat as just, i.e., as, on g::yas:st:hme'o|oAgTagnusstftEea't:i:st]¥;?,d£:vea::s,anodr

:tie:,neeEta]:I:LntootE:[nat]Lye]];P;]ve;,[e;::,::etht: :::;ptetssc:sbpyartsuofj::stfvn:easnp££:]gt,u;,[m:::ertht:
those who have kept the law. It is thus a The Tridentine definition of justification as
"not only the remission of sins, but also the
££::rsst[ecr]iegrTiedinw°t=g]nati:sd]cC:::,abc;::c[aa€:
sanctification and renewal of the inward man"
(Sess. VI, ch. vii) is erroneous.
11. PAUL'S DOCTRINE OF JUSTIFICATION.
The background of Paul's doctrine was the
{¥:SIC:bsi:j[::i¥°;£::si:5:);;aaotL::;::J5;:tri;C:ti;8;:L3:;hea:f: Jewish conviction, universal in his time, that
In Isa. 43:9, 26, "be justified" means "get the a day of judgment was coming, in which God
would condemn and punish all who had
::or:£c;.;:;Ttfejruos;:fly;nugdg:ctj:nh{:£w:t]ed,chr:: broken his laws. That day would terminate
both a sentential and an executive, or declara-
:E:i::S:hnotsew:lido-:rdada::dugse]ierw]onrtay:°idf]:

;)Eel,:farsdi:a::easnE:sfh:J:rsd:::ltessi:iol:S;)e?a::grnesa:C:h::I:e:s ::Tyt,;c:;odna,yd:;;:i:£Lr:rT„p{oAP±:ts£C5:¥3e:::;t£:sna:
to the person justified the rights which are 2:10-22; 13:6-11; Jer. 46:10; Obad. 15;

:h:e:eh]not:I:ae:=ac2T];;tt::t:P)f::d:€b:een;:eel:n¥gdfadtl::|l::;
;;h¥:vi:°isg:::jeirLo;:::Si::Eie:::Li:LS:ca:8;ec:v:11:::::1:c;aat:4:5iro::: confirmed by Christ (Matt.11:22 f£.; 12:36
The word is also used in a transferred sense £., etc.). Paul affirmed that Christ himself was
for ascriptions of righteousness in non-forensic
contexts. Thus, men are said to justify God
when they confess him just (Luke 7:29); {#ta¥Peo¥ii;:]d:£drge:Pr::hts:nw;itrivderien;:I:i§t¥:ouo¥nhe:h¥
Ron 3:4 = Ps. 51:4), and themselves when righteous judgment of God" (Acts 17:31;
tih6e:yi5C;:£Tht:::ssji::tc(aJ:bbe32u:s2e;dLgueieer:i°i;2:i Ron. 2: 16). This, indeed, had been Christ's
own claim (John 5:27 f£.).
Paul sets out his doctrine of the judgment-
::;£t:cgfs:£n€Lc3te£;sbt¥u:tveE#a:i.afn[s]t:;;;p]£,uof: day in Ron. 2:5-16. The principle of judg-
7:35; I Tim. 3:16). In James 2:21, 24-25, ment will be exact retribution ("to every man
its reference is to the proof of a man's accept- according to his works," vs. 6). The standard
will be God's law. The evidence will be "the
:;::es*ohwGtidatwhhe£Chhafsstgi:enkfnwdheonfii;i::: secrets of men" (vs. 16); the Judge is a
working faith to which God imputes righteous- searcher of hearts. Being himself just, he can-
ness.
James' statement that Christians, like Abra-
:::s:ethe:speec;efot°hi::t££kyepatnyh£:u;a;he(ri:h=:
ham, are justified by works (vs. 24) is thus
:I:a]s:_:£3;rfcgfLtEoxjs2::e7:La¥£.:§s£:L2±.rspuk:::
is righteous; all have sinned (Ron. 3:9 ff.).

:ohnedepmr:Sa:]eoc:',ft:rer]eef:re;sj;e:[n:s°€e:Fit::r£S::
:ti::is;a;jikrir):in:;:::si:E:;a::;;;asi]i:1::;i::iiii;is:tn::;I;:i::::;t the Jew who breaks the law is no more accept-
305 JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION

able to God than anyone else (Ron. 2: 17-27). righteous). Justification thus means permanent
All men, it seems, are under God's wrath re-instatement to favor and privilege, as well
(Ron. I : 18) and doomed. as complete forgiveness of all sins.

Ill. THE GRouND oF JusTIFlcATloN. Paul's

siv!|;ai:xs;.tuh:sdebdla::Ra.cEgro|TTg,-::gJ,res::i deliberately paradoxical reference to God as
proclaims the present justification of sinners "justifying the ungodly" (Ron. 4:5) -the
by grace through faith in Jesus Christ, apart same Greek phrase as is used by the LXX
from all works and despite all demerit (Ron.
::enEtx.th2::€;d]s:;]]5L2o3t,t:]£ertaht:=o=£Tetctjsu#:
:;?I)i:.c'a.teTh;stjtEsetif#iton6ft?iomueghatin;iviicdh- awareness that this is a startling doctrine. In-
a man believes (Ron. 4:2; 5: I), is an escha- deed, it seems flatly at variance with the OT
tological once-for-all divine act, the final judg-
presentation of God's essential righteousness,
ment brought into the present. The justifying 'as revealed in his actions as Legislator and
sentence, once passed, is irrevocable. "The
Judge - a presentation which Paul himself
wrath" will not touch the justified (Ron. assumes in Ron.I: 18-3:20. The OT insists
5 :9). Those accepted now are secure for ever. that God is "righteous in all his ways" (Ps.
Inquisition before Christ's judgment-seat
;£:;;]7c}:`Z=pGh:d3:.5.)Tfihh°euti::vfq:;t¥'i'g£P::ta
:hRe:nm.of]4c:e]r%i]n2;I:ia:::.(5[:]c°o)r.m3a:y]5d)e,Prj::
never of their justified status. Christ will not :Vorn°s:gt's,]Ea:Opt:°i:i;:¥:°ndwfhj:fi]:£egnhtte£°nushn±e::
call in question God's justifying verdict, only I.Tis revealed law, "holy, just and good" as it
declare, endorse and implement it. is (Rom. 7:12; cf. Deut. 4:8; Ps.19:7-9),
Justification has two sides. On the one
hand, it means the pardon, remission and non- :.i:::ressshisprcehs::fir,(;rs.hell.o7;es';3tT5e,rig:tj
"hates" the unrighteousness forbidden (Ps.
imputation of all sins, reconciliation to God
and the end of his enmity and wrath (Acts 5:4-6; Isa. 61:8; Zech. 8:17). As Judge, he
13:39; Ron. 4:6 £.; 11 Col. 5:19; Ron. 5:9 declares his righteousness by "visiting" in
ff.). On the other hand, it means the bestowal
of a righteous man's status and a title to all
i:;;']ai:tt{;::au;g|¥,emnst:]cd;°:it:f¥,t`h::;L];£#:onufi?;
;hficbh'esps;¥sap:;Efiiseesdbt;:Fnekijnugst:iu:titfi:autfohnt 1:3~3:2, etc.). "God is a righteous judge,
with the adoption of believers as God's sons
and heirs (Ron. 8:14 ff.; Gal. 4:4 £f.). Part (ias,.;:flo,dEtEtt,.hard:::ill:g.ne:ti;.nese:enr:.,i:::
of their inheritance thev receive at once: (Ps. 94:7-9); all receive their precise desert
through the gift of the lioly Spirit, whereby (Prov. 24: 12). God hates sin, and is impelled
God "seals" them as his when they believe
?*rtahti„d::da?tg:I;i,:£=:hwo:en;iL:recot:?i°a::n°tT;
(Eph. I : 13), they taste that quality of fellow-
ship with God which belongs to the age to espouse it (cf. the language of Isa.I:24; Jer.
come, and is called "eternal life." Here is 6:11; 30:23 f.; Ezek. 5:13 £f.; Deut. 28:63).
another eschatological reality brought into the It is a glorious revelation of his righteousness
present: having in a real sense passed through (cf. Isa. 5:16; 10:22) when he does so; it
the last judgment, the justified enter heaven
on earth. Here and now, therefore, justifica- ¥e°uf[aq]ebdet:rdeof]:::£°[:s°enemhs£Sur#£tne£:;reestsh::
tion brings "life" (Ron. 5: 18), though this is a God who thus reveals just and inflexible
merely a foretaste of the fulness o£ life and wrath against all human ungodliness (Rom.
glory which constitutes the ``hope of right- I : 18) should justify the ungodly. Paul, how-
eousness" (Gal. 5:5) promised to the just ever, takes the bull by the homs and affirms,
(Ron. 2:7,10), to which God's justified chil- not merely that God does it, but that he does
dren may look forward (Ron. 8: 18 ff.). Both it in a manner designed "to shew his right-
aspects of justification appear in Ron. 5: I-2, eousness, because of the passing over of the
where Paul says that justification brings, on sins done aforetime, in the forbearance of
the one hand, peace with God (because sin is God; for the shewing, I say, of his righteous-
pardoned) and, on the other, hope of the glory
of God (because the believer is accepted as :eel:sbaet;:::,par:ie:iese;aussot?f:ietrh::i:mm:!t:E|iTh-
JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION 306

faith in Jesus" (Ron. 3:25 £., ERV). The fectly serving God, Christ perfectly kept the
Sj:::;]ji;ai;ozi;:;#;ai:lil;t::°::Sf::hg:ills::ico:i:;ri;:::i]§ law (cf. Matt. 3:15). His obedience cul-
minated in death (Phil. 2:8); he bore the

gna:tayk:fpi:p,iatrati:nm:::spiaeci:`sfna:.!klo32,.
3:25). On the ground of Christ's obedience,
God does not impute sin, but imputes right-
eousness, to sinners who believe (Ron. 4:2-8;
{§::t::g;;o:::;:d:;:ej:]¥;;;je;i:o::c::i::d±j:n;:e::v:e::;sa:t:h;; 5:19). "The righteousness of God" (i.e.,
well as since. righteousness frot" God: see Phil. 3:9) is be-
stowed on them as a free gift. (Ron.1:17;
Some (e.g., Anderson Scott, Dodd) ques-
3:21 £.; 5:17, c£. 9:30; 10:3-10): that is to
tion this exegesis of Ron. 3:25 f., and con-
strue "righteousness" here as meaning "saving
action," on the ground that in Isa. 40-55
:i:,i::zi::ce,i::,t?fe;igifailo5:t,:::t,:i,a::
``righteousness" and "salvation" are repeatedly longer as sinners, but as righteous, by the
divine Judge. Thus they become "the right-
eousness o£ God" in and through him who
¥:e:d3.3;:tqcT;Ta+ehnftsse{£];a£.na4t:;8t,h:9t.h2e5o;dfc;;]a3]; "knew no sin" personally, but was representa-
that Paul is saying, on this view, is that God
tively "made sin" (treated as a sinner, and
now shows that he saves sinners. The words
"just, and" in vs. 26, so far from making the punished) in their stead (11 Cor. 5:21). This
is the thought expressed in classical Protestant
crucial point that God justifies sinners jt4stly,
theology by the phrase "the imputation o£
would then add nothing to his meaning, and
Christ`s righteousness," namely, that believers
could be deleted without loss. However, quite
are righteous (Ron. 5:19) and have right-
ampea::sf;ohT.hti:c::::::lc(f::e;itiiccf`seeem;;:I::sns:
eousness (Phil. 3:9) before God for no other
reason than that Christ their Head was right-
Taylor, ExpT 50, 295 ££.), this hypothesis
eous before God, and they are one with him,
seems groundless, for (I) OT Ieferences to
sharers of his status and acceptance. God
God's righteousness normally denote his retrib-
utive justice (the usage adduced from Isaiah
is not typical), and (2) these verses are the
;:£te£,fie:h:hevmerE]yctpa;si:cq]OncLhr:sTsfo:b:dhi:i::':
merited. God declares them to be righteous,
continuation of a discussion that has been
concerned throughout (from I:18 onward)
with God's display of righteousness j7® j"dgj7tg
i:c::.sf.i:rr.egchk,oe:sustiees?,t.o,i::;g:;e,o:::aauns:
t!77cZ p"73js7t;#g sj". These considerations de-
he accounts them to have kept his law person-
ally (which would be a false judgment), but
cisively fix the forensic reference here. "The
because he accounts them to be united to the
main question with which St. Paul is con-
one who kept it representatively (and that is
cerned is how God can be recognized as him-
a true judgment). For Paul union with Christ
self righteous and at the same time as one who
i§ not fancy, but fact - the basic fact, indeed,
declares righteous believers in Christ" (Vin-
cent Taylor, ¢rt. cjt., p. 299). Paul has not
:]i]gh¢ehorisstiae::tys;s:::1;h;a:|9:t:]fpeos:t££o]imopfu:£€
(as is suggested) left the forensic sphere be-
forensic aspect of it (see Rom. 5:12 ff.).
hind. The sinner's relation to God as just
Covenantal solidarity between Christ and his
Lawgiver and Ju'dge is still his subject. What
people is thus the objective basis on which
::s::}Sa;:ii::g'on;:t;:::r[:`:er:£s:taipot:(yRa:i:own3tl?t!-:tl:n: sinners are reckoned righteous and justly justi-
fied through the righteousness of their Sav-
iour. Such is Paul's theodicy regarding the
divine justice which, as shown (I : 18-3:20),
condemns all sin. ground of justification.

Paul's thesis is that God justifies sinners on IV. FAITH AND JusTIFICATloN. Paul says
a just ground, namely, that the claims o£ God's that believers are justified dic! pjsteo-s (Ron.
law upon them have been fully satisfied. The 3:25), pjst`e; (Ron. 3:28) and ek pjsteo-s
law has not been altered, or suspended, or
flouted for their justification, but fulfilled - ££°=ebr3e:::i.£aTthheadsattfi:1?nns€rihmee:tr:ip°:let;°nns
by Jesus Christ, acting in their name. By per- whereby Christ and his righteousness are ap-
307 JUST, JUSTIFY, JUSTIFICATION

ness, though it is not righteousness; and that

God pardons and accepts sinners on the
i:;t:ii:;;1:o':;hdeT|:;jfb|i[;]'eoEn:#::e:iEsr:i#jrdfaf ground of their faith). In consequence, these
theologians deny the imputation of Christ's
gisij";o°un]dacdce°nuy?twferfeaftftithpaa]engervoeurniayosi righteousness to believers in the sense ex-
justification, faith would be in effect a meri- plained, and reject the whole covenantal con-
torious work, and the gospel message would, ception of Christ's mediatorial work. The most
after all, be merely another version of justifica- they can say is that Christ's righteousness was
tion by works - a doctrine which Paul opposes the indirect cause Of the acceptance of man's
faith as righteousness, in that it created a
::£raf|[u£[°];mifansoi:e{:Fcfiaobie. ¥# i::C6e;J a:]d? situation in which this acceptance became
4:21-5:12). Paul regards faith, not as itself possible. (Thinkers in the Socinian tradition,
our justifying righteousness, but rather as the believing that such a situation always existed
outstretched empty hand which receives right- and that Christ's work had no Godward refer-
ence, will not say even this.) Theologically,
:::tsendessRobmy.I;::]7V;]n8a,fh;i::.I)]npaHu:b.££n2js: the fundamental defect of all such views is
that they do not make the satisfaction of the
i#tE]:Cfjtusftp,)thweouia°:i;:ythftd,tsh:o£:;:]Jedm:a=
`£udrtt;]£v;,:i,£sthfioaEftk:ks,stFo;:£tu]]n]otyhae]t¥o;o_ i:cwat:::'bna;:saos`aac,cuedpi:::,cea.ctTTfe:xr:cg::idnju:ie-

text), the more fundamental assertion that ::aw:dpuatb.a;et?fes:::rei£::tfroe`eatofffp:nhs:

with it, or change it, at his discretion. The sug-
3:]*wr:#yfa6t:dd:ses]::t7:nadn£:::ecoa:ee:o_ gestion is that God is not bound by his own
ti£;I:6dt€«Afbe:aata:I.b=F£:v€dp°Sded:]S:n:Se:tGwew: law: its preceptive and penal enactments do
not express immutable and necessary demands
reckoned unto him for righteousness," ERV) of his own nature, but he may out of benevo-`

;o:3Pr:fv.;.th|:Si:in:,e¥inttha(,Se:hGe:I.3::iB::: ±nc;hraet]aEea:s?iT:s?dh;hwee:e¥£tshe::tsc:a£§i:;
unscriptural conception.
phrases this verse as teaching that Abraham's
faith was reckoned for righteousness (Ron.
V. THE DocTRINE IN HlsTORy. Interest in
4:5, 9, 22), all he intends us to understand is
that faith - decisive, whole-hearted reliance justification varies according to the weight
given to the scriptural insistence that man's
::e¥f:i;g:aca£::smp:::s;=£:I:i.te]o8us££;,ss_beTna;
:en]3tfs°i:n:°rs::€es£;ar?ieyte:t:indedunbdyer]ahYs|qi:;)rf
(q.v.) and condemnation. The late Medievals
:Eaptuft:i€ht:sti:.gr¥:rdeoisj::t£;]Tc¥£eos:i.O;a::r£: took this more seriously than any since apos-
:hoits::snc,::stina?at|T,e.:;;u,::::,i:iti:ic::icounri:: :E`ri:u:ihm;se'n:i::,s::re:::,i,::,::ttg:::e:t:,nkcs:
it. Paul's conviction is that no child of Adam
The Reformers proclaimed justification by
ever becomes righteous before God save on
account of the righteousness of the last Adam, grace alone through faith alone on the ground
of Christ's righteousness alone, and embodied
the second representative man (Ron. 5: 12-
Paul's doctrine in full confessional statements.
19); and this righteousness is imputed to men
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were
when they believe.
the doctrine's classical period. Liberalism
Theologians on the rationalistic and moral- spread the notion that God's attitude to all
istic wing of Protestantism - Socinians, Ar- men is one of paternal affection, not condi-
minians, and some modem Liberals - have tioned by the demands of penal law; hence
taken Paul to teach that God regards man's interest in the sinner's justification by the
faith as righteousness (either because it fulfils
a supposed new law, or because, as the seed ;i:]¥:o£Tgdag]:s¥oar:i::E]eascsegn3yr£:b:#toautgohntbo;
of all Christian virtue, it contains the germ his divine Father. The validity of forensic
categories for expressing man's saving relation-
::]g]:;e]nac;,°ofraen]s:V:::::]sefi:fi:ms::tp:;8:g:: ship to God has been widely denied. Many
sovereign pleasure to treat faith as righteous- Nco-orthodox thinkers seem surer that there is
JUSTICE 308

a sense of guilt in man than that there is a of his holiness. By rector&Z justice, he insti-

::an,:]c]]:i:Lngffadt,I:gad,:::edgotrofe:cfsc:r£:£e:
i}:t;3]Surs;tg:::ti:i::I:1b:;;h:esn:o:;::a:bi:t:;i:tjr:s;:a:rg-
(rem%7terofjfy.e justice, expressive of his love)
;e:.re:i|:e;:I::I:lil,;;red;f:i:h?1s:|d:oef:av::u:S::e£:,I:.:at|lo.;:.n::i;
though a new emphasis is apparent in recent :]Pv€ :fuE££Ssh::antths).(retrib"tjve justice, expres.
lexical work, the newer Lutheran writers and God's moral excellence made necessary ei-
the Dog#iflfjcs o£ Karl Barth. ther the punishment of sinners or expiation
BIBLIOGRAPHY whereby their condemnation would be re-
moved. The sinner was without power to offer
satisfaction for his sin, but righteousness was

ir:tvfad]:dthaesrfghhr:::u:h:er=::ed=notfattfr:]°afwmaanna
paid the price of sin in the believer's place so

matjcs., IV, I, See. 61

;i:t?:.:i:thius:j!i:::le?w`s¥il,r¥;.r!:if,i:Lns::::
JAMES I. PACKER
iour the requirements of divine justice have
been met.
JUSTICE. Justice is a communicable attrib- See also JusT, JusTIF¥.
bute of God, manifesting his holiness. The BIBLIOGRAPHY
biblical words thus translated, 5edd-qd, Sedeq,
and d;k¢josytcG, are also rendered as "right-
eousness." Used of man, justice refers to right

;u|:tthr:ghtg:::a::tJb::.t°aa:Psgreet££:gehfjsu:tTce:
has to do with his rectitude in and of himself;

3;:,isicahbsho:tt:ephj:|sj:cii:seTfeaa:tai;hs:vrieoc,:itti::: BURTON L. GODDARI)

KABBALA. Kabbala, f ron Hebrew q69cll, tradition were Reuchlin (1455-1522) and
Fludd (1574-1637). The greatest strength of
::Oof;C;][::;';]]:,aGJneo::::::i°ST°updhato::|Te¥ounpcgi Kabbalism was in its suppression of rampant
elements. Tending to be riystical and esoteric, Rationalism, and its greatest weakness lay in
it deals with several basic theological issues its reduction of religion to mysticism, magic
such as the nature of God, the destiny of and superstition.
DAVID H. WAI.LACE

:I;:fc:ie:1,o,;rsed:bi;::?.f:I;:a:ecu.f#j|,.:e:-na:i¥!: KENOSIS. The term kenosis is taken from

ished in the thirteenth century in Gemany, ke7&oo-in Phil. 2:7 (AV: "made himself of
no reputation"; RSV: ``emptied himself").
a::sftnoteai:adnfs[ia[:i#a££e£]?nil:nes.repa£Cct;°:£#£rtahn: The rendering "emptied" is a somewhat mis-
dola (1463-94), an early Christian Kabbalist, leading translation for the following reasons:
held that all Christian doctrine was latent in ( 1 ) ke7®oo- in the NT is commonly used in the
the Jewish Kabbala. Other Christians in this metaphorical rather than the literal meaning
309 KINGDOM OF GOD

(Ron. 4:14) I Cor.1:17; 9:15; 11 Cor. 9:3

(cf. 8. 8. Warfield in JSBE); (2) explicit geonr:tfcTset[sdte:1:mr£::Eerptoos;:I;::sriefhoanntee:3::an¥
statements of the NT indicate that Jesus re- their view.
tained his divine nature and attributes (Matt. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1:23; 11:27; Mark I:1; John 3:13 AV;
14:9; Ron. I:4); (3) the doctrine of the
incarnation requires the continuing divinity of
Jesus; (4) the immutability of God (deity is
g;i;;i;o#;t!:se;jje;,!:E"ii:aip#i;:£.jj!::ji!'iei:£Si:n;effo:i#i;I:;:
Was in Cthris..
attributed to Jesus in the passage, t"orphe- JOIIN H. GERSTNER
theow) makes an "emptying" inconceivable.
For such reasons as the above, the kenosis KERYGMA. See GospEL.
has generally been taken to refer not to the
KEY. See BINDING AND LooslNG.
subtraction of divinity, but the addition of
humanity. "The kenosis is that self-limitation
KIND, KINDNESS. The adjective "kind"
of the logos which was involved in his mani-
translates the Greek c)irgstos, which is used of
festation in a human form; though at the same
God (Luke 6:35; I Pet. 2:30) and men (Eph.
time he is not in any way limited as to his
4:32) in the sense of loving, friendly, gener-
cosmic position. This conception of the
ous. The expression fo cJ2i-Gstot¢ is used of God
Kenosis may be regarded as the recognized
views of the early church" (F. Loofs jn (Rom. 2:4) and the abstract noun "kindness"
SHERK). Likewise, the Reformation saw in (cJirgsfotGs) in the sense of goodness or gen-
erosity is likewise used of him (e.g., Eph.
Christ's humiliation a veiling (obsct4rfltjo) of
2: 7). It is used also of men (e.g.,11 Cor. 6:6;
his glory, but not a removal or suspension of
Gal. 5:22). The verb to be kind, loving,
his divinity in nature or exercise. Luther, and
merciful (c}c7.Gsfe[io7jior.) occurs in I Cor.13 :4.
the Lutherans, because of their doctrine of
Outside the NT the word occurs in the LXX
ubiquity, held the unusual view that the
and in patristic and secular writers. Often the
kenosis referred to the incamate Logos and
word Christ was written CJij-Gstos (itacism),
not the eternal Logos. They agreed, however, "the Friendly."
with the catholic tradition, that the divine
BIBLIOGRAPHY
being did not divest himself of any of his Amdt; LC.
divinity. J. THEODORE MUELLER
While the kenotic notion has not been
without its representatives in the church from KING. See OFFlcEs oF CHRlsT.
the beginning (though the orthodox tradition
has been clearly Chalcedonian), it had a spe- KINGDOM 0F GOD. I. TERMINOLOGY.
"The kingdom of God" occurs four times in
cial development in the nineteenth century.
Its i.¢jso7c c!'Gtre seems to have been a desire Matthew (12:28; 19:24; 21:31; 21:43), four-
to emphasize the reality o£ Jesus' humanity teem times in Mark, thirty-two times in Luke,
and, possibly, to maintain his ability to err. twice in John (3 :3, 5), six times in Acts, eight
Thomasius, who was the first to state the doc- times in Paul, once in Revelation (]2:10).
"The kingdom of the heavens" occurs thirty-
trine scientifically, held a moderate forin of
kenoticism (an emptying of certain divine three times in Matthew, once in a variant
attributes only, and that tempoi.arily). Gess, reading in John 3:5, once in the {ipocryphal
however, represented the Son of God as losing work, The Gospel of the Hebrews I I. "King-
even his eternal self-consciousness in his de- don" occurs nine times (e.g. Mi`tt. 25:34;
scent into human flesh, only gradually to Luke 12:32; 22:29; I Cor.15:24; Rev.I:9);
regain it in the course of his ministry. Accord- also "th}r kingdom" (Matt. 6:10; Luke
ing to Ebrard, the Logos reduced himself to 11:10); "his kingdom" (Matt. 6:33; Luke
the dimensions of the human soul without 12:31; I Thess. 2: 12), "the kingdom of their
ceasing to be the eternal Son. "The same ego (my) Father" (Matt. 13:43; 26:29), "the
exists at once in the eternal and in the ten- gospel of the kingdom" (Matt. 4:23; 9:35;
poral form, is both infinite and finite" (L. 24:14), "the word of the kingdom" (Matt.
Beckho£, The History of Christiqpe Doc_t!.in_es, ]3:19), "the sons of the kingdoin" (Matt.
p. 125). Godet, Martensen, William Clarke, 8:12; 13:38), "the kingdom of our father
KINGDOM OF GOD 310

David" (Mark 11:10). Twice "kingdom" is the abstract rather than the concrete meaning.
used of the redeemed (Rev.I:6; 5:9).
``The kingdom of God" and "the kingdom
Shr:::,g'Stfnre:£:.:S.yfer:fuoefntt[hy]sdfd&#?,Z£::.:
of the heavens" are linguistic variations of the of his reign (I Chron. 26:31; Dan. I : 1). The
same idea. Jewish idiom often substituted a establishment of Solomon's "ctzlEltf (I Kings
suitable terln for deity (Luke 15:21; Matt. 2:12) meant the securing of his reign. The
21:25; Mark 14:61; I Macc. 3:50; Pirke reception o£ Saul's 7"al&ti! by David (I Chron.
Aboth 1:3). Matthew preserved the semitic 12:23 [Heb., vs. 24]), is the authority to
idiom while the other Gospels render it into reign as king. The abstract idea is evident
idiomatic Greek. See Matt. 19:23-24 for their when the word is placed in parallelism with
identity of meaning.
The kingdom of God is also the kingdom ::cmhinaitsntra(c6ac::c2ep3t;,as4,¥4We,rAr=::h;,s.g1;H;
o£ Christ. Jesus speaks of the kingdom of the 7: 14).
Son of Man (Matt. 13:41; 16:28), "my When 7#¢lkrfut is used o£ God, it almost
always refers io- his authority or his rule as
the heavenly King. See Ps. 22:28 (Heb., vs.
;iif;i:n;g;;;!#(kLft:3.o:;:J:o3;:Islji£3si;2: 29),103:19; 145:11,13; Obad. 21; Dan.
6 : 26.
(Col. 1 : 13); "his heavenly kingdom" (11 Tim.
4: 18); ``the eternal kingdom of our Lord and
Saviour Jesus Christ" (11 Pet. I : 11). God has
GOB.isTthhee¥ievTneT::rh:rei:;.aEem+:n8]4v°e:b°;
the Father to the Son (Luke 22:29). Christ
will exercise this rule until he has subdued all
8ivdenw#t:ti:g§::ht:s€:cr;S:p{[:#ek:h2£3:i9]:;
that is hostile to God. When he has put all
he will restore the kingdom to the Father
enemies under his feet, he will return the
(I Cor.15:24). Therefore it is, "the kingdom
kingdom - his messianic authority - to the
of Christ and of God" (Eph. 5:5). The king-
Father (I Cor.15:24-28). The kingdom (not
don of the world is to become "the kingdom
of our Lord and of his Christ" (Rev. 11 : 15).
There is no tension between "the power and
the kingdom of our God and the authority of
:o:nd#:m£:1:to=°h¥Lcs:Xm::=:S:eedLP:L¥mg:nmaLf£°;#¥S:th:::I
reign for ever and ever." In Rev.12:10 the
his Christ" (Rev.12: 10).
kingdom of God is parallel to the salvation and
11. THE SEcuLAR UsE. Basilei¢ is first the
authority to rule as a king, and secondly the power of God and the authority of his Christ.
realm over which the reign is exercised. This abstract meaning is apparent in the
A. TJie AZ7sfract Me¢7aj7®g. In Luke 19: 12,
I 5, a nobleman went into a far country to re- g:pe.I:,5Eriltisesli3.3ny::u:ve;I:itiEiskinlg:
ceive a "kingdom," i.e., authority to rule. Rev. When Jesus said that his kingdom was not
of this world (John 18:36), he did not refer
r]e7c=i?efpeaak.:k:nfgieonm,+;£n8hseyha°rehat:e<Fr::e?ve: to his realm; he meant that his rule was not
derived from earthly authority but from God
:rv¥°on;teyraiei:n8i'£'nfg°dro:T:?h°eu£:.air£::i;i,ni: fiE::hftui£:nkfknfisghd£:mw::]td£:°atc:o::;£ne::i;1:t]£
the Beast (Rev.17:17). The harlot is the
the divine purpose. The kingdom which men
great city which has ``kingdom," dominion over
the kings of the earth (Rev. 17: 18).
Iou:s|t5:ec#::t.W;[t;:]CZ;£]d±£5£es£TBP:I;C7£t,ytwMh;:E
a'soB.a'rt:I:a:::ertewTi:fi"I;":;iEeisk?xge!:rsedf men must seek (Matt. 6:33; Luke 12:31),
The idea of a realm is found in Matt. 4:8 = which Christ will give to the disciples (Luke
Luke 4:5; Matt. 24:7; Mark 6:23; Rev. 22:29) is the divine rule.
16: 10. IV. THE KINGDOM Is SoTERroLOGlcAL.
Ill. THE KINGDOM Is GOD's REIGN. The The object of the divine rule is the redemp-
``Kingdom of God" means primarily the rule
tion of men and their deliverance from the
of God, the divine kingly authority. powers of evil. I Cor. 15:23-28 is definitive.
A. The Old Testo7#e#t Usage. The Hebrew Christ's reign means the destruction of all
word ..¢az&¢£, like Z7asjzej¢, carries primarily hostile powers, the last of which is death. The
311 KINGDOM OF GOD

kingdom of God is the reign of God in Christ 19:28), the rebirth or transformation of the
destroying all that is hostile to the divine rule. material order.
8. The Kingdom Has Come into History.
oveThaegarnFtae;,sakfi°gsj;I:.kinh8ed%nsgt3:££no¥ Jesus taught that the kingdom, which will
the world" is opposed to God's kingdom (Rev. come in glory at the end of the age, has come
11:15) and must be conquered. The king- into history in his own person and mission.
doms of the world are under satanic control The redemptive rule o£ God has now invaded
(Matt. 4:8; Luke 4:5). Matt. 12:26 and the realm of Satan to deliver men from the
Luke 11:18 speak of the kingdom o£ Satan
power of evil. In the exorc.ism of demons Jesus
whose power over men is shown in demon asserted the presence and power of the king-
possession. This world or age opposes the dom (Matt. 12:28). While the destruction of
working o£ God's kingdom; the cares of the Satan awaits the coming Of the Son of Man
age will choke the word of the kingdom in glory (Matt. 25:41; Rev. 20: 10), Jesus has
(Matt. 13:22). This opposition between the already defeated Satan. The strong man
two kingdoms, of God and of Satan, is sum- (Satan) is bound by the stronger man
marized in 11 Cor. 4:4. Satan is called the (Christ) and men may now experience a new
release from evil (Matt. 12:29). The mission
i°]de3fythho];d]an8ge::£]£::a:£n::s.e#:js:ta?:: of the disciples in the name and power of
ment must be understood in light of the fact Christ casting out demons meant the over-
that God remains the king of the ages (I Tim. throw of Satan's power (Luke 10: 18). Thus
1:17; Rev.15:3).
Jesus could say that the kingdom of God was
The kingdom of God is the redemptive rule
present in the midst of men (Luke 17:21).
of God in Christ defeating Satan and the In the messianic works of Christ fulfilling Isa.
powers of evil and delivering men from the 35:5-6, the kingdom manifested its power
sway of evil. It brings to men "righteousness (Matt. I I : 12. B;¢zet¢i is best interpreted as a
and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit" (Ron. middle form).
14: 17). Entrance into the kingdom of Christ
a. The Kingdom ls Supernatui-al. As the
means deliverance from the power of darkness
dynamic activity of God's rule, the kingdom is
(Col.I: 13) and is accomplished by the new
supernatural. It is God's deed. Only the super-
birth (John 3:3, 5).
natural act of God can destroy Satan, defeat
V. THE KiNGDOM Is D¥NAMlc. The king- death (I Cor.15:26), raise the dead in in-
don is not an abstract principle; the kingdom corruptible bodies to inherit the blessings of
cot"es. It is God's rule actively invading the the kingdom (I Cor.15:50 ff.) and transform
kingdom o£ Satan. The coming of the king- the world order (Matt. 19:28). The same
don, as John the Baptist preached it, would supernatural rule of God has invaded the king-
mean a mighty divine act: a baptism of judg- dom of Satan to deliver men from bondage to
ment and fire (Matt. 3: 11 f.). God was about satanic darkness. The parable of the seed
to manifest his sovereign rule in the Coming
growing by itself sets forth this truth (Mark
One in salvation and judgment. 4:26-29). The ground brings forth fruit of
A. The Kingdom Comes at the End of the jtse!f . Men may sow the seed by preaching
Age. John looked for a single, though com- the kingdom (Matt. 10:7; Luke 10:9; Acts
plex, event of salvation - judgment. Jesus 8:12; 28:23, 31); they can persuade men
separated the present and future visitations of concerning the kingdom (Acts 19:8), but
the kingdom. There is a future eschatological they cannot build it. It is God's deed. Men
coming of the kingdom at the end of the age. can receive the kingdom (Mark 10:15; Luke
Jesus taught the prayer, ``Thy kingdom come" 18 : 17), but they are never said to establish it.
(Matt. 6: 10). When the Son of Man comes Men can reject the kingdom and refuse to
in his glory, he will sit on the throne of judg- receive it or enter it (Matt. 23: 13), but they
ment. The wicked will suffer the condemna- cannot destroy it. They can look for it (Luke
lion of fire, the righteous will "inherit the 23:51), pray for its coming (Matt. 6:10)
kingdom" (Matt. 25:31-46). The same separa- and seek it (Matt. 6:33), but they cannot
tion at the end of the age is pictured in Matt. bring it. The kingdom is altogether God's
13:36-43. This eschatological coming of the deed although it works in and through men.
kingdom will mean the p¢ljgge7¢esjfl (Matt. Men may do things for the sake of the king-
 312
KINGDOM 0F GOD

don (Matt.19:12; Luke 18:29), work for it

(Col. 4: 11), su££er for it (11 Thess.1 : 5), but :]rsoewtEsecdane:;]huesrtraft€e:ie[:ufc=]:ttuurrae,(n]at€:::
15 , 36-37).
they are not said to act upon the kingdom
itself. They can inherit it (Matt. 25:34; I
Cbr. 6:9 f., 15:50), but they cannot bestow m]#ye]::t:::go:fgitohreykj:sgda°nmut°t:rg:e]:ahnuj
it upon others.
VI. THE MysTER¥ oF THE KINGDOM. The
:::in:iz:I:,::::t;;jj:;;:;h:;va;s:::gi,:ti.:I:ge.:n,JieEs:;i.::lie:-
:i:s¥§i::efn2£;ho:r£L;£id;£:yss;;±y::1::]t;::I:i::v:::a::¥e:ri demned criminal - it js nevertheless the king-
don of God and, like buried treasure or a

::£Csea]cers£S££c¥a{]iv[ittst.a:8?isi:1;°6n).mir£:Sfaanc¥;£::
i;ii¥h::meta¥Fh:n:¥Le8io¥y:els)qf:v:iart:inu:°iw¥:dL:i £:r]£r;s:]Ftfn:tc;taftveftz£:v:hmeenktfnwg£,PcEt:][t]hn:
dons, then the kingdom o£ God. elude evil men as well as gcod should not lead
t§:::d:k;I:ii:oil:ejiti:£n€&;I:8:]t:°tf]ew;:Lsia;::;e;;L#L:V:LL#:'i
th£FeescE¥tsot]eorg]coa£]t::n¥:nmg:oar,o]:,this;orBee£:I:
destruction o£ Satan, before the age to come,

VII. THE KINGDOM AS THE REALMS OF

REI>EMPTlvE BLEsslNG. A reign must have a
realm in which its authority is exercised. Thus
t¥:ocife:,f;i¥r;si::l!¥fa:h:tuc:I:eva,:n:esd:a:::Fe::i:t
:_:-----ll------:---------:-----:--===-i=:-:-=-i::-:--:=-

A. The Ft4t"re Re¢lm. God calls men to

£a:i;:aa:i::;:;¥t;fa:r£:!¥tLt:t:tLa::3gs::a¥¥;yfi:fsru:ii¥: #;:I;ax:I;:1:e%c:as:n::fdtri2:g)S::#irts:e;I:::5::h::o;i
iheea:en£]r;ink:nv:::mev]](I:ndT:::e;h:g).£°rMhe£:
should be careful to assure entrance into the

ii:q:;;t:in:]g°efs:;:8;r:£::}S:£#g:e:t=LLa;LL;)o£,upt:a:1:
:--_----:--::--_-:------:--i-::--i:--::----:----:-:-:-_::--:----:-:_-:: 5:21; Eph. 5:5).

13:24-30, 36-43). The kingdom o£ God has

£s[dnes::£ebe€o:¥:s;t:i:c:s::taoto::g;c£:n:ad]::t{oo:

i:8::,dbcuotm:;kteot:een;I:::[ba]sa|amn:syar€]O::Oeti :o°£e(r#:¥k9:]4o|;3o])0::£3'£`:ntto°etFeem:ie]£i:
However its insignificance must not be de- (Mark 9:45; 10:17, 30; Matt. 25:46). These
three idioms are interchangeable. The consum-

;::Saetd.tr¥]S(SrfuEt::k]]n3g.d3°]T32W)i:]i:setegay:£e
world transforming power, th_e_ k.ingdo.T
;ir:ot;i:no:oiha*:]nn2g;a;¥1)o:#r:iae:;:w:lim:c::i,0::
E:teseo:t[]enavaenna]h::ate;m¥rcaep££obte]£:FTd]o£::h: riio¥¥:h:5i:3C5::e;):t:t:Ill:al:€rL]:t:at§ib):e]OBrog££:or::e:ht!j|

feel::hwsi:;u:np:i:LieedwhoL:de€£S:L£[::t.rzn6e¥;S
§a¥,te::aa:s:t::i;:j]::)1:a):;:::ei¥§:r:§r!r;ii::y:eit:;Lr;:£§::::
 KINGDOM OF GOD
313

when they would share both his fellowship

and his authority to rule (Luke 22:29-30).

i:!!i:e:dihi-:.ie:is!.:g:iffao:£:sd:€:i:.i;?:b:e:xi
;a:t:hige::q:Siis:£:;t:1:v;eT:i;Sunk¥:2¥ii¥nraeoi:d°jiy;I::_
ment (Matt. 25:31-46). Revelation pictures a ;hr:]a3ci:i:i:nsdtshaideiihn:gtft:;¥C.e:£t:,e:£d::::iesfntJ£:e:.
termination (Luke 16:16). The one who is
more detailed consummation. At the return o£
least in the new order of the kingdom is called
Christ (Rev. 19), Satan is bound and,shut up
in a bottomless pit, the first resurrection oc-
curs, and the resurrected saints share Christ's
rule for a thousand years (Rev. 20: I-5). In
i:o:i:ebr(e#i::slt:::cl:)re]#:tu::£v:;h;::E;yesc:k::ng:
sayings about entering a present realm of
blessing are found in Matt. 21 :31; 23: 13.
!isnFi:lhee-f,La,lfir,eig:,of.fcshur:sht::;inh::saasin#e;:
5:10; I Col. 6:2; Matt.19:28; Luke 22:30.

gant:ynactas:h:nteon:h:£]atkheeoT;:::ennt[fi:v.t26v:.[o£;
and death finally destroyed (Rev. 20: 14). :i:|h::sr:i;i::::n:i,:ij:ai:;y;eT:;::sean;i:-:i:;rd;e:d:;n#f::gj
:;£r::no£°£thJeesf]S;g¥:Sew#E°con£;ie::C:;field:Fk£:
trust will enter into the future eschatological
kingdom of life.
VIII. THE KINGDOM AND THE CHURCH.

=::tk;#:mp::a:a:ntghetfEUE:£;dTme:po%,oea
(Acts 8:12; 19:8; 28:23); it is impossible to
substitute "church" for "kingdom" in such
:i::--:-:i_-I-:-_-::_:1-_-:--:--:-:-_-i_:-_--::_i---:-:-:----:-:-:-i:,-:_:-::

outline of the consummatioli.

ijtesia:g::hi::h.tie:vac:cr:Leu;i;;[reui::;ta;¥:ejiE,aj::eEd:i:;;i
cons:h=:aft:;Lstatnhdattfha:I:hfes:::nyfnogneofst%gEr;os: itssraeb]]e{s*Fagtst.. Toh:e5_6k;?gfi: b¥ca:us:£f:;e:heti:
previous
`.sons ofcovenantal relationship
the kingdom" (Matt.to 8:12)
Cbd were
-its
y££[[s::aanug£:I:;:tshaem:g:st:h::::.hTftet.b:z€2ngg
natui`al heirs. However, the offer of the king-
don in Christ was made on an individual basis
£3n5;te;4ma:t.°£[oP:e3r;:;;1)arcactehpetra:i:n(rna::ri;3:;

i±:;(`,jn&;v:5::;rt;1;;i];ji:;a[:5::):;bi§i:tii:enb!i;:5;P;ii the family or nation. Because Israel rejected

the kingdom, it was taken away from her and
:a#e:irids:,:srenftm:xEehcet,:.=si:Lednnyi::rsrei`:g:
Scyh=?s:I:Cpr:=e=?erreLg£:rthtrhoeugfn:ireec£::Lc°hd.°£ 3i:e:h:°rcf. different People (Matt. 2| :43),

It is often overlooked that in both of these cfe:i::i:|e:Tge:|e;:h;#i:|fntjhiea:d;:::#e::tiFii;::::

interpretations, the final goal is the same - the

:::Seu.mTmhaet£::b::e:s°da'£oku;tngg::te];st5;;gheictf more it was the activity of the divine rule

which brought judgment upon Israel. Individ-
gn°ddn::]]abaoc::Thpe[[Schha:::terredoefm€:;:,:rpe¥ep£;e_ ually, the kingdom means either salvation or
live purpose.
8. A Pi-ese7it Real773. Because the dynamic {rvi8ymeo:ttiL:[a£:;g3d.o[:)'ofh]8::'Cae]£]fye'cttehdetahc:
creation of the church and the destruction o£
power o£ God's reign has invaded this evil age
`q.v.), it has created a present spiritual realm
Israel (Matt. 23:37-38). This is probably the
KINGDOM OF HEAVEN 314

meaning of Mark 9: I. Within the lifetime of KINGDOM OF HEAVEN. See KINGDOM

oF GOD.
:::ndE:Lp£]£eess,t£;hgeft§£nftoeT£:fbs:n:£n#dhps:
torical judgment upon Jerusalem and in creat- KINSMAN. See GOEL.

KNOWLEDGE. The problems of knowl-

inoguntcheed :heewre?::tE;e: otfh:sr::]uracnha tE:u:a]::: edge that are raised by the biblical revelation
tion of the Gentiles (I Thess. 2:16; Acts
are chiefly two: first, what is the nature of
28:26-28). However, the rejection of Israel is
God's knowledge, and, second, what is man's
not permanent. After God has visited the Gen- knowledge, particularly man's knowledge of
tiles, he will regraft Israel into the people of
God?
God and "so all Israel will be saved" (Ron. Perhaps the fullest summary of the biblical
11:24-26), receive the kingdom of God and
material on God's knowledge is found in
enter into its blessings (see Matt. 23:39; Acts Stephen Charnock's Disco"rses wpo# the Exjs-
3:19 f.).
te72ce a"d Attr;ZJwtes of God, Kregel, Grand
The kingdom also works through the Rapids, 1958, chapters VIII and IX, a study
church. The disciples preached the kingdom of some 200 pages.
of God and performed signs of the kingdom
The main point in considering God's knowl-
edge is his omniscience: "His understanding
:fMtitet.k:£;Z;8i:::eeo]p:i::iv]e7]):aTdetE:owuegr£
is infinite" (Ps. 147:5). The items o£ God's
knowledge are made in the Scripture in great
c:h.e:Tch:e::rs:s.:;;.n::a:t::e|ko:n::ud'o:ELg:o::ef|:6a;I:8:-
profusion: events past, "God remembered Ra-
chel" (Gen. 30:22), and "a book of remem-
19). The meaning of the keys is illustrated in
brance was written before him" (Mal. 3: 16);
Luke 11:52. The scribes had taken away the
events present, "Doth he not see all my ways
and count all my steps" (Job 30:4); events
:ie.yn:ff:hne°#8i,h:.ei:yth.:::::::,a':i::Pgr:La: future, "In that day there shall be a fountain
divine purpose had been entrusted to Israel;
opened" (Zech. 13:1), and "He shall reign
but the scribes had so misinterpreted the
over the house of Jacob forever" (Luke I :33);
oracles of God delivered to them (Rom. 3:2)
and, as well, hypothetical events contrary to
that when Messiah came with a new revela-
fact, "The Lord said, they will deliver thee
tion of God's kingdom, they neither entered
up" to Saul if thou stayest in Keilah (I Sam.
themselves nor allowed others to enter. These
23 : 12).
keys, along with the kingdom blessings, are
Not so explicit but more important, God
to be given to the new people who, as they

g:e:::iheeango:fb:::visngof.rtT.e.sTi¥ioe=,fr:`# g.:rTts2She,'a:;Sj!:she#;:#ee¢t,#gss:'seo:Ssay?s;;Tf:
their sins. In fact, the disciples had already
case in Rev. 2:23, "I am he which searcheth
the reins and heart" (cf. I Chron. 28:9; Ron.
:r¥ndg]tnhges:ek;eytsheangdfftexoefrc;Seeadcethofrs;ruot::i:¥:
8:27), does not imply that God had been
ing the divine judgment (Matt.10:13-15).
ignorant previous to this search. In these
The kingdom is God's deed. It has come into
cases, se¢rc7i means to know exactly and com-
the world in Christ; it works in the world
through the church. When the church has pletely. Furtherlnore, that God knows himself
proclaimed the gospel of the kingdom in all F1:?set:e:s:d::id p:rr::c,i:is, :En;Fo;e:iccel :ri:
the world as witness to all nations, Christ will
expressed in sundry passages and divers man-
return (Matt. 24: 14) and bring the kingdom
ners,
in glory.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

:i:T:;!n`e::,:reok:nu;orw:::!;t;:stcoe:tke:;I;ec:;?un;I.an:g:
iFe#:;;:::nudneisnitgenraTepdte!ski::X!:Jeg.edaa
sees all things at a glance, as it were. He does
not learn. He was never ignorant, and he can
GEORGE ELDON LADI) never come to know more.
315
KNOWLEDGE

:onE::=:SleTeaNn:wi,na.ti::.als,;ngte#;gnib'ce;u3j
know or understand nothing about God, Chris-

i::F:::!:,:.fje;:k;n¥i;:i;ei:ii-ti::E:,!jTIi:::ii: :sas:f#a[w::]dma¥nt;Tnpofs:t[et.he[th£:rna:nso]:tfen]Z
contain 180 degrees. God does not reason in
this fashion. This is not to say that God is 3sLecfupearbeLfeor:fmgurs:pbein:a£=nT;:necaonmEr:themn:i.
cannot know everything about God. It is
ignnd°raneto::::.e&8i:sa]::|adt,£°]:e¥%e:nh:=£s°eT£: necessary to assert that man can know some
truths about God without knowing every-
£epes:fne=t]z£]:£{Fn];t::te::5a=ssf:::r:=:d;: thing that God knows.
to another. That is to say, there is no succes- In reaction against the optimistic modem-
sion of ideas in God's mind. He does not first ]nsemo_o°rfthtohdeox;,£n(eqt.ev:rtfasce£:¥s?e'dc::t:Fep°t::¥
know one item and then come to know another
scendence of God. But it .has distorted the
::ewa+;C:ysh:nwh¥sP:e:i:rslyignorant.Allideas
But though there is no succession of ideas ::::]C:i:°ankc,enpgt&dtr:::C;]ne€:]nyceu::ngweabi::
in God's mind, it does not follow that there
is no idea Of succession. The logical succes-
:so,:*`!,iF;ei:e:E::r:,;:;,:oe:E:aE,ae:da:b?eewri¥il:y:
:i::,socf[ecnocne:]uss;i::|a:I?nth:r:Eel:eo:ssauc::::£oof wants to, speak his word even through false
in time is known to God. God knows that one doctrine." Another author denies that a propo-
event follows another in time. Christ came sition can have the same meaning for man as
after David, and David after Moses. But God's it dues for God. Several theologians collab-
ideas do not follow one another in time, for orated to say that "we dare not maintain that
Christ was slain before the foundation of the his (God's) knowledge and our knowledge
world. Therefore God did not learn that coiRcj:;:ttsaeneym:i:£|veio=sini:tifamanknows
Christ was crucified or that David came after
Moses by waiting for history to show it to any truth at all, he must know a truth that
God knows, for God knows all truths. A sen-
fence must mean to a man who knows its
iii:a:y:ac::gfs;:d;:::(:v:F:I:il::o:14e5o:h;'=:s:e Eetahne[nfa:redc:::[ynoThkanto*=aFsS:°eagnd:,£f:
does not know the meaning of the sentence.
:f87h3£};¥],nfth::8hftfgttE:twh£:]Skfo#se±:a:i:
C£:ns:s:!|£Sowkn£:|e,d8eu;t±:kd:€w:°tthe:ai: Fee::erfieiiThaa:::etroeka::wp.ai:?sth.iFg.,.ii:c::::::

make them. . . If his knowledge did depend ?aert[yeeGnodhuc:::otanfdw£::]]*rh`:rig:;rs]tEi:

would deny that man was created in the image
of God.
i?tnptr:e:c;da::gisd:'stch:;:Oe;I:ed£]:0::e:k:n:o€£ie:d:g]e:g.I
to say that God was not the cause of their s.nTaFee::o.-:r:i::oxwit,rhy&dsuE::it::en.:ppue:i
being." knowledge of him. Thought, they say, cannot
Because o£ God's intuitive omniscience, as grasp God, or indeed any persons. Persons are
7met, not thought. But in human relations

¥d=];,lpiseos:b:y::::a¥u:in::ftlhn:C];s=i?:i:e¥;tl:bi:eG?il: #re€]ees:n:::°::tit:odw°]end°gtep:°£d:£earfar;:enr:S:ipa
knowledge of himself to man's knowledge of this comes mainly through intelligible con-

?nef:a±°a:i.ons£:;]oa:]ty'h±]fmg£¢::;:=::log:Veth::
g:d:se3£i::#kgod:o:t::ui:i:h¥::ogo£,::a:is:e±::bit is rationally understood, a personal encounter
would leave our minds a religious blank.
prehended. But God is incomprehensible to
man.
areT¥eeryfnj:£::£]ets%fp]tst::1:]goygyant:.vpF£::s:ep£Z
ca¥:sforu=:::::zt|eth:.:en¥a,i:::.mpEten:i:r`: fyingly technical. Whether we lean by logic
LABOR 316

alone as Descartes and Spinoza taught; or is come and hath given us an w7&dersfa#dj"g,
whether we learn by experience alone as
Berkeley and Hume taught; or whether we ;?2toTecFigah,:.i":wKhiinmgsth|a;:i24t,"3':s(12J;???
need Kant's a grjori categories; or whether we 43:3; 86:11; 119:43,142,147; Ron.1:18;
can receive truth only by revelation - are 3:7; 11 Cot. 6:7; 7:14; 11:10; Gal. 2:5,14;
subjects of interesting scholarly discussion. But Eph.I:13 etc.)
however it may be, the Bible does not coun-
tenance skepticism. It is not anti-intellectual;
it does not treat doctrine as unimportant, false,
G.Ee:eeavneirns::ina:icftee£,ahtc::±ankn:rf
and that God can be known. Christianity is
or "incomprehensible." Rather it places con-
the religion of a Bcok; it is a message of good
siderable emphasis on truth and understand- news; it is a revelation or communication of
ing. truth from God to man. Only if the proposi-
``Grace and truth came through Jesus Christ
. . . And ye shall know the truth . . . I tell you :floe?So°nf]yth:fBiba]:,sar:n:ea]t]£e°cnta]:Zncoumnpdr::ecan:=
the truth . . . Sanctify them through thy truth; what God says, only if God's mind and man's
tih7¥i7;°rcd£.£Sloth=th5":5(31,°E?4;;:1176:i3;?;]n]6i7: mind have some content in common, only so
can Christianity be true and only so can
face of these utterances it is difficult to under- Christ mean something to us.
stand how anyone can seriously say that we
See also EplsTEMOLOG¥.
can be sanctified through false doctrine.
Or, again, "We k"ow that the Son of God CORDON H. CLARK

LABOR. See WoRK. I:29, 36). In Acts 8:32 and I Pet.I:19 he

is compared to the spotless lamb by whose
LAITY. From haos ("people"), the laity
oHufgFotrfsctarj]cy:yh:ow:::I:teftwhha:]eco¥:p::3:gsedj
3fetiea::::dffeeerinegd.anTdhevi:ea£ours..dtsyi:ng,Ei:5T?
in the suffering servant of Isa. 53 (c£. Jer.
of those who are not specifically ordained to
11:19); in the paschal lamb (cf. I Cor. 5:7;
ttrpceui:rfi;£Si=rk(:ierf8ny)t.heThReo£:S:£n€:t°hno]i:::rd
John 19:36); and in the daily offering of
lambs in the temple. God provides the lamb
Eastern Orthodox Churches, with a strong em-
(cf. Gen. 22:8), to take upon himself, to
phasis on the fact that the duty of the laity bear in his own body on the tree (I Pet. 2:24;
is to be taught, to obey and to make financial
Isa. 53:4, 6); that is, to make propitiation, to
contribution. The discontent of the laity has
overcome and to take away the sins of the
found expression in the various church-state
world (I John 4: 10; 3:5; I :7). The Lord laid
conflicts and in a deep-seated spirit of anti-
on him, as the su££ering servant, the iniquity
clericalism in many countries. Protestant
of us all. As the passover lamb, he redeemed
churches find the term a convenient one when
all the Israel of God from the bondage of sin
it is desired to distinguish between ministers
and Satan. Because he loves us, he gave him-
and non-ministers, but it seems to have no
self up as a sacrifice to God for us (Eph. 5 :2).
material validity in view of the fact that all
Using a variant Greek word, ¢r7®jo7i, Reve-
Christians are priests and all constitute the
lation describes the heavenly Lord twenty-
real people of God. Hence it is perhaps bet-
eight times as the lamb. On the one hand, he
ter avoided in its traditional sense.
is fully identified with the lamb that was slain
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
in sacrifice, whose blood expiates the sins of
LAMB, LAMB OF GOD. Twice John the redeemed (5:6, 9,12; 7: 14; 12: 11; 13:8).
On the other hand, he is also the lamb who
pointed Jesus out as the lamb of God (John
 LAW
317

has overcome death and received the horns LAUGH, LAUGHTER. These words are
o#ea:,eyi::::=:|se(ig;:,e,::se::re,:!E,:E:osst::i:'t:- :osege;Oo€:?'(a,s)w]:ruedtFaejrghbt]:br]£:ilo;£enn;va£?retsh

ten in his book to salvation (7:9, 17; 13:8;

i;Ei:;:jill:;;c;uiuii;:::ia:;;is:g;jr!rr;:i:::h:::iiI;;I;:p;:f:;s
::4:t](i27e]|?:);ia:!fch:e::v::;rt;:uhi6npe]t¥;rs:£fE%:
I:tmopfh]aonrt:?ae:ih:a:e±}=jt:£g£;sh:i£;:tih4: derment based on something too impossible
19:16), who receives divine worship and
reigns forever (22: 1, 3; 11 : 15).
Lohebne]£Avber;hT±ea;kdepst:::LTaout:h:sdp;;seennt;bea;
BIBLIOGRAPHY

:Ee:::sre:I:in:]ssg::¥j;:k§::abs:ohnftofab:tL€d;¥h:o:g¥eha::
fe§:¥a¥;.dH::e3m#ife¥3¥';IOFina?::.Lt¥98±9o£;.°m°Sye:fie;=
WILLIAM CHILDS ROBINSON
¥n8d::r]::a:unglh7[.:tlt8hthe:2mrie;°:re£},i:(,i:)er£,:S:°gt°:e:
LASCIVIOUSNESS. The word aselgeia

:ea:t[?u:isehcahdee;°efspemce£:Ti]yn:;]tth:SAu#ai::]ofi ;i:;cq]::h,3aeu£:t{:t]e::::akn#:¥{t::tex§p]¥:;on:.:£r;Em:
heavens (Ps. 2:4). Kflt¢geha6, the Greek
petulant wantonness as in the RV. The sec- equivalent, occurs only three times in the NT
and carries the same thought of "loud and
repeated guffaws of scorn."
t:::nTch;:till:agsi;jr:k;e::e;:neei'fls:h:ohc:*ei:nc€]abi:n;u:b:I;: F. CARLTON BOOTH
ALBERT VICTOR M'CALLIN
LAW. I. TERMs. Scripture is full of judi-
cial terms such as righteousness, transgression,
LAST DAYS. See EscHATOLOGy, AGE.
Jfnfdg;Lad;:fe:sest:h;;.,a:I;;::.::a#R:!o::?en:d:;gl:
LATITUDINARIANISM. A name some-
King and subject. Hence the importance of

¥e;ti;::;it:h]ycaiEd::]i:I:j°:a:gg:lr::n:d:ti:£c€:e°=i:::: :leaf::tne::s::c°£oiaw#et=::iat£::qi:I:;„an]€
which tended to reduce to a minimum the doc-
trinal content of Christianity, passing over in :tethoHr:t3::vwe±t:::i,ctTOEfcthproorj:£T::]7;;£g:::e]:
particular the doctrines of sin and grace, and most commonly means an ``oracle" or "word"
which advocated a broad and generous toler-
ation in religious politics. Though their calm :+:8:I:::ge;toej¢::€a£{::Ss:T:::trh;;u:cL;t:h::a;st:Lt¥;:So:u::nhsteEa:nf

all "instruction" (so RV margin) from God,

e.g., Isa. 8:16~20, Mic. 4:2. It is therefore a
synonym for the whole of the revealed will
ii:t];e:::;;:i:ij;;:n:dn:i:.:::i:;t:i;ih::;:;i::::i:o3:[pi:::a:cri;ai o£ God-the word, commandments, ways,
Revival and the church's reaction to it are ]gf£T2e::t;,,g:edcee:;S:cfeat]:;t:£rotuhgehoLuotr5,s.a;]£9:
Following the LXX, the NT uses the
;#c'ij;Ec:h:eTh:e?:::n;t.aEn::i;I:oes';f.Icca:!-ifi!d: Greek %o7"os for tor¢7. (e.g., Deut. 27:26 in
Platonism," it was the Latitudinarian outlook Gal. 3 : 10). In classical Greek the word meant

#cEa::sT::d,i:h?,:3?a:,?tcah`:racyhsmc::::i;usa'Z2
liberal theology of the nineteenth century. ::;i:i::a;;vfhu:s?::Tu:,:1,:o::eh:I,e,!ai,set:hic;E:os:g:o:
0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON law as a personal word from God the Law-
LAW 318

giver, is nearly always present. Narrowly, demands of their Creator (Ron.I: 18-32), so
7!oowos can be used to designate the Pentateuch that divine punishment is justly meted out to
because of its supreme importance as the unrighteousness before Moses in the days of
basic document o£ God's revelation to his peo- the Flood (Gen. 6:5-17) and Of Sodom an_d
ple (Luke 2:23-24; 10:26; John I:17, 45; Gomorrah (Gen. 18-19), and inhumanity
Gal. 3:17; James 2:10-11; etc.); or, more among Gentile nations is denounced as an
narrowly still, the Mosaic legislation, esp. the offense later by the prophets (see esp. Amos
Decalogue (Ex. 24: 12; Ron. 3:20); or, more I : 3-2 : 3).
widely, since all the Scriptures of Israel are To fallen man the law is an instmment
the authoritative word of God, #ot#os can of condemnation (Rom. 2:16; 3:19) in that
refer to the whole of the OT (John 10:34; it holds before his largely atrophied moral
12:34; Ron. 3:19; I Col.14:21; etc.). The perception the commands and prohibitions of
standard description of the OT is "the law his Maker and hence gives him a clear knowl-
and the prophets" (Matt. 5:17; Luke 16:16; edge of sin (Ron. 3:20; 7:7). It pronounces
cf. 24:27; Ron. 3:21; etc.). The usual Jew- wrath on the transgressor (Rom. 4:15) and
ish threefold division is used in Luke 24:44. sentence of death, ``slaying" him (Ron. 7: 11;
The traditions of rabbinic law are clearly c£. Gen. 3); and thus has become a ``law of
distinguished from the divine statutes in the sin and death" (Ron. 8:2) revealing the
NT (Mark 7:5-13; Col. 2:8). The constant
use of 7ao7#os in the singular (apart from 3:::¥Ctth°e£::igwmhe°n]::afcediud£]trRaonmd.d3Tge)i
Heb. 8: 10 and 10: 16, where the Hebrew OT To those who begin to feel their guilt, the
original was singular) is an impressive testi- law may even become an instrument to goad
mony to the unity of the OT, viewed as it them further into sin (Ron. 7: 11) and hence
was by the NT writers as a coherent and the strength of sin is the law (I Cor.15:56).
Those who seek to merit divine approval by
::Tpl;:;|ly.afutkrj:ati:eeRTiieas:;on,ho:thwe..=ini:
occasionally used with other meanings. In iu.`f`i::sg,tahsek,`af::s,Er.euc:Etse,ae`=ae|ni|:f:edisinch:
Ron. 3:27 and 8:2 the idea of moral code reward of complete obedience (Ron. 10:5;
is not present, but rather "rule of procedure" Gal. 3:12), such obedience must be perfect
or "principle of working," i.e., a system char- (James 2: 10), an obedience which only Adam
in his innocence could render. This attempt
gser;3:d i:y I:Lees fo]]!02¥[;:gAger:i;£tvead] :shera:: simply confirms man's position as under the
7coowos is found in Ron. 7:21, though here curse of God (Gal. 3:10). However, since
it means rather "the way things regularly hap- the law can bring a man to see his own cor-
pen," i.e., a law of action. In Ron. 7:23 and mption, his need of pardon and gracious re-
25 "the law of sin" can only refer to a pow- instatement - in a word, his hopeless condi-
erful inner principle which controls and de- lion without a salvation which is completely
termines conduct like a governing authority. from God - the law has an essential prepara-
11. MAN, SIN AND THE LAw. From the first, tory work of conviction to perform, and 'it
Scripture depicts man as responsible to his thus becomes a tutor to lead us to Christ
Creator and under an obligation to conform (Gal. 3:24).
to his will; thus he is given a law to live by Ill. CHRIST, SALVATION AND THE LAW.
(Gen. 2:16-17) as a test of obedience and The Gospels depict the life of Jesus Christ
faith. It is the commandment which exam- on earth as a fulfilment of the prophecies of
ines him (Gen. 3: 11) and which is the pref- the law even in its smallest details (Luke 24:
ace to his condemnation (Gen. 3:17). 27, 44). In his teaching Jesus affirlned and
Though the promulgation at Sinai was a re- upheld the authority of the law (Matt. 5: 17-
statement within the limited sphere of Israel 19) and as God Incamate expounded it,
alone, obedience to the will o£ God remains cleared away erroneous interpretations and
binding on all men; the conduct and con- glosses, brought out its essential spirituality
science of the heathen, cut off from any (Matt. 5 pass;",. 7:12) and showed its only
supernatural revelation, bears witness to some proper foundation in love (Matt. 22:34-40).
apprehension of the content of the law (Ron. As born under the law (Gal. 4:4) he ful-
2: 14-15). Since the Fall, all men retain some filled the precepts of both the ceremonial and
knowledge of the existence of God and the the moral law throughout his life, ``fulfilling
 LAY BAPTISM
319

:I.I,r5];gh5t:e]°;;:eisi'e£:e:Eeectd:ebpeedsftens::=£(cMha±ti

i:h:;i:e:y::ia;;sfdt:hg::e:a:rfn;:etEisp;:E!eo:(:!:siaigo:5:;s:- ;;ji§:::I:£:¥:;i::d:¥j#::e:I::;;1,::;ea:s:1::i;:of:::s
(Mark 12:28-34). The regenerate are thus

;;rif::I;fi;:dt;::eel;a;d¥¥£;tr]ti:;1::edift:e]:::;;:{ei:o:i:
;;!iisioi:;¥#§:::aiiesg8¥;;a:;ifi§ci:;i:h;:i::!V§s; ::veGo(goamn.d]i:a8n-]]Ps).thTt?|ao;I;gfat&rfos:,,]O£::
n#:o:£::;:h:a:::,:ipp:u::1:n:etdt°o¥otdh]i¥C:eisi:tsfve:;a]h;: the Christian's life (I Col. 9:21; Gal. 6:2
reflecting John 13:34) and it should result
in an evident and distinctive life of righteous-
ness (Matt. 5:16, 20). Hence Jesus does not
gh:esf:;ss:aT:u:en;cefd::'i:::gj:nsi:st:I:n::cfe!£?,I,:#: :Ppr]°e%at:rdha:t.]a¥)b::d]n£Fr:£s]tt[e:°rcahjsfi::

i:s£1::e::oi¥£g::i:%tspi::tfht:ha]t¥:rf]5n::]i°:n:t?:I;s:. :er;;inorfe?:3:)diafrh:'£t±ah:rs]s6t:;;t]::e:I:snddze:3`::3:
:av:ngbee]::ale:b]igsatfg°:£d°e:I:Vemiendofth:raTfrt£:tdee:

;;rfigd;:,i:Isi:i:;i::5;i:o;Tt.;:e:5;::il'ig:`rsi;i:E|! F::dn;ga:y:i;o.i::is:ijfss:::c:t=fin::d,T::f:::i::cs.I:n;:c::-
ours, so the condemnation o¥ the law, the
curse and wrath o£ God which our disobedi-

;fee:ebd£:ai¥jf:'O(i;i;gap;£;:a:1?i:roeai]±cgoc:uj:%:o¥_ Foe;:::f:a;:[j:n€i\:;¥::S;:i::;:::at§r:;ill)I:y;)!§au:iy¥iei!
the ideal of human morality.
tion (Ron. 8:I) and from the curse (Gal.
3:13). In the sense that this righteous status
of believers in Christ is not obtainable by

:ab;SfezcReoi:t}:2:;W'a:tdfs]t:`apwa::k:ro?Roti: :a:¥:sb,:odF:efu:¥o;:::±Ew;::snt]{:;::::oefr±wg,I:dg:o:a::g,;
6; Acts 4:18-20; 5:27-29; I Pet. 4:15-16).

:;28;;s;::n]cne[t[hecosrtaFa:Epe6,atj:n2:£nd]a¥

gchri;hfur€°:iatn:iec]°an;ra,:`ito[;?eju::a::in%oo°£
(Rom. 7: 12), but is rather aimed at those who
Fie:i:i;::e:rilthI;;h::i:i'a:act:i:o;;i;y;I:;:3i`.:::.,;i:I;I;:g;S:!i
2:13-14), despite the fact that the rulers of
:rgeFS:to]i`+nH::stsei¥%gst§[R3:):.:ab:1;:a::Fell:A:I::
this world are generally spiritually unenlight-
ened (I Col. 2:8).
ANI> Tin LAw. In Christ the Christian is free
0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON
from the condemnation of the law and from
LAY BAPTISM. The NT af fords neither

:::--:-:----_---i--:---:-:---_-:-------:-
:;I:cfappt:Lsn:era::x;ceec5e:dr:§[,£a:nrow::i::arde¥;n±s:t;:st:d:I:
g;V]:.b#Scmus%ier;a:£dnef;::rserebr;I::fuaivi:an=
and later theologians on the ground that what
OT times; thus regeneration is described as is received may be passed on, that the sacra-
LAYING ON OF HANDS 320

ment is more important than order, and that

the rule of love permits it. Some early au- ::Cm°:::?c£:tdedb?o:neig;d£:vi:£uaF:ys££erit|aysYn=
on of hands (I Tim. 4:14; 11 Tim.1:6) -
g::::easni;s;srtecdo:Er:e::1?;:)?uaafifj:i:£O::a(i:.vg;i yet only by one who already possessed the
church drew up an order of precedence. Holy Spirit.
In Christendom today, laying on of hands
is also practiced in confirmation, marriage,
unction, visitation of the sick and private
absolution.
§n:e:;§e::£C¥::::idem:i:°§n[:t:rs;:rep:;a:;d;:ieni§:;eta;:r§r):f¥: BIBLIOGRAPHY

per,.E:kin,'8£ugainndfi%%r["I,8);6%6¥9r:hristentwm,.Hem-
:i:Ei:r::c:tl:,:!a!ol:v:e:s;e|i;i:a;i;g:1is:I:in:;lie;Fi|1!::tc|r HERMAN C. WAET]EN

LEAVEN. The word leaven represents two

the Hampton Court Conference in 1604. Hebrew words, Zidt"GS and Se'dr, and the Greek
BIBLIOGRAPHY word zt47"g. Presumably, leaven was kept as
4n£. chBeinF„Ffa„W##Tgr]s;, pG;. y+.93.romiley. Bapt;sin
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEy
#:TLtofofd::lge:v:=drv;rdeaEe,tw#:?n¢,baatkinag::
over time was instituted because the Israelites,
LAYING ON OF HANDS. Since the leaving Egypt in haste, would have no time
hand is the primary organ of touch, contact
with it is often considered a means of trans- fro]iaevrentno:a?°#{:f.£sa]t:an[si::eT..?v8i:::i;
=:I:.::::---I::--:-:i:-ll--:i-i:-i::--:_::-:::--:-:::::::i:-:i::::-:i::_:::ii::i: of wine." It was not alcoholic, but acidic, as
is shown by its setting the teeth on edge
(Prov. 10:26) and its acid-base reaction with
nitre (ancient #atro#, an impure soda, Prow.
25i2e:?;n[etdwba:eaad#:sg:ase¥=n:£::inceonly

i:y::;¥:av:eeh)1:p:#sna:n:d:p:ne:::::¥f:S*i:ties;)(¥:?
23: 17). No leavened bread was to be burned
a prosperous rule. on the altar or offered with a blood sacrifice
(Ex. 23: 18; Lev. 2: 11).

of]ncheth:ea¥eTnfttkart::eT:€3;off,Tefnpa,reasbu]se,
±p±gs¥:;Era:Ci`jr:::ill;|a:ge:.a?n!£::£¥o:1:tn°£u:
%:i:£::£devj]ar::[cet]¥,n;eaanndd£:E::i:ywta#::t:
££,:s£:nt:se:;:E[e]SsLeepvL,s]6cL2£]]d,I.eEact:bcpo]:::;
of the leaven of wickedness (I Cor. 5:6 ff.;
his blessing (Gen. 48). In ordination Moses
Gal. 5:9). Many (e.g., Scofield) have held
conferred a portion of his wisdom and spirit
upon Joshua (Nun. 27:18-23).
::va::te:be-::a::nEefe.:,:efavf:ne£:::edate!ne'a.:`ayrea?s,,r.?''fie:
church. Others (e.g., Alford) hold that the
?aff:srl,:tn3:!#:S:I::::in:!n;e?de.:::t.hni:'a#:kgio.#::; point of this parable is rather the penetrating
Luke 24:50).
power of the gospel.
Adopted into the life of the church, it was R. LARD HARRls

ftse;asw:;Fo::a:£]:§e:nadftebr[ej:1;ntgs£Atttshgp:I:7:; LENT. The forty days of f asting immedi-

for the reception of the Holy Spirit (Acts
8:14 ff.; 19:1 ff.). And it became of special

;:s¥:t::::££:rth¥esec:Tc£:Ho££ngh:£cf:rcohffi€Acot:
i!aizd:aF;ic±ii::;i::;e::e:;s:;[i;,!iiiifl:i;!e::i:Eak|:i
:;6.'rd`ii`a3ti'..no=twoficEissfrcai:fcgeraacre:sec#:s# of forty ha.rs, as part of the preparation o£
321
LEVITES

faat::£{#:Ss:::nEt£Stceernb:g';SmdidNfteu£::£t]ymd:y¥, #V£:Sa::y:i::e£:n::Vfesn::£ten(eEdx.to32in2#:a;
period become universally recognized in honor
of our Lord's fast in the wildemess (Matt. ::::i¥ ]°afcot5): I:jr¥; h(eDceyut.co3n3c:8i]£i}. #e:
4:2). As a time of abstinence, almsgiving, (Gen. 49:7) was fulfilled as a blessing. They
and acts Of devotion, Lent is intended to serve were `.`scattered in Israel," yet not as a pun-

:sa:e::e!:rriavt:infr;o:;i:.Edasienrg|fi:itiza:;kT„:
' \ ,i . ,,
meaning the "spring.
FRANK Col,QUHOUN ;s:ha%¥#,;in±e:e:£€ag;£aae;:i:;¥a;urtfabe;i::cr:::e{rn#:
3:40-51). The three tribal families had each
LETTER. In the sense Of a missive sent its special duties in connection with the taber-
from one party to another, the OT word is

:;:rna.It`hy|e:e:!:'r:I:,:ti:c:;I,:c:o2u:::eEoa:I;frf:hfs ¥:Le¥£¥:fL];i_I:;h2e:on:;:t;:,t::;:::::;:I:sy:j¥u:¥o:t
odtere|ues:se:n::tt:;s:fu?ae.i:1np,hawbhehtefsral.eie:i:2i belonged; and Aaron was consecrated high

tary (11 Tim 3 : 15) or advanced (Acts 26:24). :|r::sat,i::d.fhfa:::sa:rdie:fs!Enxs.,:3,,1.).aTi:

::°£:Ps:Sns:egeo{LEk;:a:6iS:)RBS¢v"¥nise:Se]: :uhsfcrheb;]a]:°=vae::i;S;ut:£eshae:th(°iv£:yin:f]6¥°asensa
``written code" in Ron. 2:27.
the primacy of Aaron was established by the
Deissmann insisted that the epistles o£ Paul

:::ry?r°j=:yna];tt::Sa`;nott¥::e:hd:1:::::::[r]:i
P£:]b[;£C:t:?£E,°L¥E:t:::tt,o:seau¥h:£]:ostu::tag
unduly pressed, for the NT epistles are of a ;iiil]onf§:i£:rcl:§{:n;i:e:i§;:f%ig::::;iifr;§ji:g:::::a::
::gthoe:t?I,ge:nt!acno:tr::::ei::I:rsn::::i::::Egt 3:3;nE::ts£::etfheegp£T::]t]oafn:h;£saftfh£]nwea=
E£:ch]:s£::s,reaatd:::sttcrasdE.te:i:g>:orseaewa£]d£
EplsTLE.
Letter is sometimes used in contrast to
spirit (p"ew7"a), namely, in Ron. 2:29; 7:6;

s::gef::et°hfet:::p£]:.£nfte}fudt[£vn,aetdhet£:rvic:I;:
;aasssca[i:sV°3agsf::I?:t]t:e:";;I:tgh°1e:ie:trr]::tteesd:i|iiai]:°=s eight thousand Levites into four classes, four
of Scripture as opposed to the spiritual sense
thousand of whom were to be singers and
musicians (I Chron. 23). It was also their
¥h:q]:I:t::::c]o:au:gio=£ttfeed:£:ot:::c¥ha°a;ep=u:;i::a;i: g::Tot;°ifs:mh::nt#;.P9]:;n5:¥;eiaewh.(g:7u)t:
It is significant of the difference between
fieTeeisprse.sinetd:cuobn,o:?u:f,ht:efirF.o:gfe:epirci:;
the status of priest and Levite that while 4289
but hardly any concerning the other two.
BIBI.IOGRAPHY priests (one-tenth of the entire number of
Amdt; MM; 8. Schneider iD CBQ 15:163-207. returning exiles) returned from captivity with
EVERETT F. HA.RRISoN Zerubbabel, only seventy-four Levites are list-
ed (Ezra 2:40); and when Ezra led back a
LEVITES. (Less f requently, SoNs oF smaller company to Jenlsalem, he succeeded
LEvl). The three sons of Levi were Gershom, in securing only thirty-eight Levites.
Kohath, and Merari; and they went down to The Levites are rarely mentioned in the
Egypt with their father (Gen. 46: 11). After
the Exodus, when the terrible apostasy of the r,?inbu]t:]¥;:eoa:PaieonrtfyfnatnroiE:e°srt:ntL:i:::
golden calf took place, they showed them- in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke
LIBERALISM 3 22

10:32); and we are told that Barnabas was the traditional) and liberal (the right of free
a Levite (Acts 4:36). In view of the teach- criticism of all theological claims).
ing function assigned them by the law, it is Methodologically it first accepted one of the
quite probable that many of the scribes were cwu.rrrf,ntanpdhi::s,o:F#5hiit|s.s:opnhcyepdt:va:,.f5:Te:
Levites.
BIBLIOGRAPHY doctrine of religious experience. With this
philosophy and this doctrine of religious ex-
i:.%hi:,rrigiEs:t,:a:a:n:d:,ff:.:t::;,o,:'i:::::::::c::ft:i.::fy,:.;.-egss:i perience in hand, it proceeded to Christianity,
and Levites" in HDB.
OSWALD T. ALLIS wherein it performed a double action: (I) it
gave this philosophy and religious experience
LIBERALISM. Religious liberalism (some- a concrete interpretation in terms of Christi-
times called "modernism" but more appropri- anity; and (2) it altered Christianity to suit
ately "nco-Protestantism") was a post-Enlight-
enment development in German theology :hx]3erE:£]:es:pE%][aonwd]ntghfsthd£:ctr£.tnereojfntreer]:g:::a
which arose as a protest against the intense ra- all the major Christian doctrines in the same
tionalism of the Enlightenment and to confes- fashion. For example, the traditional doctrine
sional orthodoxy; and on the positive side was of the Trinity was rejected and replaced by
an attempt to harmonize Christian theology some sort of functional Trinity; the transcend-
with the divers elements of the so-called new ence and wrath of God were replaced by over-
learning. It is presumed to have commenced emphasized doctrines of divine immanence
with Schleiermacher's UZ7er die Re];gjo71: Rede7i and love. The incarnate Lord of Chalcedon
an die gebtldeten unter thi.en Veraechtern was replaced by Jesus, the first Christian,
whom God used in an unprecedented way for
(Berlin, Realschulbuchhandlung, 1806. First
cdi[ion, 1799), and ended with the publica- an example of unmatched piety. The kingdom
lion of Barth's EpjstJe to the Ro77i¢ris (Munich, o£ God was regarded as no longer founded
Chr. Kaiser, 1919). upon the death and resurrection of a Saviour,
but up(tn the spiritual cind ethical quality of
It spread to France, England, and America,
the life of Jesus. Salvation was seen no longer
as freedom from wrath and sin, but from
:Ted;::|nd.t:ntt:cTi:;i::,rcyh:,rc,::ituhpr::gi?soei; sensuousness or a materialistic or selfish ethic.
a peculiar national impress of that country.
The kingdom o£ God was shorn of its tram-
Coleridge's At.cZs to Reflect!.o7? (American edi-
scendental and eschatological elements and
tion; Burlington, Vt., C. Goodrich, 1829. First
converted into a religious and ethical society.
edition, 1825) was very influential in intro-
ducing nco-Protestantism into both England In that the radical division of saved-or-lost
and America. It appeared in late nineteenth was denied, and all men held to possess the
century Roman Catholicism as "modernism" same religious potentiality, all men formed
and was efficiently stamped out by the papacy. the so-called brotherhood of man whose cor-
In America it became virtually synonymous ollary was the Fatherhood o£ God. And in
with the social gospel. that the purpose of the church was to bring
Liberalism had a fourfold rootage. First, all men under the Christian ethic in every
aspect of their lives, it prcachcd the so-called
philosophically it was grounded in some form
social gospel.
o£ German philosophical idealism (e.g.,
Schleiermacher in Romanticism; Ritschl in With the coming of nco-orthodox and exist-
nco-Kantianism; Biedermann in Hegelianism). ential theology nco-Protestantism has lost its
Secondly, it placed unreserved trust in the place of theological leadership, a trend more
r]ew critical studies of the Scriptures which evident in Europe than America.
contained implicitly or explicitly a denial of Schleiermacher's TJte CJir7.stjc!7® F¢jth (Edin-
the historic doctrines of revelation and inspira- burgh: T. and T. Clark, 1928), Ritschl's
tion. Thirdly, it believed that the developing The Chi.istian Doctrine of Jltstiflcation and
science of the times antiquated much of the Reco7?c/.Zjczt;o7? (2nd edition; Edinburgh, T.
Scriptures. Fourthly, it was rooted in the new and T. Clark` 1902), Harnack's WJ?fit Js
learning and believed in a harmony of Christi- CJ7i-Zstj¢74z.t}J? (2nd American edition; New
amity with the mew learning. In this sense it York, G. P. Putnam, 1903), and Fosdick's
is modernistic (preference for the new over The Modern Use of the Bible CT`ew Yock,
323 LIFE

Macmillan, 1925) are regarded as classical there will be no place for any form of decep-
expositions of nco-Protestantism. tion, pretense or hypocrisy in the holy Jerusa-
BIBLIOGRAPHY lem (Rev. 21:27; 22:15).

Ba,¥£,RbjeMpa,col.E:ga*,tisT#f,.oefo[o#::;]Tgte,o;£¥%L„E::: WILLIAM KELLy

(2nd edition).
BERNARD RAMM
LIFE. The OT has two main words for
LIBERALITY. Although no substantive 17.fe, both very frequent: (I) ¢ayyfm, "physi-
meaning liberality occurs in the OT the bounty cal life" (Deut. 28:66), but with special ref-
of God is often mentioned in the Psalms. On erence to (a) the duration of life (I Kings
the human side, the contributions for the con- 4:21); (b) its ethical content, as in Gen.
struction of the tabernacle and temple finely 27:46, "weary of my life," i.e., of the dis-
illustrate it. The noun 7iczp}otGs appears seven tressing conditions in which he lived. True
times in the Pauline Epistles. It commonly life was regarded not merely as physical exist-
means singleness, simplicity or sincerity, but ence but as that in which one enjoyed the
in 11 Cor. 8:2; 9:11,13, and, perhaps, in favor of God and the consequent spiritual
Ron. 12:8, it is better to render it liberality. and material well-being. Deut. 30:15-20
The adverb 77czp!o-s in James I : 5, describes the plainly sets out the alternatives, "life and good,
manner of the divine giving. Ch¢i.I.s (I Cor. and death and evil." (c£. Ps. 30:5; 42:8, "the
God of my life"). This meaning of ¢¢yy€7"
:t6tij3b)utsetsan8ir::trfaang]:i:£r°aT£Stybet:e:icet]°g:;c:a:i is frequent in Proverbs. (2) 7tepe5; the most
God and commends systematic giving. frequent translation o£ 7¢e.pe5 in the AV is
"soul," but it is not to be regarded as a sep-
WILLIAM J. CAMERON
arate spiritual entity within a man, but rather
LIBERTY. See FREEDOM. the individual life belonging to each man or
animal; so the AV renders it "life" 119 times.
LIE. In Hebrew several words are used for Its root meaning is breath and H. Wheeler
lie, /€d=dky and 5eqer being the most common. Robinson regards it as the breath-soul, de-
The underl)Ting thought is that of deceit or pendent on breath for its vitality but not
cNn+Ptfpnsce:%s+t£:Sj]Sew]:][p:;I:::fT;oautfab]¥etho: identified with it (TJ}e C}tl-jst!.c}7c Docti'j7ce of
Mat2, T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 3rd Ed.,1926,
p. 15). Both men and animals are described
%r:len(d,ee:. i;ss|ag: i'ztehke.I :r3o:?, oi.Cmo:C;:2`5n,: as a "living being," 7ie.peg h¢)J)'i7", in Gen.
It has its own attractiveness (Ps. 62:4) and 2:7, 19, combining these two words for life.
creates a false assurance (Isa. 28:15), but its This 7qepe5 was regarded as having close as-
only result is to create error and delusion sociation-with blood as the center of life (Lev.
17:11-14), so that the physical life of man
(Jer. 23:32), to undermine inoral standards
was a union of the immaterial and the cor-
(Ron. 1:26 ff.), to bring disappointment
when its hollowness is e,\'posed (Isa. 28:17) poral. All life was dcpendcnt upon God for
and to incur the judgment of the God who its initiation i`nd maintcnancc (Gen. 2:7, 19;
cannot lie (I Sam.15:29; Titus I:2) and be- Ps. 104;27-30).
"Life" in the NT is dcsigmtcd b}' zo-G, bi.os,
fore whom no lie c£`n stand (Acts 5:3 £.). Yet
there can also be lying in the relationships of ps,t'cJig. Pi`gan writers use z6B for physical life
man and man, as typified in the OT by the zis opposed to death, but in the r\TT this i]hysi-
false witness (Prov. 6: 19). Lying is forbidden c€`l scnsc is infri`qucnt (c.g., Ron. 8:38, I
by the law (Ex. 20:16; Lev.19:11), and Cor. 3:22, Pliil.1:20, Acts 17:25; "lifetime"
belongs to the old life which is to be put off in LULc 16:25), i\lostly zo-e-refers to that
by the believer (Col. 3:9). It is a powerful qu{ility t>f life \`'hich is deri`'ccl from Gttd £`nd
ally of even grosser sins (11 Saln.11:6 ff.; \\'hii`h i`hi`n`c`ti`rizcs the I)crsonality of Ji`sus
I Kings 21:10), and the liar is warned that Clirist {ind of those who c`oiiic to God through
hc shall not escape (Prov.19:5, 9). Whether him. It si`ts f()rth "the blcsscdncss of God, and
or not thcrc arc occasions for innocent or the bli`sscdni`ss of the creature in communion
necessary stratagems (cf. I Sam. 16:2 f.) is with God" (Trench). This life is derie\'ed from
much argued by casuists. But lying as such is C`hrist (Jtjhn I:4), is imparted to th()se who
ob`riously hateful to the God of truth, and are united to him by faith (Ron. 6:+; I J()hn
LIGHT 324

5: 12) and reaches through physical death to ultimately enter the Holy City whose Zych7cos
eternity (11 Cor. 5:4; 11 Tim. I : 10). The em- is the lamb (amio7a, Rev. 21:23).
phasis in zo-G is thus on the spiritual and moral By becoming incarnate the Logos becomes
quality of the life given to believers. p7zo-s to" kost7?ot4 (John 8:12). In rabbinic
Bi.os on the other hand refers to the condi- tradition this phrase had been applied to
tions of our present earthly life (Luke 8: 14; Torah and temple and did not amount to a
I Tim. 2:2; 11 Tim. 2:4) or its quality ("the claim to deity; but for John it implies that
Christ is the pJio-s alel7ti"o7c, the ultimate
pride of life," I John 2:16), the emphasis,
except in I Tim. 2:2, being on its worldly reality. By contrast there are many lesser lights
nature. or copies of reality, who derive their transitory
Psyc73e-, often translated "soul," corresponds
flame from the Logos; such a Zych"os was the
Baptist (John 5:35). The true Light bears
to „e_peg in representing the life belonging to
witness to himself, because light is self-evi-
a particular individual, as in Matt. 2:20,
dencing, and by light we see light. The lesser
10:39: "He that findeth his life shall lose it,"
ligEtasu|ysitcnoens;etr:i;:eisLeosg:;.tia|,yanencounter
or Mark 10:45: "To give his life a ransom."
Even the phrase: "Is not the life more than
with the pJto-s e}` tot4 owra"ot4 (Acts 9 : 3). The
meat?" (Matt. 6:25), while it contrasts the
scales Of sinful darkness fall from his eyes,
value of the spiritual and the material, refers
and he is commissioned as a light of the Gen-
to the individual's own life.
tiles (Acts 13:47). Iie |tuts on the armor of
See also ETERNAI. LIFE.
light to contend with the rulers of world dark-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ness, who are led by Satan, metamorphosed
Arndt; Trench.
into a parody angel of light (11 Cor. I I : 14).
J. CLEMENT CONNELI.
lie exhorts his converts to walk as children
of light (Eph. 5:8).
LIGHT. To the ancient Hebrew, surround-
During the Exodus God's light was dis-
ed by sun worshipers, light was a holy thing,
the natural symbol for deity. God is pictured played to Israel as his sJ¢ek;7cah glory (q.v.) in
cloud and fire. PJio-s is also found associated
as creating light (Gen. 1 : 3) and being clothed
with doacc2 in the LXX of Isa. 60:1-3. The
with light (Ps. 104:2) in the OT; and the
transfiguration accounts contain both themes.
term is used in conjunction with life to express
Christ's garments become white as pho-s (Matt.
that ultimate blessedness which God gives to
17:2) and both Peter and John insist that they
men (Ps. 36:9). In the NT pho-s is employed
beheld the doac¢ of God on the mount (John
as an expression for the eternally real in con-
1 : 14; 11 Pet. 1 : 17). In the Fourth Gospel the
trast to the skofos of sin and unreality. Some
light of Christ's glory is manifested not simply
trace this contrast back to the antithesis be-
on the mount, but by all his signs, and issues
tween the realms of Ahura-mazda and Angro-
jn a Jcrjsz.s or discrimination by light: evil-
mainyu in Zoroastrianism (q.v.); and it cer-
doers hate the light; truth-seekers come to the
tainly colors the doctrine of the Two Spirits in
light; when light appears all men pass judg-
the Dead Sea Scrolls. Plato associated the sun
ment on themselves (John 3: 19-21).
with the idea of the Good, and Philo regarded
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Creator as the archetype of light.
In I John 1:5 it is stated absolutely that Go?preni?t;pps.2Ho.I.P2fdri58:itth'£€:Prse;:,:£°."I?f7t5|eAF.OwDrtut
ho tJ}eos p71o-s estj7¢. James calls God, as Crea- E?uH:£g=nTerr2.:h8cJs%#,j2#tesefi.a,r°fL%#,£y'%b'al:±8i%S;ARt:
ertum.
tor of heavenly bodies, p¢fros to-73 phol67t,
DENIS H. TONGUE
(I:17), adding the caveat that he does not
change position or suffer eclipse as they do. LIKENESS. See FORM.
The Pastorals recall the majesty of God on
Sinai by stating that he dwells in p7}o-s LIMBO. In Roman Catholic theology the
4prosl.to". Light in the NT is more often Latin li#.btts, from the Teutonic, hem or
spoken of as residing in the Logos and is de- border, refers to the abode after death of souls
scribed (John 1:3-4) as the life of men. It excluded from heaven but not worthy of pun-
enters the world, shines in the darkness of ishment in hell. The limbo of the fathers,
error, illumines every man; but only those who I/.titz7tis pot r!.7„, "the bosom of Abraham"
receive the Logos become children of light and (q.v.), based on Luke 16:22, served as the
325 LIVING

temporary habitation of OT saints until "the may be grouped the principal liturgies of
descent of Christ into hades," when they were Christendom. With the name of Antioch is
removed to heaven. iissociated the fourth century rite found in the
The limbo of infants, Z7.7i®btls 7."fa"ttt7„, is Apos!o!].c Co7!s!!.±iif!.o7?s and known as the
the permanent place of "natural happiness" Clemcntinc liturgy. From this in turn was
for unbaptized children and the mentally in- derived the Byzantine rite (Constantinople),
competent dying "without grievous personal including the famous liturgy of St. Chrysostom
guilt" (CE, IX, p. 256). They are denied the now in use throughout the Greek Orthodox
beatific vision. Church, and :`lso the Syrian and Persian rites.
DONALD G. DAvls From Alcxandrii` came the liturgy of St. Mark
(fourth or fif th century) and various other
LITURGY. The Greek word lei.1o"i-gjc] Egyptian and Ethjo|)ic rites. In the West,
meant originally a public or state duty. In the Rome dc\'L`l()pod its own liturgies, employing
LXX it is applied partic`ularly to the services the Latin language instead of Greek; the
of the temple in Jerusalem. As used in the NT carlicst e.Ttti`nt rite di`tes fr()in the scvc'.nth or
it often bears the meaning of priestly scrvicc eighth i`i`ntury. Alongside the Roman rite
(e.g., Luke I:23; Phil. 2:17; Heb. 8:6). In until the ninth century there also existed the
ecclcsiastii`al usage, the word is elnployed G`llii`an, which spread over the rest of Europe
(I) in a general sense with reference to any (Spain, Fri`ni`c, North Ital}J, British Isles) and
of the prescribed scrvic`cs and offices of the exi`rted a c`(]nsiderabli` influcnc`c on the Roinan
church's worship; (2) in a specific sense with rite until, with the growing power of the
reference to the formularies used at the cele- churi`h of Romc`, it was finally suppri`sscd
bration of the Holy Communion, the eucha- under Pi`pin £`nd Charll`magnc.
ristic office being c`olnmonly referred to as the The liturgies [irising from the Rcformi`ti()n
liturg)'.
in the sixteenth c`cntury drew freely upon the
The earlii`st liturgical forins of this latter ancient forms whili` intr()dui`ing drastic and
kind are to be found in the Di.drche (ca. far-reaching c`hangcs. The I)rini`ipal si`ho()ls ()f
A.D. loo), which prescribes ac`ts of thanks-
liturgical revision wcrc those represented by
giving for the cup and the bread, but also Luther in Gc`rl"my, Zwingli at Zurii`h, Bui`cr
gives liberty to the "prophets" to use what at Strasbourg, Calvin at Geneva, and Cranmer
words they like in setting apart the elements. in England.
The account of the Lord's Supper given by BII}LIOCRAPIIY
Justin Martyr (mid second century) also con- \`'. K. L. Clarke (Ecl.), I.itiir#,i' (Iii{l `l/(ii.```ji!.p; L.
Dl\cl`csr\e, Christiiin Worsliip, ils ()riF±iii tl.i.I I'i`]()lllti(ril;
tains liturgical teaching, but indicates that at ¥c.,.E`=j{%onthhiEo%s;:.tap:tsc,`.t[ccv#F,.:tyt,.DRxn:.T¥,r:„St,:,,,,j`c.FL,C:;,.gu,rht±#
that time a place was still found for extempo-
gy; W. D. Maxwell, Ai. Oiif!ji]c, of CJirj.`t;{iil Wol..`.Jljp.
raneous prayers and thanksgivings. It seems
FRANK COLQUHOUN
probable that by the beginning of the third
century a set form of prayer was used for the
LIVING. The Hebrew ¢cly (adjective) and
consecration of the bread and wine, though
the Greek zo-7c (present ai`tive participle of
the form varied from plac`e to plai`e. As Canon
zoo-, "to live") are frequently translated by
F. Meyrick has said: "Each congregation at "living." Both words have practically the same
first had its own formula; then each bishop
meaning and are used in similar ways. Hay
had a special form for his diocese, which the
is often applied to God (e.g., Deut. 5:26;
various congregations under his charge were
invited, but not compelled, to adopt. When Josh. 3:10; I Sam.17:26, 36). Zo-7® is like-
wise ascribed to God (e.g., Matt. 16:16;
Metropolitans were instituted, it was but nat-
26:63; Acts 14:15).
ural for the suffragan or provincial bishops to
Hay is posited of such things as soul (Gen.
give up their forms for those of the Metro-
2:7), man (Lam. 3:39), and animals (Lev.
politan Cathedral, and in like manner the
forms used by the Metropolitans were nat- 16:20). In a few places -as applied to water
urally assimilated to those used by primates or (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Zech.14:8) -it is used
of spiritual realities.
patriarchs, when those dignitaries had come
into being" (Protestant Dictionary). Zo-7. is used in a few places to describe the
Around the names of the three great patri- living in contrast to the dead (Matt. 22:32;
archates, viz., Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome, Acts 10:42; Rom.14:9; 11 Tim. 4:I; I Pet.
LIVING CREATURE 326

4:5). Otherwise, in a deeply spiritual sense, LOGIA. Logj¢ (plural Of Zogjo") occurs
zo-" is ascribed to God (see above), Christ four times in the NT (Acts 7:38; Ron. 3:2;
(Matt.16:16; I Pet. 2:4), the Spirit (John Heb. 5:12; I Pet. 4:11).
7:38) and the word of God (Acts 7:38; Heb.
4: 12). As regenerated beings (Eph. 2: I; Col. inTCFaess::¥u|li::.::ud.ep`F.I.al"fdoirvTnsea:e.a:?eT,T::
3:I), believers possess zo-G in every aspect. LXX readings the singular occurs twenty-five
They enter by a living way (Heb. 10:20); times and the plural fourteen times, and the
become living stones (I Pet. 2: 5); are made a translators of the Pentateuch, Psalms and
temple (11 Cor. 6: 16), church (I Tim. 3: 15) Isaiah regularly render 'jtor4 "utterance" by
and city (Heb.12:22) of the living God; they one or the other when God is the subject.
trust (I Tim. 4: 10) and serve (I Thess. 1 :9; Possibly the translator of Psalms equated
lleb. 9:14) the living God, whose children '7.7„rf with Torah, especially in Ps. 119.
they become (Ron. 9:26); feed upon the Logza is used of human speech only in Ps.
living bread (John 6: 51), becoming fountains 19: 14, and this was probably understood as a
of living water (John 4:10 f.; 7:38); present
prayer for prophetic, and thus oracular, utter-
their bodies as a living sacrifice (Ron. 12: 1); ance.
and possess a living hope (I Pet.1:3).
In hellenistic Jewish literature, ]ogja desig-
The word "living" sometimes connotes the nates Scripture (Jos. /ew[.s7i War vi. 4), or
power to communicate life (John 6:51, 57). any part of it (Letter of Arz.ste¢s 158, 177),
BtBLI0GRAPHY including narrative. Of Philo's usage, Warfield
Arndt; James Donald in DCG,. I. C. Lambert in DAC;
W. L. Walker in ]SBE. says: "All that is in Scripture is oracular,
WICK BROOMALL every passage is a log].o7®, of whatever char-
acter or length; and the whole, as constituted
by these oracles, is tc} log;¢, or even to Zogjo7i."
LIVING CREATURE. "Living creatures"
(Heb. Zlayy6!, Gk. zo-c! are mentioned in These facts fix the meaning in the NT. In
Ezek.I:5 ff. and in Rev. 4:6 ff. (where AV Acts 7:38 the living oracles are the law: per-
has "beasts"). Whereas in Heb. 13:11 z6¢ haps the written tablets. Ron. 3:2 refers to
means animals in the ordinary sense, in Reve- the OT as such, not to "those utterances in it
lation the word denotes "beings that are not which stand out as most unmistakably divine"
human and yet not really animals of the usual (Sanday and Headlam), nor to the whole
kind" (Amdt). Both in Ezekiel and Revela- revelation of OT and NT (Kittel). Again,
tion there are four such, but with differences: Heb. 5:12 refers most naturally to the OT,
(I) in Ezekiel, each has "the likeness of a as the daily food of Christians. In I Pet. 4: 11
man" but four faces representing man, lion, alone is there no express relation to the OT.
ox and eagle; in Revelation the four are com- Here the Christian who ministers is to com-
port himself as the bearer of a "Thus saith
g:::ed;(2S,PeicntivEe::'ki?ii,thasli:n,su:as`efiu:na,na;:ci the Lord" (although Bigg would paraphrase,
"as Scripture speaks").
alyptic literature, they support or guard the
throne of God; in Revelation, they join the The Fathers use !ogj¢ for the Scriptures (I
twenty-four elders in praising God and sing Clement liii). The words of the Lord were
the Trisagion; (3) in Ezekiel they have four also }ogja (Justin Trypjio 18); heretics per-
wings; in Revelation, six (cf . the seraphim in verted them (Polycarp PJc;I. vii. I). Papias
Isa. 6:2). wrote aLn Exposition of the Lord's Logia, o£
They are usually held to be akin to the two which a surviving fragment says: "Matthew
wrote the !og].ci in Hebrew, and everyone in-
cherubim above the ark (Ex. 37:7-9). To the
terpreted them as he was able" (Eusebius
rabbis they represented four supreme orders of
HE, iii. 39). Some refer this to the Gospel
beings in the world. Others have interpreted
source Q or to a collection of OT messianic
them astrologically, or in relation to the four
oracles; but Eusebius clearly understands
Evangelists. It seems best to regard them as
Papias to refer to the First Gospel. He would
portraying creation subject to God's will. call it ]og7.fl, either because the teaching was
BIBLIOGRAPHY
his main concern, or because "oracles" was
Me¥;;„¥dodf]eRinei%.ryonT,' pPp?. 1?9:?3: P. Calrington, The already a collective title for a recognized Cos-
L. E. H. STEPHENS-HODGE pel, as it was for the OT. The latter is clearly
327 LOGOS

the sense in 11 Clement xiii, and probably in 11. BACKGROUND OF THE TERM.
Polycarp vii. A. 0lci Tesfa7me"t. Diverse factors give
Oxyrhynchus Papyrus I was entitled "Logia some preparation for John's usage. God creates
of Jesus" by the first editors, Grenfell and by the word (Gen. I:3; Ps. 33:9) and his
Hunt. word is sometimes spoken of semi-personally
BIBLI0GRAP[IY (Ps.107:20; 147:15,18) and it is active,
dynamic, achieving its intended results (Isa.
50: 10-11). The wisdom of God is personified
(Prov. 8 - note especially vs. 22 ff. on wis-
§h:i¥ieiif:}4"4::#¥a]#T§i2v:;diiA#Zaj::¥;°¢`z`si#,(ei:r!i:,ew#:S;
ANDREW F. WALLS dom's work in creation). The Angel of the
Lord is sometimes spoken of as God, some-
LOGOS. The most usual Greek term for times as distinct (cf. Judg. 2: I). God's name
word (see WoRD) in the NT: occasionally is semi-personalized (Ex. 23:21; I Kings
with other meanings (e.g., account, reason, 8,29).
motive); specifically in the prologue to the 8. Pfl]esfj7£ja" /ttdczjst". Besides the personi-
Fourth Gospel (John I:I,14) and perhaps fication of wisdom (cf. Ecclus. 24), the rabbis
in other Johannine writings (I John I : 1; Rev. used the word Me7#r¢, "word," as a periphrasis
19:13) of the second person of the Trinity. for "God." This usage occurs in the Targums.
In ordinary Greek parlance it also means C. G7-eek PJizlosophy. Among the philos-
reason. ophers, the precise significance of Logos varies,
but it stands usually for "reason" and reflects
I. JOHANNINE UsAGE. At the creation, the
the Greek conviction that divinity cannot coine
Logos was already present (``in the beginning"
into direct contact with matter. The Logos is
relates to Gen. I : I), in the closest relationship
a shock absorber between God and the uni-
with God (``with" = pros, not 7"eto or sy7®).
verse, and the manifestation of the divine
Indeed, the Logos was God, (not "divine," as
Moffatt - the anarthrous predicate is gram- principle in the world. In the Stoic tradition
the Logos is both divine reason, and reason
matically required [c£. C. F. D. Moule, Jdjo7"
distributed in the world (and thus in the
Boo7€ of N.T. G7.ee7€, Cambridge University
mind).
Press, 1955, !." Zoco] but may also indicate a
D. Heuenistic ]itdaism. 1n AIexandr±an
distinction between the persons - see West-
cott j" loco). This relationship with God was Judi`isni there was full personification of the
word in creation (Wisdom of Solomon 9:1;
effective in the moment of creation (I:2).
16: 12). In the wri[in`gs of Philo, who, though
The entire work of creation was carried out
a Jew, drank deeply from Platonism and
through ("by" = d;a, vs. 3) the Logos. The
Stoicism, the term appears more than 1300
source of life ( I :4, probable punctuation) and
times. The Logos is "the image" (Col. I : 15);
light of the world (cf. 9: 5) and of every man
the first form (pl-ologo#os), the representation
(I:9, probable punctuation), and still con-
\'c)ic!I.czJatGr, cf. Heb.I:3), of God: and even
tinuing (present tense in I:5) this work, the "Second God" (de?Iteros f7!eos,) (cf. Eusebius
Logos became incarnate, revealing the sign of
Pi-ep. Ev¢77g. vii.13); the means whcrcby God
God's presence and his nature (I:14).
creates the world from the great waste; and,
The prologue thus sets out three main moreover, the way whereby God is known
facets of the Logos and his activity: his divin-
(i.e., with the mind. Closer knowledge could
ity and intimate relationship with the Father; be received directly, in ecstasy).
his work as agent of creation; and l`is incarna- E. Hei.iJcet?.ca. Logos occurs frequently in
tion. the Ilcrmi`tica. Though post-Christi{in (cf.
In I John I:I "the Logos of life," seen, HERMETIC LITERATURE), these are influcnc`cd
heard and handled, may refer to the personal by hellenistic Judaism. They indic£`te the
Christ of the apostolic preaching or imperson- Logos doctrine, in something like Phil()nic
ally to the message about hiln (cf. Wcstcott, terms, in paLsan in)'stic`cll c`irc`lcs.
Epistles of John, in loco). Rev. \9..12 pictures F. Soiti-ces of ]t>1"'s Docti.iiie. ]chn \ diE-
Christ as a conquering gencr£`l called "The fcrs radically from philosopliic usi`gi`. F()r the
Logos of God." As in Hcb. 4: 12. it is the OT (1,rec`Ls. Lo`qos \`'i`s i`ssi`nti.`1l\J ri`ason; for John,
picture of the shattering effects of God's word essentially word. Language 'coirmion to Philo
(cf. the imagery of vs.15) whic`h is in mind. and the NT has led many to scc John <1s
LONGSUFFERING 328

Philo's debtor. But one refers naturally to

Philo's Logos as ``It," to John's as ``He." Philo :xx`aet;idde;I:ensgs£!:eg:g:'kosrte;paatl;e:::.:;aTn:
to the OT 7}e'e-r3& '¢p and 'ereE '¢ppfm ("slow
:a]¥£tn£:::::a::;anan:]aht:j:esant:8i%en¥1=; to anger). H/po"o#-g is the most common NT
Logos and Messiah. John's Logos is not only
God's agent in creation; He is God, and be- ;ny:°onryTe'sp¥ifr?t|nfe::asbefan:n#kpro#;rhasu;foerrd
comes incarnate, revealing and redeeming.
The rabbinic Me7#ra, hardly more than a §art°£:fEeiu8d:::::. Self-restraint in the face of un.
reverent substitution for the divine name, is Longsuffering, a communicable attribute o£
God, expresses his goodness and forbearance
::rtecstu:fo£:i:::]yw£Sfbsiaenia:t£: :for:]Ceespt];£k:]°yr. is as he endures the sinner's persistent obstinacy
and wickedness and tirelessly calls him to re-
theThpeersso°nur::d°fw:a?n:;tLh°e8°hsfs:o°r::¥]necisri::
pentance rather than to visit him with imme-
diate judgment (Ron. 2:4; 9:22). In I Cor.
;`sJe£Snut:i]:g#et:n¥y£:steferetthefdnpyofi8::;jj+£: 13, longsuffering is a human virtue, received
(Gal. 5:22) from the Holy Spirit. God's long-
tFa.keTo,Tsar:|i,`a3i|.I;,ppim4a4n?I).LtsmeEreess6oT suffering of stiffnecked Israel is mirrored in
connotation of "word," and its personification the one who "opened not his mouth" when
of wisdom. Christ is God's active Word, his oppressed and afflicted.
saving revelation to fallen man. It is not acci- BIBLloGFurHT
dental that both the gospel and Christ who is
Iri.#ed3ta£!6±¥D€:6?}cn*E.eN±9:5,-X±o3:i;.toi#-:9E°isner¥&]ngt.;
its subject are called "the word." But the use
of "Logos" in the contemporary hellenistic pp. 219-25, 304-13.
BURTON L. GOBI)ARD
world made it a useful "bridge" word.

swc::rEedtLW::ore|:spa:S:S:a:git::n(g::£ehr,ei]o.::F]oS;:::H|:: LORD. The usual Greek word for Lord,

kyrz.os, is used in a wide variety of ways ex-

i;:2.:::.ig:r,:iuc,t;onA;|F.?ri(tia.nfpeeACFchhea.: :i:ffi sf::?ec,%[it:. :f:re:sas,teo. .af :uE::oser;

ExpT' 60, 301). the head of a family, or the supreme authority
in a state, up to religious obedience to God. In
Ill. LOGos rN EARLy CHRlsTIAN UsE. The
the first century there were "lords many" (I
Apologists found the Logos a convenient term
Cor. 8: 5), the title being used for each of the
in expounding Christianity to pagans. They
cult deities as well as for the Roman emperors.
used its sense of "reason," and some were thus
enabled to see philosophy as a preparation for
the gospel. The Hebraic overtones o£ "word"
were underemphasized, though never quite
;:sedaa!:`i;d:;:,rf?e:o.i:::s:in?:I;::;::D?hfee;g?I:i
lost. Some theologians distinguished between
:£fv:£f:oatn8fd:£:h.mTaupsiyt:c:Pisaafutreermofe¥e::;:
the Logos e7tdiathetos, or Word latent in the
but of the sovereign authority of the Most
Godhead from all eternity, and the fogos
High.
propkorjkos, uttered and becoming effective at
the creation. Origen seems to have used Philo's In the LXX, Kyrjos directl,v translates
language of the c{ettteros t7ieos. In the major Ac!o7!ai, "Lord." Moreover, since Adonai was
Christological controversies, however, the use also read by the rabbis for the personal name
of the term did not clarify the main issues, of God, Yahweh, Kyrios in the LXX became
and it does not occur in the great creeds. also the translation for LORD or "Jehovah." In
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the NT, at times God the Father is addressed
as the Lord of heaven and earth (e.g., Matt.
11:25; 9:38; Acts 17:24; Rev. 4:11). Gener-
ally, however, Lord is used in the NT of
i:3gi;?,g;i'chtJr:!eis;:;#P-!bv:eni:'3¥o:i!J;osf;,r,is;:agi,¥;:'?DT:i!e:
trine of the Incarnation. Jesus. And when he is addressed as the exalted
ANDREW F. WALLS Lord, he is so identified with God that there
is ambiguity in some passages as to whether
LONGSUFFERING. NT words built the Father or the Son is meant (e.g., Acts
upon the stem 7#¢krothy7#;a are generally 1:24; 2:47; 8:39; 9:31; 11:21; 13:10-12;
329 LORD

16:14; 20:19; 21:14; cf. 18:26; Ron. Christian literature (Mark 12:35 f.; 14:62;
14:11). OT texts written of Adore; and 16:19; Matt. 22:44; 26:64; Luke 20:42;
22:39; Ron. 8:34; I Cbr.15:25; Col. 3:I;
r£?W4eoh:3ar:nagpfuead].t°3!:Sui±nM¥riTT3;(e].8::
9:22 £. in I Cor. I:31 and 11 Cbr. 10:17; Z:ths.i:39;¥:?i;I:73:;5§;]k::.:133:;2[]?e]t.€]:c2£:
Jcel 2:28 f. in Acts 2: 17-21 and Ron. 10: 13; 36:5; Bamabas 12:10; James, as reported by
Ps.102:25 in Heb. I : 10; Ps. 34 in I Pet. 2:3; Hegesippus in Eusebius, HE 1123: 13).
and Isa. 8:13 in I Pet. 3:15). Moreover, in
the OT background of some of the cases there .;kEeapnadra:`fesaipe.a,i.ofsap:!?a:;awkhy."ios,the:
isc2e,Sg:i#{#£t°#9P#-6:`°*9TNhS£
:rt:i:e]est:re,::u8£Vifamc:°]¥nt(#:?t.£m2P;i:C;t5.r5e]f;
25:13-30; Mark 13:33-37; Luke 12:35-38;
41-46; 13:25-28; c£. Matt. 10:35). The
:.Et.::3acf.a:`usosEix;i#,hAectsG.7d)..fga:[,:
.T:i:'g:?,reei;ni¥w::ivoen,oa`n5y:1eeiFinaa,coi:tde;:
iafaieec:i'.:rdk:d::ti¥iemd¥imhfifn::]Y:s;F:bhr:: (Luke 6:46; Matt. 7:21-22; cf. also Matt.

i:?]9y]a7S;¥2¥C3u)?nLgfk€&€£9ri:;te2£8j;3£:t]G:
with its connotation of absolute ownership and ::5::r7i:4f:2k:i:o;:;:.5?.i;dhieuEhe:s,?o,?|a!o,:[iss?i,:
::|fgs£,te9sia#e?erfsaunseddjft#G:in:]£:¥: #:ustryj:°iet°[:::rco£:ethhe£Sh[o°:dsesh{P,.3:;5)Yatrhk:
2:29; Acts 4:24, 29), and o£ Jesus (11 Pet.
2: I; Jude 4; cf. Eusebius, Ecczesiastjca! His- ::rfa:hi:sve.I::`i(n7g:2¥,Ye,rhteh:.snyr:#nni#:
is Lord of the sabbath (2:28); and the Christ
who is the Lord of David (12:35-37). For
:M:Ett{:d:,:s;:r]:o;rud::e£]ot:p:a;Ed£¥d.e.nj,]eo#u::o3:
of him as I+old is fundamental to the worship i:iso:€V£:I;I;Sh::si:3S;Sy:!s:aenti#;h:ege€]::my`:¥a:1:
Christ the Lord (Luke 2:11); for Peter, the
:£2:£e]E:£2m2£;t£Vfo::m]moT;;7a:[ftcbisr.o]£:2a3: Lord of all (Acts 10:36); for Paul and for
prayers of individuals (Acts 7: 59-60; 22:8-10;
11 Cbr.12:8; I Thess. 3: 11 £.; 11 Thess. 2: 16; I:I;:'foT;oi::dth:fLgo]:dryo£(;o,3r(R2e:v8.;]J7a:i:;
3,16). 19: 16); for Thomas, "my Lord and my God"
W. Bousset and R. Bultmann hold that in (John 20:28).

#e:efo!|e:;a::kfe,:.naLo::in,:[e:h:;enfs:Vt:::;d:d:uesso:.:tha:
fu:;T!o:!hegjtdi;g:Lei:;:ei;¥dk::yit.:pkryi8;a;:i;iii
#ea!;,sfto,thaej;]]Fcz¥o¥e:isfre;et;s,:::€e::et£:
3i:rind;:I:viml:,;;m€:£]cJ;¥:k,£gga2r:a;:fkeu£`%:i:o¥
;;::e:::s;I:t§sf:;:±;::I;;;§ja]d;;;i::ts::z:;tt:::;:§fij#::es:
ddvin:stg£:I?;mHeorfebj:e°e::]t:tTosi,djshtireguLjosrha

carries with it more expressly the idea of

i:higijjteh¥)o'zAjhi;f;:mti°#;ak¥#Pg°ain:eiji sovereign n)lership in actual exercise, evoking
I:10). Phil. 2:6-11 is now recognized as a
obedient service.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

¥i:frth;iiecpf:lemii£::e:kair:ag=¥i:;ah:£L?Vtc:resdt:
fan:i;PeyThe;S:ihaa:dD:evftedise:°:£e::ttohefnri8hi:
:Fs,:::I::c:tetohi,ghhisp;iessst;g:i:re,h:rep:msic,:;:
LORD'S DAY 330

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dejss LAE, pp. 361-66; HDB, pp.138-41.
§`{.,;;;::c;tos::,#§;:,:,]o€r,,a:E£,:&:1;U;;{{:{j:#,;,i..3s;o=ftf_t,;t;,,::%::;;yFp={; CHARI.ES C. RYRIE
`%;##,eie:9T.h,et),:eNiif.,p%i:#,o's;sT%o|#,,.E|:i:r.!tkg:fa„t.,?6
LORD'S PRAYER. See PRAYER.
WILLIAM CHILDS ROBINSON
LORD'S SUPPER. In each of the four ac-
LORD'S DAY. The scriptural authority for counts of the Lord's Supper in the NT (Matt.
the tl`rm is found in Rev.1:10 -e7? tc 26:26-30; Mark 14:22-26; Luke 22:14-20;
l+ui-iak6 heiiierd. The adjective kuriakos, "the I Cor.I:23-26) all the main features are in-
Lord's," is also found in I Cor. I I :20 in con- cluded. The accounts of Matthew and Mark
nection with the Lord's Supper. In secular use ha`'c close formal affinities. So have those of
J{ili.;a7{os signified "imperial" and is extant as Luke and Paul. The main differences between
early as A.D. 68 (MM 364). The use in I Cor. the two groups is that Mark omits the words
"This do in remembrance of me" and includes
11:20 is earlier, and the fact that Paul uses "shed for many" after the reference to the
"the first day of the week" in I Cor. 16:2
seems to show that "the Lord's Dav" was not blood of the covenant. Instead of the Lord's
reference to his reunion with the disciples in
yet a widely used expression. In post-apostolic
literature there are the following references to the fulfilled kingdom of God, common to the
the Lord's Day: Ignatius Act Mag. ix. I; Et7. Synoptic Gospels, Paul has a reference to pro-
Pet. vss. 35 and 50; Barn.15:9.
claiming the Lord's death "till he come."
The meaning of Jesus' action can be best
The origin of the Lord's Day must be traced
understood against its OT background. The
to its association with the day o£ Christ's
meal took place in the context of the Jewish
resurrection (q.v.). Christ sanctified the day by
Passover. John says that Jesus died on the
his resurrection and emphasized it by another
afternoon when the passover lamb was slain
appearing to the disciples on Sunday (John
(John 18:28). In this case the Supper was
20:26) and by sending the Holy Spirit on the
anticipatory to the Passover meal. But the
first day of the week (Acts 2). Although daily
Synoptic Gospels tell that the meal was pre-
gatherings were held in Jerusalem at the very
first (Acts 2:46), gradually Sunday, the pared for as a Passover, was observed with
solemn and joyful Passover ritual, wine was
Lord's Day, became the distinctive day for
drunk and it was held at night, and the dis-
worship (Acts 20:7; I Cor.16:2). The Lord's
ciples and Jesus reclined instead of sat. All
Day is nowhere present in the NT as a ful-
this indicates that it was a true Passover meal.
filment of the sabbath, even though other
In this the people of God not only remem-
features of Christianity are presented in con-
bered, but again lived through the events of
nection with Jewish ordinances (c£. I Cor.
their deliverance from Egypt under the sign
10:16-21; Col. 2:11; Heb.10:22). This si-
of the sacrificed Paschal lamb as if they them-
Ience with respect to the Lord's Day is espe-
selves participated in them (See Ex. 12). In
cially marked in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
this context, giving the bread and wine as his
where the sabbath is only mentioned as a type
body and blood, with the words, "this do in
of the believer's rest.
remembrance of me," Jesus points to himself
The account in Acts 20:7 shows that the as the true substitute for the Paschal lamb,
observance of the Lord's Supper was evidently and to his death as to the saving event which
a distinctive feature of Lord's Day worship will deliver the new Israel, represented in his
from the very first. The collection too was a disciples, from all bondage. His blood is to be
part of the activities of that day (I Cor.16:2). henceforth the sign under which God will
Justin (A.D. 150) describes other activities remember his people in himself.
(ApoZ. i. 67) as including reading the writings In his words at the table Jesus speaks of
of the apostles and prophets, exhortation, himself not only as the Paschal lamb but also
prayer, the Lord's Supper, the collection. as a sacrifice in accordance with other OT
Earlier the ¢g¢pG had been a part of the serv- analogies. In the sacrificial ritual, the portion
ices (I Cor.11:34) but was evidently dis- of peace-offering not consumed by fire and
continued by Justin's time. thus not offered to God as his food (cf. Lev.
See also SuNDAy. 3: 1-11 and Nun. 28:2), was eaten by priest
331 LORD'S SUPPER

his continual hidden self-giving in the mys-

::tdo¥:epi]i:w(sLh:;.;:ti5-A;e]ast::;n9a]i)efsnac:F. tery of the Lord's Supper.
£ice (Ex. 24:I-11; Deut. 27:7; cf. Nun.
But they would not forget the sacrificial
25:I-5 and I Cor.10). Jesus in giving the
elements thus gave to his disciples a sign of
their own fellowship and participation in the
;en|fo:#ai:;¥.cotk:i;ha:ksounp=:;Epeefet|a|:::
ship of the Messiah with sinners which
event of his sacrificial death.
reached its climax in his self-identification
Moreover, Jesus included in the Last Sup- with the sin of the world on Calvary. They
per the ritual not only of the Paschal and
sacrificial meal but also of a covenant meal.
In the OT the making of a covenant was fol- ::ard:hufe:#i°o¥e!|:]%su¥i::rwt::iatr:e;Ssut¥:it#::A:ferJ:e:Sit
i:H::sEfpaa::alienrewFliecdhg:ie,:all.t;cai,:;n:snehatg i:lga,ti:f::in,oanhdisg;on?e-of;rFaTlriit;afh.diditalso
another (Gen. 26:30; 31:54; 11 Sam. 3:20).
The covenant between God and Israel at Sinai It is with this background of thought that
was likewise followed by a meal in which the we should interpret the words o£ Jesus at the
people "ate and drank and saw God." The
new covenant (Jer. 31:1-34) between the :br:eTi::etFseaN.Falstl:;:-?iev::sgar¥:,ti.tisehi:ugi
communion between the events and realities,
rn°rad:ne:]ha£:#:P!eupwpaesr.thusratifiedby]esus past, present and future, symbolized in the

the[nmc:::i:rnaftc]n8ntdheescuhpa¥iro!:csau]Ssefgnp£¥£acsa£::: ST5P]P;er[a3gr.th]o6:]*.oT£::£c£:t::nn]];tnt]sohs:
of the Passover meal. At this feast, the Jews inseparable from participation in the Supper
looked forward to a future deliverance which that we can speak of the bread and the wine,
was foreshadowed in type by that from Egypt. as if they were indeed the body and blcA)d of
Christ (Mark 14:22 "This is my body," c£.
A cup was set aside for the Messiah lest he
should come that very night to bring about John 6:53). It is by the Holy Spirit alone
this deliverance and fulfil the promise of the (John 6:63) that the bread and wine, as
they are partaken by faith, convey the realities
messianic banquet (cf. Isa. 25-26; 65 : 13, etc.).
It may have been this cup which Jesus took they represent, and that the Supper gives us
in the institution of the new rite, indicating participation in the death and resurrection o£
that even now the Messiah was present to Christ, and the kingdom of God. It is by faith
alone that Christ is received into the heart at
feast with his people.
the Supper (Eph. 3:17), and as faith is in-
After the resurrection, in their frequent
celebrations of the Supper (Acts 2:42-46; :eopti::bg]ewffrt°h:u:h:h:°;do'r:?ecE:]Fsdt'SjssuLPo?:I::
20:7), the disciples would see in the aspect of his table, the risen and unseen Host (John
14: 19). He is not there at the disposal of the
:hf;cshujgse:stE:dc]£:;xw::ht:eubt]a£E:en.:e]a]:¥ssTLp_ church, to be given and received automatically
ners (Luke 15:2; Matt. 11:18-19) and of in the mere performance of a ritual. Yet he is
their own day to day meals with him. They there according to his promise to seeking and
would interpret it not only as a bare prophecy adoring faith. He is present also in such a way
but as a real foretaste of the future messianic
banquet, and as a sign of the presence of the ;hoatt ::coe:g: thh]em,ca:E]ee;s ::vder:E5]:]sfsev]:nag caannj
mystery of the kingdom of God in their midst drink judgment to themselves (I Cor. 11 :27).
£]no:t};F:rs£:k:f!::.u]S5_(2¥):tti£:;1;wcofjidM:::

its meaning in relation to his living presence bo!; :far€i;I::ttfnwghitz :haes ¥£::¥e£P;:i:e:For::li
in the church, brought out fully in the Easter on the cross, the members of the church are
meals they had shared with him (Luke 24: 13- stimulated and enabled by the same Holy
35; John 21:1-14; Acts 10:41). It was a Spirit to offer themselves to the Father in
supper in the presence of the risen Lord as eucharistic sacrifice, to serve one another in
their Host. They would see in the messianic love within the body, and to fulfil their sacri-
miracle of his feeding the multitude, his words ficial function as the body of Christ in the
about himself as the bread of life, a sign of service of the need of the whole world which
LOST 332

God has reconciled to himself in Christ (I stitute the major uses of this practice.
Cor.10:17; Ron.12:1). The Jewish festival Purim (Persian for lot),
There is in the Lord's Supper a constant instituted by Mordecai, commemorates this
renewal of the covenant between God and the practice (Esth. 3:7; 9:24-32).
church. The word "remembrance" (cz7!c[7"7tGs;s) WICK BROOMALL
refers not simply to man's remembering of the
Lord but also to God's remembrance of his LOVE. Scri|)ture defines love in the only
Messiah and his covenant, and of his promise way that it can or ought to be defined; name-
to restore the `kingdom. At the Supper all this ly, by listing its attributes: "Love is patient
is brought before God in true intercessory and kind; love is not jealous or boastful; it is
not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on
Prayer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it
does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the
gal;rfsfe?:`i'.Ze#:ET?Cf'F;.rj!i.;Cr:*m:S:efyse:i!,?a;;.,,;:;i4;2tt3?9a-I:t,i! right. Love bears all things, believes all things,
Et4charjst (in I#terco"mt.wio", pp. 303-50). hopes all things, endures all things" (I Cor.
RONALD S. WALLACE 13:4-7). Love is fellowship between persons;
it is an act of self-surrender.
LOST. There are at least six Hebrew words God is love in his `,'ery essence (I John
which convey the thought contained in the 4:8, 16). The eternal, self-generating nature
Greek ¢poZJ"ww., which is used throughout the of God actuates itself in mutual self-surrender
NT and translated variously, e.g., to destroy, between Father, Son, and Iioly Spirit. When
to abolish, to ruin, to kill. In the middle voice Christ came to earth, he incarnated perfect
the word means to perish, denoting irretriev- love. He bore the very stamp of the divine
able ruin (John 3:16; 17:12). As a participle nature; those who saw him saw the Father.
used passively, e.g., throughout I.uke 15 and Even Christ's enemies could find no fault in
in Luke 19: 10, it signifies a condition of grave him.
peril yet with the glad prospect of recovery. Salvation was conceived by the love of God.
Clirist ate and drank with lost men, sinners; The Father planned salvation; the Son exe-
hc came to seek and to save that which was cuted it; and the Holy Spirit applies it. There
lost; and he made conditions of entrance into is such perfect unity in the Godhead that
his kingdom such as were |>ossible for every some acts of redemption are attributed to
wandering sheep. He who is lost may be
found; he who is perishing may be saved. :::t:I,ia:I,:pefif:c.gseur::en.,i:rnt:ft!eh.i?,oq?e:f
See PERISH. exainple of this.
F. CARLTON BooTH Love is the true point of contact between
God and man. Man is made in the image of
LOT (THE), LOTS. These words usually God, and the image of God is the capacity of
I.cpresent the Hebrew g6rdl and hgz7ez and self-surrender. The more kind and loving a
the Greek kz6ros and Z¢77gcho#o-. The-lot was man is` the inore like God he is. A good man
tin {incicnt method used to ascertain the divine
prefers others before himself; a bad man is
will. The b{isic passage is Prov. 16:33. selfish.
In the OT we find such uses of this Love nullifies law by overcoming law, for
mc`thod as the following: (I) the selection of love contains its own sense of obligation. If a
the sccipcgoat on the Day of Atonement (Lev. mother hears the cries of her children, she
16:8); (2) the division of the promised land rushes to their side without the promptings of
(Nun. 26:55 f.; Josh.18:5-10); (3) the de- legal duty. Love needs no law. Therefore,
tection of a culprit (Josh. 7:14-18; Jonah when Christians are commanded to love, the
I :7); (+) the choice of a punitive expedition command is as much a judgment against un-
(Judg.1:I-3; 20:9); (5) the choice o£ Saul loveliness as it is a prescription to be lovely.
as king (I Stlm.10:19-21); (6) the order of The first and greatest commandment is,
pric`sts and their duties (I Chron. 24:5, 31;
"Hear, 0 Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord
cf. Luke I:9). is one; and you shall love the Lord your God
In the NT the casting of lots for Christ's with all your heart, and with all your soul,
9.1rmcnts (^I.itt. 27:35; cf. Ps. 22:18) and and with all your mind, and with all your
the sclcction of Matthias (Acts 1 :24-26) con- strength" (Mark 12:29-30). Since we ,irc
333 LOVE FEAST, THE

render. He that saves himself will lose himself.

:?::I,l'y,rdei#endde.:tdTnunE?esd,wewea.ear:.,an|;; The Greeks rightly understood that man is
not virtuous until he actuates his essence. But
:iF::s:r::i:fppe¥i:b::£:Ey%]:°i¥fh:I::n=:adwe!e:hbL?; the Greeks confused the rational man with the
vjiae|nmh:n.isi::)ecF:ougEtetdhi::a,?sa:fi:eagso¥

shaTih:o=ec°ynodurgr::::Shtbcoocorma¥a;odumi;:,,ist(#,: Pn::c:FiAsr::it.engay,I:aavnesm:;ideevaadnedthsee'f:::Ee;i
12:31). Every normal human being has a self-surrender, but in doing so he falls short of
the glory of Cnd.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
•.£;eK:i:enrEegi:aid,inwp¥o¥cs`oafm|somve,anEci8:3i:|icTsiipphirri
§i:j¥vee¥js§:in£!]L:;P::LIE;:o?d::?csit;I:n¥W]§t;s:i:i: ChristiaM Reailism a»d Pozitieal PTob)ems, pp.
Anders Nygrcn, Agape and Eras.
147-73;

EDWARI) JOHN CAENELI.

#!:e::s:a::e':!g:e:a::±t.:vee:sivinn:du::f:e:isE,:n::
is no practical limit to the claims of self-love, LOVE FEAST, THE. I. IN THE NT. The
brotherly love between Christians which was
:h:reefgE£:. practical Lfmf I to our duty toward enjoined by Jesus (John 13:34; Greek ngapg)

::unwdasftscoe=pmr:;s]£;ne];net;Fs:edepnrac:;cma:g::ny;;
hence on twenty-six occasions ¢gapg is trams-
;::ft,:c;.:s':;.:hr.:p::;::`4:::ee:.vn:eogn:.::i.:::nvt:i lated in the AV "charity." In the church gath-
as I have loved you, that you also love one
another" (John 13:34). Moses gave form to
the law of love (Lev.19:18; Deut. 6:5), but ;:,iny:sd:nyd,i:kfs:I(s,tii:t.g;e:e,tiFgsseeita,y.asR:E:
16:16; I Cot.16:20; 11 Cbr.13:12; I Thess.
:F[€hf£:tr±::tchoeu,£qngiv:o]LSE;st:Ec£:LT:€h]r;££sc. 5:26). And gradually the term came to be
tian measures virtue in himself and others. applied to a common meal shared by belie\'ers.
Although these meals are called ogflpae only

iEe!:::a`;a,ai::,¥:sdipn'g:!apg:t;a::;.3,,a*eari:
::jihl:si:i:.:::y:h:i:|r.th::an;d;h;:a:i|:ge:c!r::Esvai:i:-d:Lf; ("deceivings"), there is a considerable amount
of other evidence for their existence in the
thoughtful to a person, even though we may
dislike him. Christ commands us to love even early church.
our enemies. "For if you love those who love In Acts 2:42-47 there is an account of the
you. what reward have you? . . . You, there-
fore, must be perfect, even as your heavenly
Father is perfect" (Matt. 5 :46-48). Since God f.i::sev:;:Th-.i::;c::in:Tuei:,::g:;:T:,;cg:c:e::ai:frr:lf
trophe-) with gladness and singleness of heart.
The first phrase may refer to the administra-
:5::8:):`;:he;h#:sg:e,o¥::v;I.t¥;tinot:::S;::i:v:=g tion of the Lord's Supper, but the second
Love is the mark of a true disciple. "By this obviously indicates a full meal. Similar "com-
all men will know that you are my disciples, munistic" behavior is mentioned in Acts 4:32.
if you have love for one another" (John By the time of Acts 6:I ff. the increase of
13:35). J. C. Ryle observes that humility and disciples in the Jerusalem church led to the

:i:ewa::]gr::isej:dt::tg:adc,e:£|£:Cyhdtoheno:ecno:i
prebend doctrines. They are the graces about i:L¥;gr:.:n;g-:i:yt::e:e::;:t:mti:e,s:iiist,ab::£
which there is no mystery, and they are within CLove-Feasts, A History of the Christian Agape,
the reach of all classes. Kelly, London, 1916) suggests that this num-
Love is the key to happiness as well as
virtue, for without love there is no life. A ±rre:afn*:efdorinaodriE;erreE:td:;c:fo,::::#
E?a;een:i::.Sg££::€eh:adyce:Xnisot:it::,hhee€gs::: FefsHa::fenng:::e7qt.va.I,o¥h::oThctfte;:d:gin;corer
enjoy the release which comes from self-sur- being neglected, and so would indicate that
LOVE FEAST, THE 334

already these common meals were being held new commandment of mutual agclpg at that
for charitable purposes, as was indeed the meal (John 13 : 34) would be sufficient reason
custom later. for the application of that name to the rite.
When Paul was at Troas (Acts 20:6-12) 11. IN CHURCH HlsTOR¥. Ignatius (¢d
St"ymc}eos viii. 2) refers to the ¢g¢pe-, as does
i:ieato?.5r::i::go:£thbere`ai:?,tf:a:fft:|e|=eeeai the Djdclc72g (x. I and xi. 9), the latter sug-
(which idea is contained in the verb gews¢- gesting that it still preceded the Eucharist. By
t"e7®os, used here for eating, c£. Acts 10: 10). the time of Tertullian (Apology xxxix; De
Both here and in 2:42 it is difficult to de- Jejuniis xvii., De Corona Militis ±i±) the Eu-
termine whether the phrase "breaking of charist was celebrated early and the ¢gc!p6
bread" denotes a common meal or is a more later at a separate service, and this may be the
practice referred to by Pliny in his letter to
;eftericet::I :a:::en;:rd:0 o;::I :o°gredt'£ersrnp¥hr: Trajan (Epp. x. 96), though his information
is not altogether clear. Clement of Alexandria
FMsaptet:S 2t::2y6 ; cleric:I:Ee ]tz:22:Ct]£:ke°f 2!:::; (Pfledrgogt4s ii. I and Sfro7i¢¢tcz iii. 2) gives
24:30, 35). Certainly by the time of Paul's evidence also of the separation of the two
writing to the Corinthians (c¢. A.D. 55) it is observances, and Chrysostom (Hot"jly xxvii
evident that that church observed the practice on I Cor. 11 : 17) agrees with the order men-
of meeting together for a common meal before tioned by Tertullian, but while he calls the
partaking of the Lord's Supper (I Cor. 11 : 17- ¢gcipg "a custom most beautiful and beneficial;
34). This custom, however, does not appear for it was a supporter of love, a solace of
to have been observed always in the spirit o£ poverty, and a discipline of humility," he does
¢mg#eg,i,foarntehxecu:r;;I.egf::opi;i,nswIF|:t.:i:: add that by his day it had become corrupt.
In times of persec.ution the custom grew up
go without: in vs. 21 to jdjo7¢ deip77o7® may of celebrating ag¢pcze in prison with con-
refer to the fact that they refused to pool their demned martyrs on the eve of their execution
food, or that from such a pool each took as Csee the Passion of Perpetwa and Feticitas
much as possible for himself. At all events the xvii. I, and Lucian De Morfe Peregrj7c; xii),
situation described here is possible only in the whence developed the practice of holding com-
context of a meal more substantial than, and memorative ¢gclp¢e on the anniversaries of
preceding, the bread and wine of the Lord's their deaths, and these gave rise to the feasts
Supper. and vigils which are observed today. Agcipae
Various theories have been put forward sug- also took place on the occasion of weddings
gesting that the ¢g¢pg was a development from (Gregory of Nazianzus Epp. i. 14) and fu-
pagan guilds or Jewish common meals, or that nerals (Apost`ozic Co7istjtwfjo7¢s viii. 42).
it was necessitated by the common desire to During the fourth century the f2gcipg be-
avoid meats offered to idols. From the fact that came increasingly the object of disfavor, ap-
most early Christian paintings found in the parently because of disorders at the celebration
catacombs depicting the ¢gape- show seven and also because problems were raised by the
persons partaking, Cole argues that the custom expanding membership of the church, and an
developed from the incident on the shore of increasing emphasis was being placed on the
Tiberias, where Jesus shared the breakfast Eucharist. Augustine mentions its disuse (Ep.
meal with seven of his disciples (John 21), ad AuTelium xxit. 4., see also Confessions
and that the conversation with Peter on that vi. 2), and Canons twenty-seven and twenty-
occasion supplied the title of flg¢pG for this eight of the Council of Laodicaea (363) re-
meal. It is equally possible that the meal may stricted the abuses. The Third Council of
have arisen from a desire to perpetuate the Carthage (393) and the Second Council o£
table-fellowship which the apostles had en- Orleans (541) reiterated this legislation which
joyed during their Lord's earthly life, and that prohibited feasting in churches, and the Trul-
later as the church grew and communal living lan Council of 692 decreed that honey and
became imposs.ble the common meal was milk were not to be offered on the altar
continued before the Lord's Supper in an (Canon 57), and that those who held love
effort to place the receiving of that sacrament feasts in churches should be excommunicated
in its historical ;ontext. The fact that the (Canon 74).
Johannine account points to the giving of the There is evidence that bread and wine
335 LUTHERANISM

(D;drchg), vegetables and salt (Acts of P#t4l ¢esed are merciful kindness, kindness, mercy,
a7®d T72ecz¢ xxv), fishes (Catacomb paint- pity, favor and goodness. See MERcy and
ings), meat, poultry, cheese, milk and honey accompanying bibliography.
(Augustine co73tra F¢t4stt47" xx. 20), and BIBLIOGRAPH`-
R. Bultmann in TWNI`, 11, I;p. 475-79; Oxforc] E~g-
Z7t4!tes, "a pottage" (Augustine), were con- ljsh Djcti.o##ry; J. Hastings in HDB,. W. Walker in
sumed on different occasions at the agc!pe-. lsBE.
BURTON L. GODDARD
Ill. THE AGApfi IN MODERN TIMEs. In the
Eastern Church the rite has persisted, and is
LUST. See DEsiRE, CoNcuplscENCE.
still observed in sections of the Orthodox
Church, where it precedes the Eucharist, and LUTHERANISM. A term, broadly desig-
in the Church of St. Thomas in India. From
nating the tenets, principles, and other ecclesi-
the Eastern Church it was continued through
astical characteristics of the Lutheran Church,
the Church of Bohemia to John Hus and the founded by Luther`s Reformation (1483-
Unitas Fratrum, whence it was adopted by the
1546). Lutheranism accepts the canonical
Moravians. From them John Wesley intro-
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as
duced the practice within Methodism (see the inspired infallible word o£ God and the
references in his /otw®a!), but the only sur-
sole source and rule of faith and life (soho
vival of it within that body today is the issue
Scrjpti4ra), the ancient Ecumenical Creeds
of a quarterly membership ticket which for-
(the Apostles', the Nicene, the Athanasian)
merly qualified for admission to the love feast.
and the particular Lutheran confessions (the
An offshoot of Methodism in England, known
lTnaltered Augsburg Confession, 1530; the
as the Peculiar People, still holds the love
Apology, 1531; the Smalcald Artic`les, 1537;
feast. In the Anglican Prayer Book of 1662
Luther's Smcill and Large Catechisms, 1529;
the only survival is probably the collection of
the Formula of Concord, 1577) as the true
alms for the poor during the Communion
declaration of the biblical doctrine. While not
Service, but the practice of the Sovereign's
all Lutheran communions have officially
distribution of Maundy money is a relic of the adopted all these Confessions as binding, the
t}gczpG, and in this connection it is interesting
Unaltered Augsburg Confession governs all
that the Epistle appointed for Maundy Thurs-
Lutherans as the creed which seeks to express
day is I Cor. 11 : 17-34. A modern attempt to
the continuity of the faith of the Apostles to
revive the custom can be seen in the increas-
its own time.
ing practice of holding a "parish breakfast"
The central teaching of Lutheranism is the
f`ollowing the early Communion service, and
doctrine of justification and salvation by grace
experiinents at using the cig¢pG as an oppor-
tunity for interdenominational fellowship are (so!¢ gI.czt;a) through faith in the divine-human
Christ (soza fl.de) who by his vicarious satisfac-
described by Frank Baker in MethocJjsow ¢"d
f7ie Love-Feosf (Epworth Press, London,
tion has atoned for the sins of the world
]957). (universal grace). It sharply distinguishes be-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tween the law and the gospel as God's com-
manding and promising word, but stresses,
s|efgn€±_#i%c,`i%%nna.?,neHdEXR,.Eti6ol?oE.£c'cl,seE.F='nng,om,.L% abo`'e all, the gospel of Christ's free and per-
fect atonement as the central teaching of
ggesaft{..;;h;;p+F3h]38.::A£;g;:mf,:ef:,%eas;%,,,Fez;¥r;:,sc:the.d„cN:#w£Cf&Ec;s::a: Scripture. This, strictly speaking, is the only
DAVID H. WHEATON ineans of grace, which by its presence in and
connection with the sacraments, Baptism and
LOVING-KINDNESS. The word denotes the Lord's Supper, renders also these divinely
affectionate kindness produced by deep-felt instituted ordinances efficacious means by
which the Holy Spirit offers, conveys, and
personal love. Coverdale-coined, it is the AV
translation (especially in Pss.) of one out of seals the forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation
eight occurrences of the Hebrew ¢esed, a com- which the redeeming Christ has secured for
municable attribute of God but not used in all sinners.
that version except for God's love to man. It Lutheranism teaches the total corruption of
also stands uniformly for ¢esed in the ASV human nature since Adam's fall and denies
when the reference is to the divine love but is natural man's free will in spiritual matters. It
not used in other cases. Other translations of emphasizes pedo-baptism and close coinn`un-
MACEDONIANISM 336

ion, separation of church and state in princi- state are joined, the government is by church
ple, believes in confessionalism and therefore representation (consistories, etc.), and bishops,
opposes religious unionism as also Freemasonry though with limited power, are permitted.
Under the Lutheran polity, laymen, by virtue
;:sdpei°S8aey:yof£:ai5aet::::L|ta:d:ocda:::ath°rffst::: of their royal priesthood, take an active part
in the government and the work of the
;advuocrastio,Tt::g?caarishses;h.:::satE:tchpurr.c:.s,ceho:is;
divine word, and considers confirmation a :heu:Cbhe.rsh¥earpeas::ifiLa:ff]f;Ceco:?£dneihetov°::nn:
church rite and not a sacrament. It regards as Exceptions to this rule are infrequent. Mem-
bership in the Lutheran churches is about
:.:Cm:ruunc]onchor££Sta£]a]nbe°]:evae¥S::]£Cchcr?sut:C*h::£ 70,000,000.
to men is invisible. Lutheranism repudiates all BIBLIOGRAPHY
hierarchical systems of church government and
upholds ideally the autonomy of the local con- 3£!e:g:i:a:js:%;,o#;f::s:t;:;negif.:'*La:i!,;:aE:rvfii;2isus!!5;i
LC.
gregation, bound, however, in teaching and
pr.ictice to God's word. Where church and J. THEODORE MUELI.ER

MACEDONIANISM. The heretical teach- magic is nothing more than these cunning
ing concerning the Holy Spirit held by the manipulations of natural phenomena. But as
Pncumatomachians ("Fighters against the it is encountered in ancient history and in the
Si]irit") was ascribed by some fourth century Bible it involves the activity of demons in per-
historians to Macedonius, Arian Bishop of forming miracles by means of evil supema-
Constantino|]le (cc}. 362). Denial of the turalism.
S|)irit's divinity was latent in Arian teaching, Divination (q.v.) is a species of magic and
and under the leadership of Eustathius of Se- bears the same relation to biblical prophecy
bastc became explicit cc]. 370. The whole sect
as heathen magic does to divine miracle. The
denied the divinity of the Spirit, some also the widespread practice of the magical arts in Bible
c`onsubstantiality of the Son. Pope Damasus times may be comprehended from the fact that
and the Cappadocians attacked them, and at
Scripture alone refers to their being practiced
the Council of Constantinople their teaching I.n Egypt (Ex. 7: 11), Babylon (Ezek. 21 :21),
\`7tis anathematized while their persons were
Assyria (11 Kings 17:17), Chaldea (Dan.
subject to the anti-heresy laws. It is uncertain
5:11), Canaan (Deut.18:14, 21), Procon-
how this teaching came to be associated with
sular Asia (Acts 19:13,19) and Macedonia
Macedonius, who was dead before it became
(Acts 16: 16).
1)rominent, and whose name does not appear
in surviving writings which attacked the here- The Bible just as clearly acknowledges the
sy. Perhaps certain of his influential followers reality and power of magic as it exposes its
illegitimacy and wickedness. The magicians or
joined the sect and gave his name to it. Noth- "sacred scribes," Zlarfw7"t#£ow, of Egypt, who
ing written by him survives.
performed miracles before Moses (Ex. 7 -
M. R. W. FARRER
11), belonged to a priesthood leaned in cx:-
cultism and conversant with demon-controlled
MAGIC. Magic is the art of effecting re- religion. Like similar agents of Satan (11 Tim.
sults beyond human power through super- 3:8) in other heathen nations, they practiced
natural agencies or demons. The term in its the "black arts." Babylon was especially no-
full meaning comprehends more than clever torious for occult traffic (Dan. I :20; 2:2, 27;
charlatanry, sleight of hand or jugglery. Often 4:7, 9; 5:I,).
337 MAMMON

Such mighty demonstrations of demon pow- tion (vs. 20, Rev. 20:9-11). Magog figures in
er seem to occur periodically, like religious later Jewish and Mohammedan speculation.
awakenings, and are found today in the trances, BIBLIOGRAPHY
materializations, rappings, clairvoyance, draw- I.xJp?a,(a?izoe„k.i,:?i"83£'r';e!|eywE;i:;e!,..ct.tJ\;::rs']9P3"2':St;"p:
ings, physical healings, automatic writings, etc. 213-19.

of spiritism. J. BARTON PAYNE

Occult powers will be revealed in the tre-
mendous latter-day demonic revival under the MAJESTY. The term, referring to God,
Antichrist (11 Thess. 2:9-12) which will be relates (I) to his exaltation (from Hebrew
accompanied by phenomenal signs and mira- 96'd) expressed in overwhelming action (Isa.
cles (Rev.13:13-18). 2:10, 19, 21) and revealing his royal su-
BIBLIOGRAPHY premacy (Isa. 24:14; 12:5); or (2) to his
magnificent state (Hebrew 7®6d,. hdde-r, I Chron.
;a.nJ;e?s';:i:`r:,:Lg,s£'v:!;s:".;d,:a::s;'„aYd;t:.:'#t'`?;::I:#of:;E:,,?i 29: 11; Pss. 96:6; 104: I; 145:5,12). The king
1935), pp. 605-15. Merrill F. Unger, Bjbzical DiJlilo"o!o- derives his dignity from God (I Chron. 29:25;
gy, pp. 107-64; Lynn Thorndike, A History of Aragjc
a"d Experjine"tal Sciet.ce, I-VI. Pss. 21:5; 45:3-4); and man also (Ps. 8:5).
MERRILL F. UNGER Majesty combines strength, light, exaltat:on,
greatness, magnificence and dignity. Later, in
MAGNIFICAT. See CANTlcLE. Wisd. 18:24, majesty is the divine name on
the high priest's mitre. In the NT 7tiegflfo-sy7®G
MAGNIFY. The biblical words rendered
(Heb.I:.3; 8: 1) parallels the rabbinic gpbt}rd
magnify mean either to make great or to make to
as the name for God in his majesty. Christ's`
appear great. In the latter sense, God is said to
miracles (Luke 9:43) and transfiguration (11
magnify himself (Ezek. 38:13), his mercy
Pet.I:16-17) revealed the objective majesty
(Gen.19:19), his word (Ps.138:2), his law
(7#egale;otgs) of God (I Tim. 6: 15-16). Christ
(Isa. 42:21). Men wickedly magnify them- fulfils the dignity of man (Heb. 2:6-9) and
selves at the expense of others (Ps. 35:26;
the messianic kingship (Matt. 22:42-45), and
Dan. 8:11; Acts 5:3). Sometimes the refer-
is exalted to share the divine name and throne
ence is to the praise of God. By means o£
(Phil. 2:9; Heb.1 :3-4). See also GI.oR¥.
I)raise the divine greatness, though itself ab-
GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT
solute, is brought more im|]ressively before
men's minds. Paul earnestly desired that Christ
MALICE. "Malice" translates kc]J<j¢. But
would always be magnified b}r his conduct,
since the seventeenth century malice has ac-
that is, that in all circumstances he might
exemplify the power of Christ's grace. quired the narrower sense o£ "spitefulness" (c£.
BCP for the sense of evil generally, e.g., Ps.
WILLIAM J. CAMERON
94:23). Hence the context of k¢k;a decides a
MAGOG. M696g was the name o£ Japheth's modern translation. In I Cor. 5:8 Trench
makes kc!kjc] the vicious principle and po"e-J.I.c]
second son (Gen: 10:2; I Chron.1:5), of his
its outward exercise. Plummer disagrees, since
descendants (Ezek. 39:6), and of their land
the LXX uses both indifferentl}', and Vulgate
(38:2). Their association with Meshech and
uses both /)}¢Zjtjn and 7teqttjtz.a for both.
Tubal (Assyrian Mtlsjt¢`ti and Tc]Z7c]l of NE "Malice" will translate kak].c! tolerabl}r in Eph.
Turkey, cf. 27:13) under one "chief prince"
4:31; Col. 3:8; Titus 3:3; and I Pet. 2:I. It
("prince of Rosh" 38 :2 ASV) indicates Magog
as strange northern barbarians (38:15), like must be rendered "trouble" in Matt. 6:34, and
"wickedness" in Jamc`s I:21. The RSV gives
the Scythian hords, cf. Gclgclja of the Amarna
letters. it a wider sense of "e`'il" in I Cor. 14:20 and
I Pet. 2: 16. Malice rightl}' translates k"7€oelJtej#
Ezekiel 38-39 predicts that "in the latter
in Rom. 1:29. The RSV renders po"e-i-o!.s
years" (38:8) Magog's ruler, Cog, will gather "evil" in Ill John 10.
a host from Asia and Africa (38 : 5-6; "Magog,"
Rev. 20:8) to attack the messianic kingdom. BIBLIOGRAPHY
f\rndt; JJDB,. Robertson and Plumiiier, JCC, I Col..,
The motives are satanic self-assertion (Rev. Tip.103, 316. DEN|s H. TONGUE
20:7) and greed (Ezek. 38: 12). The results,
however, glorify God (38:16, 23; 39:7) as
Magog meets ci.vil dissension (38 :21), heaven- MAMMON. The word mammon rei]resents
ly destruction (vs. 23), and earth's dissolu- the Aramaic word for riches or wealth. In pre-
MAN 338

Christian times the expression "the mammon the psychic as merely a differentiation of the
of unrighteousness" (Luke 16:9) had already physical, or as an emergent from it. Idealistic
become synonymous with the evils of money. theories viewing man's mind as the unbroken
In the Aramaic Targums mammon is used for mirror of Infinite Reason have fallen into dis-
wealth or gain. There is no adequate ground credit through their disregard of man's sin and
for supposing that this term designated a finitude, their reliance on human speculation
heathen deity in biblical times, having also obscured the contemporary rele-
The NT usage of this word is conf ined to vance of the biblical revelation of man's nature
our Lord's teachings (Matt. 6:24; Luke 16:9, and destiny. Meanwhile, naturalistic explana-
11,13). In Luke 16:9-13 "mammon" is used tions of reflective reason as simply a late evolu-
three times in a further exposition of the tionary development all but dominate the aca-
demic world.
parable of the unrighteous steward (Luke
16:I-13). The parable itself must not be I. THE IMAGE oF GOD. The Bible answers
the question Of the nature of man by pointing
pressed in every detail; it is primarily an illus-
tration with one point. The central theme is to the i7#¢go Dej. That man by creation
that the disciples of Christ should manifest a uniquely bears the divine image is a funda-
mental biblical doctrine - as also that this
prudence and foresight in the use of "the man-
mon of unrighteousness" that is at least com- i`mage is sullied by sin and that it is restored
by divine salvation. Man's nature and destiny
parable, if not superior, to the unrighteous
steward's. If worldly possessions are misused, are interwoven with this foundational fact, and
one cannot expect the real and genuine riches speculative philosophies inevitably strike at it
to be committed to him. And, of course, it is when they degrade man to animality or other-
morally impossible for one to serve God and wise distort his personality (q.v.).
7"ciow"o# (here and in Matt. 6:24 personified) The biblical data pertaining to the jiroago
at the same time. Dej in man are found in both New and Old
BII}LI0GRAPHY Testaments. Their setting throughout is re-
vealed religion, and not speculative philosophy.
FbI.NTe.st]¥afrnsh£L[. fn HERE; James Moffatt in HDCG;
WICK BROOMALI. Dependence of the Pauline view on the hel-
lenic mystery religions has been asserted by
MAN. Who is man? This remarkable crea- the comparative religions school. Reitzenstein
ture, whose amazing conquest of space and has a££irmed CDie heuenistischen Mysterien-
time has yielded unabridged dictionaries index- I-eljg!.o7ze", pp. 7 ff.) that Paul's teaching on
ing the whole of reality, has fallen into frus- the image is indebted to the private mystery
tration - ironically enough - when defining cults in Egypt, Phrygia and Persia, particularly
himself. those of Isis, Attis and Cybele, and Mithra,
Is man but a complex animal, as exponents with their goal of salvation secured through
of naturalism have contended in both ancient personal union with the god or goddess. But
and modern times? Is he a veritable fragment H. A. A. Kennedy has argued convincingly in
of divinity - a part o£ God - as idealists and St. Paul and the Mystery F\aligions that the
basic NT ideas are forged against the back-
|]antheists would have it? Modern science gives
an ambiguous answer, reflecting the divergent ground o£ Hebrew theology, rather than of
the hellenistic cults, and that even in respect
philosophies that govern its research. In fact,
contemporary science seems less and less suie to the image the resemblance between the
how to define a species, the human species i`-.- Pauline concepts and the mysteries is super-
eluded (cf. Jan Lever, Creatio" c}"d Et7o!t4t;ott, ficial. David Cairns also emphasizes that "the
pp. 101-40). Some anthropologists, moreover,
New Testament writers make almost no use"
- he might properly have deleted the word
currently tend to becloud even the ultimate "almost" - of notion5~so frequently found in
unit}' of the human race. In striking contrast
with earlier centuries, which debated whether the mystery cults such as the divinization of
man's nature is trichotomous (divided into the believer and human absorption into t.he
body, soul and spirit) or dichotomous (soul Deity CThe li'ylage of God in Man, p. 56).
and s|)irit being viewed as functional distinc- Hebrew-Christian theology frames the doc-
lions within one psychical aspect of man's trine of the j"ic!go in the setting Of divine crea-
personality), much recent ps)'chology - biased tion (q.v.) and redemption (a.v.). "The gist of
toward naturalistic evolution - tends to regard the doctrine of Creation is surely this," Cairns
339 MAN

would remind us, in respect to the image, "that from man's. To I)rojcct God in man's image
man's being, though linked with the divine, is therefore a heinous form of idolatry con-
is itself essenti:`ll}' not divine, but created, and founding the Creator with the creaturely
thus dependent on God, and of a different or- (Rom. I :23). This confusion reaches its nadir
der from His own being though akin to it" (op. in worshiit of the beast and his image or
cjt., p. 63). Bible doctrine does not, therefore, statue (Rev. 14:9 ff.).
simply affirm in a religious manner what specu- 11. RECENT THEOLOGICAL STUI)IES.
lative philosophies express more generall}7 in Granted that the terms "image" and "likeness"
their emphasis on the inherent dignity and denote an exact resemblance, in what respect
worth of man, or on the infinite value and does man reflect God? What of the vitiating
sacredness of human pc'rsonalit}'. For Scrip- effects of his fall into sin? Is the NT concep-
ture conditions man's dignit)r and value ui)on tion of the ;"J,ago in conflict with the OT con-
the doctrine of creation, and not ui)on an in- ception? Is it in conflict with itself? These ques-
trinsic divinity, and assuredl}' it does not ob- tions are among those most energe[ic`ally de-
scure the fact of mcin's fall and of his desiterate btited by contemporary theology.
need of redemption. Those who, like Kingsley The imi)ortance of a proi)er understanding
Martin, profess to find in Stoicism (a.v.) a of the i.mago Dej can hardly be overstated. The
superior and sounder basis for human dignity answer given to the I.#iggo-inquiry soon be-
than that afforded by biblical theology, seem i`omes determinative for the entire gamut of
little to realize that in such a transition to doctrinal affirmation. The ramifications are not
pantheism (q.v.) the Hebrew-Christian dimen- only theological, but affect every phase of the
sions of the j"®ago are actually abandoned. problem of revelation .and reason, including
The biblical discussion turns on the Hebrew natural and international law, and the cul-
words §ele7" and d.7"ti!, and the corresponding tural enterprise as a whole. Any improper view
Greek terms eik67z and hotttojo-s}.s. Scripture has consequences the more drastic as its im-
employs these terms to affirm that man was plications are applied to regenerate and to un-
I.ashioned in the image o£ God, and that Jesus regenerate man, from primal origin to f inal
Christ the divine Son is the essential image destiny.
(q.vJ of the invisible God. The passages ex- The new theology supi)orts a "christological"
or "eschatological" interpretation of the divine
pressly affirming the divine image in man are
Gen.I:26, 27; 5:I, 3; and 9:6; I Cor.11:7; image in man. This orientation is formally
Col. 3: ]0; and James 3:9. The doctrine is im- commendable, since the God-man assuredly
exhibits the divine intention for man, and the
plied also in other I)assages in which the pre-
cise phrase "image of God" does not appear, glory of redeemed humanity. will consist in
full conformity to Christ's image. In the I)ast
particularly in Ps. 8, which J. Laidlaw called
"a poetic rep];ca of the creation-narrative of a type of Christian rationalism has sometimes
Genesis I as far as it refers to man" ("Image," unfortunately emerged, seeking on the basis
in HOB, 11, p. 452a), and in the Pauline ref- of anthro|)ology alone, independently of Chris-
erence on Mars Hill to man and his Maker.
The terms "image and likeness" in Gen. I :26 i°e]s°t?I;.t°sudciLfn:£;eos±:::::;I:]Fchnaatrubrfetraar:is
and 5:3 do not distinguish different aspects Of identif y the jm¢go in fallen man with that of
the j7"ago, but state ihtensively the fact that Christ, blur easily into speculations of a per-
man uniquely reflects God. Instead of suggest- sonalistic and idealistic nature.
ing distinctions within the image, the juxtapo- But there is also need for caution over the
sition vigorously declares that by creation new theology, since it of ten incorporates an
man bears an image actually corresponding to evasive turn into its christological appeal. It
the divine original. In Gen.I:27 the word diverts attention from the important question
``image" alone expresses the complete idea of
of man's primal origin-that is, from (he
this correspondence, whereas in Gen. 5: I the creation and fall of the first Adam (a.v.) -be-
term "likeness" serves the same purpose. cause of a reluctance to challenge the modern
Althougli man images God by creation -a evolutionary philosophy from the standpoint
fact which the divine prohibition of graven of the Genesis creation account.
images (which obscure the spirituality of God) By the ;7"ago the Protestant Reformers had
serves 1)ointedl}' to reinforce -man's fall pre- understood especially man's state of original
eludes <ill attemi7ts to read off God's nature purity, in accord with Gen. I and 2, wherein
MAN 340

Adam is depicted as fashioned for rational, tone of novelty. Barth has proposed at least
moral and spiritual fellowship with his Maker. two interpretations of the image, and Emil
The existentializing philosophy of our times, Bmnner, three, and their most recent recen-
however, finding this representation too sions are not devoid of difficulties. The con-
abruptly contradictory of current scientific clusion to be drawn from such adjustment and
views, confers upon the first Adam only a readjustment is that theologians today seek
mythical status, regarding him -in respect to to comprehend the image within a f ramework
deviation from perfection -as simply a type that is unsatisfactorily narrow. While pan-
of every man. The it"ago is then no longer theizing liberalism formerly set aside sin and
conceived as a state, but as a relation-since the need for redemption, and mistakenly re-
an original state of Adamic purity is set aside. garded the natural man as destined for Christ
Hence nco-orthodox theology not only rejects, simply on the basis of creation, neo-orthodox
in common with Protestantism generally, the writers exaggerate the transcendence o£ God to
Roman Catholic exposition of the image in the dilution of the i"!qgo in man both as
Thomistic terms (of at!¢fogj¢ e7it;s, a ``being" created and fallen. The recent dialectical re-
which Creator and creature share in different constructions of the j7wago almost invariably
degrees), but also sets aside the traditional profess to honor the Protestant Reformers, who
Protestant confidence in the Genesis creation are credited with first having controlled the
narratives as a scientifically relevant account 7.7»ngo idea in terms of the ``true A;azectjcaz or
of origins. christological principle." But Calvin's stress on
continuity and discontinuity of man's I.mago
Just because the "christological" or ``eschato-
logical" view looks to the end rather than to with his Maker is said to have lacked a proper
the beginning, it does not by itself do full working balance which the dialectical approach
now provides. The new speculation conceives
justice to the biblical representation. It sub-
ordinates the exhibition of the divine image their unity "eschatologically"; that is, neither
as God's gift in creation, and is vulnerable also original righteousness nor the fall are conceded
to universalistic expositions of redemption. For a place in a past empirical time-series, but are
while the image of the Godhead (Gen.I:26) held to be known only in faith-response. So it
on the basis of creation has an anticipatory is that the christological and eschatological ex-
reference to the God-man, it is not as such the positions of the jniczgo today are surfeited with
image of Jesus Christ the Redeemer. Although dialectical and existential elements.
the redemption-image truly presupposes the Recent denials that the i..¢c!go survives in
creation-image, and the creation-image pre- fallen man reflect an extreme point of view.
pares the way for the redemption-image, Karl Barth has championed this position at an
Barth's emphasis that all divine revelation is re- earlier stage, contending that humanity and
demptive ignores significant considerations. If personality have no significance for the image.
the original image is in fact a reflex of grace, if T. F. Torrance has professed to find it in Cal-
man js God's image only by promise (whereas vin. Brunner has readily acknowledged that
Jesus Christ is act~al!y God's image), can the image formally survives the fall, but has
universalism really be avoided? We may note: vacillated over the question of its material con-
( I ) The creation-image was once-for-all wholly tent. Nonetheless, the divergences of nco-ortho-
given at the creation of the first Adam; the dox theologians are not as significant as their
redemption-image is gradually fashioned. (2) agreements, especially their exclusion of the
The creation-image is conferred in some re- forms of logic and of a conceptual knowledge
spect upon the whole human race; the redemp- of God from the ;7#ago. The result is their de-
tion-image only upon the redeemed. (3) The preciation of the rational element in revelation,
creation-image distinguishes man from the ani- both general and special. This modern revision
mats; the redemption-image distinguishes the of the noetic aspect of the j7„clgo is tapered to
regenerate family of faith from unregenerate the limitation of human reason in conformity
mankind. (4) The creation-image was proba- with the dialectical philosophy; the admission
tionary; the redemption-image is not. of such conceptual knowledge of God would
Statements of the I.twago De; in current the- undermine the possibility of and necessity for
ology, while equating the image with those the dialectic.
features by which man transcends the animals, Evangelical expositors of the biblical revela-
often give to the biblical passages a bizarre tion find the created image of God to exist
341 MAN

formally in man's personality (moral responsi- terms of morphological considerations, but

bility and intelligence) and materially in his rather in terms of the jt#¢go De;. Man is made
knowledge of God and of his will for man. for personal and endless fellowship with God,
Hence the image is not reducible simply to a re- involving rational understanding (Gen. I:28
lation in which man stands to God, but rather ff.), moral obedience (2: 16 f.) and religious
is the prec.ondition of such a relationship. The communion (3:3, 16). He is given dominion
fall of man is not destmctive of the formal over the animals and charged to subdue the
image (man's personality) although it involves earth, that is, to consecrate it to the spiritual
the distortion (though not demolition) of the service of God and man.
material content of the image. The biblical
view is that man is made to know God as well Nor does Scripture detail a science of psy-
as to obey him. Even in his revolt man stands chology (a.v.) in the modern sense, although it
condemned by the knowledge he has, and he presents a consistent view of man's nature. Its
is proffered God's redemptive revelation in emphasis falls on man as a unitary personality
scriptural (that is, in propositional) form. The of soul and body. Their disjunction is due to
objections that the admission of such a rational sin (2:17); man's reconstitution as a cor-
content to the jt„ago implies pantheism, or a poreal being in the resurrection is part of his
capacity for self-salvation by reflection through destiny. While the soul survives in the inter-
its supposed assertion of an undamaged spot mediate state between death and resurrection,
in human nature, loses force when the sup- this is not the ultimate ideal (11 Cor. 5: 1-4),
in sharp contrast to Greek philosophy. The dis-
port for such objections is seen to rest on
exaggerations of divine transcendence from pute over dichotomy (q.v.) or trichotomy (q.vJ
which the dialectical view itself arises, rather too of ten loses sight of the unitary nature of
than on biblical considerations. human personality. It is not possible to assert
separate distinctions within man's nature sim-
Although the Old and New Testaments
seem to conflict -since the former reiterates ply on the basis of the different scriptural
terms for soul, spirit, mind, and so forth. Heb.
the survival of the image in man after the
4: 12, often cited in behalf of trichotomy ("the
fall, while the latter stresses the redemptive
dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the
restoration of the image-there is no real
clash. The OT conception is I)resupposed also joints and marrow"), does not establish soul
and spirit as different entities, but as different
in the New, which is a legitim{1te develop-
functions of the one psychic life of man, as is
ment. For the NT also sr)eaks of the divine
evident from the parallel phrase "the joints
im`ge in the natural man (I Cor.11 :7; James
and marrow" in relation to the body.
3:9). But its central message is redeemed
man's renewal in the image of Christ. To the OT picture of man, the NT adds
Ill. WIDER IMPLlcATloNs. The Bible de- the graphic exposition Of his divine sonship
picts man primarily from the perspective of through the adoption of grace (John 1:12)
his relation to God because his nature and and his new role, subsequent to his rescue
destiny can be grcisi)cd only from this stand- from an unregenerate race, in the family of re-
point. Its interi.retation of man is therefore demption. As a member of the church, the
primarily religious. The creation narratives are body of Christ, whose head has already passed
not written expressly to answer the questions through death and resurrection, the redeemed
posed by twentieth century science, although man already has an existence in the eternal
attcmi)ts to discredit them as unscientific soon- order (Eph.I:3), so th.1t the sudden end of
c.r or ltitcr are embarrassed by inevitable re- this world order would disclose the exalted
versals of scientific opinion. Recent evangelical Redccmer as the true center of his life and
discussions of the hi`rmony of Scrii)ture and activity. At the same time, the crowned Christ
scic`ncc on such matters as the origin, unity mediates to the members of the body I)owers
and imtiquit}' of the humcln race may bc found and virtues that belong to the age to come as
in Conteinpol-ary Evangelical Thought an earnest of their future inheritance (Eph.
(C. F. H. Henry, editor; chill)tcr on ``Science I : 14; 11 Cor. I :22; Gal. 5:22). Man's destiny
and Religion") .1nd T/Ieozogy ¢ttc! Et7ozcttio# is therefore not simply an endless existence,
(Russell Mixter, editor, sponsorcid b}' Amcr- but is moral~either a life redeemed and fit
ican Si`ientific Affilii`tion). The Bible does for eternity, or a life under perpetual divine
not discriminate man f`rom the animals in judgment.
MAN OF SIN 342

BIBLIOGRAPHY the world and man deriving from the former

`cria#:\s:iBTa#eTi|,1:_:E£3lfDBgfi=na;eti:S]££|l:£ol|fR2oenv_CoTE=e£#6, and of badness from the latter. Redemption is
liberation of the good elements from the dom-
1\. C:I.ristian Vic'w of Men and T1.ings; |. GIesham
i\Iachen, TJie CJ]rjstja" Vicu7 of Ma"; Reinhold Niebuhr, ination of the bad, with which matter seems to
I:;;:gej¥!#fr:;„d;H:.e¥.#?flo:janR:%a?#;cS:J.£v>r„e?hfor?i#,rge:i-!off be predominantly though not exclusively as-
sociated. Christ is one who helped to this end,
Man.
being now succeeded by Manes. There is a
CARL F. H. HENRY
strong docetic element in the picture of Christ,
and we are not surprised to lean that the
MAN OF SIN. See ANTlcHRlsT.
resurrection is denied (though transmigration
is the fate of non-Manichaeans) and strictly
MANDAEANS. Also known as Nazoraeans,
ascetic practices are enjoined, the civil authori-
and Christians of St. John, Mandaeans are ad-
ties and physical force being also condemned.
herents of Mandaism, which is now confined
The followers Of Manes were organized into
to a few small communities south Of Bagdad.
the two main groups of hearers and elect, with
Their sacred writings-chiefly the Gj"z¢
a leader and twelve masters among the elect
CTreasute) and Book of John-are a strange in imitation of Christ and the apostles. Not-
amalgam of myth, history and ritual where
withstanding the decisions and enactments
teachings of rabbinic Judaism are mingled in-
against it, Manichaeism was widely preached
consistently with Gnostic Manichaeanism and and followed, even attracting the young Augus-
with traces of Christianity. Man's soul, tor-
tine for a time. Possible traces of its influence
lured by demons, is imprisoned within the may be seen in the medieval and Reformation
body, from which only a divine being, Manda sects and various modern cults (cf. HERE).
d'Hayye (Heb. Knowledge of Life) can re-
WILLIAM KELLY
lease him. Frequent baptisms are required to
prepare the soul for its ascent. Modern inter-
est in Mandaism centers in the frequent men- MANIFESTATION. (1) A predominant-
tion o£ John the Baptist in its literature. The- ly NT word indicating the eternal purpose of
ories have been advanced, notably by Lidzbar- God, which had been hidden from human
ski and Bultmann, claiming John as the found- gaze down the ages, but has now been revealed
er of the sect, whose myths were later inter- in Jesus Christ. Part of his saving work of re-
woven with primitive Christianity, especially deeming fallen humanity is the'revelation Of
by the writer of the Fourth Gos|)el. Uncer- the Father. In a general way this had been
tainty in dating the literature, and the intrinsic done through nature (Rom. 1:19-20). In
religious worthlessness of it, suggest that Man- Jesus Christ revelation becomes personal (Heb.
daism borrowed and debased Christian tradi- I : I). Holy Scripture enshrines the permanent
tions, and vice versa. record of this saving revelation. The Holy
BIBI.IOGRAPHY Spirit uses this medium to give fresh revelation
to the heart of the believer of his need and
God's provision in Christ Jesus (John 14:22;
:„::I:::;t::,:;%;:::I:^t§:i::a:,;,I:;:,a:g:I:t;i:;[f;p,::,:p::z{;;TS£3;ox§xf:,;i,I Cor. 12:7). Another aspect of his saving
i\'I. R. W. FARRER work is the destruction of the power of the
devil (I John 3:8). Eschatological implications
MANICHAEISM. The sources, origins and are found in Mark 4:22; I Cor. 3:13; Eph.
teachings of Manichaeism are to some extent 5: 13.

obscure, though it is obviously connected with (2) ``The Manifestation of Christ to the
the Persian Manes (cc!. A.D. 215-75) who in Gentiles" is the alternative title in the Angli-
the middle of the third century proclaimed can Prayer Book for the Feast of the Epiphan}'
himself a prophet, enunciated his new doctrine /q.v.)' Jan. 6th.
and was finally executed. So far as they are (3) The appearances of the risen Christ
known to us, his views, which are thought to to his own are called manifestations (John
derive from a certain Terebinthus, are a fusion 21 : 1).
of different elements in Persian dualism, (4) Christ continues to disclose himself
Gnosticism, Marcionism and Christianity. through the lif e and service of his followers
There are two basic and opposing principles (11 Col. 2: 14; 4: 10).
of good and evil, the elements of goodness in (5) At the return o£ Christ, the glorified
343 MARIOLATRY

saints will be manifested together with him Jesus in ways determined by their previous
(I John 3:2). experience.
(6) At the judgment seat o£ Christ the In later times owara7!¢!7i¢ became an eccle-
inner life and motivation of the redeemed will siastical device connected with fl7®flf 7ie"¢ as a
be made known (I Cor. 4:5; 11 Cor. 5:10; reinforcement for the act of solemn cursing.
cf. Mark 4:22). BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLICX3RAPHY
t{a#.wG;,s#:n,.£nG.TK;¥e;n,o6rfg*[mo;nB;„f,:,,fie,ggt:.=:
Th¥.TL„t#Eppr{apyhe:B';oi;8:Ei'.sre#a3;8]evI£7i]]°Hughcb8: pp. 293-317.
HERMAN C. WAET]EN
RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN
MARCI0NITES (OR MARCIONISTS).
MARANATHA. An Aramaic formula An unorthodox community founded by Mar-
found once in the NT in I Cor. 16:22 as cion in A.D. 144 on his excommunication from
part of Paul's concluding greeting, 7"¢7'¢#¢£ha the church in Rome. The sect was marked by
may be analyzed as an imperative : owa7.¢7c¢-f7}cl, strict asceticism, distinctive sacramental prac-
meaning ``Our Lord, come"; or as an indica- tices and the use of truncated Scriptures. De-
tive: "¢tzrc}"-a£7i¢, meaning "Our Lord is come." spite persecution the Marcionites increased
Three interpretations are possible: (I) the with such ra|)idity that both Justin (ApoZ. I,
prayer for the Lord's return, (2) the confes- 26, 5) and Tertullian (Adv. Mczrcjo# 5, 19)
sion of the Lord having come, (3) the asser- could claim that they permeated the Empire.
tion of the Lord's presence, as it is employed To what extent they accepted their master's
in the Eucharist. Paul most certainly meant
pseudo-Gnostic teaching is uncertain. Apelles,
to use the formula in the first sense. But it is the best known o£ Marcion's successors (Ter-
worthy of note that 7„arci#athfl appears in the tullian, De Pr¢escrjptjo"jz7t/s, 30), tempered
D;drc}7e at the end of a series of eucharistic his radical pessimism and denied the evil
Prayers. origin of the created world. From the third
Problematic has been the question why century onwards Western Marcionism declined
Paul, without translation, included an Aramaic under Manichaean absorption. It was eventual-
formula in a Greek letter to Corinth where ly prohibited by Constantine. It lingered in
Aramaic was not current. To answer that Paul the East, but had disappeared by the seventh
wanted to give the Judaizers a warning is in- century. The real significance of the move-
adequate, for it is not clear whether he had in ment lay in the. stimulus it provided towards
mind his opponents in I Cor. 16:22a or meant the definition of creed and canon.
his words to be understood in a general sense. BIBLIOGRAPHY
The fact that 7"c}r¢"-c]t7}¢ is rendered without A. Harnack, Mftrcjo",. E. C. Blackman, Marcjo# a%d
His Influence.
translation indicates that it was a fixed and
A. SKEVINGTON WOOD
widely circulated formula. As such, however,
it could only have originated and received its MARIOLATRY. The worship o£ Mary. In
meaning in an exclusively Aramaic-speaking Latin terminology three words are used to de-
congregation. Indeed, it is most likely that note "worship" -latTie, hyperd.ilia and dulia.
7"aro7¢c}th¢ was a key expression in the liturgy L¢trjci is defined as the worship due to God
of the primitive church in Palestine, and that alone, 7iyperdc/I;a that due to Mary, and dt4]j¢
from there it passed into Greek Christendom that due to the saints. To s|)eak of Mariolatry,
without translation, in fashion similar to therefore, is not strictly correct according to
"amen" and "hosanna."
Roman Catholic theology.
This has meant destruction to the hypothesis Protestants maintain that the distinction be-
posed by Win. Bousset in his books: Kyr3os tween these terms cannot be properly observed
Chrfstos (1913) and /esws der Herr (1916). in practice, and accuse Roman Catholics o£
In this "Kyrios" controversy Bousset argued placing Mary, in their devotional life, in a
that primitive Christianity in Jerusalem re- position akin to, if not equal with, that of
garded Jesus chiefly as the Son of Man yet Christ, and according to her !¢trja (true wor-
to come and usher in God's kingdom. The ship) rather than merely hyperc!t4Ji¢ (extreme
title "Lord" was only applied later on Greek honor), as they declare theologically.
soil under the influence of hellenistic Chris- The rise of Mary-worship may be traced
tianity. Gentile Christians, familiar with the back to two apocryphal writings -the Pi'ote-
mystery cults, would interpret the lordship Of v¢7igelit" /acobj (middle Of second century),
MARONITES 344

and thL` T7."7?s;f?(s M¢r!.¢e (fourth century) - tain their own liturgy and follow the Eastern
neither of which can be regarded as consonant practice in respect of clerical marriage. They
with the Gosi)el accounts of the NT. An in- 2ilso have their own usage in relation to feasts
flux into the church of man}' pagans occurred and vestments. Although a small church, they
when the F.m|)eror Constantine declared him- are organized under a patriarch and eight bish-
self a Christian, and the thought of a female ops, the former claiming to be the patriarch
element in the divinity, encouraged by pagan o£ Antioch. There is great veneration for the
thought generall}', Eg}'ptian, Babylonian, Greek bishops, and also a developed monastic life.
.ind L`tjn, beg:in to emerge. A great impetus Services are read in the vernacular as well as
to the ascrii)tion of divine honors to Mary was Latin, and it is to the credit of the church
gi`Jcn ``7hc`n the title "Mother of God" was of- that it maintained itself in spite of periods of
fii`ii`ll)' bi`stowed uiion her by the Council of severe repression under the Turks.
E|>hc`sus in 431, though it is certain that the WILLIAM KELLY
object of the Council was not to exalt Mary
but to assert the full deity o£ Christ from the MARRIAGE. Biblical teaching on mar-
``er}7 moment of his conception (see Mother riage is epitomized in the statement, "There-
of God). The excesses to which the cult Of fore a man leaves his father and his mother
Mary has been carried by the Roman Catholic and cleaves to his wife, and they become one
Church is witnessed to b}7 the dogmas of the flesh" (Gen. 2:24). This sentence is quoted
Immaculate Conception of the B.V.M. (de- by our Lord (Matt.19: 5) and the apostle Paul
fined in 1854), and of the Assumption of the (Eph. 5:31) as authority for their teachings
B.V.M. (defined in 1950). By these dogmas on marriage. The key phrase is the expression
"one flesh" (Z7d€dr 'e¢jd). "Flesh" here implies
there are ascribed to Mary ideas parallel to the
facts of our Lord's life. The additional idea kinship or fellowship, with the body as a medi-
that Mary may also be regarded as Mediatrix um (Crem. pp. 846-47), thus setting forth
"marriage as the deepest corporeal and spiritual
of our redemption is gaining ground, and the
term "Our Lady" (arising in the Middle Ages) unity of lnan and woman . . ." (KD on Gen.
is analogous to "Our Lord" as applied to 2:24). On the occasion of Eve's creation, God
Christ. observes, "It is not good that the man should
The references to Mary in Scripture give no be alone" (Gen. 2: 18). In this way he indi-
countenance whatever for a cult o£ Mary. The cates the incompleteness of man or woman
following are some of the chief places where apart from one another and sets forth mar-
she is mentioned: Matt.I: 16 f£.; Matt.13:55; riage as the means for them to achieve com-
Luke 1:27 ££.; John 2:I ££.; John 19:25 £f.; pleteness.
Acts I : 14. Instead of seeing Mary in the light Marriage is an e#cztlsjve relationship. The
of these passages as one who submitted herself total unity of persons - physically, emotionally,
to the will of God and faithfully carried out intellectually and spiritually -comprehended
her ministry, this cult transforms her into a by the concept ``one flesh," eliminates polygamy
being who is neither divine nor human. More as an option. One cannot relate wholeheartedly
dangerous still, from an evangelical point of in this way to more than one person at a time.
view, is the effect of such Mary-worship in It is also plain from the words of our Lord,
obscuring the person of our Lord in the mind "What therefore God has joined together, let
of the worshiper. no man put asunder (Matt. 19:6)," that mar-
See also AssuMPTloN oF MARY. riage is to e"dwre for the lifetime of the two
W. C. G. PRoCTOR I)artners. (For a discussion of the conditions
under which this principle of indissolubility
MARONITES. The Maronites are a small may be set aside, see DlvoRCE.)
Christian group in Lebanon who take their Promiscuity is likewise niled out. Such
name either from St. Maron or from a town unions are neither exclusive nor enduring.
probably named after him. Originally Mono- Moreover, they violate the holiness that inheres
thelite (q.v.), they entered into communion in biblical marriage. God instituted marriage
with Rome at the time of the Cnisades and so that men and women might complete one
were represented at the Lateran Council in another and share in his creative work through
1215. Since 1584 they have had a college at the procreation of children. (Celibacy is not
Rome. Like other uniate churches, they main- a higher and holier condition-a viewpoint
345 MARRIAGE

which finds its roots in Greek dualism rather marriage. Since the home is the proper medium
than in the Bible.) Physical union in marriage for the procreation and nurturing of children,
has a spiritual significance in that it points church and community have an important
beyond itself to the total unity of husband stake in the stability and success of the mar-
and wife, which is essentially a si)iritual union. riages taking pl{ace among their constituents.
This is underscored by Paul's use of the con- Marriage relegates other human ties to a
jugal union to symbolize the unity of Christ secondary role. Spiritual and emotional satis-
with his church (Eph. 5:22-33). But to main- factions formerly drawn from the parental re-
tain its holiness this union must take place in lationshi|), the marriage partners are now to
a relationship committed to enduring exclusive- find in one another. To sunder one's parental
ness. Illicit sexual unions are deemed reprehen- relationshii)s and join oneself in intimate, life-
sible in that they temporarily and superf icially long union with a person who hitherto has
establish a o7ie f!esJi relationship (I Cor. 6: 16) been a stranger demands a considerable degree
without proper accompanying intentions and of maturit}'-i`s c,`itressed in a caitacity for
commitments. An act with spiritual signifi- self-giving lo\'e, emotional stability and the
cance is made to serve improper ends. Another capacit}J to understand what is involved in
person is selfishly exploited. What should be a committing one's life to £`nother in marriage.
constructive relationship serving as the means Marriage is for those who have grown ui). This
to deeper interpersonal communion becomes ai)I)ears to exclude children, mental defectives,
in promiscuous relationships destructive both and those who are psychotic or ps)'chopathic
to one's capacity for personal unity with a at the time of entering into marriage.
member of the o|)I)osite sex and to existing
marriage relationships, if any. Hence our Lord The chief contributions of the NT to the
made adultery the ground for dissolution of a biblical view of` marriage were to undersc`ore
marriage (Matt. 5:32). the original princii)les of the indissolubility of
When is a couple married? Of what does marriage (stipl.c!) and the equal dignity of
women (Gal. 3:38; I Cor. 7:4; 11:11-12).
m`rriagc ultimatel}7 consist? some, arguing
from I Cor. 6:16, maintain that marriage is By raising women to a position of equal per-
effected through sexual intercourse. A I)erson sonal dignity with men, marriage was made
trul}7 o7te fzes7i, for the unity imi7lied in this
is considered in the eyes of God to be mar-
ried to that member of the opiiositc sex with exi)ression necessaril}' I)resui)i]oses that each
whom he first had sex relations (e.g., 0. Piper, I)erson bc given opportunity to develop his
The C,hristian Interpretation of Sex, ^lacrhil- full potentialities. This is not I)ossible in a
lan, New York, 1946). The sex act is viewed social system in which either men or women
as the agent through which God effects mar- •1rc not accorded full human dignity.
riage in a manner apparently amlogous to the Does not this raise difficulties with the
way in which adherents of the doctrine of biblical doctrine of subordination of married
baptismal regeneration see him make the sacra- women (Eph. 5:22-23)? Not at all, for this
ment of baptism the agent in effecting regen- doctrine refers to a hierarchy of fii"ctjo7c not
eration. of dignity or value. There is no inferiority of
Others consider marriage to be brought person imi)licit in the doctrine. God has desig-
about as the result of a declaration of desire nated a hierarchy of responsibility, hence au-
to be married accom|)anied by the expression thority, within the family, and he has done
of mutual intentions of sole and enduring so according to the order of creation. But
fidelity and responsibility toward the other, wom£`n's dignit}' is preserved not only in the
preferably undergirded b}7 self-gi`7ing love, in fact that she has equal standing in Christ, but
the presence of aci`redited witnesses. This view also in that the command to submit to her hus-
does not undercut the validit}' o£` marriages in band's headship is addressed to her. She is told
which the coui]le c{1nnot bring about I)h}'sical to do this willingly as an act of spiritual de-
consummation. It underscores the fact that `'otion (Eph. 5:22) and not in response to ex-
marriage ne`Jer has been regarded as solely the ternal coercion. She is to do this because God
concern of the individual cou|]le. This ma}7 be rests primary responsibility upon her husband
seen, for exami)le, in the prevaleni`e of com- for the welfare of the marriage relationship
munity laws forbidding incest and regulating and for the family as a whole. He, in fact,
the degree of consanguinity i]ermissible for qualif ies for leadership in the church in I)art
MARTYR 346

through the skill he demonstrates in ``pastor- MASTER. The word 7"¢sfer is used in the
ing" his family (I Tim. 3:4-5). AV to translate various Hebrew and Greek
BIBLIOGRAPHY words. In the NT it is used chiefly for
d!.c!aska!os, "teacher," and directs attention to
K.DE.S#irkB,a£#ah%eea#dys#%orc°ef;LOTVB±paenrd(s#Mparrar)4.age;
the prophetic aspect of our Lord's work. It is
LARS I. GRANBERG
used also to render "rabbi," a title of honor
for teachers (Matt. 23:7 f.), which is ai)I)lied
MARTYR. The Greek word t"artys under- in the r\TT only to John the Baptist and, of
lying martyr means "witness" (a.v.) and is em- course, especially, to C1_fist. On the close re-
lationship between r¢Z7Z7j (and also the form
ployed frequently in the LXX with its cus-
rabbouni) and didaskatos see ]chn \..38., 3..2.,
tomary legal associations, as well as in the ex-
and 20: 16.
tended sense found repeatedly in the NT, of
The term Ky7i.os, which is usually translated
one who testifies to the reality and experience ``Lord" in the AV is also translated "master" a
of religious and theological data (Acts 1 :6-8,
22, of the apostles; Heb.12:1, of the gallery
number of times. It is used notably of an own-
er of property, a master of a household, a
of OT saints; Rev.1 : 5 and 3: 15, of Jesus).
master of slaves, one who controls and dis-
These passages contain the ingredients for poses, a person of exalted rank, a sovereign.
the later technical use of martyr denoting one The religious use of the term as applied to
who seals his testimony with blood, but the Christ is accurately reflected in the translation
semantical transition does not appear to be ef- Lord, not by the term Master as it has been
fected in the NT passages usually alleged used by some persons in modern times.
(Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13). Both Stephen and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antipas are termed martyrs because of their
394or„:d;;p.J.398rei?,a¥hlfy::i€Fi,m#:c o,.igi" of P"" Re-
sterling and self less testimony, not because they
died in giving it. In the latter technical sense JOHN H. SKILTON
the term begins to emerge about A.D. 160 to
MEDIATION, MEDIATOR. The word
distinguish one tyi)e of confessor from another. "mediator" is rare in the Bible, being found
Dcsi)ite detailed monographs the precise evolu-
not at all in the OT (though cf. "umpire" in
tion is shrouded in mystery, but it is probable
Job 9:33), and only in Gal. 3:19 f.; I Tim.
that since faithful testimony frequently issued 2:5; Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24, in the NT. Yet,
in death and identified the confessor thereby
if the word is infrequent, the idea is one of
most closely with Jesus, the witness par ex-
the dominant conceptions of the Bible. Job
cellence and faithf'ul to the end, the term
recognizes that God "is not a man, as I am,
i73Hrt,i's gradually was reserved for one who
that I should answer him, that we should come
paid the supreme price. Thus T7ce M¢rtyrdot# together in judgment." He goes on: "There is
of Polyc¢rp (XVII, 3) states: "(Jesus) being
no umpire betwixt us, that might lay his hand
the Son o£ God we worship, but the martyrs
upon us both. Let him take his rod away
as disciples and imitators of the Lord we right-
from me, and let not his terror make me
ly love in view of their unsurpassed devotion
afraid" (Job 9:32+34). It is this inability of
tow{ird their own Sovereign and Teacher. May
man to stand before God that makes mediation
it be granted us to share their company and
necessary.
join them as disciples."
In the OT this principle is worked out in
A letter from the Gallic churches (Eus. HE various ways. Thus when God gave Israel a
5:2) employs the word 7707icozogo; to distin- law he did it not directly, but through a
guish confessors who have not yet resisted mediator, Moses. Moses might also be thought
unto blood from those who have. The techni-
col term which comes into later use for the +;fv:rsa::tejnogf]tEeap::Sj:t:rr:a±:a:a]caf;yd£:ftE:y:::
former is 7co7"ozogGtgs, and the term 7"¢rfyr is In the subsequent religion of the people priest-
rcscrved exclusively for one who has died for ly activities were prominent, and what is this
the faith. but another form of mediation? Yet another
BIBI.IOGRAPHY example is to be seen in the work of the
j\rn.lt; 1'. Ka"enl)usch, ZNW, +, pii.Ill-27; Ernst
I)roi)hets. God did not give his revelation di-
9.rgfi',`,::`,.:,rfszo¥`:,'„?s?,.'„,:'j!,';,]¢,5-ftLt,.tcR;,P];pFa3S6.y37£.nT''`'
rectl}'to the heart of every man. He spoke
FREDERICK W. DANKER through his chosen prophets. In similar fashion
347 MELCHIZEDEK

the king was thought of as in some sense a heart." Thus meditation is a form of private
mediator when he was referred to as "the devotion or spiritual exercise consisting in
Lord's .inointed." deep, continried reflection on some religious
In the NT Moses is spoken of as a mediator theme. St. Teresa, who finally achieved so
in Gal. 3 : 19 f. But the emphasis is not on any much in this respect, confessed that when she
merely humcin mediator but on Christ, so first made the attempt, she felt the impossi-
much so th!`t wc read "there is one God, one bility of collecting her thoughts and fixing
mcdii`tor also between God and men, himself her attention; and it was not until more than
man, Christ Jesus, who gave himself a ransom fourteen years had |]assed that she was able to
for cill" (I Tim. 2:5 f.). In the sense of really practice meditation without the aid of a book.
bringing God and man together the ministry F. CARLTON BooTH
of Christ is unique. In this sense there is no
other mcdii`tor. This is imiilied in the three MEEKNESS. Meekness closely resembles
passages in Hebrews which si)cak of Christ gentleness, moderation, yet praote-s (I Cor.
as Mcdicltor. F.clch ri`fers to the new covenant, 4:21; 11 Cor.10:I; Gal. 5:23; 6:I; Eph.
and two of them specifii`{`ll}' mention the death 4:2; Col. 3:12; 11 Tim. 2:25; Titus 3:2;
of the Saviour. The function of the Medi£`tor, James I:21; 3:13; I Pet. 3:15) and praos
then, is to die for sin, imd thus to bring into (Matt. 5:5; 11:29; 21:5; I Pet. 3:4) have a
being th£`t new covenant which truly brings distinctive meaning; AV, RV always trans-
men to God. He inter|)oscs in the situation lating "meekness," "meek." They correspond
crei`ted by man's sin and God's condemnation. to `¢T7cd7td, `d7cf, `d7!6u7, which originally signify
He st£1nds between those who arc cstrangi`d, distress and helplessness, but acquire a moral
and mcikes them one. significance and denote contrition of spirit
before God, becoming synon}'mous with hu-
But it is not only in these specific texts that
mility (Pss. 22:24-26; 147:6; Isa.11 :4; 61 : I).
wc are to sc`i` the NT idea of Christ <is Media-
Mcelmess in the OT is primarily Godward.
tor. We see it in his nature, as both God and
man, wherein he is God's re|)resentative to In the NT too, meekness is humility born
mi`n, imd man's rei)resentative to God. We see of trustful submission to God in the first
it in his fulfilment of all that is imi)lied in the I)lace, but it results in gentle, forgiving unsel-
OT conce|)ts of I)rophet, I)riest and king. We fishness towards others. Nowhere in Scripture
see it in the i.acts thi`t man is totall}' unable to has it an cibject, unworth}7 meaning. The meek
fit himself for God, and that Jesus i]erfc.ctly .irc. might}' in God's I)uri)oses (cf. Moses,
brings him to God. Nun.12:3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY Win. Barclay says pi.¢otGs, is no "spineless
Blunt; A. T. Robertson in HDAC; F. J. Ta}rlor in
RTWB. gentleness," and whilc` gentleness is thcrc, be-
LEON MORRIS hind it is the strength of stccl. 1\I()sos i`nd,
supremely, Christ exhibited it (cf . Mi`rk
MEDITATE. So far as the Scripture is 10: 13-16 and John 2: 14-17).
concerned this is almost exclusively an OT BIBLI0GRAPIIY

word. Only twice does the Greek word "eJetczo-, w:;dsb.ogka.nks fn HDB; Win. l}arl`lay, A Z\'LJw T{tsiflmc,„t
translated "meditate," occur in the NT: (1) R. COLIN CRASTON
The form pro"ie]etao-, "to meditate before-
hand," is the classical word for preparing a MELCHIZEDEK. Historically (in Gen.
speech in advance (Luke 21 : 14); (2) 7me}etco-, 14:18-20), Melchizedek was (1) king of
"to meditate," means to be careful, to take Salem (Jerusale7"), (2) a priest of God Most
care, to be diligent in these things; from High and (3) a bestower of blessing upon
7"ezetG, care or practice (I Tim. 4:15). The Abraham. His identity (various views have
Latin derivative is 7„ed;fare, "to reflect," "to been held) is otherwise unknown. Like Abra-
exercise in," "to practice." In the OT various ham, he was a monotheist (Gen.14:18, 22).
forms of two Hebrew words b6gcl and 5€clz} are Prophetically (in Ps. Ilo), Melchizedek be-
translated "meditate." They den-ote "that silent comes the pattern of the Messiah's priesthood.
and secret musing in which the children Of This Davidic Psalm depicts (I) the deity (vs.
God are to exercise themselves." Meditation I; cf. Matt. 22:41-46), (2) the kingship (vss.
is "talking within the mind and issues in I ff.; cf. Acts 2:34-36) and (3) the priest-
s|>eech. It is the inner whisperings of the hood (vs. 4; cf. below) of the messianic priest-
MERCY 348

king. This prophecy is a necessary link be- BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Tol.rance, SJT, 1, 55-65; BDB; R. Bultmann in
tween Genesis and the NT.
Ty|)ically (in Heb. 5:6,10; 6:20; and par-
ticularly chap. 7), Melchizedek illustrates the F;:pg.oTi:s:e::;;z,4#;:sii!a:p;p.;i!r:kit,;,:,8Tf;S:?:?:p;i,t?iH?e3:::4:3;3t¥:
superiority of Christ's priesthood to Aaron's
priesthood. The history (in Genesis) and the
proi.hecy (in Psalms) unitedly demonstrate ij;a:S;i,?;;72:i:.f;;9§;8¥;E;lil:2:;nil.;|nfe;bs2e;':::-;%::6':]oE4;1;t!:;i;Str}c:rit£°t;:;:
how Melchizedek's name ("king of righteous- BURTON L. GODDARD
ness"), residence (Salem, "peace"), life (with-
out birth or death), ordination (with an oath), MERCY SEAT. The kflppo-reth, (etymor
office (both priest and king) and functions (a logically, and perhaps literally, "the expiating
bcstower of blessings and a receiver of tithes) thing"), which rested on the ark of the cove-
all suri)ass Aaron's. Almost incidentally, and nant, is described in Ex. 25:17-22. It was
yet pregnantly, Christ (in Melchizedek) is made of pure gold, two cubits and a half in
likewise superior to Abraham (Heb. 7:4, 6) length and a cubit and a half in breadth, with
and Levi (Heb. 7:5, 8). two cherubim facing each other, their wings
Hermeneutically, Melchizedek exemplifies overshadowing the mercy seat. On the Day of
(I) the significance of names, (2) the deeper Atonement the high I)riest took the blood of
meaning of history, (3) the relationship of his- a bull and sprinkled it on the front of the
tory to I)ro|)hecy and type, (4) the unity of happo-ret7t and before it. He did likewise with
the Testaments, (5) the implicit universality the blood of a goat.
of the messianic mission, (6) the abrogation According to the LXX rendering at Ex.
of ceremonialism and (7) the sanity and 25 : 17 the adjective 7ij!cistG]io", ordinarily used
m}'stery of inspiration. to translate koppo-i-eth, is followed by ep;tjte7",
WICK BR00MALL for which there is no corresi)onding word in
the Hebrew text. The LXX ar>pears therefore
MERCY. A communicable attribute of God,
to understand k¢ppol-et}t as an atoning device,
mercy expresses God's goodness and love for
and not simpl}l as a c`o`rer. Luther's G"¢de"-
the guilty and miserable. It includes pity, com-
sti4hz (followed by Tyndale: "the seate of
passion, gentleness, i.orbearance. It is both
free (not required by outward restraint) and grace," then ``merc}'seate") captures the deriva-
tion from the piel of kczp¢I. (7{;ppcr), "to ex-
absolute (covering all areas of human life).
Gcncral mercy is best seen in creation and itiate," "tcj make atonemefit." I)aul's use of the
LXX word, Rom. 3:25, conve}'s this thought
itrttvidi`nce. Si)ecial merc}', for the elect only,
of expiatory instrumentalit}'. Whether the OT
is th£`t which bestows comi)assion upon the
association is necessarily implied is question-
\Jictim of sin. Grace, as distinguished from
able, but it is difficult to conceive its absence
merc}' (whic`h has rest)ect to man's wretched-
from the Ai)ostle-s mind. In any event the
ness), has in view man's culpabilit}'. God's
substantivized neuter adjective (a simple ad-
mcrc}7 to mt`n requires mercy on man's part
(i\'Iatt.18:23-35).
jectival use especiall}7 in the masculine would
be unusual) suggests that Jesus is the expiatory
The OT word for mercy is Jtesecz. NT words
:`rc eJeos and ojktz."ios ("i]it}',." "in-ercy," "com-
means who through his blood makes atone-
ment. I\To attempted modification of God's dis-
1)assion"). The prevailing LXX rendering Of
7tesed, e!eos, and a somewhat frequent alter- position is necessarily implied in the word.
Heb. 9:5 clearl}7 refers to the kflppo-reth.
Late, dik".osy72e-("righteousness") (Ex. 34:7,
See also PROPITIATloN.
ctc.)` suggest an intimate relationship between
BIBLIOGRAPIIY
these two .ittributes. Ai)parently no one Greek .\rndt; A. Dcissmann, Zi\TW, 4, 193-212; Herrmann-
term `v£\s adequate to conve}7 the word's full Bueclise] jn TV.'NT.
idc:I of intertwined righteousness and love. FREDERICK WILLIAM DANKER
Jiese6Z includes the RSV idea o£ "steadfast
|a\Je.'r i\|an}r schol£`rs emphasize the close re- MERIT. The word is not found in Scrip-
lationshi|) between |tesed and Z7€rf! (Deut. 7:2; ture, yet the ideas enshrined in it vitally af-
9: 12, etc.) and see in I.€`sed the mutual rela- feet the doctrine of salvation. In the time o£
tion of rights and rest)onsibilities. Thus God's Christ Judaism had developed a strongly legal-
mercy is required because of his covenant with istic tinge which is attested for the intertesta-
his people. See LovlNG-KINDNEss. mental I)eriod (e.g., Tob. 12:9) and is re-
349 MESSIAH

flected in our Lord's exchanges with the ing knowledge of the gospel. Certainly the
scribes. The church in the post-apostolic age teaching of Paul is clear that no supposed
was strongly af fected by it also, for the Chris- worth of character or amassing of legal works
tian faith was thought of primarily as a new can bring a righteous standing before God.
law which one must keep in order to gain See also INI)ULGENCE, SUPEREROGATION,
eternal life. GooD WORKS.
Even though Augustine magnified divine BIBLTOGRAPH`'
grace, he retained the position that eternal life
incEEEEFapc%L]ES:8Ess:fGD,°a8g,akcpt%3:m3nEt\rs±±aFb.ts%#,S,
comes as a regult of merit. He sought to safe- pp. 423~36.
guard this teaching b}7 maintaining that grace EVERETT F. HARRISON
is essential in order to enable one to do these
good works. MESSIAH. The study of the rise and de-
The standard position among the Schoolmen velopment of the figure of the Messiah is pri-
was that baptismal grace not only absolved marily historical, and then theological. Con-
from I)revious sin but also produced a condi- fusion arises when si)ecif icall}' Christian ideas
tion wherein one c`ould win merit. A distinc- about the Messiah invade the OT data. Jesus'
tion was made between the merit of congruity concept of his messianic mission did not ac-
and the merit of condignity. The former was cord with contemporar}r por)ular Jewish ex-
connected with gen6ral grace. The natural pectation.
man was regarded as having sufficient virtue "Messiah" is the hellenized transliteration
to imi)el him toward the good and therefore of the Aramclic t"€5i^kyfi'. The underlying He-
toward God. Thus he could merit the second brew word is derived from the verb "4d5cl7t, to
stage, which comes b}r special grace, the merit .1noint, smear with oil. This title was used
of condignit}'. As the first stage paved the way sometimes of non-Israelite figures: e.g., C}'rus
tor justification in the Roman Catholic sense, in Isa. 45: I, somelimes of the altar as in Ex.
the sec`ond led to etern<1l life. 29;36, sometimes of the I)ro|)het as in I Kings
Alexander of Hales (d. 1245) advanced 19: 16, but most frequentl}' it referred to the
the doi`trine of the Tre:`sur}' of i\Ierit. Christ's king of Israel as in I Sam. 26:11 and Ps.
sufferings were more than enough for the sal- 89:20. It is noteworth}' that the word Mes-
vation of the race. Also, the sacrificial works siah does not aiiitear at all in the OT (the
of iniln\' of the s;`ints exceeded what the}' AV of Dan. 9:25 is incorrect; it ought to read
themsel\`'cs required for entranc`e into heaven. "an anointed one"), and onl}' rarel}' in the in-
This surplus of merit is thus available to ti`rtl`sti`mental
literi`ture. The 1)rimar}' sense
need)', itenitent souls. Aquims endorsed the of the title is "king," as the anointed man of
idea and sought to strengthen it b}' emi]hasiz- God, but it also suggests election, i.c., the king
jng the m}'stical union which binds the mem- was chosen, elect, and therefore honored. It
bers of the church to one another and to could scarccl\' be otherwise than that it re-
Christ the head. Col.I:24 has been appealed fc`rrcd to a itolitic`.11 leader, f`or in its early
to as a proof text for the doctrine, which his- stages Isri`cl sought onl}7 a ruler, visible and
toric`allv was intim£`ti`l\' i`onncc`ted with the
I)owerful, wh() \`'ould reign here and now. But
s}'stem`of indulgences `in the Roman Church the entire i`\'idencc` of later Judaism I)oints to
against which the Reformation took its stand. £` hlessii`h not onl}. as king, but as eschatologi-
Roman Catholic theolog}' is jnextricabl}' tied ca] king, a ruler who would appear at the end
up with the concept of merit. ``Good works are time. Di`vid was the ideal king of Israel, and
trul}. and properly meritorious, and that not as such he had a "sacral" character, and this
merely of some I)articular reward, but of eter. sacral characteristic came to be ai)I)lied to the
nal life itself" (Bellarmine). esc`hatological king who was to be like David.
Scriptural data on this general subject are How did the n{itional Messiah come to be a
difficult to s}Tstematize. On the one hand rec- future ideal king? Af ter the death of David
ognition is given to the doing of good as lead- Israel began to hor)e for another like him who
ing ultimately to life (Ron. 2:6, 7; Acts would maintain the power and I)restige of
10:35), but this is not recognized as merit. their countr}7. But she came into hard times
Rather, the desire thus exhibited to please with the rupture of the kingdom, and with
God finds its fulfilment in the divine guaI- this event there arose a disillusionment con-
antee to bring those who evidence it to a sav- cerning the hope for a king like David. Then
MESSIAH 350

after the Exile Zembbabel, a descendant Of popular Jewish mind of the first two centuries
David, took leadership of Judah, but it de- before and after Christ these two concepts
veloped that he was not another David. Grad- were not mutually hostile, but tended rather
ually the hope was projected into the future, to modify each other. It has been argued by
and eventually into the very remote future so some scholars that the conflation of the con-
that the Messiah was expected at the end Of cepts of Messiah and Suffering Servant took
the age. This is the mood of the messianic ex- place in the intertestamental period, but the
pectations in the latter part of the OT. Such sole evidence for this is from'the Targums,
prophet.ies are common. For example, Jer. 33 which are post-Christian.
promises a continuation of the Davidic line; It remained for Jesus to fuse the three great
Isa. 9 and 11 foresee the regal splendor of the eschatological representations of the OT -
coming king; Mic. 5:2 looks forward to the Messiah, Suffering Servant and Son Of Man
birth of the Davidic king in Bethlehem; and -into one messianic person. Apart from this
Zech. 9 and 12 describe the character of the truth there is no explanation for the confusion
messianic kingdom and reign. of the disciples when he told them he must
The Son of Man figure in Daniel is not to suffer and die (Matt. 16:21 ff.). That Christ
be identified with the Messiah; it is later in knew himself to be the Messiah is seen best
the history of Judaism that the two figures in his use of the title Son of Man; in Mark
were seen to be one. The Suffering Servant 14:61-62 he equates the Christ and the Son
of Isaiah by reason of his role is yet another of Man. "Christ" is simply the Greek equiva-
figure. So the Messiah, or future ideal king Of lent of the Hebrew ``Messiah." John I :41 and
Israel, the Son Of Man and the Suffering 4:25 preserve the Semitic idea by translitera-
Servant were three distinct representations in ting the word Messiah. Jesus willingly ac-
the OT. cepted the appellation Son of David, a distinct
The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha are the messianic title, on several occasions -the cry
literary remains of the evolution Of messianic of blind Bartimaeus (Mark 10:47 ££.), the
hopes within Judah between the testaments. children in the temple (Matt. 21 : 15) and the
As in the OT, the formal use of "Messiah" Triumphal Entry (Matt. 21:9), to name but
is rare. It is well to remember that in this a few. It has long been wondered why Jesus
literature there is a distinction between Mes- did not appropriate the title Messiah to himself
siah and messianic; a book may have a messi- instead of the less clear title of Son of Man.
anic theme, but lack a Messiah. The Book of The former was probably avoided out of poli-
Enoch is best known for its doctrine of the tical considerations, for if Jesus had publicly
Son of Man whic.h has many messianic over- used ``Messiah" of himself it would have
tones. Yet he is not the Messiah, but a person ignited political aspirations in his hearers to
much like Daniel's Son of Man. It remained appoint him as king, principally a nationalistic
to the Psalms o£ Solomon (c¢. 48 B.c.) to pro- figure, and to seek to drive out the Roman
vide the one confirmed and repeated evidence occupiers. This is precisely the import Of the
of the technical use of the term in the inter- Jews' action at the Triumphal Entry. Jesus
testamental literature. This literature demon- seized on the title Son of Man to veil to his
strates, therefore, a diffuse expectation ab6ut hearers his messianic mission, but to reve;I
the Messiah. It speaks of a Messiah Of David, that mission to his disciples.
of Levi, of Joseph and of Ephraim. The Dead The first generation of the church did not
Sea Scrolls add to the confusion by referring hesitate to refer to Jesus as the Christ, and
to a Messiah of Aaron and Israel. Out Of the lhereby designate him as the greater Son Of
welter Of messianic hopes in this period there David, the King. The word was used first as
emerges a pattern: two kinds of Messiah came a title of Jesus (Matt.16:16), and later. as
to be expected. On the one hand, there arose part of the personal name (Eph.1:I, e.g.).
an expectation of a purely national Messiah, Peter's sermon at Pentecost not only acknowl-
one who would appear as a man and assume edged Jesus as the Christ, but also as Lord,
the kingship over Judah to deliver her from and so the fulfilment of the messianic office
her oppressors. On the other hand, there was is integrally linked to the essential deity Of
a hope for a transcendent Messiah from heav- Jesus. Acts 2:36 affirms that Jesus was "made"
en, part human, part divine, who would estab- Christ, the sense of the verb being that by the
lish the kingdom of God on earth. To the resurrection Jesus was confirmed as the Christ,
351 MILLENNIUM

the Messiah Of God. Rom. I:4 and Phil. Mech;Ztcz (rule) on a section o£ Exodus; (2)
2:9-11 contain the same thought. Other mes- S;p7"c} (book) on I.eviticus; and (3) S;pJli.e
sianic titles attributed to Jesus include Servant,
(books) on Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Lord, Son o£ God, the King, the Holy One, Most of the remaining midrashim are hag-
the Righteous One and the Judge. gadic; that is, they are homiletic in nature and
See also CHRISTOLOG¥. jnteri)ret Scripture from the devotional stand-
BJBl,IOGRAPIIY
|)oint for I)uri)oses of edification. Their origin
Cli%st#o°g`.;£n;*:i]'c#:,.cj3;i;,?tvf°r':;i'3r,Bi,,¥.N`}T,?,I.:s`elg;lies in the homiletic exposition of the sabbz`th
Jest,s. lection in the synagogue. Important haggadic
DAVID H. WALLACE
midr:ishim arc the Tcz7tcht47#cz (fourth centur}7)
and the Mi.c]7.Hs7i R¢Z7b¢ (sixth to twelfth cen-
MI]TEMPSYCHOSIS` This is the theory
turies).
that souls are reincarnate many times. It is an
B]RLIOGRAPIIY
essential part of Buddhism and Hinduism, 11. L. Str.ick, 177trof7]ictl.oft to f7ici Tc7Jiii[.:i ti/itl i`J;.I-
though the Buddhist conception of the soul is ras7i,. I. Tl`|.otl()r, Jc'wEi]c, VIII, pp. 548-80.

complex. It is also held by Theosophists, An- HERMAN C. WAET]EN

throi)osoi)hists, Rosicrucians, most Occultists,
some Spiritualists, and some philoso|)hers. It is MIGHT. This word, which signifies :`bility
often coui)led with the theory of` k".7w", where- to cnfori`c one's will, represents a variety of
b}' the present allotment of good and evil is words in Scripture, chiefl}7 ko-¢]}, `o-:, grz"ii.d
whcit hcis been merited in previous lives. and i7®r6cZ in the OT and d,i'wc""js, jsc77?ts and
"Memories" of etirlier lives, sometimes induced
7cl-afos in- the NT. The AV, ERV, and RSV
under h}'i)nosis, are open to doubt. render v£`riousl}' "might," "power" or
Although reinc{1rm`tion wtis held by Gnos- "strcn!ith.„
tics i`nd :` fc`w c!irl}' Christians, the Bible lends It is ai)I)roi)rii`tcly used of God as Creator
no support. IIcb. 9:27 spci`ks of "once to die." fmd Sust<1incr of the universe (11 Chron. 20:6;
In John 9:2-3 Christ reji`i`ts the theor}7 of sin Ps.145:6; Isi`. 40:6), and of the i`bility God
in i` previous life its an cxi)lantition of blind-
gives to mi`n th:`t the)' ma}' serve him (Judg.
ness. John the Baptist was not Elijah in per- 6:14; Dan. 2:23; Col.I:11). D)Jttaw}I.s is ac-
son (Matt.11:14; 17:10-12), but hi`d "the tui`ll}' used {is a I)i`riiihri`sis for God in Mi`tt.
spirit and power o£ Elijah" (Luke I : 17). 26:64 (= M£`rk 14:62), where the RSV has
BIBLIOGRAPHY "P()\\'c`r" (AV and ERV "I)ower"). As strength

"|.ats:.:f£3rflq,??Vfi:]'il3;``f[.a'` in tlle Pr{)c`ess ot` Time," ill gi`'cn to mi`n it is cspcc`ii`ll}r assocititcd with
J. STAFFORD WRIGHT the IIol}' Spirit (Acts 1 :8; Eph. 3: 16) zmd is
a I)"rticular cndowmcnt of Messiah (Isa.
METROPOLITAN. See OFFlcEs, EccLE- 11,2).
SIASTICAL.
r\Ti`\7cr w{is God's might}t itowcr more cli`ar-
MIDRASH. From the Hebrew dcir¢5, mean- 1}' sccn thin in the rcsurrcction of Jesus Christ
ing "to examine," a midriish is simultaneously [`r()in the dead (Ei)h.I:19-20), ,1nd to him
a Jewish-rabbinic commJ``ntilr}' and £` method fim`ll}' shall I)e iiscribed £`11 might and imjesty
of scriptural exitosition dircctcd to the activity in hci`ven (Rc`'. 7:12).
of penetrating into the meaning of a text. As L. E. H. STEPHENS-[IODGE
commentaries, midrashim (plural) are dividi'd
into two broad classes. MILLENNIUM. The biblic.il ti`aching
Of primary importance is the halachic` mid- about the millennium is found in Rev. 20:I.
rash, which is strictl}r ethical in nature and 10, {1nd the debate on the me£`nin`g of this
purposes to cx|)ound the deeper meaning of I)assiigi` has been a Ion g one. The diffcrcnt in-
the law. Hal:`chic midrashim origim`ti`d under teri)retations of the millennium arc distin-
the scribes-of which Ezra was the first- guishcd in two wa}'s; somctimi`s b}' the ri`l:`-
when the interpretation of trained sc`hol:`rs was tion in which the millennium is thou`Sht to
required to make the law £`i)I)lie:`ble to the st£`nd to thl` second i`oming of Christ, imd
circumsti`nces of a new environment (i`.g., the somi`timcs in terms of the mcanin`g of the mil-
post-c`,`ilic return to Palestine). The oldest ex- ]cnnium itself. The t\\'o views to bc consid-
tiint midrilshim are hal{1chic {1nd have their ered first arc those known as pre-millcnnii`lism
origin in the Tannaitic era (A.D.I-200): (I) and post-millcnnialism rest)cctivi`l}', views
MILLENNIUM 352

whic`h are distinguished by the relation of the great tribulation or immediately at the begin~
millennium to the Lord's return. ming of the millennium.
5. At the inception of the millennium there
I. PRE-MILLENNIALlsM. The view which
will be a iireliminar}' judgment of the living
this term expresses indicates that the Lord will
nations. The risen saints will reign with Christ
return before the millennium, and it has been
one thousand years.
presc`nted in two main forms. 6. At the end of the millennium flagrant
A. Otdei. Foi-in of Pre-iiLitlennialism. Tt\is
wickedness will bre€`k out, this being occa-
was biiscd upon a corresi)ondence between the
sioned by the loosing of Satan.
si.` di`}s ot` creation followed by the one day 7. After this painful short season the resur-
of rest. It was accordingly conceived that the rection of the wicked will take place and this
world's histor}7 was to extend over a period of will be followed b}' the last judgment at the
six thousand years and that this in turn was to
great white throne.
bc followed by a kind of millennial ``sabbath"
of one thousand years. Very often quite rna- One of the main turning points in disi)cn-
terialistic concei)tions were attached to this sationalist teaching is the view which is taken
view, and the term "chiliasm" has been largely of "the kingdom." It is held that the OT
employed to indicate this way of conceiving of prophets predicted the re-establishment of
millennial blessings. It was further held that David's kingdom and that Christ himself in-
at the close of the thousand years of sabbath tended to bring this about. It is alleged, how-
rest there would be the final judgment and the ever, that bcc`£`use the Ji.ws refused his 1)erson
new creation. and work he postponed the establishment of
his kingdom until the time of his return.
8. Rec.ent Foi-in of Pi.e-Mil,lennialisrm. un-
Meanwhile, it is argued, the Lord gathered
dcr this heading come the views which are
together "the church" as a kind of interim
soinctimes called "Dispensationalist," though
mi`iisure.
thcrc are many expositors who hold to a I)re-
Some of the objections that are made against
milli`nnial coming of our Lord but who never-
thi`less do not subscribe to such dispensa- pre-millennialism are as follows.
tionalist views as those of Darby, Bullinger and I. It imi)lies an untenable literalism in the
Sc`ofield. It is impossible to make a brief state- interpretation of prophecy.
mi`nt that covers all the varieties of interpreta- 2. The theory of the "posti)oned kingdom"
tion that arc gathered under this heading, but is without scriptural support, and there cannot
the ovc`ri`ll picture ma}7 be painted in some- be two gospels, one of "faith" and one c`£
"sight.„
thing like the following terms.
3. The view makes a separation of time
I. Before any of the final events of the
between the coming o£ Christ, the resurrec-
p¢7.ocisicz take place living Christians will be tion, the judgment and the end of the world.
"caught up." This is sometimes called the
This is considered by many to be contrary to
secret rat)lure (q.t7.). There are many pre-nil-
Scripture, which synchronizes these events.
li`nnii`lists, however, who reject the theory of
Disi)ensationalism also separates the p¢i-ottsjc]
the secret rapture and hold that the taking up
from the ep!.pho7ee].a, the czpoc¢Zypsis and the
of the saints will occur at the public manifesta- "day of the Lord" in a manner which Scripture
tion of the second coming of Christ. This di-
cannot support.
vergcnce of opinion is sometimes indicated by
4. The NT does not connect the second
the terms pre-tribulation rapture and post-
coming with an earthly kingdom having its
tribulation rapture. The former opinion teaches
center in an administration from Jerusalem.
that the saints do not go through the tribula-
5. There is an incongruity in the situa-
tion, while the latter implies that they do.
tion which supposes the risen saints to be
2. When Christ rctums, the world will be living with others in the world who are still
under the sway of evil and Antichrist will be in their earthly state.
in power. 6. Pre-millennialism is based only on
3. At his coming our Lord will win an out- Revelation 20, after having read certain OT
standing victory in which Antichrist will be prophecies into it. This produces a view
di`stro}'cd. which is contradicted by the rest of Scrip.-
4. The resurrection of believers-"the first ture.
rcsurrcction"-will occur either before the 7. The "first resurrection" ma}' possibly
353 MILLENNIUM

indicate regeneration by the Holy Spirit, an future is contradicted by the catastrophic repre-
event which is likened to a resurrection in the sentation of the subject in Scripture.
writings of Paul and John. 3. The humanistic and evolutionary opin-
ions are contrary to all that the Bible has to
11. PosT-MILI.ENNIALlsM. This, as the name
suggests, indicates a view which places the say concerning man and his sin.
Before passing on to other aspects of this
coming of Christ after the millennium. Post-
millennial theories have been held in two
study, a comment by Gerhardus Vos, which
forms which again can be distinguished as relates both to pre-millennialism and post-mil-
older and more recent. lennialism, ought to be heeded. He writes: "In
regard to a book [Revelation] so enigmatical,
A. Order Form of Post-mtllennialism. A\tr
it were presumptuous to speak with any degree
gustine conceived of the thousand years as of dogmatism, but the uniform absence of the
representing the period that the church was
idea of the millennium from the eschatological
to rule on the earth. According to this, the
teaching of the New Testament elsewhere
millennial reign of the saints represented the
ought to render the exegete cautious before af-
rule of the kingdom of heaven, while the first
firming its presence here."
resurrection represented the spiritual share
which believers had in their Lord's resurrec- Ill. THE NATURE oF THE MII.I,ENNIUM.
tion. The two views that have been described above
Among other post-millennial thinkers of the have certain conceptions in common in that
older school, some thought the millennium to they both regard the millennium as a period
be a thing of the past, others considered that of time in which the kingdom of God, in one
its blessings were still being experienced, while form or another, is to prosper. Before consider-
others regarded it as belonging to some future ing the third general view of the subject, how-
time, possibly just before the second coming. ever, it is necessary to survey the ideas that
There are many evangelical believers who hold have been entertained concerning the nature
these post-millennial views and think of the of the millennium. These can be provisionally
millennium as a period in the later days of the arranged under the following headings.
church when, under the special power of the A. Jewj.s7.. This is the view that sees the
Holy Spirit, the work of God shall be greatly millennium to be the time of restored national
revived and believers shall become so aware of prosperity for Israel. It regards Israel as the
their spiritual strength that to a degree un- center of the divine government of the world
known before they shall triumph over the pow- and Jerusalem as its glorious capital. Against
ers of evil. This "golden age" of the church, this, it is asserted that it involves many un-
it is held, will be followed by a brief apostasy warranted assumptions and violates man}' of
-a terrible conflict between the forces of good the canons of sound interpretation. It proves
and evil - and this in turn will be eclipsed by too much, and if it were to be carried through
the simultaneous occurrence of the advent of consistently it would require the renewal of
Christ, the general resurrection and the final temple worship, together with the restoration
judgment. of animal sacrifices and the Aaronic priesthood.
8. Recent Form of Post-mtllennialism. This Pre-millennialism allies itself with this interpre-
can be described as, on the whole, humanistic tation.
and evolutionary in principle. It is represented 8. Ecczesj¢st;cczZ. By this term is indicated
in the optimistic and largely secular philoso- the idea that the .millennium is the victorious
phies of recent years which regard the world and successful domination of the church over
as in process of constant amelioration. the world. This domination has been attempted
Some of the objections to post-millennial by the Church o£ Rome and has proved dis-
views are the following. astrous for both the church and the world. It
I. There is no ground in the Scripture for is a purely external concept Of the church's
the hope of unexampled spiritual prosperity function and in the face of history is unrealis-
just before the coming of the Lord, though tic. Some forms of post-millennialism are as-
there is some suggestion of spiritual revival sociated with this ecclesiastical interpretation.
that is yet to be known before the Lord's re- C. Esc7iczto!ogjc¢!. Under this view of the
turn. nature of the millennium come those concep-
2. The idea of an imperceptible passing of tions of it which link it with the intermediate
the present age into the glorious one Of the state of believers. The millennium might pos-
MILLENNIUM 354

sibly be this, but if it were adopted, very much Some have held that the millennium is a sym-
in the context of Rev. 20 would be left with- bol of the completeness of the rest which the
out meaning. I.ord gives to his saints, and on this view the
D. Eva"geljcfll. Under this title may be millennium has been understood to refer to
the intermediate state Of believers after death.
gath.ered those views of the millennium which
regard it as representing the inward spiritual The more dominant interpretation among
a-millennialists of the present day is that the
triumphs which believers in Christ know, both
in their own personal lives and in the work of millennium represents the blessedness of Chris-
tian experience now. Believers are already in
the gospel. This view is reached by an endea-
vor to recognize the apocalyptic nature of the heavenly places in Christ Jesus and reign in
life by him; Satan is a destroyed foe, and be-
literature in which the concept of the millen-
lievers triumph over him in Christ.
r`ium is presented.
This survey of the views about the millen- A-millennialism rests on a symbolical inter.-
nium itself prepares the way for an examina- pretation of Rev. 20 and gives full value to
tion of what is known as the apocalyptic nature of the book. The ex-
IV. A-MILLENNIALlsM. The negative prefix pression "the thousand years" is understood
consistently with the symbolic use of numerals
attached to this word does not deny a millen-
in apocalyptic language. In such a context fig-
nial idea altogether, as at first it might appear
ures represent not arithmetical values but
to do. The measure of denial in it, however,
ideas. The figure one ir.ousand is accordingly
is that it holds that there is no sufficient
regarded as symbolical of the idea of fulness
ground for the expectation of a millennium in and completeness. W. W. Milligan writes,
the sense of a thousand-year period of time, "The thousand years mentioned in the passage
such as |]re-millennialism and post-millennial-
express no period of time. They are not a
ism advoccate. A-millennialism cannot find any
figure for the whole Christian era, now ex-
I)lace in the teaching of the NT for the belief tending to nctirly nineteen hundred years, nor
that a millennium will follow the Lord's com-
do the)' denote a certtiin si)i`ce of time . . . at
ing, for the second advent immediately ushers
the close of the present dispensation .... They
in the last judgment and the eternal state.
embody an idea; `ind that idea, whether ap-
Similarly, a-millennialism cannot discover any
basis in the Bible for the expectation of moral plied to the subjugation of Satan or to the
triumph of the saints is the idea of complete-
improvement in the world, nor yet of the con-
ness or perfection. Satan is bound for a thou-
version of the world before the Lord come.s.
sand }7cars; that is. hc is complctel}' bound.
So far as the eschatological events of time
The saints reign for a thousand )'ears; that is,
arc concerned, the a-millennial understanding
they arc introduced into a state of I)erfect and
of the NT takes the following shape.
1. The end of the age will be marked by glorious victor}'" (W. W. Milligan in The
Expositor's Bible, TJ.e Bc)ok of Reveza!jo72, p.
increasing lawlessness and godlessness.
337). The subsequent events of the "little
2. This godlessness will reach its climax in
season" are not a tem|)oral sequence, but indi-
the clpi)earing of the Antichrist.
cate merely that evc`n though the decisive blow
3. Christ will return in glory, accompanied
has been given to the devil, he still has a
by the rcsurrectcd saints who have fallen limited measure of power and in a strictly spe-
asleep in Jesus, and those who "are alive and
cified direction. In the Christian era the activi-
remain" will be caught up to join the re- ty of the devil is but a release from his place
deemed host. of doom: it is a I)ermitted activity and its
4. The second advent of Christ will destroy limitation is symbolized by the reference to
the evil world. "the little season." Sa}7s Milligan once again:
"Hardly was he conquered for the saints, than
5. The resurrection of the wicked and the
last judgment synchronize with the Lord's re- he was loosed for the world." So far as the
turn. saints are concerned, Satan is completely
6. The present earth will be made to pass bound, but his |tower still operates upon the
away and give place to a new heaven and a wicked.
new earth. The arguments brought against a-millen-
There have, quite naturall}7, been a number nialism are many, but the}' all stem from the
of dif ferences of detail among a-millennialists. same root, that is, the difficulty which some
 355 MINISTER, MINISTRY

expositors find in accepting the completely by "the spirit," i.e., the renewed nature vital-
symbolical nature of Rev. 20. ized by the Holy Spirit (Ron. 8:5-7). The
See also EScHATOLOGy, KINGDOM oF GOD. English "minded," expressing a variety Of
BIBLIOGRAPHY Greek terms, conveys a similar connotation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. Laidlaw in HDB,. Arndt s.v. %o.ls.

J. CLEMENT CONNELL

MINISTER, MINISTRY. It is the con-

::-:i:_-_--:_::_-:_:-_:-::---_-_-----_:_--::--_----:-: sistent NT teaching that the work of ministers
is "for the perfecting of the saints . . . for the
ERNEST FREDERICK KEVAN
edifying of the body of Christ" (Eph. 4: 12).
The minister is called of God to a position of
MIND. The English versions Of the Bible
responsibility rather than privilege, as the
express a variety Of emotional, volitional and
words for "minister" show (ci!.ako#os, "table
intellectual movements by the one word mind.
waiter"; Zi}Jpgretgs, "under-rower" in a large
The Bible has no word for brain and the exact
ship; !ejfowrgos, "servant" usually of the state
sense of the several Hebrew or Greek terms
or a temple).
is to be determined by the context, for no
precise meaning is attached to any of them. There are two passages in the NT which
To express purpose, desire, memory, feeling, are of especial importance in this connection,
affection Hebrew uses !el7, Zg969, "heart"; "ep- I Cor. 12:28, and Eph. 4: 11 f. From the for-
J®esh, "life principle" (often translated ``soul"); mer we gather that included in the ministries
r¢c!ky, "spirit"; yG5er, "disposition." The NT e,xercised in the early church were those of
presents a fuller account Of the activity of the apostles, prophets, teachers, miracles, gifts of
human consciousness. There firstly mind may healings, helps, governments, diversifies of
signify the facult}' of thinking or mental ap- tongues (I)ossibl}7 also interi)retations, vs. 30).
prehension usuall}J rendered "understanding" The latter adds evangelists and i]astors. In
in the AV (but the RSV has "mind" in Luke ever)' case these ap|)ear to be the direct gift o£
24:45); so in I Cor.14:14-15,19, where it God to the church. Both I)cissages seem to say
is contrasted with a spiritual exercise in which this and this is confirmed elsewhere in the case
the mind is inactive (see also Rev.13:18; of some of the I)eoi)le mentioned. Thus in Gal.
Phil. 4:7). Secondl}', mind represents the in- I : I Paul insists that his apostolate was in no
tellectual, reflective facult)I of man, "the high- sense from man. He entirely excludes the pos-
er, mental I)art of the natural man, which sibility of his receiving it by ordination. We
initiates his thoughts and plans" (Arndt). It are to think, then, of a group of men directly
is thus the faculty concerned with moral at- insi)ired by the Hol}' Si)irit to perform various
titudes and activities. If controlled by the functions within the church by way of build-
Hol}' Spirit, the mind disi)la}'s the right atti- ing up the saints in the body of Christ.
tudc to God and to onc's fellows (Luke 10:27; But there are others also. Thus from early
Rom.12:2; I Cor.I:10) and the mind thus da}'s the apostles mtade it a habit to appoint
bent on the service of God is contrasted with elders. Some hold that the seven of Acts 6
"the flesh" (Ron. 7:23, 25), the fallen nature
were the first elders. This seems ver}' unlikely,
still contending within the rcgcnerate man. but there were ccrtainl}' elders at the council
The mind even of the believer ma}' be con- of Jcrusiilem (Acts 15). It is ver}' striking
trolled by "the flesh" (Col. 2:18) but such that even on their first missionar}' journey
I)erversion .of the mind is ascribed more to the Paul <ind Barnabas apitointed elders "in every
unregenerate (Rom.I:28; 11 Cor. 3:14; 4:4; church" (Acts 14:23). There is ever\' reason
11 Tim. 3:8). The mind, therefore, is in it- for thinking that these men were ;rdained
self neutral, and its moral qualit)' is deter- with the la}'ing on of hands, as in the case of
mined b}r the I)ower to which it is subject. the elders of the Jewish s}'nagogue. Then there
Similarly pJw-o"Gt"c! or z7}zi.07ieo- are used to ex- were the deacons of whom we read in Phil.
press the direction of thought, desire and will, I : 1 and I Tim. 3:8 ff. We know nothing of
whether against God if motivated by "the their method of ai)pointment, but it is likely
flesh," or in harmony with God if motivated that it also included the laying on of hands,
MIRACLE 356

as it certainly did somewhat later in the his- mighty acts brought to pass in connection with
tory of the church. the outworking of redemption whether in its
It is sometimes said that the first group of Hebraic or Christian stage. The first of these,
ministers is opposed to the second in that they dy"¢owis, points to the divine power which is
possessed a direct gif t from God. This, how- operative in the event or act, the invisible, su-
ever, cannot be sustained. In Acts 20:28 we pernatural source of energy which makes the
read, ``the Holy Ghost has made you bishops," phenomenon possible. The second term,
and in I Tim. 4: 14 of "the gift that is in thee, sgt#ejo", points to the teleology Of the I)he-
which was given thee by prophecy, with the nomenon. Far from being a pointless prodigy,
laying on of the hands of the presbytery." It is it is - at least for the eyes of faith - a work
clear that the act of ordination was not thought Of God which functions as a word Of God, a
of as in opt)osition to a gift from God, but as deed simultaneously evidential and revelation-
itself the means of the gift from God. Indeed al. On the one hand, it verifies claims and
the only reason that a man might minister ade- communications, whether prophetic, messianic,
quately was that God has given him the gift or apostolic (e.g., Ex. 4:I-9, 31; I Kings
of ministering. The picture we get then is of 18:17-39; Matt.11:2-8; Acts 13:6-12). On
a group of ministers who had been ordained, the other hand, it discloses the very nature and
men like bishops and deacons, and side by side purpose of God, and this is especially so in
with them (at times no doubt the same peo- the mighty acts o£ Jesus Christ (Mark 2: 1-11;
7:34; John 2:11; 5:3f;; 6:30; 7:31; 11:40-42;
plc) those who had a special gift o£ God in
the way of prophecy, apostleship, or the like. 14:10; Acts 2:22; 10:38). The last word,
The meaning of some of those gifts has long 1er#s, points to the attention-compelling char-
since perished (e.g., helps, governments). But acter of the phenomenon. A striking dei)arture
they witness to the gifts that God gave his from the normal order of things, it cries out
church in the time of its infancy. for the reaction of faith and obedience even
There are some who think of the ministry though it is never performed to coerce such
as cunstitutive of the church. They emphasize response (Luke 4:9-12; Matt.12:38-42). S}'n-
that Christ is the Head of the body, and that thesizing the root connotations of these terms,
hc gives it apostles, prophets, etc., that it may we may define a miracle biblically as an ob-
be built up. They infer that the ministry is the servable phenomenon effected by the direct
channel through which life flows from the operation of God's power, an arresting devi£`-
Head. This does, however, seem to be read- tion from the ordinary sequences of nature, a
ing something into the passage. It is better to deviation calculated to elicit faith-begetting
take re£`listically the NT picture of the church awe; a divine inbreaking which authenticates
as the body of Christ, as a body, moreover, a revelational agent. In view of Deut.13: 1-i,
with a diversity of function. The life of Christ however, and passages like Ex. 7:10-12; 8:7;
is in it, and the divine power puts f orth what- Matt.12:24-27; 24:24; and Rev.13:15, it
ever is needed. In the Spirit-filled body there must be borne in mind that the mere c.`i.r-
will c`mcrge such ministerial and other organs cise of preternatural power is insuff icient to
as are necessary. On this view the ministry is validate an agent as God-energized. Since |trc-
essential, but no more essential than any other ternaturcil power may be exercised by an agent
function of the body. And it preserves the im- Satanically-energized, the teaching of the mira-
portant truth that the body is that o£ Christ, cle-worker must be congruent with the totalit)r
who does what he wills within it. His blessing of previous revelation.
is not confined to any particular channel.
11. THE REVELATIONAI. PoSTUI,ATES 0F
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MIRACLE. The concept of miracle has been at-
ti'iaT:?Jo6:9,P;;`,:i::I,¥:I::i't,7:,:]8]^!:'i#:'r.;Z;i:::rf?ec']']i!{,''!'';:P:i;;::'ti`:'|ii: tacked historically (e.g., Renan), scientificall}'
(e.g., Huxley) and theologically (e.g., Saba-
istry of tlie Clillrclt.
LEON MORRIS tier); yet as a rule these attacks have been
philosophically instigated and controlled (e.g.,
MIRACLE. I. THE BIBLICAL CoNCEPT oF Hume) even where metaphysical presupposi-
MIRACLE. In the NT three terms, miracle,
tions have been explicitly disavowed. Within
the framework of the biblical We]tcz"sch¢tit47!g,
wonder, and sign, occasionally found together
however, miracle is no embarrassing anomaly:
(Acts 2:22; 11 Thess. 2:9; Heb. 2:4), are
it is an inevitable corollary of redemptive the-
used to designate the extraordinary events and
357 MIRACLE
"the overcoming, interpenetrating working of
ism (q.v.). Granted the postulates of creation,
providence, sin, and salvation, miracle becomes the Divine energy by which God breaks all
a veritable necessity, a necessity Of grace. opposition, and in the face of disorder brings
According to the postulates of creation (q.v.) His cosmos to realize that end which was de-
and providence (q.i7.), God in sovereign power termined upon in His counsel. It is from the
and wisdom, having brought the cosmos into deeper basis of God's will, on which the whole
existence, now continuously sustains and cosmos rests, that this mysterious power works
guides it. Nature therefore cannot be in- in the cosmos, breaks the bands of sin and dis-
terpreted deistically or pantheistically. Neither, order, which hold the cosmos in their em-
Of course, can it be interpreted naturalistically brace; and centrally from man so influences
as a self-enclosed, selhexplanatory co#tj7!"tw" the entire life of the cosmos, that at length it
7m4sS realize the glory intended for it by God,
going of its own accord with all events causally
interlocked backwards and forwards. Uncle- in order in that glory to render unto God
niably nature has an order, but, fixed and de- what was the end of the entire creation of the
i)endable though it is, the order of nature is cosmos. Every interpretation of the miracle as
not iron-clad, a strait-jacket in which God a magical incident without connection with
finds himself helplessly bound. Biblically the palingenesis Of the whole cosmos, which
viewed, nature is plastic in the hands of its Jesus refers to in Matt. 19:28, and therefore
sovereign Creator. without relation to the entire metamorphosis
which awaits the cosmos af ter the last judg-
Next, according to the postulate of sin (q.v.),
ment, does not enhance the glory of God, but
nature is now in a state of abnormality. Be-
debases the Recreator Of heaven and earth to
cause of sin (Gen. 3: 17-18), the order of na-
a juggler. This entire recreative action of the
ture is shot through with disorder; the entire
Divine energy is one continuous miracle,
cosmos, including mankind, is out of line with
which shows itself in the radical renewal of
God's purposes. The biblical teaching with re-
the life of man by regeneration, in radical re-
spect to the cause of nature's dysteleological
newal of humanity by the new Head which it
aspects collides head-on with all other philoso-
receives in Christ, and which finally shall
phies and cosmologies. Creaturely sin, Scrip-
bring to pass a similar radical renewal of life
ture asserts, sin which the freedom bestowed
in nature. And because these three do not run
by creative love permits but does not neces-
loosely side by side, but are bound together
sitate, is the fo72s et orjgo of natural evil.
organically, so that the mystery of regeneri`-
Hence Scripture opposes any theory which
tion, incarnation, and of the final restitution
holds that an eternal surd of evil is the ground
forms one whole, this wondrous energy of re-
of creaturely sin. It is creaturely sin, then,
creation exhibits itself in a broad 7ijsto7.)J, in
which has afflicted the order of nature, human
which what used to be interpreted as ini`i-
nature not excluded, with disorder and ab-
dental miracles, could not be found wanting"
normality.
CEncyclopedia of Sacred Theology, Sct±bners,
Finally, according to the postulate of salva- New York, 1898, p. 414).
lion, God in his grace has embarked upon a
vast program of palingenesis, working abnor- Ill. AN ApoLOGETlc FOR MIRACLE. In de-
mally to undo the entail of sin, overcoming veloping an apologetic for miracle several f:`c-
the disorder it has introduced and thus bring- tors seem to be of primary importance. First,
ing his cosmos to the end he has sovereignly a proper definition must be formulated which
ordained. That abnormal mode of the divine sidesteps the mare's-nest of difficulties in
working called miracle is therefore not a mean- Hume's famous assertion that a miracle is "{1
ingless, haphazard marvel. It is, rather, that violation of the laws of nature." Augustine is
soteriologically motivated deviation from his still a sure-footed guide at this point: "For ``re
normal mode of working which the undoing say that all portents are contrary to nature, I)ut
of sin's abnormality requires. As such it ap- they are not so, For how is that contrar}' to na-
pears episodically yet not capriciously. It char~ ture which happens by the will of God, since
acterizes the pivotal junctures of Hei!sgeschjch}e the will of so mighty a Creator is certainl}' the
(a.v.) -the Exodus, the battle with paganism nature of each created thing? A portent, there-
in the time of Elijah and Elisha, the ministry fore, happens not contrary to nature, but con-
of Daniel, the life of Jesus, the apostolic era. trary to what we know as nature .... There
In the words of Abraham Kuyper, miracle is is, however, no impropriety in saying that God
MISHNAH 358

does a thing contrary to nature, when it is con- A.I).135, d. c¢. 220). Although this collection
trary to what we know of nature. For we give was made toward the end of the second cen-
the name nature to the usual common course tury A.D., it clearly contains material from sev-
of nature; and whatever God does contrary to eral centuries earlier, hence is of value for
this, we call a prodigy, or a miracle. But understanding certain ideas and expressions in
against the supreme law of nature, which is the NT. It was written in Hebrew that had
beyond the knowledge both of the ungodly developed beyond the latest "biblical" Hebrew,
and of weak believers, God never acts, any but that this was not merely an academic
more than He acts against Himself" (Co#tra language we now know from the Dead Sea
F¢ttstt#", XXVI, 3). Second, in order to Scrolls. The Mishnah is divided into six parts
achieve a viable definition the concept of na- (se¢r€7", "orders''), each of which is further
tural law, the concept of existential impossi- divided into tracts (?„c}sseEt6!, ``webs") and
bility as distinguished from logical impossi- paragraphs or sentences (t#j5wdy6£). The text
bility, and the concept of historical credibility of the Mishnah is preserved in three (some
must be searchingly analyzed. Henry Bett has scholars say four) recensions.
done this very ably in The Refl[it,y of tJ2e Re- BIBLIOGRAPHY
lI.glows Life. Third, the biblical postulates of SHHE.RpaFib?'ppTh25 5tf6iso?rob,. H. I.. Strack, "Tallnud,»
miracle must be presupposed. Without these WILLIAM SANFORD LASOR
no cogent apologetic can be constructed. As
J. S. Mill declares, ``Once admit a God and MISSION OF CHRIST. The mission of
the production by His direct volition of an Christ is a subject of messianic prophecy in
effect, which in any case owed its origin to the OT. Prediction focused attention on three
His creative will, is no longer an arbitrary aspects of his mission in particular. He would
hypothesis to account for the fact, but must have the role of a prophet (Deut. 18: 18; Isa.
be reckoned with as a serious possibility" 61:I-3), he would discharge the duties of a
(TJiree Ess¢ys o" Relig;07., H. Holt and Co., king (Ps. 2:7; Isa.11:1-5), he would per-
New York, 1874, p. 232). And once admit form the functions of a priest (Ps. 110:4;
not alone the postulate of God but also the Zech. 6:13). In addition, there is the por-
revelational postulates of sin and salvation, trayal Of the Suffering Servant, bearing the sin
and the acceptance of the biblical signs, an ac- of many, understood in the light of the NT
ceptance which never loses its pistic essence, is as indicating the manner in which the task of
intellectually compelling. the ideal priest was to be accomplished (Acts
BIBI.IOGRAPHY 8:35; Heb. 9:12).
During the intertestamental period, political
#?a°cbfe,;o:I:fynEd}o:fr::h::t#gt.;:;I::ioe.sfpe:i,.AG::B:;c¥:g¥:h:T:i;i exigencies colored the interpretation of these
Natt.re and the Supernatural; D. S. Ci\irn_s, The_ F_a_i.h
prophecies. Many assumed that the expected
Messiah (q.v.) would be primarily a Saviour
after the type of the ancient Judges who were
raised up to liberate the people in times Of
emergency; and that, when he achieved vic-
tory, he would reign as David's successor with
far-extended dominion. The Targum on Isa.
52: 13 -53: 12, though of later date, probably
Trench, Notes o„ the P¢rab]es a7.d Nit.acles,. 8. 8. War- represents the erroneous interpretation of this
field, Cot.7tfcrfejt Miracles,. Johannes Wendland, Mjracle
passage current in the time o£ Jesus. A dif-
?nndMCo'#£:i:ta¥i%#i. I. Wlight, Miracle in History and ferent kind of expectation found expression in
VERNON C. GROUNDS the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Community who
produced them seem to have looked for three
MISHNAH. Hebrew 7"j57i4 from 5d"4, ``to distinct persons having a messianic mission,
repeat," is the term denoting the oral traditions an Aaronic priest, a Davidic king and a
that developed about the law, containing inter- prophet like Moses.
pretations and applications to specific questions That Jesus himself had a sense of mission
which the law deals with only in principle. corresponding with prophecy is evident from
Specifically, it is the collection of these tra- many of his sayings. When he had read from
ditions made by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi (b. Isa. 61 in the synagogue at Nazareth, he said
359 MISSIONS

it was of him the prophet wrote (Luke 4: 16- from the followers o£ Mohammed. The church
21). Another aspect of his mission which he lost North Africa to Mohammedanism and
often mentioned was its purpose to save from parts of Europe. Charles Martel, in the Battle
sin (Mark 2: 17; Matt. 9: 13; Luke 5:32; Matt. o£ Tours, in A.I). 732 stopped the forward
18: 11; Luke 19: 10). He claimed authority to movement o£ Islam.
forgive sin (Mark 2:9; Luke 7:48), but this Roman Catholic missions predominated dur-
depended on his sacrificial death for sin, even ing the Middle Ages. This church has con-
if exercised before that took place (Mark tinued its aggressive missionary program down
10:45; Matt. 26:28; John 10:11-18; Acts to the present day. Romanism has emphasized
5:31). He described his death to Nicodemus the necessity of baptism for salvation and has
as having in view the eternal salvation of those majored on the concept of bringing whole
who tmsted him (John 3: 15). The prophetic groups, rather than individuals, into the
and redemptive functions of his mission, how- church. In order to do this Romanism has
ever, though of vast importance, were subor- often baptized paganism especially in places
dinate to its ultimate aim, the establishment like South America. The ``Malabar rites" (in
of the kingdom of God among men. To Pilate's this instance Jesuit accommodations to Indian
question: "Art thou a king then?" he replied: customs) are an example of this practice.
"To this end was I born and for this cause
The nineteenth century missionary advance
came I into the world, that I might bear wit- represented the greatest forward movement
ness to the truth" (John 18:37). Because his since the days of the apostles. This advance
kingdom was not of this world but spiritual, it was predicated on a conservative theology
attracted only those who recognized the truth which assumed the lostness of men without
and responded to it. Being himself the perfect Christ, the eternity of hell for sinners, and
Exemplar of the kingdom, he engaged in suc- the absolute necessity for the new birth
cessful conflict on its behalf with the powers through faith in Jesus Christ. The science of
of evil, notably in the wilderness (Matt. 4: I- missions was not highly developed during the
ll), in casting out devils (Luke 11:20), and nineteenth century and the European-Ameri-
at Calvary (Col. 2:15). For the furtherance can outreach was too often attached to a na-
of the kingdom he commissioned the apostles tional imperialism. Despite the lack of an ade-
and sent forth the Spirit at Pentecost (Acts quate missiology great advances were regis-
I :6-8). Through the witness of the church he tered. It was not until the twentieth century
continues to extend it; and when he comes to that more profound changes occurred.
gather all his true servants into the kingdom The twentieth century has been charac-
Of glory, it will be abundantly evident that terized by certain significant modifications.
his mission was not in vain (Matt. 13:43; First and foremost has been the shift of the
25:34; Rev. 7:9). center of missionary gravity from Europe to
See also OFFlcEs oF CHRlsT. North America. Whereas the number of mis-
WILI.IAM J. CAMERON sionaries sent from Europe far exceeded those
sent from North America, the balance has
MISSIONS. The primary task of the Chris- moved heavily in the direction of North Amer-
tian church from its inception has been the ican superiority. At the same time denomina-
propagation of the gospel of Jesus Christ to the tional missions have not kept pace with the
ends of the earth. This call to evangelism rising number of non-denominational agencies.
springs from the command of the Lord of the In part this new situation derives from chang-
church as found in Matthew 28: 18-20, Luke ing theological emphases. This in turn was oc-
24:46-49, John 20:21, and Acts 1 :8. The mis- casioned by the rise of religious liberalism
sionary motive springs from love and obedience which decried the older theology of the nine-
for the Redeemer. No one is exempt from the teenth century. Liberalism repudiated biblical
missionary task. authority and opt)osed those who believed the
The missionary advance of the early church virgin birth, vicarious atonement, the deity of
was dramatic, and there are evidences that the Christ and the bodily resurrection. This same
gospel Of Christ went far beyond the borders liberalism regarded Christianity as one among
of the Roman Empire even in the first century many religions and relegated its superiority as
of the Christian era. In the early period of I.elative within the genera and not unique.
Christian missions the greatest opposition came Liberal penetration in missions resulted in the
MOCKERY 360

view that missionary effort was basically a See also CoMMlssloN, THE GREAT.
sharing with other religions. Hocking's Re- BIBLIOGRAPHY
th;7®kj#g Mjss].o7!s went so far as to state that
for medical missionaries to try to convert the --:--:=--:=---------=----::-------------i-:-:---::-----=
nationals to Christianity was ethically wrong.
The rise of liberalism resulted in the crea-
tion of competing missionary agencies repre-
sented by the Interdenominational Foreign
Mission Association, the Evangelical Foreign HAROLD LINDSELL
Mission Association of the National Assacia-
tion of Evangelicals and the missionary arm of MOCKERY. The noun ``mock" occurs in
the American Council of Christian Churches. Prov.14:9 AV, ``macking" in Ezek. 22:4; Heb.
All Of. these agencies are theologically conserva- 11:36, and the verbal forms are found with
tive. the meaning (I) "to ridicule," in e.g., I Kings
The rapid advances of Communism have 18:27; Prov.1:26, (2) "to deceive," in e.g.,
made difficult further missionary penetration Judg.16:10. Almost all the Hebrew words
by western white men. China has become a represented are intensive in form. The Greek
closed field to the foreign missionary and equivalent is empajzej%, "make fun of," which
other areas such as Af rica and India have been bears the meaning "deceive" in Matt. 2:16.
influenced by Communism in such a way as The word is specially associated with the
to hinder the progress of Christian missions. passion of Christ.
The future is obscure b.Jt the challenge of The Evangelists record three occasions when
Communism is unmistakable and presents the our Lord endured mockery: (1) immediately
church of Jesus Christ with the possibility of af ter his condemnation by the Sanhedrin
rising to new heights Of endeavor and sacrifice (Mark 14:65; Matt. 26:67 f.; Luke 23:63 f.),
in fulfilling the terms Of the Great Commis- when he was spat upon, blindfolded, bidden to
sion,
prophesy and buffeted; (2) before Herod
Twentieth century missionary work has Antipas (Luke 23:11), when there were no
been faced with the problem of vast cultural blows, but the offering of mock homage by
advances in every part of the world. New Herod's men; (3) immediately after his con-
methods are being developed to meet this chal- demnation by Pilate (Mark 15:16-20; Matt.
lenge and a new missionary orientation is 27:27-31; John 19:2 £.), when clad in pur-
emerging. There has been a renewed interest plc, and wearing the crown of thorns, he
in indigenous church principles. The role of received the mock obeisance of the Roman
the missionary is changing to that of a ``co- soldiers who smote him with a reed. The
|>artner in obedience" with the nationals. Mis- Sanhedrin ridiculed his claim to be a prophet,
sionary strategy now identifies the "foreign" the soldiers his claim to be a king. While
missionary as a responsible agent, not of the mockery is a mark of the ignorant and
home church, but of the national church to foolish (11 Kings 2:23; Prov. 14:9; Acts
which he answers and through whom and for 17:32), patient endurance of it is a mark of
whom he labors. faithful souls (Heb.11:36; 12:3). God lies
The influence of liberalism is easier to assess beyond the reach of ridicule (Gal. 6:7).
than that of necrorthodoxy (q.v.) which is Of L. E. H. STEPHENS-HODGE
more recent vintage. What the impact Of this
new theological emphasis will be in missionary MODERATION. "Moderation" occurs
endeavor is not clear as yet. To this date it once in the AV (Phil. 4:5); the RV has "for-
has not produced any fresh or dynamic im- bearance," RV mg. "gentleness." It translates
pulses nor has it sparked any new movements the neuter form of the adjective epjejke-s,
for world evangelism. It has revolted against found also in I Tim. 3:3; Titus 3:2; James
the optimistic liberalism of the early twen- 3:17; I Pet. 2:18 ("gentle," in all but the
tieth century and has brought fresh eschato- AV of I Tim. 3:3). The noun epjeikie occurs
logical insights from Europe but these have in Acts 24:4 ("clemency''), 11 Col. 10:I
not become part of the North American tra- (``gentleness"). Gentleness (a.v.) and forbear-
dition which now is the home base for the ance are hardly adequate, and the modem
bulk of the missionary movement. sense Of "moderation" as indicating temperate
361 MONISM

indulgence in food, drink, etc. is also mis- ment. Monasticism is commonly extended be-
leading. t.ond its strict im|)lication of solitude to em-
Win. Barclay, describing ep!.eike-s under the brace the religious communities.
title "More than justice," agrees with Trench Christian monasticism originated in the lat-
in the difficulty of translation. It expresses the ter half of the third century. Its roots have
quality of considerateness which will not stand been variously sought in Indian, Greek, Egyp-
for one's own rights, or on the strict letter of tian or Jewish soil, but it would appear that
the law, but with equity and fairness will con- from the outset it has exhibited a marked in-
sider the well~being of the other. Lack of it dei)endence of any other form of asceticism. "It
can cause strife (Phil. 4:2-5). Christ's epjeikj4[ set.ms probable th.it the impulse which led to
(11 Cor.10:I) is seen in John 8:I-11, and its cmergencc," writes K. S. Latourette (A
supremely in Phil. 2: 5-8. History of Christianity, Harpel, NIew Yock,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1953, p. 225), "was predominantly and per-
hai.s entirel}r from the Gospel." A scri|)tural
TeTfe::*i #oFdabs5ionk¥ £n HDB; Win. Barclay, A Neov
R. COLIN CRASTON
basis was, in fact, claimed by appealing to such
passages as I John 2:15-17, I Cor. 7:38, 40,
MODERATOR. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslAs- Ron. 14:2, 21 and Rev. 14:4 as well as to
TICAIJ,
the precei)ts of our Lord himself .
The rise of monasticism ma}7 be trciced in
MODERNISM. See LIBERALlsM. three stages: (I) the hermits, of whom the
first was probably Paul of Thebes and the best-
MONARCHIANISM. This is the term known Antony o£ Egy|>t; (2) the lauras, or
usually applied to the natural concern in the colonies of solitaries under one abbot, de-
early church to safeguard the unity ("mon- veloped by Pachomius; and (3) the monas-
archy") of the Godhead. There is, of course, teries. Monasticism was introduced into the
a legitimate monarchianism, for recognition of West in the fourth century and at first fol-
the Father, Son and Holy Spirit does not in- lowed Eastern models. Then c¢. 525 Benedict
volve tritheism. But over-emphasis on this as- founded Monte Ci`ssino and formulated his
famous Rule which was eventually to become
pect I)roduced two forms of monarchianism
which are mutually exclusive but both equally the single monastic charter of the West for
unacceptable. The first is dynamic monarchian- four centuries. This was a turning point in the
ism, associated with Theodotus and perhaps history of monasticism, marking not only "the
Paul o£ Samosata. Approaching the question transition from the uncertain and vague to the
from a christological rather than a trinitarian reign of law" (F. A. Glsquct, Prcfai`c to
Montalembert, Mo71ks of t7!e West, P{`trick
angle, this teaches the inferiority of the Son
Donahoc, Boston, 1872, I p. 21), but also in-
as a man taken up into the Godhead (see
troducing a completely new concci]tion of the
ADopTloNlsM). The second is modal mon-
archianism, represented by Noetus, Praxeas spirituality of toil. But, as H. 8. Workman
and Sabellius (see SABELLIANlsM). This does points out CEvolution of the Monastic Ideal,
not deny the full deity of Christ or the Spirit, London, 1913, p. 220), "this change, invalua-
but sees them merely as modes or functions of ble as it was from the standpoint of the his-
the one God, so that the Father may be said tory of civilization, proved fatal in the long
to suffer in the Son (see PATRlpAsslANlsM)
run to the principles of monasticism," and with
and indwell us by the Spirit. Hence the crush- the coming of the Friars the movement de-
ing remark of Tertullian that Praxeas put to clined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
flight the Paraclete and crucified the Father.
WILLIAM KELLY c.AisutE::,E:c%,am¥[o£:agsetjckscmd,£ev;::#set:,;;aF.dcaHb,;so,]T£
HERE.
A. SKEVINGTON Wool)
MONASTICISM, MONACHISM. De-
rived from Greek 7"o"os, "alone." It is a gen- MONISM. Monism is a doctrine of the
eral term for the renunciation of life in the unity of things. It may have reference to their or-
world for the ideal of unreserved devotion to igin, to their substance, or to the way by which
God. It is not exclusive to Christianity, but is they are known. The doctrine that all things
found in every religious system which has at- have but one origin is theism. Although tradi-
tained an advanced degree of ethical develoi)- tiom`l Chrjstiimit}' is in this si`nsc monistii`, this
MONITION 362

is a very rare usage Of the term and seldom is in is the doctrine which holds that the incamate
view when monism is mentioned. The doc- Christ had only a single, divine nature, clad
trine that the nature of all things is one is in human flesh. Since the Council of Chalce-
pantheism. This is the common connotation of don (451), which confirmed as orthodox the
monism, and as such is incompatible with the- doctrine of two natures, divine and human,
ism, although the famous pantheistic monist, monophysitism has been considered heretical.
Spinoza, was called a "God-intoxicated atheist." Its roots probably go back to Apollinaris (ccl.
Pantheism, which reduces all reality to one 370) who laid tremendous stress on the fusion
substance, may regard this substance as either Of the divine and human. Alexandria (as op-
material (in which case we have the ma- posed to Antioch) became the citadel of this
terialism of Haeckel), or spiritual (in which doctrine, and Cyril (co. 430), although
case, we have the Absolute Idealism or phih deemed orthodox, furnished fuel for the fire
sophical Spiritualism of Hegel). Some present- kindled by his successor Dioscorus and Euty-
day philosophers find another type of reality ches of Constantinople, who denied that
which is neither matter nor spirit but which Christ's body was the same in essence as the
may manifest itself as either matter or spirit bodies of men. Their chief opponent was Leo
without being identified with either. The doc- I of Rome, whose formulation of the doctrine
trine that all things are one as to the way by of two natures in one person triumphed at
which they are lmown is Epistemological Chalcedon. Monophysites tended to divide in-
Idealism. Advocates of this theory may or may to two main groups: /wzifl7®;sts, who held to
not commit themselves on metaphysics in dis- the immortality and incorruptibility of Christ's
tinction from epistemology (q.v.). incamate body, and the more orthodox Sev-
Christianity is monistic in the first sense of erg.¢#s, who rejected the Eutychian view that
the word, i.e., it holds to one divine origin of the human and divine were completely min-
all things. It is distinctly hostile to pantheism gled in the Incarnation. In the remnant Of
in any form. This hostility is for several rea- Syrian Jacobites and in the Coptic and Ethio-
sons: first, because things change but God re- pian churches (and to a limited extent in the
mains the same; second, the totality Of things Armenian) it survives to the I)resent day.
includes evil but God is not evil; third, the BIBLIOGRAPHY
totality of things is impersonal and involun- V#e;;:tt:,I;i;„;J;#:tt:;%p;;c##co:ez„i;%yi#;§r€#%;e;':g;s;tt(::;]%uj
tary, but self-consciousness testifies indubitably
to the reality of personality and freedom.
BIBLIOGRAPHY DAVID A. HUBBARD

%oo#.%;STS,;%£,\±a#.,TDhe:#oonn::S#usEL_n_Fas_eec,knee,,phE# MONOTHI]ISM. This is the term given to

JOHN H. GERSTNER the belief that there is only one God. Mono-
theism is to be distinguished from atheism
MONITION. Derived from Latin and
(the belief that there is no god) and poly-
French, meaning a reminder or warning. Sev-
theism (the belief that there are several or
eral words set forth the same idea in Scrip-
many gods); it is further to be distinguished
ture. Warning is given by the divine precepts
from monolatry (the worship of one god as
(Ps.19:11); by the prophets as divine mes- supreme, without denying the existence Of
sengers (Ezek. 33:4; Jer. 6:10); by the apos-
other deities) and from henotheism (which
tie Paul to his converts (Acts 20:31; I Cor.
ascribes to one god af ter another the place o£
4: 14; Col.1 :28; I Thess. 5: 14; see fuller ref-
supremacy; henotheism is also used as approxi-
erences in concordance). It is used of a
mately synonymous with monolatry).
secret warning (Matt. 3:7), or one received
by supernatural means (Matt. 2:12; Acts The principal monotheistic religions of the
10:22; Heb.11:7). In the Anglican Book of world are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Common Prayer it is used to describe one of (Mohammedanism), the latter two of which
the duties of the minister toward his flock developed from the first. Sikhism is mystical
(see Ordinal and Commination Services). monotheism, but grew out of polytheistic sys-
RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN tens, and Zoroastrianism is limited or eventual
monotheism developing out of dualism. Ac-
MONOPHYSITISM. Derived from t"ot®os cording to the school of comparative religion,
"single" and physis "nature," monophysitism monotheism was a late development in human
363 MONTANISM

thought; this, however, has been denied by cept may be explained by the presence in the
W. Schmidt, Der Ursprtl#g der Go#esjdee (9 OT of the ``Angel of the Lord" and "Spirit of
vols., 1926-49), S. M. Zwemer, The Orjgj# of the Lord" passages, in which we may trace an
Re[jgjo" (1935), and others. It can be dem- incipient and progressive revelation to be com-
onstrated that in polytheistic religions there is pleted by the teachings of Christ and the apos-
a tendency to multiply deities, possibly as a tles.
result Of man's attempt to attribute to different WILLIAM SANFORI) LASOR
gods the individual forces in the complex of
life as he becomes aware of them. This would MONOTHELITISM. A heresy especially
seem to indicate that man could never have prevalent in the Eastern Church in the seventh
developed a monotheistic concept by himself . century which said that as Christ had but
There can be no doubt that the Bible pre- one nature (Monophysitism) so he had but
sents man as a monotheist at the first. It is one will (Greek 7#o"os, ``alone," t7!ezej„, "to
further indisputable that Abraham's forebears will"). Emperor Heraclius attempted to recon-
were polytheists (Josh. 24:2; cf. Gen. 35:2). cile the Monophysite bishops, who held that
The Bible does not trace the steps in this de- the human and divine natures in Christ were
velopment. Nor does the Bible make clear fused together to form a third, by offering in
whether Abraham was a monotheist or a his ecthesjs the view that Christ worked
monolater. The words of the Decalogue through a divine-human energy. This com-
("Thou shalt have no other gods before me") promise was at first accepted by Constantino-
do not clearly establish monotheism over ple and Rome but Sophronius, soon to be
monolatry - which is in keeping with the prin- Bishop of Jerusalem, organized the orthodox
ciple of progressive revelation, God choosing opposition to Monothelitism. A fine defense Of
to reveal to his people the tnith step-by-step the person o£ Christ as one in two natures with
(cf. Heb.1:1). Likewise in his contest with two wills was given by John of Damascus. The
the prophets of Baal, Elijah did not clearly Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451) had declared
enunciate the doctrine of monotheism (I Kings that "Christ has two natures." This was now
18:24). With the eighth century prophets, amended by the Council o£ Constantinople
monotheism is more clearly set forth, but at (A.D. 680) which declared that Christ had two
the popular level polytheism continued until wills, his human will being subject to his
the post-exilic period. It is possible that the divine will.
Jews were cured of their idolatrous practices BIBLIOGRAPHY
through their experiences in exile, particularly
such events as Nabonidus carrying the gods
into the city of Babylon when the Persian
g#I#pC:tf!:i;C-:f:,;::Axfoe#ifu,:::.i;t#jo;:?f?h,oso:io;%:;i;:
256-64.
army was approaching (cf. Isa. 46:1-7; Ps. WILLIAM NIGEI. KERR
115 :4-8), which stood in marked contrast with
the account of the mighty deliverance of Is- MONTANISM. A second century apoca-
rael from Egypt b}r Yahweh. In the post-exilic lyptic movement named after its founder Mon-
period Judaism develo|)ed an intransigence in tanus, as in Theodoret (H&er. fczz7. Ill. 2). Its
monotheism that made the claims of Jesus dif- adherents were formerly known as Phrygians
ficult if not impossible for many to accept. or Kataphrygians (so Eusebius HE V. 14 et.
Mohammedanism absorbed this attitude and #Z.) and sometimes Pepuzians (Epi|)hanius,
made it a principal doctrine in Islam: "Allah Hfler. 48.14) after Pepuza where Montanus,
is one; . . . he does not beget and he is not with his two female associates, Prisca and
begotten.„ Maximilla, prophesied. Possibly the whole
Monotheism is not denied or distorted, how- bod}r were called Priscillianists (Hippolytus,
ever, by the doctrine of the Trinity (q.t7.), for Ref. 7.12) unless this title refers to a later
the NT clearl}' holds to the OT evelation of subdivision. Hort has summarized the charac-
•',i teristics o£ Montanism: "First, a strong faith in
the only true and living God. at .this God
exists ('or subsists) in ~three person;, Father, the Hol)r Spirit as the promised Paraclete, pres-
Son, and Holy Spirit, was never felt by the ent as a' heavenly power in the Church of the
apostles to be inc`ompatible with the OT doc- day; secondly, si)eciall}' a belief that the Holy
trine, for they nowhere challenge the idea. Spirit was manifesting Himself supernaturally
This willingness to accept the trinitarian con- at that day through entranced prophets and
MORTAL 364

prophetesses;, and thirdly, an inculc.ation of a with him (11 Cor. 5: 14,15; Ron. 6:6-8; Col.
specially stem and exacting standard o£ Chris- 2:20; 3:3). In faith the believer is called
tian morality and discipline" (The A#te-Ni- upon to recognize this as a fact. He has been
ce"e F#tJ}ers, Macmillan, London, 1895, p. crucified with Christ (Gal. 2:20), and can
loo). To these must be added a tendency to thus take up the definite and decisive attitude
set up prophets against bishops and an intense of crucifying the flesh (Gal. 5:24) and put-
expectation of the imminent return of our ting to death the sinful members (Col. 3:5).
Lord. The force of the aorist here is parallel to the
"reckoning" Of Ron. 6: 11. But in Ron. 8: 13,
After the death of Montanus the sect ap-
pears to have subsided, but col. 200 it revived the present tense points to continuous action
and spread over Asia Minor and even into by the power of the Holy Spirit. Constant
Egypt. In Carthage it captured its outstanding putting to death is the outcome of the dec.ision
convert in Tertullian. Whether there is such of Col. 3:5.
a great gulf fixed between Phrygian and Afri- The objects of mortification are sinful habits
can Montanism as some (e.g., Lawlor) would and the deeds and desires (Col. 3:5-6) of
suggest is debatable. the flesh or sinful nature. But the body and
BIBLIOGRAPHY its members are agents of sin, and although
p.GaeBL°%%S\Ce?'LaDt8risge_S#h#_t=ts.ed3esLer°snot%.%*u33. Paul has a low estimate of austerities in deal-
ing with the body (Col. 2:23), he shows in
!#eis'#;igi%eMc##mfi;. I.. ieaws]°o¥re±S: #£#£ris~ awd
I Cor. 9:26-27 that the body must be disci-
A. SKEVINGTON WOOD
|]1ined in the war against sin. Yet mortifying
MORTAL. As might be expected, the does not function alone, it is the obverse of
Greek word for mortal, fh7tGtos, is used only living to God by presenting oneself for his
by Paul in the NT. It occurs twice each in service (Rom. 6: 12-19; Phil. I :20).
Romans, I Corinthians, and 11 Corinthians. GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT
The adjective comes from the verb
f}t7te-she;7., which means "to be dead." Hence MOSES. Moses is pre-eminently the law-
it signifies "subject to death." It is used several
giver. "The law was given by Moses" (John
times in the LXX for man as a mortal being. I : 17). In four of the five books which make
In three of its six occurrences Paul applies up the Pentateuch he is the dominant figure,
the term to the physical body (Ron. 6:12; a.nd he casts his shadow over both OT and
8: 11; 11 Cor. 4: 11). In the first he urges the NT.
believer not to let sin reign in his mortal body.
Moses' life falls into three periods of forty
In the second he states that the indwelling
Holy Spirit will quicken our mortal bodies. years each. The first (Ex. 2:1-15a) tells Of
his birth and adoption by Pharaoh's daughter.
In the third he suggests that the life o£ Jesus
If she was the great Hatshepsut, Moses may
should be manifested in our mortal flesh.
have played a very prominent role at the Egyp-
The other three passages speak of "this nor..
tian court (Acts 7:22). But his love for his
tal" putting on immort.ility (I Cor. 15:53,
54) and of "what is mortal" being swallowed people led him to imprudent acts which forced
him to flee for his life.
up by life (11 Cor. 5:4). All these passages
indicate that the body, not the spirit, is mortal. The second period (2:15b-25) is almost a
blank. It shows us Moses in retirement and
RALPH EARLE
eclipse leading the life of a shepherd, appar-
MORTIFY, MORTIFICATION. The entl}' a forgotten man.
English term occurs twice in the NT. In Rom. The third period (Ex. 3:I -Deut. 34:12)
8: 13 it is used for the verb t7tc]7tczfoo-, suggest- begins with Moses' call. The call is a chal-
ing the c]cf;o7® of killing, while in Col. 3:5 it 1enge to Moses' faith in God and love to
is {` rendering of 7tekroo-, suggesting the rest4I£ his people (3: 12); and responding to this call
of killing (to make a corpse). The use is he enters upon his life work. The freeing of
Pauline and derives from his doctrine of the the people from Egyptian bondage is a task
atonement, i.e., that Christ who came "in the which is achieved by mighty acts of God, who
likeness of sin fiil flesh" was so identified with makes Moses his instrument and Moses' rod
sinners that on the cross he both died for the symbol of his authority. The proclaiming
them and their sinful nature was put to death of the Decalog by the voice of God at Sinai
365 MOTHER OF GOD

is a tremendous theophany (Ex. 20:I-21); compensation on the mount of transfiguration

and the covenant (Ex. 21-23) is ratified by (Matt.17: I-8).
sprinkling of blood (Ex. 24:3-8; c£. 19:8). The supreme tribute to Moses comes to us
The tabernacle is to be constructed according from the lips of our Lord (Luke 16:31; John
to the pattern shown to Moses in the mount 5:46). Moses, the man of God, is the most
(25:9; 39:43). All of the laws are given complete OT type of him who was to come.
through Moses. The laws for the priests, which For he combined in himself in a unique de-
are found in Leviticus, are given through
gree the three great offices of Christ - prophet
Moses and he inducts Aaron and his sons into (Deut.18:15-22; 34:10 f.), priest (he acted
the priesthood. The journey to Kadesh is as priest and instituted the priestly office, Lev.
briefly described and the sending out of the 8) and king (for forty years he was God's
spies (Nun. 13). The refusal to go up to vicegerent over Israel.
possess the land (Nun. 14) receives the pun- 1n Moses and His Times C\887) George
ishment of wandering, forty years, a year for
Rawlinson made two significant statements:
a day of the searching of the land (chap. 14). "The materials for the life o£ Moses are found
The rebellion of Korah, Dathan and Abiram chiefly in the four later books of the Pen-
and the giving of several laws are all that pre-
tateuch" and ``Materials for the description of
vents this long interval from being a complete
the `times' of Moses exist now in enormous
blank. With the beginning of the fortieth year
quantities through the interpretation of the
(Num. 20:I) the new generation take up hierglyphic inscriptions, and of the other na-
their journey to the land of promise; and un- tive Egyptian documents." This is no less true
der Moses they conquer the kings of the Amor- today. A long list Of books on Ancient Egypt
ites and of Bashan and are poised to enter the
might easily be given. It would include such
land (Nun. 20). The sin of Baal-peor is names as Maspero, Petrie, Budge, Steindorff ,
severely punished and avenged (Nun. 25 Baikie, Breasted, Weigall, and J. A. Wilson.
and 31). The Book of Deuteronomy contains But no ancient records have been discovered
Moses' farewell addresses in which he ex- which mention Moses. How much confidence
horts and entreats his people to keep the law is to be placed in Josephus and Philo when
which is their precious possession and solemn-
the}r enlarge on the biblical account, we do
ly warns them of the inevitable consequences
not know. And the same may be said Of many
of disobedience. of the lives o£ Moses which have appeared
In all these great events by virtue of which f rom time to time in recent years. The real
Israel was molded into a nation Moses is the Moses cannot be recovered from a vivid sketch
pre-eminent figure. His place in Israel's his- of the "times" in which he lived.
tory is unique. As lawgiver he had no succes- OSWALD T. ALLIS
sor. Joshua followed him as leader. But the
vast difference between the authority enjoyed MOST HIGH. See GOD.
by these two men is shown by comparing
Nun. 7:89 and 12:6-8 with Nun. 27:15-21. MOTHER OF GOD. This title was ac-
Truly, there arose not a I)rophet like unto corded to Mary, the mother of Jesus, at the
Moses whom the Lord knew face to face Council of Ephesus in 431. A bishop named
(Deut. 34: 10). The closing word of the last Nestorius - formerly presbyter at Antioch and
of the OT prophets is this, "Remember the then made patriarch of Constantinople, but de-
law of my servant Moses" (Mal. 4:4). De- posed by the Council - had found it difficult
spite, yes even because of the singularly to ai`cei)t that the infant born o£ Mary was
"God," and his difficulty came to expression
exalted position given him by God, Moses is
revealed to us as "a man subject to like pas- in a refusal to describe Mary as the "Mother
sions as we are." Like Elijah and Jeremiah the of God" as she was now commonly styled to
task assigned him, a burden increased ten fold emphasize the deity of Christ. The Council
by the murmurings and revoltings of the peo- decreed that the title could rightly be given
|)le, drives him almost to despair (Nun. to Mary because he who was conceived of her
11:10-15) and leads to outbursts of anger was by the Holy Ghost, and was the Son of
and indignation (Ex. 32:19), one of which God and therefore ``God" from the moment Of
had tragic results for himself (Num. 20:7- his conception.
12), a disappointment which found its rich Unfortunately, the term soon came to be
MYSTERY, MYSTERIES 366

"the mysteries" Of a state or religious sect,

regarded as expressing an exaltation Of Mary,
and by the sixth century false notions about hidden to the uninitiated.
Mary, originally framed by Gnostics and a Mysteries such as the Eleusinian, prominent
sect known as Collyridians, were taken up by in the Athenian cultus, sublimated primitive
the church itself , and the way was open for fertility rites. There were also less official mys-
the worship o£ Mary, which has since grown teries, some crudely orgiastic. Alexander's con-
so greatly, especially in the Roman Catholic quests provided an interaction of Hellenistic
Church (see MARloLATR¥). and Oriental, Of philosophy, mysticism and
In the NT Mary is often referred to as the fertility ritual which gave mysteries far more
"mother of Jesus" (e.g., John 2: I; Acts I : 14).
than local significance. They ministered to the
She was given special grace by God to perf orm general longing for "salvation" -security, im-
a service to him that was unique. In this re- mortality, sacramental comfort - noticeable be-
gard she stands alone amongst human kind, fore the birth of Christ. Cults like those of the
and is regarded by all generations as "blessed." Egyptian Isis, the Phrygian Cybele, and es-
But Scripture is silent as regards any special pecially Mithras (who had a huge following
standing of Mary herself . The title "Mother in the Roman army by the third century A.D.),
of God" (tJteotokos) is thus to be used with spread throughout the Graeco-Roman world.
caution as regards its implications for Mary Great stress was laid on their esoteric nature
herself, though evangelical theology recognizes and on I)roper initiation: in some rituals the
its appropriateness when employed, as at Asian rite of tclt"oZ7oljt4", or bath in bull's
Ephesus, to state the true deity o£ Jesus Christ blood, and the formula re#¢tws j" ¢eter"w~i
even in his incarnate life. were introduced. They had no historical re-
W. C. G. PRoCTOR demption and little moral earnestness.
For NT usage the LXX is more illuminative
MYSTERY, MYSTERIES. MystGrjo7¢ oc- than the pagan mysteries. MysfGrio" is often
curs twenty-seven times in the Received Text associated with God's foreknowledge and in-
of the r\TT, twenty instances being in the scmtable will (e.g., Rom. 16:25; I Cor. 2:7;
Pauline corpus, and half of these in Ephesians Eph.I:9; 3:9; Col.I:26). Furthermore, in
and Colossians. many contexts, not the hiddenness, but the
In most cases the reference is to the plan of unveiling of the mystery is stressed. Not only
salvation or some aspect thereof : the kingdom revelation to initiates is in mind: 7"ysfgriot®
of God (Matt. 13:11; Mark 4:11; Luke applies to gospel preaching in contexts ex-
8: 10); the hardening of Israel and admission plicitly mentioning its open character (Eph.
of the Gentiles (Ron.11:25), or the fusion 6: 19; Col. 4:3). The Christian mystery, hid-
of both into one new body (Eph. 3:3-4); the den from eternity in God's counsel, is now
gospel, especially with reference to its minis- open and can be summarized (I Tim. 3:16)
tr}7 (I Cor. 2:7; 4:1; Eph. 6:19; Col. 4:3) and universally preached (hence Moffatt's
and its apt)rehension (Rom.16:25; Eph.1:9; translation "open secret" in Eph. I:9; Col.
Col.I:26-27); the whole sweep of God's re- 1:26; 2:2; 4:3). Whereas classical usage fav-
demption (Eph.I:9; 3:9); the event of the ors the plural, in the NT the singular is usual.
resurrection (I Cor. 15:51); the Christian The context of I Cor. 2:7 contains several
religion or its central verities (I Tim. 3:9,16); terms redolent of the mysteries: "wisdom,"
and supremely to Christ himself (Col. 2:2). "knowledge," "perfect": but the nature Of
Once the reference is to marriage (Eph. 5 : 32); Paul's argument suggests that it was from the
twice to such secrets as prophets might have Corinthians themselves that this vocabulary
access to (I Cor. 13:2; 14:2); once to the came. Noting reference to the secret coun-
clnbodiment of anti-Christian forces (11 Thess. sel of God now revealed, we may conclude
2:3); four times in Revelation to a symbolic that here as in some other places, while there
figure (Rev.I:20; 10:7; 17:5, 7). may be undertones of the mysteries many gen-
In the LXX 7"ystgrjo7® represents "secret": tile Christians must have known, it is doubtful
the hidden counsel of God (Ps. 24: 14 EVV, whether these are ever primary. Myste-rjo" is
Wisd. 2:22), or a general's strategy, hidden used to indicate climactic points in God's deal-
until put into operation (Judith 2:2). In ings with men. Correspondingly it can be used
classical usage it relates to anything hidden, of the operations of his enemy (11 Thess. 2:7).
but predominantly, generally in the plural, to Few adherents remain of the school which
367 MYSTICISM

viewed early Christianity as essentially a salva- which he secures by exercising towards the ex-
tion-mystery with baptism as initiation, grafted ternal world, both passively and actively, the
on to the simple teaching of Christ: without greatest possible reserve. Or it is the passive
explaining how Christianity alone survived the and active reserve towards the external world,
Roman Empire. More frequently it is held which is at the same time dedicated to a high-
that the NT writers are soaked in mystery er consecration of man" (K. Barth, Chiirc77
terminology and are best understood against Dog"¢t;cs,I, 2, p. 319).
this background. (Cf . from different stand- In accordance with this definition, in)'s
points \^J. L. Knox, Soine Hellenistic Elements cism presses beyond the external forms of re-
in Priinitive Christianity, Oxford \942, R. ligion to an attempted direct knowledge of
Bultmann, G79os;s in TWNT; R. Perdelwitz, God, more especially in I)rayer and meditation,
Die Mysterienrchgionen und dos Problem des although sometimes too in trance-like condi-
I Pet"sZ„jefs, Giessen 1911.) But such cases tions. It is not nec`essarily hostile to form and
frequently turn out to be as well or better tradition. Indeed, it is usually prepared to en-
understood by reference to the OT, LXX or dorse and use them for their symbolical value.
Jewish sources (t"ystGrjo" itself is a loanword But it finds the core of religion in an inward
in rabbinic Hebrew-SBK,I, pp. 659 ff.) identity or communion which is ultimately
and the parallels often come from times much indifferent to and negates the external.
later than the NT. Mysticism is not peculiar to Christianity,
Some other uses of 7#ystGJ.I.o7? remain. In I but it has found in the latter a long line Of
Cor. 13:2; 14:2, the primary reference is to representatives including such notable figures
the hidden, ineffable charai`ter Of the divine as Eckhart, Tauler, Catherine of Siena and
insights which proiihets receive, but apparently John of the Cross. Many of these have ob-
cannot necessarily communicate. Eph. 5:32 is viously attained a high level of Christian faith
best explained by the patrjstic use of the term and fruitage, and in many cases the basic mys-
to mean "symbol." A similar sense is demanded ticism has not excluded practical interests and
for the instances in Revelation. gifts.
The Vulgate rendering of 7vystgrjo" by Yet the question remains whether mysticism
`sacrq7"e7ttit7" was responsible for the later at- is genuinely scri|)tural, even in its Christian
tribution of the title "mysteries" to the sacra- form. To be sure, this avoids the blatant errors
ments, and to the communion in particular: of the mysticism which finally identifies God
and this translation at Eph. 5:32 influenced and the soul, or teaches a total absor|)tion
the designation of marriage as a sacrament. rather than a union of love and will. Again,
Considering that the mystery religions must it demands a genuine attempt at identific`£ition
have been Christianity's greatest rivals, early with Christ in his 1)assion and resurrection`
Christian writers say surprisingly little about More generally, it can argue from ostensibly
them, probably because they were most con- m}'stical elements in Paul and John, and point
cerncd with the Gnostic attempt to convert to the scriptural em|)basis upon the inward
Christianity from within into a mystery cult. and spiritual as distinct from the merely ex-
Even so, Clement of Alexandria, to demon- ternal. There is no flagrant or conscious heresy
strate Christianity as the true Gnosis, can use, in Christian mysticism, and it is content with
with evident rapture, the mystery vocabulary accepted forms and formulations.
Cprotreptious CXX. I). On the other hand, there are three con-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
siderations which suggest that in mysticism,
for all the sincerity of faith which may be as-
E.;b!g:i:;g#,:g¥£a.?gfi?c.c=L:eT#io,n;aHf#et"!s:gcs,:i; cribed to individual mystics, we really have an
expression of human religion rather than a
g%,;;;E£::¥%;#;£eS£{£:t#,s:,fe:]s£:fig.e£;,A£.6£E:in:oeft¥Ta:¥ true response to the divine revelation.
ANDREW F. WALLS I. Exegetically, it is begging the question
to speak e.g., of the Christ-mysticism of St.
MYSTICISM. The two main elements in Paul when the Bible itself does not use this
mysticism are indicated by the twofold deriva- terminology. Interpreted from within itself, a
tion from owyeo- ("initiate" or "consecrate") Pauline statement like Gal. 2:20 has no in-
and 7"y6 ("close the eyes or mouth"). Mysti- herent mystical orientation, though it can ob-
cism is thus "the higher consecration of man, viously be pushed in a mystical direction. It
MYTH 368

may be doubted whether there is any direct of it as a synonym for the gospel which he
biblical support for mysticism as distinct from proclaimed.) Thus Socrates describes a par-
the mystical interpretation of biblical data. ticular story as "no fictitious myth but a true
2. Dogmatically, mysticism seems to rest on logos" (Plato Tit„aetts 26E). It is also the
a false assumption in its search for directness connotation of the term during the period of
or immediacy of union or communion between the NT. Thus Philo speaks Of those "who fol-
the soul and God. The whole point of God's low after un feigned truth instead of fictitious
coming and work in Christ, and the present myths" (Exsecr. 162) and PseudcrAristeas,
ministry of word and sacrament, is that "no using an adverbial form, affirms that "nothing
man hath seen God at any time" (John I : 18), has been set down in Scripture to no purpose
and that the eyes of the inward understanding or in a mythical sense" (t"yt7io-de-s, Letter of
can now be opened by the Holy Spirit only as Aristec}s to PJijzocr¢tes, 168). In the English
we look on the incarnate, cnicified and risen language, too, the "mythical" is ordinarily
Son presented to us in the gospel. synonymous with the fabulous, the fantastic,
3. Practically, mysticism entails an inevita- and the historically unauthentic.
ble, if of ten unwitting and unwilling sub- In contemporary theological discussion the
jectivization. Even the imitation of Christ is a term myth has achieved a special prominence.
re|)etition rather than an entry, and the em- This is to a considerable degree the result o£
phasis falls upon what I do rather than on Rudolf Bultmann's demand for the ``demythor
what Christ has already done wholly and all- logization" of the NT, that is, for the excision
sufficiently for me. An ultimate preoccupation or expurgation from the biblical presentation
with self is the mark even of the denial of self, of the Christian message of every element Of
and it is in the se]£ that truth and salvation "myth." In Bultmann's judgment, this requires
are eventually found even though self and God the rejection of the biblical view of the world
may not ultimately be confused as they may as belonging to ``the cosmology of a pre-scien-
well be even in Christian mysticism. tific age" and as therefore quite unacceptable
Mysticism has made its contribution to to modern man (see Keryg"ci cl7?d Myth,
Christianity, and there is much instruction S.P.C.K., London, 1953). In effect, it
and inspiration to be gained from its literature. amounts to the elimination of the miraculous
But quite apart from its obvious extravagances or supernatural constituents of the scriptural
it may be doubted whether it is a genuine record since these are incompatible with Bult-
form of biblical and evangelical Christianity. mann's own view of the world as a firmly
Open eyes and lips are surely necessary for closed system, governed by fixed natural laws,
true initiation into Jesus Christ. in which there can be no place for interven-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tion "from outside." John Macquarrie, how-
E.#npEtEMM"EyREmi..'.gT# ever, justly criticizes Bultmann for being ``still
obsessed with the pseudo-scientific view of a
closed universe that was popular half a century
GEOFFREy W. BROMII.E¥
algo" CAn Existentialist Theology, S.a.M.
MYTH. The term myth (Greek 7„ytJ.os) Press, London, 1955, p. 168), and Emil Brun-
occurs five times in the NT-four times in ner complains that in claiming ``that our faith
the Pastoral Epistles (I Tim. I :4; 4:7; 11 Tim. must eliminate everything that suspends the
`interrelatedness o£ Nature' and is consequent-
4:4; Titus I:14; 11 Pet.1:16). In each in-
stance it signifies the fiction of a fable as dis- ly mythical" Bultmann "is using, as a crite-
tinct from the genuineness of the truth (cf . rion, a concept which has become wholly
11 Tim. 4:4, ". . . turn away their ears from untenable" CThe Christian Doctrine of Crca-
the truth, and turn aside unto myths"). This fjo7® a7®d Rede7wptjo74, Dogt%atjcs, Vol. 11, Lut-
is in complete harmony wiith the classical con- terworth Press, London, 1952, p. 190).
notation of the term, which from the time o£ It is Bultmann's contention that the central
Pindar onwards always bears the sense Of message or kerygt.¢¢ o£ Christianity is incredi-
what is fictitious, as opposed to the term logos, ble to modern man so long as it is presented
which indicated what was tine and historical. in the mythical setting Of the biblical world-
(This consideration sheds an interesting ray view, and that the latter constitutes an offence
on John's use of the term Logos as a title for which is not at all identical with the true and
Christ, John 1:1,14, and Paul's frequent use ineradicable offence or sha#drfo" of the Chris-
369 MYTH

tian proclamation. He accordingly finds it nec- the objective affirmation that Christ helps me
essary to discard such obviously (on his prem- because he is God's Son must give place to the
ises) mythical elements as Christ's pre-exist- subjective value-judgment of the "moment"
ence and virgin birth, his deity and sinlessness, that he is God's Son because he helps me (The
the substitutionary nature of his death as meet- Christchgical Confession of the World Coun-
ing the demands of a righteous God, his resur- cil of Chwrches, in Essays, S.C.M. Press, Lon-
rection and ascension, and his future return don, 1955, p. 280). Truth, in a word, is
in glory, also the final judgment of the world, identified with subjectivity.
the existence of spirit-beings, the personality While the message o£ Christianity is, be-
and power of the Holy Spirit, the doctrines of yond doubt, in the truest sense existential and
the Trinity, of original sin, and of death as a contemporaneous and demands the subjective
consequence of sin, and every explanation of response of faith, yet the faith it requires is
events as miraculous. It is self-evident that this
faith in an objective reality. When robbed Of
process of demythologization, when carried its objectivity, the ground of which is God's
through with the thoroughness Bultmann dis- free and supernatural intervention through
plays, mutilates the Christianity of the NT in Christ in the affairs of our world, Christianity
so radical a manner as to leave it unrecog- becomes a drifting idea, an abstraction, a root-
nizable. The stature of Jesus is reduced to that less idealism, an ungraspable balloon loosed
of a mere man Cc£. Theology of the New Tes- from its moorings. Bultmann's "confusion of
t¢7„e7e£, Vol. 11, S.C.M. Press, London, 1955, the question Of the world-view with that of
pp. 46, 75) and the Christ-event is trans- Myth," criticizes Brunner, "and the effort to
formed from an objective divine intervention adapt the Christian Faith to `modern' views of
into "a relative historical phenomenon" (Keryg- life, and to the concepts of existential phi-
t#a a7!d MytJc, p. 19). And it is in this, ac- losophy, comes out continually in the fact that
ccnding to Bu]tmann, that the real offence of he `cleanses' the message of the New Testa-
Christianity lies: the linking of our redemp- ment from ideas which necessarily belong to
tion with God's choice of an ordinary mortal it, and do not conflict with the modern view
individual, no different from every other man, of the world at all, but only with the `self-
and of an event, in no way miraculous or understanding,' and in |]articular with the
supernatural (Ker,yg"¢ fl„d Myth, p. 43), prejudices, of an Idealistic philosophy"; while
which in its essential relativity belongs to the in his conception of history Bultmann "is lack-
normal order of all mundane events. ing in insight into the significance of the New
Testament ep7i' h¢pcl#, of the `once-for-all-ness'
Bultmann's relativism goes hand in hand
with subjectivism. The relevance of the Christ- (or uniqueness) of the Fact of Christ as an
Event in the continuum of history" (Dogrm¢t-
event assumes a merely subjective significance.
jcs, Vol. I, pp. 267, 268).
The incarnation and resurrection Of Christ,
for example, are not to be understood as data- Yet, while realizing that in Bultmann's pro-
ble events of the past, but as "eschatological" gram of demythologization "what is at stake
events which are to be subjectively experienced is nothing less than the central theological
through faith in the word of preaching (cf . question of revelation, of `Saving History,'
Kenygma and Myth, pp. 4\, 209., Theology of and the kfiowledge of God as a `Livirig God,'
the New Test¢me"t, Vol. I, S.C.M. Press, who is the Lord of nature and of history"
London, 1952, p. 305). It is, in fact, only my (Dogmatjcs, Vol.11, p. 186), Brunner refuses
experience, her? and now, that can have any to "give up the right to criticize this or that
authenticity for me -not anything that has recorded miracle, this or that marvel as due
happened in the past or that will happen in rather to the `myth-forming imagination' than
the future. In short, the Christian message is to the historical fact" (jz?id., p. 192). In other
compressed within an existentialist mold. His- words he is prepared to concur with the judg-
tory and eschatology are to be understood in ment that in the NT there are mythical ele-
terms of pure subjectivism. Pronouncements ments which require to be eliminated; but as
about the deity of Jesus are not to be inter- a demythologizer he is unwilling to proceed to
preted as dogmatic pronouncements concern- such radical lengths as does Bultmann. When,
ing his nature but as existential value-judg- however, we find him repudiating doctrines
ments, not as statements about Christ but as like the virgin birth of Christ, his bodily resur-
pronouncements about me. Thus, for example, rection (whence the unbiblical "liberal" dis-
MYTH 370

tinction between "the historic Jesus" and ``the (Dogm4ties, Vol. 11, p. 74, note). Legend,
risen Christ"), his bodily ascension, and the according to Barth, dues not necessarily attack
general resurrection at the last day, we per- the substance Of the biblical witness, even
ceive that he is definitely moving in the same though there is uncertainty about what he
direction as Bultmann, even though, unlike calls its "general" historicity (i.e., its historical
Bultmann, he seeks to defend his procedure truth as generally conceived), whereas he
by arguing that these doctrines formed no views myth as belonging to a different cate-
part Of the original keryg7.¢a (jz7jd., pp. 352 gory which ``necessarily attacks the substance
ff.). But nonetheless, despite his criticisms of the biblical witness" inasmuch as it pre-
Of Bultmann, "modern science" plays a de- tends to be history when it is not, and thereby
terminative role in Bmnner's thinking. Thus throws doubt on, indeed denies, what he calls
Brunner emphasizes that he "cannot say too the "special" historicity of the biblical narra-
strongly that the biblical view of the world is tivcs (i.e., their special significance as history
absolutely irreconcilable with modem science" between God and man), thus relegating them
(jbid., p. 39); and he assures us that "the to the realm of a "timeless truth, in other
position Of modern knowledge forces us to
abandon" the definite picture of space, Of rh°erdifeo:`dhoufm8:a,Cr:aht;°r:;i:g;a3:sC,tr+"oe,.°[{
time, and of the origins Of life given in the part I, T. and T. Clark, Edinburgh, 1936, pp.
biblical story of creation (iz?jd., p. 31). And 375 ff.) This, however, is principally a matter
so he rejects as myths the Genesis accounts Of of definition: where Bultmann and Brunner
creation and Paradise (cf. ;bid., p. 74). Like- use the term "myth" Barth prefers to use
"legend.„
wise he affirms the need for the demythologi-
zation of statements concerning the form in There is one further definition of myth to
which the event o£ Christ's Parousia will take which attention must be drawn, that, namely,
place on the ground that they are "pronounce- which in effect equates it with symbolism, and
ments of the New Testament which are clearly relates it to the inherent inability of human
mythical, in the sense that they are in fact language to express adequately the things of
unacceptable to us who have no longer the God. Thus Brunner maintains that "the Chris-
world-picture of the ancients and the apostles" tian keryg7"tz cannot be separated from Myth"
(Eter7®¢I Hope, Lutterworth Press, London, since "the Christian statement is necessarily
1954). Again, and inversely (!), new discov- and consciously `anthropomorphic' in the sense
Cries may reinstate as respectable certain as- that it does, and must do, what Bultmann con-
pects Of science"
``modern the biblical world-picture
was thought to havewhich
ex- ceives to be characteristic of the mythical - `it
speaks o£ God in a human way' " (Dog"czfics,
posed as mythical: for example, the doctrine Vol. 11, p. 268). And in the same connection
of the sudden end of human history which Bultmann explains that "mythology is the use
"until recently seemed to be only the apoca-
of imagery to express the otherworldly in terms
lyptic fantasies of the Christian faith has tcr of this world and the divine I.n terms Of
day entered the sphere of the soberest scien- human life, the other side in terms of this
tific calculations," with the result, says Brun- side" (Keryg"¢ c!7!d Myth, p. 10). To elimi-
ner, that "this thought has ceased to be absurd, mate myth in this sense would mean that it
i.e., to be such that a man educated in modern would become impossible for man to say any-
scientific knowledge would have to give it up" thing about God or for God to say anything
(jbjc!., p. 127). And so our modem man so intelligible to man, for we have no other me-
educated must now be invited to de-demytholo- dium of expression than the terms of this
gize at this point where he had so recently and world. But it certainly does not follow that the
with such approval demythologized! terms Of this side must always be given a sym-
Karl Barth, whose approach to the question bolical (= mythological) meaning, or that they
of the authority of Scripture is governed by are always inadequate for the purpose intend-
premises akin to those accepted by Bultmann ed. While there is indeed much symbolism in
and Brunner, wishes to establish a distinction the NT, it is evident also that many things
between 7#yf h on the one hand and sago or there are intended in a literal sense, and that
bege7¢d on the other. By "legend," however, he events, for example Christ's ascension, are
means what the other two understand by described phenomenally (i.e., from the quite
"myth," as Brunner in fact acknowledges legitimate point of view of the observer).
371 NATION

Finally, it must be stressed that the concept BIBIIcroRAPHy

Of myth which we have been discussing in this
article is incompatible with the Reformed don
trine of Holy Scripture. The Christ of the
Bible is The Logos, not a mytJios,. he needs ff:M§??ET%i#Tjii£M#F:EE#ulffff¥M„;gf;i
no demythologization at the hands Of human
scholars. PHILIP EDCCUMBE HUGHES

NAME. When Scripture employs the term BIBI.IOGRApm

Amdt; W. 1^ Walker in ISBE.
name for God, it follows generally the use Of
the word as applied to men. "God condescends J. THEolroRE MUELLER
to us in order that we might ascend to Him"
NATION. The descendants of Abraham,
(Augustine). The parallel is not complete,
according to the divine promise (Gen. 12:2),
however, because of the difference between
formed a nation whose God was the Lord. The
sinful and imperfect man and the holy and
conditional promise, given through Moses, was
that Israel would be God's own possession
¥ar£:::m¥ydb:Lc:}i:d]t:#r}.FfeepKeK::°g?,',:i:u]gnri
from among all peoples, a kingdom of priests,
he may be neither free nor a king, while our
and a holy nation (Ex.19:5-6). It was indeed
Lord is tnily and fully what his name denotes,
a nation of exceptional privilege (cf. Ron.
e.g., Jesus, i.e., Saviour. In general, the biblical
9:3-5), but because of disobedience and un-
use of the name for God may be divided into
belief suffered chastisement and judgment. In
three categories, though there remain some
the time of our Lord, despite Roman rule,
cases that require more apecial classification.
there was still a strong national consciousness
First, the term name stands for God him-
and a recognition of national identity (cf.
self . Thus, "to call on the name of the Lord"
Luke 7:5; 23:2; John 11:48, 50-52; 18:35;
(Acts 2:21) means to call on the Lord him-
Acts 10:22; 24:2,10; 26:4; 28:19). The
self . The same is true of such expressions as
``to trust in his name" (Matt. 12:21); "to spiritual descendants o£ Abraham in NT times
were those of faith, whether Jews or Gentiles
blaspheme his name" (Rev. 13:6). To bow
the knee "at the name of Jesus" means to bow (Gal. 3:7-9). They received the blessings of
the Messiah's day which the Israel after the
before Jesus himself (Phil. 2: 10).
flesh rejected. They were in truth an elect
race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a peo-
e„soerc:;i,aihdetieerTa?i::em:i;hs!,?:tphr:ppopos:ieorp
or ``by the authority of." Thus, "to cast out ple for God's own possession (I Pet. 2:9).
devils e7£ fo- o7®07orti Jgsot4" means to cast out In both Greek. and Hebrew the plural
"nations" was used of the nations of the un-

{#:kbyg:¥§)r¥ehre°rsat±:a£:tht°=£:y::Jseus:hs believing world, of pagans, and o£ Gentiles,

expressions as: "to be baptized ep; to-o7¢owi¢£j
Je-sot4 Chrjsfow (Acts 2:38): "to receive such ::i::ultfmt:arapa,I;onbneot::;onns,ao,:drepioeaactE.en`,i
a little one epj to-o7®o7mcitj 7#ot4" (Matt.18:6). (E. J. Goodspeed, Proble"s of New Test¢-
Third, the term name with the preposition t7®e72t Tr¢7gshatjo7®, University of Chicago Press,
ejs and the accusative denotes either ``into," Chicago, 1945, pp. 26 f.). In the NT the
gospel and its benefits are dramatically and
:a=:a:'f :a: ter¥::ep]8od°nheasb:oP±Zme:n i::° wtftf conspicuously extended to all nations, to Gen-
him (Matt. 28:19; I Cor.I:13,15); or sin- tiles, to heathen. Those who in time past were
ply "in": "to believe in the name" (John no people become by faith the people of God
1 : 12). (Ron. 9-11; I Pet. 2:10).
NATURALISM 372

BIBLIOGRAPHY for righteousness (Ron. 10:4) and therefore

LaBA8Igs:dp,¥nh:al.;e;-::tnffigmA.6?dM#., 1.. RcohrE`ad: inowTa¥dNTj :i:eb:gin,a:ngdi::n:eati|i?o|Y`::g:.::dth:i;e¥-

JOHN H. SKILTON made an independent basis, alternative or sub-
stitute for the law o£ Christ.
NATURALISM. Naturalism is the posi-
tion which interprets the universe as wholly See also REVELATloN, NATURAI„
explanatory in terms of physical and chemical GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
bodies. Proponents of this view, however, do
not wish to be classified as materialists, for NATURAL REVELATION. See REVELA
they admit the exist.ence of much that is of TION, NATURAL.

La::eeri?|esida::oat::iais:Fi:|gas|;Peuitngvy,hia:1:Sn:o:; NATURAL THEOLOGY. TJ2eo]ogj¢ 7®a-

itself. Such non-material aspects of the uni- twr¢!js as. it is now understood is a theology
verse are always to be interpreted as for7#s or constructed irrespective of revelation. In its
ft#7ctjo"s
"physical" of spatially and temporally located
bodies. pure form it has never existed within the
church, which is clearly committed to revela-
Naturalism does` not rule out religion, but tion in some degree. The role allowed it in
simply those elements of religion ultimately
dependent upon a non-physical structure of SEirai:;i,a:nth::Loag,I,:::patFae,I.erf,:retob,ieenthseu.T-
the universe (e.g., a divine mind, a teleological
interpretation of the universe as a whole, a
"soul" existing after the corruption of the
body, etc.). ;¥]]:e;;;I;;ee]Ei§;:£;;y;Xo;f:]a;E;:;3,g:;#;£¢r:twfja;:e:o:e;
Naturalistic theists (e.g., Julian Huxley, Ftevealed, to the Constitution and Course of
Henry Nelson Wieman, and Bemard Meland)
maintain that all true religious values tradi- :¥:;eJ;sFr:=v:kea|sLx:ee.nfthi,caesn:nryiny.:d:ec:
tionally associated with supernatural theism tion to dogmatics.
can be maintained within the framework o£ The basis of natural theology in the church
pure naturalism. is a supposed quality in man that enables him
BIBIJOGRAPHY to know God as Creator if not as Redeemer,
or at least to know of his existence and in
some respects what he is like, or at any rate
what he is not like. This rudimentary knowl-
#a;%e;:¥¥p;;i;,:;jgli#feg#ijhEg:;£:|!eiELiarf edge will then fom the starting point for a
KENNETH S. KANTZER
ifJli:re-i:dine:sntarneTi:i:nosfhigdandhenceofthe
NATURAL LAW. The biblical ground for In the twentieth century a radical attack
this notion is found in Romans 2: 13-14. This
indicates that man knows by creation what is
right and wrong, and stands under the guid-
ance and correction of conscience. From this i;;uB;;;:tE£:;I;I;:C;#aii]!¥tLW;en!:o:#jj;it;e;#¥G6;)]!
it has been deduced that non-Christian ethics,
e.g., as summarized in the cardinal virtues, i::ivi:n::scaauns:::cf::;;::ses:ro.TctE:is:oa:ptrhe:
may be used as a basis for the ethics of revela- revelation of God. For Barth there is no other
source of the knowledge o£ God than Jesus
:i°enn'tfc°ari, ::t e;:: i¥; Eaat?onbaifs:se8::iedH:: Christ as he is witnessed to in the Scriptures.

rh:n;S£;S]}c:Faatnih:ankaetsu:£]e]€#rifsst;::e::i;:iot: Natural theology appeals for scriptural sup-

emTics:lLyowuenv::,c::s;[z:tE?enaa=gr:|m,:=t,&fouRgoh- port primarily to Ron. 1 : 18 ff.; Acts 14: 15-17
and 17:22 ff. in the NT and certain ``nature"
it is a fact and may find partial fulfilments, psalms (e.g., 19 and 104) and Job in the OT.
is primarily an instrument to condemn the See also REVELATloN, NATURAL.
BIBIIOGRAprly
Sir::£enrgwhhf°mdt°oescnh°:s:ma[sythpeerceeivdeo°frieeepiaft nerK.anBfrtkcBha"#£:#:ztic#o'zo!},.§2£:24£.Ein:n¥ei:
3 73 NAZARENE

NATURE, DIVINE. The only biblical use

¥ei„L;#fif#;8#NErgiv#fro%focd.J.Webb.Stnd-
of this phrase is in 11 Pet. I:4: "That ye
T. H. L. PARKER

NATURE. In the NT two Greek words are £:Z62eofppa;tyas::.:S),:fatnhde£:}Vtin£:cnaasteu:ie(trhe:;:

used: ge7®esjs as in James I:23; and 3:6, ence is to our participation rather than to the
where the reference is to birth and what man divine nature as such.
12s:?,ywoiieg.ien',i:d.e?:.yesis.eelisseT.he.rheea,s.,i:.i.#

a mode of feeling and acting which by long :[d?ehpepol;I:::t:os.:eof;.i,;::!htis;::;:,il:s:,E:edsf;::k:

habit has become nature (Thayer), and as in human nature, the divine is self-existent, free,
11 Pet.I:4, where the term means the sum creative, eternal, single, omnipresent, omni-
of innate properties and powers (Thayer), in potent, constant, the sum of wisdom, right-
eousness and love.
i::,i:aese.fwlit,Pvina:;iT,a::.sisTho:sh,il:nebsisb|fci:i In the case of God the Son, it has a more
use of the term is in reference to the origin specific reference to the deity united with
of man and his psycho-physical constitution,
indicating a monistic intrinsic structure, and a i:r:Ei:y.sinsiih;,yonaeppa:::::la:fa;epslT:a,f.hnris.t;
metaphysical discontinuity, but a moral con- the one sense. In virtue of his deity, Jesus
tinuity through divine grace (Eph. 2:3; 11 Christ enjoys in the full and strictest sense
Pet.1:4). the being and attributes of the divine nature;
though in his incarnation he has also assumed
La:rn Pet.::;:Pehni,C .dfisc,::Si°8.e::at;;ey';js:S 5Tf: the essence and attributes of human nature.
ferent meanings of the term (thirty-seven Hence we have the common formulation-
Listed in Baldwin's Dictionar)I of Philosophy) one person and two natures, or two natures in
one person.
A:?setoctfens?,]£g:;::£]:tothaem;rs::;1:tfcvoencfeopiF:: It is in the light of the divine nature o£
quality of such things as have within them- Jesus Christ that we are to understand our
selves a principle of motion, such form or own participation in the divine nature. This
does not mean deification, but incorporation
?huea#::,v::,t b.eaivneg see.pna::3:a|f|ry:T (hAerist,ti,Peg: into Jesus Christ by the Holy Spirit.
Phys;cs, 11, 193b, Loeb Classical Library edi- See also IDENTIFlcATloN WITrl CHRIST.
tion). Fc>r Kant the term signifies the system RICHARD E. I--IIGGINSON
of all phenomena in the one space and time
NAZARENE. This term is applied in the
NT both to Jesus and to his followers. The
¥r:n±;gteLC:OiT]:r:e¥:#agsth::o:::a:t:tie:x|:£sypsp::¥±]c:: Jews needed some sobriquet by which to
!<:a:tf:eyctd;fEi:SN°:za{::uess„a€£ct:h2y4:5Cr°cS£:
3;hryasr£;a]n:thuer::i:t:n2s:sese;:tt::a,::t:eac„odntet;:
Ht47"¢7® Spjrjt) for whom the term serves as 28:22). Whatever odium adhered to the use
an all-inclusive category, corresponding to the of this epithet derived from the crucifixion
and the breach within Judaism for which
;°y]e„E]eaay]:tdy„b¥o:`B£:£enagi'st::AGrtereekndtht°ouwgfrtd°:
broader concept is seen here because nature !£::Sth:agsenheer'ad]:::¥fn:ibe]e;o[rtd£;;tnh°tre::i::::
`ii:f:;:en:E.:sh`s:ea;na:.:Jbe,::t:g:ae:::n.:liv:`hn;Ear,:..:a`::aiE to Jesus in his lifetime as a means of identifi-
cation or address carried any adverse connota-
tion. John I :46 is quite indecisive as affording
of A. N. Whitehead for whom nature is all ground for the opinion that Nazareth had an
that there is, but it is dynamic, inclusive of evil reputation. More likely the passage means
spirit and mind. that since Galilee as a whole was not expected
See also NATURALlsM. to produce the Messiah (cf. John 7:41, 52),
BIBHOGRAPHY much less could one of its minor communities
do so.
The word occurs in two forms, as N¢z¢rg7®os
9,i:#g=¥}i:i:wi;£#::i;prH§##!FOo:f:t:3d¥4':;y¥£:,:ag;:e3:g§ (six times) and as Nc}zo-r¢;os (thirteen times).
E. SIVERTSEN But both are probably derived from the place-
NAZARITE 374

name Nazareth. The claim that the second of sin (Gen. 2:17). Accidental contact re-
word points to a pre-Christian sect to which
Jesus belonged is ill-founded. Those who pro- :ouir:densci:¥£nh8fshisev:ta££or£S(a:rfftfic£:e8r'ta:nndfr:::
don, cf. Judg. 14:9, 19; 15:9). Mosaic
pose it usually doubt the Christian tradition
about Nazareth as the boyhcod home of Jesus, Nazarites served a stated period and were then
looking on it as a deliberate attempt to divert released, after sacrifices and the presentation
attention from Jesus' original connection with on the altar of the shaven locks and any other
the "Nazarenes" by associating him with a items vowed. Samson (]udg.16: 17), Samuel
place dubbed Nazareth. (I Sam.I:11), and John the Baptist (Luke
Matthew explains the residence at Nazareth I : 15), however, were permanent Nazarites.
as necessitated by prophecy (2:23). A two- Like the prophets, God raised up the Naza-
fold play on words may be involved here. Isa. rites to be devoted leaders (Amos 2:10) and
11:I describes Messiah as a "gser (branch, deliver Israel (Judg. 13:5). Nazarites con-
sprout). In Judg. 13:5 (LXX) %azjr¢ios tinued (I Macc. 3:49; c£. extensive Talmudic
(Nazarite) occurs with reference to Samson. treatment), despite corruption (Amos 2: 11).
Granted that Jesus was not a Nazarite in the Jesus Christ was not a Nazarite (Matt. I I : 19;
"Nazarene," 2:23, refers to Isa.11:I, the
strict sense, yet his situation was so akin to
that of Samson as the one who would save Messiah as a 7tg5er, "sprout," and his home in
Israel (Judg. 13:5; Matt. I:21) that the the new and lightly esteemed village of Naza-
technicalities of circumstantial description and reth, "sprout-town''). Paul undertook a Naza-
of philological requirement are brushed aside rite vow (Acts 18:18) and bore release-
in the rabbinic word play which relates Jesus expenses for others (21 :24).
to the OT. BIBLIOGRAPHY
a. 8. ®Tay, ITS I, 20\ E.., llERE; JeavEnc; Mst.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
J. BARTON PAVNE

#n}:I:F)ir'b|jg;:;:B:.LnTnh5e3TLB;(:;6%:e8:f)i9::e::#t!;;7g:3h°;I:6;I;::4„f7;;;' NEIGHBOR. Five Hebrew words are ren-

§l£::sS°]Pn aAnfRL25q'( [egd4S7))' ]V9:2.7.]7 PP. 426-32; H. M. dered "neighbor" in the AV of the OT, the
EVERETT F. HARRISON principal one being rgcz`. The NT words are
geifo~#, "fellow countryman" (Luke 14:12;
NAZARITE. Ndzfr means "separate," 15:6, 9; John 9:8), periojkos (an adjective
either in dignity (Gen. 49:26; cf. Lam. 4:7 used substantively with the definite article),
"the one dwelling around" (Luke 1 :58), and
ASV, "nobles'') or in holiness, as a Nazarite
unto God (Nun. 6:2, 8). Most vows con- pze-sjo7a (an adverb also used substantively
cerned property (Gen. 28:20-22); but Naza- with the definite article except as a predicate,
rites were men or women personally devoted cf. Luke 10:29), "the one near or close by."
to a priestly life. Nazaritism antedated the In the OT one's neighbor is clearly a fellow
Mosaic legislation (Nun. 6:2); Nun. 6: I-21, Israelite as indicated by the statement: "You
however, standardized its requirements. Like shall not take vengeance or bear any grudge
certain priests (Ezek. 44:20), Nazarites kept {tgainst the sons of your own people, but you
their hair untrimmed; thus unpruned vines shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Lev.
are 7¢6z€r (Lev. 25:5,11). Growing hair sym- 19:18, RSV). The parallelism of this verse
bolized unimpaired strength, devoted to God identifies "neighbor" with "sons of your peo-
(Jer. 7:29: unshorn hair is "Gzer, one's pie." A different code of conduct was pre-
"crown''; and Judg. 16:17: Samson's hair scribed towards the foreigner in contrast to
[devotion] conditioned his strength). Like of- one's fellow countryman (Deut. 23:19, 20;
ficiating priests (Lev. 10:9-10), Nazarites cf. Matt. 5:43).
vowed abstinence from wine-products (cf. The law of love for one's neighbor is
Judg.13:4), both to maintain sobriety and to quoted by Jesus (Matt. 5:43; 19:19; 22:39;
Mark 12:31; Luke 10:27), by Paul (Ron.
Part°et;S tB€aa]?sa:n i {£:i. ]rhxeur]:°xut:::S: ¥£::h itbsf t::: 13:9; Gal. 5: 14) and by James (2:8), but it
Jer. 35:I-11; S. R. Driver on Amos 2:10). is our Lord who gives to it a new and fresh
Like the high priest (Lev. 21:11-12), the meaning. To the question addressed to him by
Nazarite preserved separation from dead bodies the lawyer, "Who is my neighbor?" (Luke
(cf. unclean food, Judg.13:7), as symbolical 10:29), Jesus answered with the parable o£
375 NEO-ORTHODOXY

the Good Samaritan. One's neighbor is no lute qualitative di££erence between God and
longer only one's fellow countryman, but any- man, therefore man can never discover God
one in need. Or perhaps even more pertinent, at the end of a syllogism. The only way God
in the parable it is not the priest or the Levite can be known is by revelation, that is, a per-
who proves to be neighbor to the destitute sonal self-disclosure, and this has happened
man (was he a Jew?), but the despised Sa- in the person o£ Jesus Christ.
maritan. ". . . the lawyer who wants to justify Since revelation is a "perpendicular from
himself ...is confronted not by the poor
wounded man with his claim for help, but by ;:s°uVs:"iBhaerth][?£efrtai:,fuats£::Loins:ekt£:"::spe]::ra'i
the . . . Samaritan .... This is the neighbor he continuity between the human and the divine
did not know" (K. Barth, Chwrch Dog7#¢t'ics, (immanence) made this fatal mistake. The
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1956, Jesus-event was looked upon by them as a fact
I/2, p. 418). of history to be explained according to the
BIBIJOGRAPFT analogy of I.eligious experience. Hence the
SBK, I, pp. 353-68; Amdt; C. E. 8. Cranfield in futile quest for the "historical Jesus," who was
RTWB.
WALTER W. WESSEL

NEO-ORTHODOXY. I. INTRol)ucTloN. ;;:rug.::3,Eheeph::I:y:,e:,'ine:::::;::r`:i:::xea;:;a:i,,.:t:.:

The quandary to which religious liberalism
was reduced in the early decades of this cen- :nndshi:ri8v.edr.ytE`;n.g,E:tn*_:t.,i:d:::|'zn#?:
tury, by the crisis of Western culture, proved the liberals, Jesus cannot be understood in
terms of history as such. Fj7tjtti7# "o" es£
:[:enopc¥|ret:nitay.,i?:n.?s:?e#igicna:mr:ni:isss;:ce: c¢pcrx ;7qf;"}.ti. In Jesus, eternity breaks into
times given the movement because the original time, the infinite becomes finite, the divine
break-through was most dramatically achieved human, God becomes man. In Jesus and in
by a young Swiss pastor, Karl Barth, who had him only, the true God truly speaks to man.
been thoroughly trained in German liberalism. But since this is so, unlike the orthodox,
His first published article was a struggle with the nco-orthodox are more or less indifferent
the problem of relativism. The modern man, to the critical debate over the trustworthiness
he complained, no longer acknowledges any of the Gospel narratives. Though Christianity
authority outside himself . Both tables of the i`i`n never survive as a "religion independent
law slip from the preacher's hands as he ap- of all historical foundations" (Schweitzer), it
proaches the people. From the time of the does not rest on history as such, for history is
initial edition of his Commentary on Romans the realm of the relative. The Christ of faith
(Der Roe"erz7rief) in 1919, Barth has been a is not the "historical Jesus" of the critics, but
critic of religious liberalism and a champion
of a theology which has as its proper subject, :se ,#g.:h:£a?::tl:,svicnognfgs::: ::g i::ac.hne,;
the word of God. Some of the leading expo- Saviour of men.
nents of this new theology (in this article To be sure, this witness of prophets and
called nco-orthodoxy) are more "nco" (Tillich, apostles to Jesus as "the Word made flesh,"
Niebuhr), others are inore "orthodox" (Barth,
Brunner); but none is consistently liberal and
none is consistently orthodox. In an article of gp.:I,:e:s,:Teph|;aa:s:;:#:oeeT.og:;bud:o,1,::ortau,:;?;iy,t:h::
the liberals were egregiously in error. Yet, since
Pnr;efa::mnpoatss:n¥;n:fa£:::tt5]rf;:::n::set::;I:::- this kerygma is a witness to the Word, it is a
these men; we must simply sketch the general mistake on the part of the orthodox, with the
profile of the movement. In so doing we shall most serious consequences, to identify the
state wherein there is a return to the orthodox words of Scripture with the Word o£ God. It
tradition and look briefly at the distinctive is human to err and the Bible, though unique,
differences. is human and therefore bears the Word of
11. RELIGlous AUTHORITY. Like the lib- God to us only in a broken and imperfect
erals, the neo-orthodox are theists. But unlike
the liberals, they insist on the transcendence ::Line.:o.rret,hi:.I::so,nes::emnaeno;or:To:::ahcicgehpeti
of God. God is in heaven and we on earth. critical views of Scripture commonly rejected
There is, as Kierkegaard would say, an abso- by the orthodox. Where to draw the line; how
NEO-ORTHODOXY 376

to know what can and what cannot become cally coherent system, thus doing violence to
the word o£ God to the believing individual, the biblical asymetry. Orthodoxy for this rea-
remains one of the unresolved problems of the son has become like a frozen waterfall-
movement. This is why the debate between mighty forms of movement, without move-
Barth and Bultmann over the "demythologiz- ment.
ing" of the Gospel tradition, has divided the The Bible, on the other hand, is full o£
ranks of the nco-orthodox almost from the paradoxes. God is One and Three; Christ is
inception of the movement. See MYTH. God and Man; Man is #o7® posse #o" peccore,
To sum up, the neo-orthodox have reacted yet free; faith is an act and a gift, and so on.
against the liberal doctrine of immanence and In the crisis of faith (hence the name, Theol-
sought to solve the problem of authority in ogy of Crisis) the believer rises above these
paradoxes to grasp the truth in and beyond
;:]j:fd°antf o?y :easi°::;,8 rte°vei:t::i:gywiff o:tr°#e: them, in a way which cannot be made ration-
coming involved in a view of the Bible which ally lucid. If it could, faith would no longer
would implicate one in what appears to them be necessary, according to the nco-orthodox.
to be a hopeless scientific obscurantism.
Ill. ExlsTENTIAL METHOD. As for theolog- E:V;:je:b::dt°hneedm:]a£:v¥t::hroa,ta£:t::]isr:;±a:i
ical method, the neo-orthodox have been mark-
edly influenced by Soeren Kierkegaard, who :£npdesrfic:Suy:::yin;£thr:v:]ea°t-i:rnth£°nd°,Xestuhse°¢agj::
revolted against the dead orthodoxism of the Lnther's Christus dominus et rex scripturae
Danish State Church, calling the individual has been laid under heavy and dubious con-
to a passionate commitment to the truth, tribution at this point. All Scripture more or
which should change the very form of his less perfectly bears witness to Christ, who is
existence. Hence the term Existentialism. himself the Word o£ God. But since the truth
Such existential (q.v.) truth is more than a of God is a person, (Jesus said, I ¢" the
creed, that is, more than propositions related truth - which Socrates never could have said),
in a rational pattern so as to be cognizable to tmth, in the biblical sense, can only result in
the mind. Propositional truth (which is the paradoxes for abstract thought.
only sort of truth there can be in science, Either God has a personal existence or
where reason has its proper sphere) increases he does not exist at all. One cannot, how-
one's information, but leaves the man un-
changed. Existential tnith, on the other hand, :;::Ju]:t°£=eprewhaey:d±:So¥]rnbay]£t¥ei;:in;
is truth which transforms the individual in
his concrete, here-and-now Sjtz jm Lez7e7®. As ii:ksi:I:#mro:i:ly,ht:uh:Fiisth:Lis|bz
an antidote to formal orthodoxy and indiffer- which indeed is required by man's spir-
ent liberalism, this emphasis has been most itual life and by God himself . And when
salutary. The best Protestant tradition has al-
ways decried both what the Reformers called i:iho:Ptpheenoioga£]!ais¥ncdu]£te;:anphay:,Pcaie:em¥
fJ.c]es h7.st'or;c¢ - mere intellectual assent to the dition eo ;7"pso ceases. (Ferdinand Ebner,
truths of Christianity, and the scientific neu- Das Wort und die geistigen Reatitaeten,
Pneumatologische Fragmente, 1nnsbr`ick,
?::ituynfoofr:Lea,ecloyTpnar,aI:vew.ri::i.?:o.npi:P.pnr:at:?; 1921).

::a:£eonemoFh£%mhaasaiedd'c::teedns;i:ses;t:o:c±qegpr:i LneoLh::,wf:±n:e#:::yn%"ezryziatvheings:
biblical truth into the mold o£ Greek, rational adequate theology, until there has been this
"divine-human encounter" (Brunner). In the
crisis of faith I become ``contemporaneous"
g::i8::d:]annfst)?§r::;e:;]W::I:te:i:p:n::yt:i::O:€?t]hm¥:ks: with the Christ of history.
IV. THE FALI, oF MAN. Probably at no

:1;b;;'oat:hfut.i:':;£f:e|F:!s;ina.::.:s::woi;;ioaeTiscteTe:ial: #::|t.;si.tah|is,reux,ist:|i:isa,I.aTeejhiondaofmaop.:r::.ciEi:i
name, The Theology o£ Paradox or Dialectical way than in the doctrine of man's -fall. By one
Theology.) The trouble with orthodoxy, ac- route or another, the nco-orthodox, in abandon-
];:sgotgi:e££b:;a]thfentieffrreaiat;:enw°;£J:Sauns.'#?s:
:::sdofinv:tt°hetsheepnaer°a-:::he:d]9nx;o£Sat:aattfo±:a:£eisogt:
3 77 NEO-ORTHODOXY

of course, was inevitable, since any genuine 'iep°f=it'eA:°a:X£;:etn:££a[i=stothrye,dtsf,#i::i::£n°:

attempt to take the biblical witness to Christ
that the obedience of the second Adam was a
a:c:::p:t;`efe:i:si.:caa:?:s:i:tin:ytp:.::c::e`in,g#eaji fact in history, necessary to all true Christian
faith, remains an antinomy in the neocho-
dox approach.
:L#:.:::;:ug::mic:?::t;i;ohg.:cc.hc:ir:o:vee.tfi`:i;n:,: V. INFANT BAPTlsM. Another interesting,
seigs::in?i::d:::ilvoepma:nt.ykhi:i
:li::,::,ensot,h=
neoorthodoxy,
£n!Vt::e:::itr::=£:o¥]tl:was:::Pj::a:i°:vyc.host:f?:t:he:r tism by some o!shihfe:e:i:i::o,:e::::j.iv#::raf;
In a theology
the "crossroads of time and eternity" (Kierke-
fr¥tmd;St'}C:s§[e:W::°::]yrnaf¥t::Ll:::]ec:a£:;e:`ttg|j
!iaagcntsose,:; EeeinFio::s,pri:b*: i,gan2ot,: aTj;: S::i:i)a t:onnd ;tfrestshe: tthr:t:ee(dEffsS::SzS)i,°nat: arT.
;i:cnoaiees°iff¥]?£ti:.m%[ari°,Wswh%kewnasbieprf:r¥

:n:;:!a,lha:in:.trFmfal;:be::,ivel:¥:I:£:,efvgtTn:Je::o: :a¥r:]Xe;°t=hjau]ie£:£8oeusi}e]::::+%8yth¥h#st:::
of what should be done about the pracSjce of
the church to those whose feet are on the
ground - constantly speaks to this point of the

:;¥:;}¥:}:y:s;:aL:ics:i:h;n:t:°::cf§:i::¥es;;I::;i:y¥i::;;i;
torical event, it is nonetheless theologically :het]eEde:°nft(oaBr¥:¥::;::aici::titrno;eg§:dtbhfi;LFaft%°u::
relevant, in fact, indispensable for anyone
who is not willfully blind to the flaws in
human nature. Of course, in the Pauline-
Augustinian-Calvinistic tradition, the doctrine |§]etiio:t::e:r:ri::i:de;:a;;Itv;a:;y¥i8;°i¥i:I:s;:i:a:diisf:¥§
of the fall has always involved an event on
i::ccime:I:Sj:::.te°diB;esiifaaetecI::chpers:Ct,if:
:?deerse::;r£C:]£:£neo.£Thheed:cet:;:retht:d::v;::n:
conflict with science, which can have only a Fnrfe,:::c::fobrymega::in,:i:::n.3:nicT3s:.bnvsi,ou.s|:
sorry denouement. (Earth -not the movement Scottish Presbyterians rather vehemently re-
acting against his views.
::a]:zeT]9:ea:i::tfttyak::E#:nwahmo:e_mhaat:e:¥; VI. THE ATONEMENT. Any theology which
the relation of the primal history [Genesis takes the sinfulness of man seriously, must, Of
I-11] to empirical fact. When asked, in Iiol- course, be concerned with the death of Christ,
land, if he believed the serpent really spoke as more than an historical fact. In the History
in Eden, he replied that it was more important
to pay attention to what the serpent said. :ifespetjr8e!:I;#'c:i:d°n#=a°tfedth]:nAgpri°ri
conscience was the phrase, ". . . suffered under
PhTtn:::iityfeo€5tjse;andeedv,as::;c::][ay::es±£:r. Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead and bur-
land.) Not only should we not insist on a
form of the doctrine which has become scien- i:S.':h:tor,etshues:::-::ih;Ldy°Xa'vtj°ct£Si°Pofhce;::'ui:
tifically obsolete, according to the nco-ortho- stances beyond his ken, a noble martyr to a
dox, but, as a matter of fact, we owe modem
science a debt of thanks for having made the :h*;£ur=i'£s:ef[beecttrsaytehde]Sna|:s]€:tst°ffo€eE£
traditional view impossible; for as long as we
conceive the fall as an event in the remote ;h;s.too5icea.I,Ji:s:s:".:iu::Lei:a|rigeJ,e.suasns'£epi!i:
past, we fail to think existentially. The fall is the time-space continuum, then naturally his
something which we all commit. Let us not
push the blame off on Pithec¢#thropc4s
Adr"ws. When God says to Adam, Where ;ael,:ihfic:jes=dnre:;ri:t:;t:h:eetvEe:,ms:armfhc::;t::;:n:
art thou? he is speaking to each of us. How it cognito," which sees beyond the human per-
NEO-ORTHODOXY 378

sonality to the divine person, also perceives in was an event in history, therefore, the grace o£
God, though it is beyond history, yet has im-
:.Sghc;°Sosve°rfs£:?i:tathth:niri:vTi?ban:fc:::es?e]: plications for life in its present historical and
that "God was in Christ reconciling the world social forms. Hence these men have wrestled
unto himself" (11 Cor. 5: 19). more seriously than any others in our day
Beyond this it is not easy to frame a general with the problems attendant upon our Chris-
statement that will cover all the writers in the
nco-orthodox school. There is, for the most ;ias:£ceuftnytth°£sS;::se¥:et;ihwe::]dp:]S:b£:i::]atE:;
part, a tendency to regard all "theories" of the they have sought to combine the teaching of
atonement (q.v.) as, at best, human efforts to Scripture with insights derived from anthropol-
explain a mystery which is beyond explana- ogy, psychology, sociology, and history.
tion. Some of these theories contain more Here, as in their theological pronounce-
tnith than others, but no one of them is ade- ments, the representative writers differ from
quate in itself. Gusta£ Aulen, whom we might one another, yet they all agree that we cannot
call a nco-Lutheran, in his celebrated study,
Christt4s Victor, is critical not only of the :;::£vsee]gka:::ptantes:rv££;:£Fo:::,:e¥hebu;£ffu::
God, who is the Redeemer of the social order
A::ltaridniaEbevi:#sing|.tE:::3;::,i;,Ps:i.?e::leom¥ as well as of the individual believer. Brunner
has espoused a reconstructed, controlled cap-
Fe]:::Sttif:tes'cha:i:tnh8oj:xhs::saf::S:1;Cib:hte::; italism, while Niebuhr has moved further to
stemming from Anselm, though nearer the the socialistic left. Both are committed to a
truth, is too "rational," too exact, too theo- democratic political economy as the most just
retical. He reserves the words "theory" and form of the state (q.v.) in our era, and while
"doctrine" for medieval and Protestant views, espousing agape love as the ideal for all life,
and champions what he calls the "chassjc idea" they have rejected the pacifism of the liberals
of the atonement as found in the early fathers, as an unrealistic sentimentalizing of the Chris-
which is the movement of God to deliver man tian view, which could only end in the loss of
from evil involving theological and psycho- what justice there is in our contemporary
logical antinomies that defy rational systemati- society.
VIII. EscHATOLOG¥. Though the leaders of
:#.oe:;.:: :: :t; :fi::t,i:I nteh.eo:3i:i:?'sth::; nco-orthodoxy vary in their views on many
of the atonement. In the writings which re- social issues, even to the extent of questioning
fleet the influence of this point of view, one in some instances (Barth) whether an answer
hears echoes of many theories, without effort to such questions as these constitutes the
at resolution.
VII. SoclAL THEORY. The doctrine of man ir::,:rstfanskm°afketshe]?t]°§Z'pot:s:giea]]toagf::edtFha:
as sinner, in nco-orthodoxy, is significant not meaning of history within history. The evolu-
only as illustrative of the existential method tionary optimism which looks to world renewal
in that theology, but also as a watershed with- (``Christian Americanism") is the bastard of£-
in the movement, from whence two different
Rperina!ss:fncae?::is.t;ail:;;?aio:og?etq.::tei:,?.:
;:raer:=gs|::,e,T:h|aisj:raTa::in::v:lfo¥mdiaE:rntF: as a process coterminous with history itself
should thrust its nose in the door of his tent, and culminating in some "far off divine event
has tended to stress the infinite gulf between toward which the whole creation moves" was
God and man as sinner, and to be Inore than
fiee°£kftnhged;=a]oF£Sakdes±:f£;g:I:i:tool:%¥i
:f;t,I:.:Tsfi:;::g,?`E=nHn:|r;Sfiv.esl,o::eednstno; analogy and man's ethical attainment. It
breaks into history from beyond history. In
this regard the nco-orthodox stand essentially
¥e:sn±L#et;°e:Ltk:eftaBff#:#Nf¥b8ufh¥#arn#:Sef:°:rh:;; on the side of the orthodox, only they would
however, while sharing Barth's pessimism have no sympathy with the literalism prevalent
about human nature, had insisted that inas- in certain fundamentalists' schemes and pat-
much as fallen man still retains the image of tens of eschatology. They publish no charts
God in some sense and inasmuch as the cross
o£ Christ, the real definition of God's love, ::ednt?:Ztdh°enb°otofe:;6°an]:ec]ataen€°tnht:mR¥vrea[¥
379 NEW COMMANDMENT

lion. Faith is not interested in an end-history, NEwr BIRTH. See REGENERATloN.

but in the end of history. The best composite
NEW COMMANDMENT. This phrase cx:-
;:#:nea:erfa]i:::i:8e££:tort::;W±:d#:er6Shtri:?ie: curs first at John 13:34 where we would
Hope and the Task of the Church CNow expect mention of the institution of the Lord's
York, 1954) prepared for the Second Assem- Supper. It occurs also in I John 2:8, an echo
bly of the World Council of Churches in of the original utterance. I John 2:7 and 11
Evanston, Illinois. Johfia5t a;ee n(o6h::::icati:)p:it::::tiove one an-
BIBI.IOGurFT
other, even as Jesus loved us and laid down
his life for us (John 15:13) is the substance
of the new commandment. But why did Jesus
use the adjective "new" for this obligation
ilii:;i::i;ii:-::;:i:;i:::;:::;:.i;:::i:i:;:::;:-;::::i:;::-:;:::i:-:;::=i::=:;::::--:;:::: when previously he had referred to it in the
PAUI. K. JEWETT OT form "thou shalt love thy neighbor as
thyself" (Lev. 19: 18) on more than one occa-
NEOPHYTE. In the early church a newly sion (Luke 10:27 and Matt. 22:39; Mark
12:31), and then had designated it as the
iaap]tfrzoe£::::::Ltwdha;srTrhee%:ee¥hiteeopbhayptt;:: second great commandment?
newly planted, found but once in the NT Many have thought that "new" indicates a
(I Tim. 3:6), is closely related in meaning greater degree of love was intended; not "as
to the Latin #ov;cjws, "new," from which the thyself" but ``more than thyself" (Cyril,
Theodore of Mopsuestia, et al.). Others be-
:eTigg`ii;:s ":o:i::;h;s,ede;iavsed; InnewTye i=iI:# ljeve Jesus meant love one another not as you
cultist. In Roman Catholicism new converts love yourselves but as I have loved you; that
from other faiths and newly ordained priests is, replace generalized neighborly love with
and monks are called neophytes. truly Christlike concern (Grotius, Ebrard,
Godet, Hengstenberg, Meyer). Some suggest
DONALD G. DAvls
Jesus intended enlargement of the OT word
neighbor (capable of restriction with Israel)
NESTORIANISM. Appointed Bishop Of
:oooidnci:iear:::nmfsnoako::t,it:,eE:lrgaebI;el:f,.the
:o°:Sat:rsfn£:::s;nff;=£?s8'd£¥ceesst:,r£:;dse±tn°:t
doing attacked the extravagant emphasis on theA;eocr%nq,nc:;S:,°tfofngt£:repr:::t£°n=erae:::::la:::
the phrase f7ieotokos as applied to the Virgin,
This attack was thought to involve a separa- :n;o:lTa?8Fsi::sael#,ys,hf:es.hldan.d.I:vac:foe::
tion between the divine nature of Christ and now renewed or repromulgated (Irenaeus,
the human, and Nestorius and his supporters Calvin, Maldonatus); a regenerating command
seem to have used incautious terms which
suggested that they could not worship the #noer¥:£:rth°)u;rne]:n::u:e°xt;Ve::ed(]£u8restfn:i
human Jesus, and that the unity of Christ's the previous strife regarding rank (Luke
person is a conjunction of will rather than a 22:24).
genuine hypostatic union. In effect, of course, Lange ingeniously argues that the new
they were concerned to offset the developing commandment is simply the new covenant,
overemphasis of Eutychianism (q.v.) in the and stands in John's Gospel in place of the
other direction, but in consequence of the Eucharist (whereas some think John intended
strong opposition o£ Cyril of Alexandria, sup- to substitute here a command to observe the
ported by Celestine o£ Rome, Nestorius was Agape love feast associated with foot washing
deposed at the Council of Ephesus in 431 and in place of the Eucharist). The new covenant
banished in 436. Nestorianism, however, in Jesus' blood (Eucharist) centers in God's
maintained a vigorous existence, especially in love, and bread and wine signify Jesus' pres-
Persia, and was responsible for missionary ence among his disciples until he comes again
work which took the gospel to Arabia, India,
(I Cor.11:26; cf. Rev. 3:20). The covenant
Turkestan and China. becomes a command through Jesus' words
"Do this in remembrance of me." As there is
GEOFFREY W. BROMILET
NEW CREATION 380

only one new covenant so the one new com- the metaphor of rebirth as well as new creation
mandment must coincide with it; the words is demonstrated by I Cor. 4:15, Gal. 4:19
and Philem. 10, all of which refer to birth
#s,Eeerae,h"::urn:fs::kal3I;dasydo.u'iepoj:.tket: and travail.
bread and eucharistic cup, says Lange. DAVID H. WALLACE
]esus' precepts in general are called com- NICENE CREED. See CREEDs.
mandments in John 14: 15, 21; and are called
NONCONFORMITY. Nonconformity in-
:?ircdsj:it'yns;s2:Li:5Lls:;el2i;IfnoutE:¥fs,:-:po(si dicates a refusal to adhere to the accepted
Clement 13:3; 11 Clement 3:4; 4:5; 6:7; 8:4; norm. Thus Christians are not to conform to
17:3; Ignatius to Eph. 9:2; Polycarp to the the world, and therefore their beliefs and
Phil. 2:2). actions and attitudes should be distinct from
Paul in I Col.14:37 regards his own teach- those commonly adopted. Yet Christians may
ings as commandments of the Lord. However, also be unwilling to conform to beliefs or
the "commandments" of Jesus in the Gospels, practices in the church with which they dis-
agree on various grounds. Thus the term is
irp:sft]:?,ea::r8a::c£]eyypcr°]=ce;pt]°esu:othgru°£¥hc:hn: often used, particularly in British church his-
duct rather than legal regulations, and their tory, for ecclesiastical dissent. The first Non-
appeal is normally to create an attitude rather conformists in this sense were those Puritans
than to command unquestioning obedience.
BIBII0GRAPHY
Amdt; Lunge, Corrm.entany a.. the Holy Scripti.fes,
vol. 3 at John 13:34.
TERRELLE 8. CHUM i::g;:n;::;::es::¥:]t:h:i:;i::I:m=n:::F:tog::r:tis;=]::,;:
title of Recusants). Later, the term came to
NEW CREATION. The phrase "new crea- be applied to dissenters of all kinds, e.g.,
tion," kai7¢G kffsis, appears in 11 Cor. 5 : 17 and Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Metho-
Gal. 6: 15. Kcl;7®g suggests that the old is dis- dists. The issue is a difficult one, since it may
carded and must be replaced by the new, and be argued on the one side that legitimate
it follows that the new is superior to the old; majority decisions should be authoritative until
cf. the "new covenant" in Luke 22:20. Paul's legitimately shown to be wrong and reversed,
use of the term expresses the result of the whereas on the other it may be contended that
conversion experience, and implies by the minorities or even individuals should not act
adjective that the contrast is radical and trans- against conscience if the purity of evangelical
forming. This conversion is not self-generated, truth or practice seems to be genuinely at

?;itri:a,ac.ceon:!`ai;rEebie:iv`i::ag:aec;.c::ai:o: :;:|keei:e:::,posh:?teyai:te,Teptsoa;.::oo;igidevoi:agf:
n°3::n:?somig;ARATION.
{Sheac:::;?nfeodrbfz]:::Vh£:i:t;nng::I:Crte°±£ssi:us::a
•an estate that only a new act of creation will
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEy
render it fit for devotion and service to God.
Both Pauline occurrences of the term are in NOVATIANISM. The Novatians were a
contexts which stress the crucial significance sect formed by Novatian, a presbyter at Rome.
of the death o£ Christ in establishing the new During the persecutions under Decius and
order. It is equally apparent that both passages Valerian (249 to 260) many thousands of
Christians shamefully denied the faith and
¥;:jet:et*ecr::at:;ic,a[v£:::ua[:Su°£sei::stic£]:::£nog sacrificed to the heathen gods. When, after-
dedicated service, and freedom from the wards, many sought readmission to the church,
Novatian insisted that they be rejected per-
;`swmo.rlft'e:n:.:::mofth,iEoi:nif!:!ai;ii:.iesga.Ii manently no matter how deep their contrition.
Christian behavior have superseded the old. God might pardon them at death but the
Two parallel expressions are p¢!j"ge7®esin, church never. It would cease to be a true
``regeneration" (Matt.19:28, Titus 3:5), and church if it did so. Bishop Comelius at Rome,
ge"7tao-a#o-tJte7g, ``born again" (John 3:3, 7) and the renowned Cyprian at Carthage, would
(RSV reads ``born anew," margin "born from receive them back on giving signs of true re-
above"). That Paul was not averse to using pentance. Novatus, a presbyter of Carthage,
381 NUMINOUS, THE

advocated receiving back everyone without literal sense. The only number in Scripture
question. He suddenly changed completely, which is declared to be symbolic is "666"
departed to Rome, and joined Novatian's party which is the number of the beast (Rev.
of severity. 13: 18).
A few obscure bishops and presbyters in In recent }'ears the name o£ Ivan Panin has
Italy set up a schismatical church and elected been connected with a most elaborate attempt
Novatian bishop. It grew rapidly and spread to find numerical significance in every word
to Gaul, Africa, and Asia. and letter in the Bible. But his system is far
Constantine dealt severely with the Nova- too complicated to commend itself to the care-
tians, but they managed to survive down to f ul student. The Bible does not have an
the sixth century. intricate numerical pattern which only a
ALEXANDER M. RENWICK mathematical expert can discover. The strict
and obvious meaning of words - and this ap-
NUMERICS, BIBLE. Numbers are used
plies to numbers - should be adhered to un-
in the Bible in much the same way as in other less it is quite plain that some further mean-
books. They are regularly spelled out, despite ing is involved. We know that the souls that
the fact that numerical signs were early in use. were on the ship which was wrecked at
This would favor accuracy of transmission. Melita numbered two hundred seventy-six
The use of the letters of the Greek alphabet (Acts 27:37, 44). Why this was the number
to represent numbers is late and belongs to we do not know, and it would be idle to try
the period of Greek influence. to find a mysterious or mystical meaning in
Numbers are used both exactly, e.g., the this simple historical fact.
three hundred eiizhteen trained servants of The desire to find symbolic and significant
Abram (Gen.14:14) and inexactly, e.g., the meanings in numbers can be traced back to
forty years of wandering which include the anc`icnt times, notably to the Pythagoreans.
year and a half before the rejection at Kadesh The Babylonian Creation Tablets record the
took place.
Some numbers are used much more fre- :i::yt::tmssar°gfonM::€rakr;dc:E::ntahuehna:mpb°b:,:teo€
quently than others. Seven is the sacred nun- his nanie was the same as the circuit of the
ber because it is the number of the sabbath. walls of his palace, 16,283 cubits. A familiar
Ten is a very natural number, since the fingers modern e,xnmple is the attempt of Piazzi
zmd thumbs of the two hands count ten. But Smyth (1867) to find an elaborate and mys-
we cannot be sure that that is the real explana- terit)us numeric`al system in the construction
lion of the number which appears most con- of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh. On the as-
spicuously in the Decalogue. Twelve is the
number of the months, of the sons of Jacob, :uu]L]Tpbt::sn]tshaste:`nTh]enstphE:i:uaf]£rsstjg:::i::rnecnece?if
of the apostles of the Lord. Aside from this, E. W. Bullinger in How fo E"/.oy the Bjz7le
no special significance attaches to the number.
The fact that it can be regarded as made up X::k:€t°huet:::£8:sn]±°nuss:rjs::umre:£B±untteaxp]r;::fe.
of seven and five has no significance. Many testing makes it quite clear that the first
elaborate efforts have been made to attach occurrence theory in the case of numbers as o£
special meanings to numbers. But none is other words, while ingenious, is quite un-
satisfactory. The number forty, for example, workable. To infer from Gen. 14:4 that the
is used in both a good sense (Acts 1 : 3) and a number thirteen in Gen. 17:25 is ``associated
bad sense (Ps. 95: 10). The number seventy with rebellion, apostasy, and disintegration"
is used of the sons of Jacob (Ex.I:5; 24: 1), (pp. 311 f.) will hardly commend itself to the
of the sons of Ahab (11 Kings 10:I), and of sober minded student of Scripture.
the years of the Babylonian captivity (Jer. OSWALD T. ALLIS
25:11). Cf. also Ezek. 8:11; Luke 10:1. In
prophecy numbers are sometimes used in an NUMINOUS, THE. Deriving f ron the
enigmatical sense, as in the case of the "seven- Latin 7ct4"e" or pl. "w7"j7ca (esp. divine
ty weeks" of Dan. 9 or the "two thousand and pleasure, will, power or majesty), the numinous
three hundred" evening-mornings of 8:14. is a term which has gained currenc`y to de-
But this does not justify us in taking the scribe the mysterious or transcendent element
numbers theinselves in anything oth,er than a in the Godhead and the feelings of awe or
NUNC DIMITTIS 382

fear or reverence to which it gives rise. To man himself, rather than the numinous as a
the extent that there is a real transcendence genuine reality. To mark off the true mystery
in God, and that this demands a proper fear of the transcendent will and power and maj-
and humility on the part of man, the word esty of God as self-revealed in Jesus Christ,
could perhaps be given a Christian sense and and to bring the response of man into proper
usage. Its associations, however, are for the
most part with naturalistic or pantheistic no- :::a:;o::Feigataenfhepe,:s.pmec:;v:,a::.iasl¥lri::::::tj
tions, e.g., a primitive fear of the unknown, religious anthropology, thus avoiding its cor-
or reverence before the divinity of creation ruptive and corrosive influence in Christian
itself, or submission to the absolute and over- theology and piety.
whelming inscrutability of God as the so- GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
called "Wholly Other," and the religious em-
phasis thus comes to be placed upon the sense
of the numinous, i.e., the religious feelings o£ NUNC DIMITTIS. See CANTlcl.E.

OATH. Scripture ascribes oaths to both Oaths in the interest o£ God's glory and the
God and man. On God's part an oath is his confirmation of the truth (Deut. 6:13; Isa.
most holy and solemn asseveration of the
absolute truth of his divine word (Nun. :x5:#:s Ho:b.in:i;6)safanrtes ££]ius:r:rt]Fpdturbey (t:£:
23: 19) in order that his people may trust all Gen. 24:2-9; 47:31; 50:5, 25; Ex. 13:19;
the more in his promises (Isa. 45:20-24). Josh. 2:17; 9:19, 20). We have also the
Since God cannot swear by anyone greater example o£ Christ himself (Matt. 26:63 f.)
than himself (Heb. 6: 13), as men do (Heb. and that of his inspired apostle Paul (11 Col.
6: 16), he swears by himself (Heb. 6: 13), by I:23; Gal. I:20). Hence the words of our
his holiness (Ps. 89:13), by his great name divine Lord: "Swear not at all" (Matt. 5:34)
(Jer. 44:26), by his life (Ezek. 33:11). The are directed against all false, blasphemous and
immutable God (Mal. 3:6), however, swears frivolous swearing as also all swearing in un-
not only to assure men of his fatherly love and certain things. The fact that Christ in Matt.
mercy, but also to impress upon them as un- 5:33-37 warned his hearers against the friv-
failingly sure his chastisements or punishments olous and sinful swearing of the Jews at his
threatened to those who refuse to obey his time, is indicated by the special modifiers `by
divine word and accept his free salvation in heaven," "by Jerusalem," ``by thy head," as
Christ (Ps.Ilo:4-6). In particular, God has also by the command: "Thou shalt not for-
confirmed with a most solemn oath the sure swear [swear falsely; commit perjury] thyself "
hope of man's salvation through faith in Jesus, (vs. 33). Immediately, however, he adds:
"But shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths,"
the Saviour of sinners (Heb. 7:20-28). This
anthropomorphic representation o£ God, swear-
ing an oath on behalf of man's eternal welfare, :fygohj:shgFoeryapaErdovtehsea:i:it.hsintheinterest
must be regarded as a most loving condescen- The Scriptures quote a number of grossly
sion on his part which calls for our most sinful oaths. Thus the oath o£ Peter, when
unflinching trust in and faithful obedience to denying the Lord, was blasphemous (Matt.
his word. 26:72). King Herod's reckless oath was
An oath sworn by men is a most solemn prompted by passion and immediately led to
appeal to God to confirm the truth of their the murder of John the Baptist (Matt. 14:6-
words with the express implication of his pun- 10). The wicked oath by which Paul's ene-
ishment in case they fail to speak the truth. mies bound themselves not to eat till they had
383 OFFEND, OFFENSE

killed him was motivated by hatred (Acts OFFEND, OFFENSE. These terms trans-
23:12-15). In addition, they did not know late two groups o£ Hebrew and Greek words:
whether they would succeed. Equally wrong
was Saul's rash oath which endangered Jona- :slic:f|rydsv.:::cdhaasreasLnoor:|yTaopusse:ithst:.::
than's life (I Sam. 14:24-45).
BIBIJOGRAPHY :fanmgile:nfn(p2a)I,i.wu:::,s,Feea:irne:kc:£n£,ot:
LC; ISBB; NSBD; WDB.

J. THEolroRE MUELI.ER ::gs<¥a:£}i:a-sfa`:n£[ree,',')?#;`sSTa:b:'i:::l¥k;';

special importance.
OBEY, OBEDIENCE. The word "obey," The NT has much to say about offenses in
both in the Old and the New Testament, is a the sense of snares which destroy growing
faith.
::::i#:::'e,re:ndeEnegB:bi:es?ge:?f;`::°ahcet:;;'':e:
(a) Jesus' ministry was an offense to his
sponse to something one hears, rather than townsfolk (Mark 6:3); to the Pharisees
passive listening (cf. Gen. 3:17; Ex. 24:7; (Matt.15:12); to the Jews (John 6:61, 66);
Deut. 21: 18-21). Thus the OT 567ro' is the
basis for t"i5"¢fl'¢!, "body-guard, subject," that :ny:t:h:i:d£:£rE]ese]:¥::¥s];:27a:TEfaet£:nt:
is, one who hears (and obeys) the commands teaching of Jesus that were so out of keeping
of another (Isa.11:14). This is particularly with the preconceived notions of these groups
true in respect to the voice or commandments that their faith in Jesus received a check, in
of God. To hear God's word means to obey
that word. So the Lord says in Jeremiah 3: 13 ;:in,iecassaei:iaat::ec.?e;eks.u!o?enn,thfiEaE[iestmweas:
that the rebellion of Israel means that they sage: "Blessed is he whosoever shall not be
have "not obeyed [heard] my voice." Also in offended in me" (Matt.11:6).
Exodus 19:5 God says, "if you will really hear
my voice, [that is] keep my commandments. tha[tn tthhee goasr3:bi],: °cfontsheequs::ceer I:Sut:£b£:i:::j£
. . ." One cannot truly hear God's word with- would prove a snare to destroy the faith o£
out acting upon it. some who at first were attracted (Mark 4: 17;
This idea is given further emphasis by the cf. Matt. 24:10).
fact that on occas;on instead of the normal Paul stated that the cross was an offense
akowo- the LXX and the I\TT use hypako¢to-, (Gal. 5:11); by this he meant, not that the
``to hear under [the obligation of compliance]"
cross was an object of distaste, but that the
(Eph. 6:I; Phil. 2:12; Ps.17:45; c£. Test. doctrine of a crucified Messiah was a snare or
Gad 8:3; also ejsakotto-in I Cor.14:21; Deut. stumblingblock in the path of those otherwise
I:43). The supreme example of this is Jesus making progress towards a tnie Christian faith.
Christ who was "obedient (hypghoos) unto
That Christ's ministry and gospel would
death" (Phil. 2:8).
pro`'e a stumbling to those who lacked a true
faith in him was foretold in Isa. 8:14 and
lie;`:#rii:gbs:#:s:::ei;,:isoGesonT:tjT6esst`:*; reiterated in I Pet. 2:8 and Ron. 9:33.
that Abraham "believed" 'God, and was ac-
counted righteous. This is defined in Gen.
tho(st)witoer;::;;dwears:]anr§:£;ewuht::iedth:g;i:tsht
22:18 as "hearing [obeying]" the voice o£
of young Christians receive a check (Matt.
God (cf. Ron. 4:3).
18:6; Luke 17:I-2; Ron.16:17). The exer-
Thus "obeying" is intimately linked in cise of the exquisite gift of Christian liberty
must be controlled by consideration for the
Sr£:;uroenewh£:?£n`£heeeadr;E€';rdanGdod,;`b:;i:Vina:.: faith of beginners, lest by misunderstanding
or promise he believes that it is true, and Christ's little ones should be injured (Ron.
therefore is under obligation to obey its condi- 14:20; 11 Cor. 6:3; I Cor. 8: 13). Christ him-
tions. self set the example (Matt. 17:27).
See also HEAR, HEARKEN.
(c) In similar manner, Jesus warned his
BIBLIOGRAPHY

inBR3'iv£Td`; W. A. Whitehouse in RTWB; G, Kittei ffsecLp]teoss:3a:i::.a+,£rnfgnsgfnantzteh::g]v::]ceagT:;:

ROBERT 8. LAURIN mate and gif ts of God are to be ruthlessly
OFFER, OFFERING, OBLATION 384

excised, should they prove snares alienating eternal, since he must reign forever (Isa.
from Christ (Matt.18:8; I Cor. 6:12). 9:6-7) and he is to be priest "forever after
Christian liberty is subject to the needs of the order of Melchisedec" (Heb. 6:20).
faith. All things are lawful, but not expedient
if they snare the faith of others or ourselves. ..A:e::opEeit::5rnisti¥:i:sth£,Ttph.eod`ic%:
This is the scriptural basis of what is often and the telling forth of truth in general. Since
condemned as narrow-minded Puritanism. he is the Truth, he is the infallible prophet.
BIBLIOGRAPHY He was conscious of fulfilling this office
HDB; HDCG; MM.
DAVID BROUGHTON KNOX (Mark 13 : 57). He has a divine commission in

:read,:adtinbgyahsispLo:i::r,(Iiae.ss:gle:I;iidtheemo.::
OFFER, OFFERING, OBLATION. The
sults of his teaching.
earliest biblical history records the presentation
of sacrificial offerings to God. Offerings were There is a close connection between Christ's

RIr::ant(ege:.y8f2a63,i::(4?:I),(a¥dnin::3;:,):
archs of Israel (Gen. 12:7; 26:25; 34:20).
The term ow;zbg¢Zi, ``altar," indicates the place
of ze9o¢, ``sacrifice." Pre-Mosaic sacrifices are i§;;e:bp::i:ee§:::t;S:t;Se!¥§dj:pui;t;i:;ii§e:i;s:;::::;::i§t:
also known among the Canaanites and other in behalf of men and in this work Christ had

peoples of the ancient world. :rc:££C£::efa::t£:i:°mpeaife°Tn.teTc:s:ou::bJ£:i¥k:

The law of the offerings was codified by
:iFeerrin3:ieBS:St,hhLeevi.5,ict:hant!eHoefb`:er;rsamnuds.t::
studied to learn o£ Christ as priest.
;:=°:S:e[S].b:t:h:eL(eive;nt}:i!-i,:`:`:3::emf::e::s£::i.;o=ngj¥¥:I:i
As king (Ps. 2:6; Isa. 9:6-7; 11: I-9) Christ
(2) t%;7ckya, "the meal [AV "meat," RSV "ce-
rules for God. This office relates most directly
Le:i"]bu°rff:ring:d°fthf:n:e£°a::'dearpeaartte:£b;hift
;°s]S:::i',t%°h¥s|frt:I::eic£:Secfifrecc£Set?eenw::I;:
priests; (3) gcJdt"€t", "the peace offering,"
i.ron which the offerer received a portion to His kingship is secured and assured by divine
use as a thanksgiving meal; (4) Z}¢ttd'! .`the covenants with Abraham (Gen. 12 and 17)
and with David (11 Sam. 7:8-17). His work
sin offering," in which the carcass of the sacri-
as prophet is primarily in the past. His role as
ficial victim was burned outside the camp; and
priest is both past, present and future while
;5h)tci65:"r'aith:atsre;£:::I:bregu;[st:hf:e¥:qg|'ir:: his work as king awaits for the most part
s::ii:icreec.a::e:?ee,:f:i:d::iuTea:pr:rq,;irpe,dust: future fulfilment.
See also CHRISTOLOG¥.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
fine of one-fifth the amount of the trespass.
The NT describes the death o£ Christ as
an offering (Eph. 5:2; Heb.10:10,14). Be-
gv%§.#ds#,ii£#.;sost##m%na,,stS%E,ntf#:fesvRE.psfn#,o::;i
lievers are exhorted to offer spiritual sacrifices
HOWARI) Z. CLEVELAND
(Ron.12:I; Heb.13:15-16; I Pet. 2:5).
See also SACRIFlcE.
CHARLES F. PFEIFFER OFFICES, ECCLESIASTICAL. I. ARCH-

OFFICES OF CHRIST. Since the days r=SHt::.8hnuerc¥h:fpr£;£g]easn:Veorrati:Pr°RV::C::

of Eusebius, most theologians have looked Church. A province is a geographical area in
upon the mediatorial work of Christ as that
;ve|icehrfo.n:dmmbienris:.fa,f%c;sue.spoasrees:g:::pE|qsht.o;
?ofgpcra°ip::fti'cepsr;::tchanadska£:vg;cft]e]::h,e:tecrhcre£:st:: of the chief see or archdiocese is termed the
fall under one of these three heads. Three OT Archbishop or Metropolitan. The term, de-
rived from the Roman Empire, dates from
?ha:ssagaes:,gpno,i::?.ro%hher:::al,lhyisi:h:::iofEreocftfiioc:; c¢. A.D. 350. (Derivations: Greek ¢rcj?;,
"chief," and episkopos, "overseer, bishop".)
Deut.18:15; Ps.110:4; Zech. 6:13. Christ's
assumption of this threefold office is to be 11. ARCHDEACoN. A cleric who exercises
385 OFFICES, ECCLESIASTICAL

delegated administrative authority under a VIII. METRopoLITAN. The title of a bishop

efi;o:i:lonfgEp:oiEL:;a.;irsi:ffn£:aefe(I;;y?,:':oe;,:r:fi-
:isahr:::eF:h:;ti:is:lei::I:dgeen:ra:a::.:|E:i.nar?-

politans are commonly called archbishops or

Ere:f:`h::``;ire.:o::e:FgeLst:#rr!!si:,:e:d#n::-?:sh:: primates.
(hence the name oct.lt4s et ~¢¢7Si4s episcopi). IX. MODERATOR. In the Presbyterian
The office has occasionally carried the right Church the moderator is the presbyter who
of succession. presides over a presbytery, synod or General
Ill. ARCHPRIEST. The term describes a Assembly. He has only a casting vote. I-Ie is
priest who occupies a position of pre€minence, pr;tl¢%s jwter 27ares and holds office for a lim-
e.g., the senior priest of a city. An archpriest, ited period (generally one year).
in the Early Church, often performed liturgi- X. PATRIARCH. A title (dating from the
cal and administrative duties during the ab- sixth century) for the bishops of the five chief
sence of the bishop. At a later date the arch- sees: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Constanti-
deacon was responsible for administrative nople, and Jerusalem.
functions, and the archpriest for sacerdotal. XI. PREBENDARy. The occupant of a cathe-
In the Roman Church and the Eastern the dral benefice. The title dates from the Middle
title is essentially an honorific one. Ages, when "prebends" were usually endowed
IV. CANON. A member of the chapter of a from the revenue of various cathedral estates.
cathedral. Appointment is either by nomina- The title has generally been superseded by
tion or election. "Residentiary canons" form that of ``canon."
XII. RECTOR. Historically, a rector, as dis-
part of the salaried staff of a cathedral and
have general responsibility for the mainte-
nance of services, the care of the fabric, etc. #::sht:tdh::oTrea:£octar;:spraoFra]ra;tseT;w:t:b:::
`.Non-residentiary" canons (or honorary can- commutation of tithes this distinction no long-
ons) are unsalaried, but enjoy certain privi- er exists. The title is used in Scotland for the
leges, including a cathedral stall. The title head of a school and in Europe for the secular
derives from the fact that in the Middle Ages head of a university. It is also the title for the
chapters were usually composed of clergy liv- head of a Jesuit house.
ing under a rule (canon) of life. XIII. RURAL DEAN. The title for the clergy-
V. CARDINAL. In the Roman Church the man who is appointed by a bishop as head of

::rd:£n;Lsenraans:eriE[:dediat:;ynsfas:;e;,tahceta¥#; ifngkr°;:t;:e:artji:e:.js#;rnrda`t£:a:]ear;t;,afu:
immediate counselors. When a vacancy occurs his functions have been increasingly over-
they meet in secret session to elect a pope. shadowed and superseded by those of the
There are three ranks: cardinal-priests, cardi- archdeacon.
nal-deacons, and cardinal-bishops. From 1586 XIV. SuFFRAGAN BISHop. The word suf-
to 1958 the number of cardinals was fixed at fragan derives from the Latin stlffi.flgoJ- ("to
vote for" or "support"), and may be applied
:i:e:tuyi5:r lt: 5s8ev::?ye-f!voeln XXIII increased to bishops in two main senses. First, all dioc-
esan bishops are. suffragans when they join
ha¥]:h:Tt:::eEJ;8fr££::::ytoadacy]era8ycTear%y:i: with the archbishop or metropolitan in synod
(either deacon or priest) who assists a paro- and cast their "suffrage." Second, and more
chial clergyman. Curate is the term popularly generally, assistants to diocesan bishops are
used to describe an assistant or unbeneficed described as suffragans. The use of the term
clergyman. in England dates from the early Middle Ages,
VII. DEAN. The head of a cathedral church but the most striking instance of the creation
of assistants is found in the Reformation pe-
:::eks;nogv::Theed£:£ea]3tearft:rn:h:sb:::;:;sFb:ep;:: riod (A.D. 1534) when many new suffragans
the ordering and government of the cathedral. were instituted with definite titles (e.g.,
The title is also used in a non-ecclesiastical Dover).
sense, e.g., the dean of a college; the dean of XV. SupERINTENDENT. In the Church o£
a faculty, etc. Scotland superintendents were first appointed
OLD CATHOLICS 386

under the First Boch of Discipline (1560) to demoniac boy (Luke 9:38), and Jesus Christ
oversee various territorial districts. While en- (John I : 14,18; 3: 16,18; I John 4:9). In the
LXX it is used to render y¢¢€d, meaning "only
:°reysns:b;eccterttoafnthem::::rr:]°afnjuc¥nri:rrfety;fth£: one" (Judg. 11:34, e.g.). Wisdom is t"o7®o-
other ministers associated with them. In the ge"gs (Wisd. 7:22), having no peer, unique.
Lutheran Church there are also superintend- The second half of the word is not derived
ents, but in the Scandinavian churches the from ge"7!d", "to beget," but is an adjectival
title "bishop" is retained. The term is also form derived from ge"os, "origin, race, stock,"
found in some Methodist churches. etc. Mo#oge#e-s, therefore, could be rendered,
XVI. VlcAR. In medieval times, when a "one of a kind." The translation "only" will
church was appropriated to a monastery, the suffice for the references in Luke and He-
brews. But what about the passages in the
Johannine writings? "The adjective `only be-
E;:E;!£T.aes-haE::I;ed:oto:lE,raf?rog.a,i!e,e:ya.:i;::o: gotten' conveys the idea, not of derivation and
vicar (Lat. vjcorj44s, "a substitute") was em- subordination, but of uniqueness and con-
ployed. Today, the vicar is simply the incum- substantiality: Jesus is all that God is, and He
bent of a parish with the same status and alone is this" (8. 8. Walfield, Bill;col Doc-
duties as a rector. tri7ies, Oxford University Press, New York,
STUART BARTON BABBAGE 1929, p. 194). Cremer finds a parallel in the
Pauline jdjos Ji#jos (Ron. 8:32). Since the
OLD CATHOLICS. Papal condemnation Synoptists use `rbeloved" (agapGfos) of the Son,
of Jansenism (q.v.) and refusal to let a Dutch some have concluded that the two words
aDr:i:Ash::tho¥csCFr:s:nR!omc::ly|nd|r%aso:ee- ¢g¢pGtos and 7„o#oge#gs are equivalent in
force. But "beloved" does not point to the
posed missionary bishop consecrated Comelius uniqueness of the Son's relation to the Father
Steenoven as Archbishop of l]trecht, with suf- as t"07}oge#e-s does.
fragans at Haarlem and Deventer. Germans, Though the translation "only" is lexically
Austrians and Swiss who repudiated the Vati- sound for the Johannine passages, since in all
can Council of 1870, together with small strictness ``only begotten" would require
t"o7®oge##elos, the old rendering "only be-
3;advy°njchogsre°udpftr::8,mfeon=:I:?efi%]dth€a:,hD°:i: gotten" is not entirely without justification
laration of Utrecht" (1889), accepts the first when the context in 1: 14 is considered. 'The
verb ge#"dsth¢i occurs at the end of I:13
("born o£ God") and g;71esfh¢j in 1 : 14. These
?:i:.b;:,iy::a:E`!:1::rvi:?sh-:an:raiear3:c:::Tpe;.:£: words ultimately go back to the same root as

ipiet]h9e32dihueih:[eE¥gTan¥.fullcommunion ;ho:,:::o:sdFa;f.hof??T:5e%6f;.Es¥hceia|iyc.i=:
BIBIJcormHy "born of God" must refer to Christ according
a. 8. Moss, T1.e Ou Cdeo.ie Moveme..e.
to the superior Greek text. As a sample of
G. S. M. WALKER
Poagt:i:t[£j:;te#;;tha;]°]no'5=atJ:£tefnve¥ya::¥s't:i::
OLD TESTAMENT. See CRITlclsM, 01.I)
TESTAMENT.

OMNIPOTENCE. See GOD, ATmlBUTEs.

i:ee:ist:s::npo:a:c]o::I::o;i::S:o:P::e::e:a:I;t:hel!h?r]}set;?o:;;
The sonship in John is linked to pre-existence
OMNIPRESENCE. See col), ATTRIBUTEs. (17: 5, 24 and the many references to the Son
as sent of the Father).
OMNISCIENCE. See Col), KNowLEcoE. In its significance t#o#oge#Gs relates to the

ONENESS. See UNITY.

8;V::sa]s:;e)a,S:(2()]}heberfenv8ei::£onnatoufreGo(du:;q:ea]Z
ONLY BEGOITEN. The word "o7!o- (John 1:18), (3) salvation through the Son
(John 3:16; I John 4:9).
ge%e-s occurs nine times in the NT: referring
to Isaac (Heb. I I : 17), the widow's son (Luke The Apostles' Creed is content with "only
7:12), Jairus' daughter (Luke 8:42), the Son," which is the usual fom of the Old
387 ORDAIN, ORDINATION

Roman Symbol. In the Old Latin Version of function are so blurred that it is more correct
the NT "o"oge7®Gs was rendered by "7!jows, to speak of acquisition of ministerial function.
but in the Vulgate it became "7?;ge7®;fws due Three methods of such acquisition are in evi-
dence. First, the Twelve (John 15:16) and
:°h:Fs:oi:gfi:aeinfcoe-u:i°a:ioJne.rome of the Nicene Paul (Gal. 1 : 1) acquire their ministry directly
BIBLIOGRAPHY from Jesus Christ. No indication is given of
any ceremony. The incident reported in Acts
:o#n£;;,sngTj#ai,:or#pg,.TJ]B:LJ9:}2.;!j;?I;i:SFT:£:S*:;;=. 13 is not Paul's ordination but a commission-
Disclosure of Jesus, pp. 213-27.
ing service of men already chosen. Second,
EVERETT F. HARRISoN there is some evidence of spontaneous assump-
tion of certain functions. The lists of spiritual
OPHITES. See GNosTlclsM.
gifts in I Cor. 12 and Rom. 12 indicate that
OPUS OPERATUM. The term is used in members of the church are empowered for
connection with sacramental theology, partic- different tasks without any distinct call or
ularly that of unreformed Christendom. With ceremony. Furthermore, Stephanas and his
the cognate term e# opere operafo, it sums up household (I Cor. 16:15, 16) voluntarily
the view that the benefit of a sacrament avails assume certain responsibilities. In some com-
"by virtue of the work wrought." As first given munities at least the first converts were active
by Duns Scotus (d. 1308), it was meant to in the leadership of the church. Clement of
emphasize the grace of God without the de- Rome (I Clement 42) confirms this function
servings of inward goodness in the communi- of the first fruits, but his statement of a sys-
cant, so long as no bar was placed within. tematic apostolic appointment of such converts
Gabriel Biel (d. 1495) developed the term to goes beyond the evidence of the NT. Third,
suggest mechanical e££icacy of sacraments by the Seven (Acts 6:6) and Timothy (I Tim.
4: 14; 11 Tim. I :6) are admitted to ministerial
virtue of the proper liturgical action by cele-
brant and receiver. After the Council of Trent function by a public ceremony, the chief fea-
incorporated the term into Canon 8 de S¢cr¢- tures of which are prayer and imposition of
ove"tjs it became authoritative Roman doc- hands. With reference to the Seven, it is de-
trine. There have been admissions made, how- batable whether anything more than recogni-
ever, especially after the controversy of Bishop tion of authority is meant, but the language
used in Timothy's case indicates impartation of
Jewel with Harding (1564-65). Cardinal Bel
larmine (d.1621), for example, accepted the spiritual power. Through imposition of hands
need of faith and repentance instead of a he received a charisma which could fall into
disuse. Lohse insists that the key for under-
purely passive attitude. Nevertheless, he added standing NT ordination lies in recognition of
that it is "the external act called sacrament,
its prototype, the ordination of scribes by their
and this is called optis opei.¢tt"" which "ac-
tively, proximately, and instrumentally" affects teachers, in which imposition of hands indi-
the passive recipient; "it confers grace by
cated not only recognition of authority but
impartation of a spirit of wisdom. The rite
virtue of the sacramental act itself, instituted
by God for this purpose." The view thus re- was taken over by the Christian community
to denote the same things in relation to the
jects all suggestion of dependence not only on
minister of the word. Lohse's view should be
the minister (e% opere operfl"f;s) but also on
the receiver. So much is grace and rite con- balanced by that of Easton who concludes that
elders were the only ordained Jewish officials
joined that the due administration of the latter in NT times.
must necessarily involve the former.
The above picture of admission to minis-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D_uns Scotus., Quaestioi.es in Lib. IV. Sententiarurm, terial function provides the materials for the
disfjitctjo i, qt/aestio vi, see. 10; Bellarmine, De Sacrfl- modern debate concerning ordination that "be-
me«tis, Zfb. jj, chap. I.

GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT gins at the point at which we set about to

determine through what precise human chan-
ORACLES. See LOGIA. nels the Divine sanction and (in a less degree)
the Divine enabling should be conveyed"
ORDAIN, ORDINATION. The NT has C.\^J. Sandaly, The Conception of Priesthood in
no technical terms which describe admission f7]e Efl7-Jy C77Ttl'c72, Longmans Green, London,
to ministerial office. Furthermore, office and 1899, p. 69).
ORDERS, HOLY 388

BIBLIOGRAPHY wine for the Holy Communion, and generally

assisting the higher orders. The exorcist orig-
g:;;:as..:5?jions3;a`:!i"¥di!:;"af?"„?;a;jl-#g;s:i#ss:,I;:B„,:a: inally was concerned with casting out demons.
CHARLES A. HODGMAN Later he looked after the catechumens. The
reader, as his name denotes, read from the
ORDERS, HOLY. Holy Orders usually Scriptures. The doorkeeper originally had the
refers to the major orders of the ministry in
an episcopal church. In the Anglican and the g::;s°£preaxc:i:ad]£];gnuo:£rnt:°:£fzetdhepefruson::iors°:i
Orthodox churches these are the bishops, any of the minor orders survives. They are
priests and deacons. In the Roman Church, little more than a stepping stone to the higher
where the episcopate and the presbyterate are orders, and are all conferred at the one time.
counted as one order, the three are bishop- They are conferred usually by the bishop
priests, deacons and subdeacons. The minor (though others on occasion may do so). There
orders are not usually included in the term is no laying on of hands, but some symbol o£
"Holy Orders," for they really refer to laymen
office is delivered, e.g., a candlestick for the
set apart for special tasks rather than to clergy acolyte, a key for the doorkeeper.
in the proper sense of the ten. Admission to
LEON MORRIS
holy orders is by ordination, the important
ceremony being the laying on of hands. It is ORDINANCE. In the OT this word gen-
this which distinguishes ordination to the erally represents Plo-q and Zzwqq4, "something
major orders from that to the minor orders. In prescribed." A more frequent alternative trans-
the former the minister of ordination is always lation is "statute." The common application of
the bishop (though certain exceptions appear these words is the ritual prescribed by God,
to have occurred occasionally), but the minor but they are also applied to what would now
orders may sometimes be conveyed by others. be called the laws of nature (Jer. 33:25), as
Unlike Roman Catholics and the Orthodox,
Anglicans do not officially regard ordination ¥se.]]2:S7t£°t:?ethper£;::Pt]eei;£raT°:::I::n:£u:ta.iv]an.
as a sacrament (though some Anglicans do in tion that is referred to. God is thought of as
point of fact hold this view). The official the One who prescribes the ordinance or
formularies restrict sacraments (q.v.) to ordi- statute.
nances instituted by Christ. Since there is no Another important Hebrew word translated
conclusive evidence that he enjoined ordina- "ordinance" is 7"j5p6f, a judgment given as a

precedent to prescribe behavior. Again, it is

:i:tnjr::I;Sbne°te¥::teeriytfa:acara:::t.cat:n:t°ur]ee God who is thought of as the One ultimately
ceive orders outside the church; but, especially annunciating the judgment.
in the West, it is usually held that a validly In the NT ordinance is used to translate
consecrated bishop conveys valid orders, even five different Greek words, djJ€c}jo-7"fl, "that
though he be in heresy or schism. On this which is declared right," especially ceremonial
principle the Roman Church does not re- regulations; kfjsjs, "institution," that which is
ordain those it receives from Orthodoxy. set up; dj¢tc]ge-, "arrangement"; c!ogt"c!, "an
LEON MORRIS edict"; pczradosjs, "tradition." Sometimes men
and sometimes God are thought of as the
ORDERS, MINOR. The minor orders are source of these ordinances.
those orders of ministry below the major DAVID BRoUGHTON KNoX
orders in the Roman and Orthodox churches.
In the former, subdeacons were usually reck- 0RDO SALUTIS. This phrase appears to
oned as a minor order until they were offi- have been brought into theological usage in
cially classed as a major order in 1207. The 1737 by Jakob Karpov, a Lutheran. But the
minor orders since then are acolytes, exorcists, doctrine of an ordo sc]Zi4fis ("order of salva-
readers and doorkeepers. In the Eastern tion") is of much greater antiquity. Necessar-
ily, there is a wide divergence between the
fahvuercbheenac:I::::'d;X£:Ecfts£:saunbddfa€::rat::Pbe:: Roman Catholic and the Reformed view in
readers and cantors remain. The functions of this connection, for although they both agree
the acolyte were lighting the candles, carrying
them in procession, preparing the water and |hoartkth.efre,:::sbecfrois:,a'TiteionRfaar:ftoa?h:Fi:
3 89 ORTHODOXY

Church teaches that she herself is the divinely This was hastened through tortures he suf-
appointed dispenser of saving grace through fered during the Decian persecution.
the sacraments, which, of themselves, convey Origen was a voluminous writer. He wrote
grace to the recipients. The stages of Rome's on textual, exegetical, homiletical, theological,
ordo sGlc/t.c.s may be taken as marked by her devotional and apologetic subjects. Most of his
sacraments of (a) Baptism, in which the soul writings have perished on account of synodical
is regenerated; (b) Confirmation, in which condemnation 300 years after his death. The
baptized persons receive the gift of the Holy most famous that survives are 0# First Pr;7¢c;-
Ghost; (c) the Eucharist, in which they par- pzes and Agaj7cst Cezst4s.
take of the very body and blood of Christ in Along with a strong sense of churchmanship
the transubstantiated wafer; (d) Penance, by .1nd the authority of church tradition Origen
which the benefit of Christ's death is applied had a profound respect for the authority of
to those who have fallen after baptism; and Scripture; but he valued the mystical meaning
(e) Extreme Unction, which prepares the re- more highly than the literal. By allegorical in-
cipient for death and cleanses him from the
remains of sin. :::pmre:iteio:,,i.eksw:idaE::i;:.evi:fdi,cha:eG::s,i::
Luther's ordo s¢]t4tjs consisted simply in re- His historical sense was weak, nor did he use
the concept of the progress of revelation to
pentance, faith, and good works; but the Lu- I.econcile the Old Testament and the New.
theran order was elaborated by later theolo-
On matters left undecided by Scripture
gians into something closely resembling the
Reformed order. It rests, however, upon the Origen felt free to philosophize. He taught
assumption that Christ's death on the cross was that souls pre-existed, and that the world was
intended to save all men, and that grace is created to purge them from sins committed
resistible.
bet.ore birth. Our bodies of flesh are part of
this purgatory. However, he denied trams-
The Reformed ordo s¢!ttt.;s may be found migration of souls. Origen believed strongly in
in outline in Calvin's J7¢stjtwfes, Ill; but again, the absolute freedom of the will, and without
this order has been further elaborated by later
Reformed theologians. In the Reformed view, ::e:e.;u,ciEet::::ye:f,:reh-::is:ennfcaeir:hfi:n:::3|i;
the application of the redemption wrought by also that all souls would ultimately be saved
Christ on the cross is an activity of the Holy as a result of God's discipline. IIc believed
Spirit, and is to be traced in a series of acts that Christ's death had a twofold object, vie-
and processes until perfect blessedness is tory over the devil and revelation of God's
reached. The Reformed order may be taken as character. Redemption was through education
(a) Effectual Calling, issuing in (b) Regen- and he drew no distinction between intellec-
eration, (c) Faith, leading to (d) Justification, tual and moral progress. Substitutionary atone-
and (e) Sanctification, ultimately resulting in ment was alien to his thought.
(f) Glorification. Some of these experiences Origen destroyed Gnosticism and gave phi-
are synchronous, however, and the stages in losophy a recognized place in Christian theol-
such cases must be regarded as o£ logical rather ogy.
than of chronological sequence. See also ALEXANDRIA, ScHool. OF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ac#:m#:Bee.i a8%d %3pSS3e£.`°ne3 I. Mnriary, Redemp.ion
GEORGE N. M. CoLLINS i?aEioza::i:;f!:s;ijj:a,;.;:g%'g#ei#:i?#o.?g;of5!:I:?;ga::,
DAVID BROUGHTON KNOX
ORIGENISM. Origen (A.D. 185-253) was
an outstanding Christian teacher. At the age ORIGINAL SIN. See SIN.
of seventeen he became head of the catechet-
ical school at Alexandria. Here he taught till ORTHODOXY. The English equivalent of
A.I). 231 when as a result of the displeasure of Greek ort7?ocZo%;a (from orthos, "right," and
Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria, aroused do#cz, "opinion"), meaning right belief, as
through Origen's ordination in Palestine with- opposed to heresy or heterodoxy. The term is
out Demetrius' permission, he left Egypt for not biblical; no secular or Christian writer uses
Caesarea, where he taught until his death. it before the second century, though the verb
OVERCOME 3 90

orthodoxein is in Aristotle CEth. Nic. 16:33). The word "world" in this context is
115lal9). The word expresses the idea that to be understood to denote all in the world
certain statements accurately embody the re- which is antagonistic to the will of God. A
vealed truth-content of Christianity, and are Stronger has come and disarmed these antag-
therefore in their own nature normative for onistic forces (Luke 11:22) with the result
the universal church. This idea is rooted in that the Christian need fear them no longer.
This overcoming is described in two ways
:h#iFf;::Ls::nacnedtFha:o::;icga:sfi,(eqi?.(|h&.: in I John. Believers are said to overcome
15:I-11; Gal. I:6-9; I Tim. 6:3; 11 Tim. (a) the wicked one (2:13,14) and those in
4:3-4; etc.), and that no fellowship exists be- whom the spirit of antichrist breathes (4:4),
tween those who accept the apostolic standard and (b) the world (5:4, 5). In the latter
of christological teaching and those who deny
it (I John 4: 1-3; 11 John 7-11). ;eyn:iet£¥ea:`t:;;:Ce°roe;:':dssh;e¥utsh:£srsg::uoffne&e:;
The idea of orthodoxy became important in thus stressing that moral victory is inseparably
the church in and after the second century, linked with soundness of doctrine.
through conflict f irst with Gnosticism and
The believer must use good as a means of
then with other trinitarian and christological
overcoming evil (Ron. 12 : 21 ), and his attitude
errors. The preservation of Christianity (q.v.)
towards his circumstances should be that of a
was seen to require the maintenance of ortho-
super-conqueror (Ron. 8:37). In the Apoc-
doxy in these matters. Strict acceptance of the
"rule of faith" (regti]c! fjc]ei) was demanded as
:i]sxpsfeai::0::ac¥t:seanr€uiees::r=e:uta±s°n.:o:e¥cor=:
a condition of communion, and creeds explicat-
ers" (2:7,11,17, 26; 3:5,12, 21), and the
promises of the future are reserved only for
these (21:7). The central figure of the book,
:nngdrich:1:Ed;s=e;:'t€W:e:;:::u:]y£::::£%::i`°arsthh°edt::;':
dox for (among other things) including the
fj!;oqtle clause in its creed.
;ha:a:[oa::a:tLrf::a]oEatE:,t:£rbe:e::s,t::afaE:
Seventeenth-century Protestant theologians,
irae::ilietow:,TefTn:F|;:v=rkc.(m5:5a]ifi:dena:mTe:
especially conservative Lutherans, stressed the
importance of orthodoxy in relation to the (17:14). This power to overcome is in con-
trast with the temporary power given to the
soteriology of the Reformation creeds. Liberal
Beast (13:7).
Protestantism naturally regards any quest for
DONALD GUTHRIE
orthodoxy as misguided and deadening.
JAMES I. PACKER
OVERSEER. See MINlsTER.
OVERCOME. The Christian idea Of over-
coming has its basis in the declaration o£ Jesus OXFORD MOVEMENT. See TRACTARI-
that he had overcome the world (John ANISM.

PAGANISM. A term used in several senses Christ into the world and who were not guilty
with a chronological change of meaning. It of rejecting him as Lord and Saviour. Thus it
has been used to describe the religious and concerns the various conceptions of deity and
religion, and the general religious outlook
:itchjfaa:|ys¥it:s:s.fo:,atshs:car::firri:.tii:ti::,sepnas: found in the philosophies of such Greek and
it describes the religious and moral aspirations Roman thinkers as Socrates, Plato and Aris-
of those who lived before the c.oming of Jesus totle, Cicero and Seneca.
391 PARABLE

In a second sense the term paganism is used BIBIJOGRAPHY

::a]de;Cur:]boeoktheofre:ig;°seus'w¥:raiaavned£:::%sopthh: E4fi.yrB#ng;#igi.::s'peFgefbT%;to|ai8vd£:gh;}%`#;¥.tho£
Va''ey.
gospel and who have rejected the biblical offer R. E. D. CLARK
of salvation in favor of some other form of
religious or philosophical system. In this sense PANTHEISM. The word comes from the
it is often used synonymously with material- Greek po7c, "all"; !heos, "god." It denotes the
ism, humanism, hedonism, or e.xistentialism. religious belief or philosophical view which
identifies the universe with God. The term
El;sra:::eo=£:g;:;sj:|iiens::gte?eb:ets:;tthoefraonf was first used by the English deist, John
Toland (1670-1722), in his tract, ``Socinian-
:n!eietp::|tse:.i:::eapdre:o:,|c.Eiisft:a:it?e|(f;V;)i ism Truly Stated" ( 1705), and developed into
non-Christian principles. It is a frank repudia- his famous statement, ``God is the mind or
tion of the Scriptures and the gospel message soul of the Universe," in his book, Pc}wtJ2eism
and a deliberate attempt to construct a world (1720). The idea goes back to monistic phi-
and life view on some other basis in which losophies of India but flows through the Chris-
man is the focus of attention. In this sense of tian writings of Dionysius the Areopagite,
the term it is often applied to many aspects of John Scotus Erigena, and the German mystics,
American life and western culture in general. especially Eckhart.
It is used in a third sense to describe the In contemporary theology it usually takes
religious and moral state of those civilized and the form of an attack upon the personality of
uncivilized people of the present day who have God, maintaining that God is ``supra-personal."
not yet been evangelized and who are living Admittedly, God is infinitely beyond any idea
in the darkness of unbelief, superstition and or term which men may use of him, but the
idolatry. and the hardness of their hearts. God of the' Bible is not to be identified with
BIBLIOGEurHy his creation - he is the Creator of the ends of
the earth. The term "personality" may be in-
8haE'S+;Tpfty%he;on#:HgonS£#,i;nffk#:#ir%3%Cr'o]#%as8#± adequate, but it points in the right direction:
God is not less than personal.
GREGG SINGER Under the impact of contemporary science,
the most critical point for the Christian theist
PAIN. A special sense, independent of is the danger of identifying God with some
touch, possessing its own receptors embedded causal process or atomic theory, without main-
deep in the skin. Its function is protective; taining the biblical distinction between the
owing to its destruction in leprosy, fingers
personal Creator-God and the natural orders
and toes are often lost through accidents. of creation which he always controls.
The quality of pain is profoundly affected See also CREATloN, GOD.
by its passage through the brain. Sensitivity BIBLIOGRAPHY
to pain depends much on memory and antici-
pation. Drugs such as morphine function by
removing anxiety, not pain. Pain is not felt in ;.,ctt:i,;TITj:d:;.%i::!##:;gee,:a'i:#crs#-sifsBt#droHdc*:ro;;
WA¥r`TE E. WARD
times of emotional stress when it would fail
to serve a useful purpose. PAPACY. See PopE.
On relatively very rare occasions pain fails
to warn of disease or danger, or is felt acutely PARABLE. In the parables of the Bible,
when not beneficial. In this as in other ways the attention of the hearer or observer is
man's constitution is not perfect; he is subject drawn to some event or events in the familiar
to "vanity" Ci.e., pointlessness or futility, RSV. sphere of life in this world, in order that, by
See Ecclesiastes and Ron. 8:20). taking heed and making comparison and judg-
Pain may ennoble (e.g., Acts 5:41) or em- ment, they may be faced with the reality and
bitter. The Christian should think of it, not challenge of their situation in the face of
God's present and coming kingdom.
lri:t;rfizrasGtohde::S:|to:£i££:':ou;ears::£.°}:£r= In the OT this form of utterance is the
9:2) by giving victory over resentment, frus- 7"65d!, frequently translated as p¢7.c}bozg in the
tration, disappointment, etc. LXX.
PARABLE 392

A 77¢d5dz is the means of drawing men's at- world's life through his word (Matt. 13:3-9;
tention to the presence and purpose of God in 18-23) so that men can enter it by receiving
their midst and to the critical nature of their his word. Its growth is spontaneous and in-
situation. A "d56Z can be given by means of a evitable (Mark 4:26-29; Matt.13:24-30). Its
story (Ezek. 17:2-10) or an action (Ezek. final manifestation will be his own coming
again in glory (Matt. 25:31-36). But men
2:in3:i4£p4]:-4(9,}b°r]7?Z;¥s£.ntjz?]4°wsfemr: must decide here and now in face of the hid-
7"d56! is translated "byword"). A #cd56l can denness of the kingdom (q.v.). Men can re-
also be a short saying in the form of a popular ceive it, enter it here and now with joy and
proverb implying a judgment on a person or repentance, or reject it (Mark 2:19, 21 f.;
situation (I Sam.10: 12; 24: 13-14), or a word 3:27; Luke 14: 15-24; Matt.13:44-46,
of wisdom, as in the book of Proverbs, involv- 47-50). Its presence from henceforth will af-
ing a comparison between the familiar in daily fect the whole of life and history (Matt.
life and the decisions men must make before 13:24-30, 33). There are also parables deal-
God (Prov.1 : I; 10: 1; 25: I). It can also be a ing with the grace of God manifested in the
prophetic utterance drawing attention to the coming nigh of the kingdom (Matt. 7:9-11;
reversal of human affairs brought about by 18:12-14; Luke 15:11-32). Others have ref-
God's judgment, and inviting men to revise erence to the kind of response called for from
their own judgments (Mic. 2:4; Isa. 14:4; men (Luke 16:1-8; 17:7-10; 7:36-50; Matt.
Hab. 2:6; r\Tum. 24:20-24). The stories of 5:4-16; 25:14-30, etc.).
Though there are allegorical elements in
i[otscaaE;d]::e!£ima,nfaJ:n¥[;ne::hell:;s9'thteh::grh. the parables, they have nevertheless to be dis-
acteristics of the true OT parable. tinguished from allegories for the purpose of
their interpretation. An allegory is an in-
The utterance of a parable in the OT is
linked up with the riddle or "dark saying"
8:t:i:ci:]ae::nt°fo[:nst;:yv°£]nvefhrcahrr::i°Ee°:n::
indicating that the hidden meaning and inten-
vidual details and features and the relations
tion of the parable can escape the superficial
between them are determined not so much by
hearer or observer (Pss. 49:4; 78:2; Prov.I:6
what happens in everyday life, but rather by
[LXX]; Ezek. 17:2; 20:4-9).
The sayings and stories o£ Jesus described Lh:ss:::li:Le:ytlreeym¥i::::,i:na:elt,he,.a.e;:i;:;
as his "parables" in the NT likewise vary
(cf. Ron.11:16-24 and Bunyan's P;leri7#'s
from the short paradoxical utterance (Mark Progress). Thus in an allegory there need be
7: 17), the proverb (Luke 4:23), the allegory no attempt to be true to life. A parable, how-
with a hidden meaning (Matt. 13:3-9), the ever, is constructed so as to present to the
elaborate similitude (Mark 4:30-32), the short hearer a real, familiar life situation in which
(Matt.13:33) or longer story (Matt. 21:33- he can make a judgment often about one main
41), the story with the obvious "moral" (Luke
12:6-21). Many similar short sayings or full
length stories are commonly classified as par-
3:::sti,.:niaE::?isthj:dpgaTaebi:::;::i:ti:diT:
ables without being described as such in the
Gospels (e.g., Mark 9:50; Luke 10:30-37).
;:rdaebr]Seta:dasthdees?gnneedm:;nc:ne;:;8etowE]£:h{:£:
#eswam+e:,2a::;:;I.h;eE::at`aessi:fd:t:9h`:sean.!
fro:henact::::n tfsro:f ttEee spoacri:?,`espofirt:cafraa=d Greece and Judaism) are often mixed with
allegorical elements and have features which
:,o.:::tic.:ifec.of,:hmept;=:,p:svs:E',:.`'ooT,ec:rr:E: c:a;|gnlsea!.1|t:F:at:le:::::ti:;:,e.toe£:t:i:oe!o:r:I;#y;::
parables are true to life. Sometimes there are
elements of practical improbability in the
Story. example, why we should not try to interpret
The main theme in the parables o£ Jesus is
the significance of his own ministry and work :I: ;iag.naibfi:a:;e,hoef #:se`a:npds i::|istEev:::i;:
amongst men (Matt. 21:33-41). In the par- (Matt. 25: I-13), though we must avoid treat-
ables Jesus proclaims to his bearers that the ing the parables as if they were allegories in
kingdom of God is in their midst in his own structure and intention - as has been done too
person, and is sown in the midst of this often in the history of the church.
393 PARADOX

Jesus' teaching in parables is an aspect of im`aginative descriptions were drawn. See Jew-
the revelation of the "mystery of the kingdom E"c for examples.
of God" (Mark 4:11). Like the sacraments, Jesus used the term once (Luke 23:43),
and indeed the whole revelation o£ God in and some see here only a reference to heaven.
However, Jesus may be exhibiting essential
:r:rf:'eatEtet%ar£[er:vveeafi]ei£:ode:hotshefn£Showh# agreement with traditional Jewish opinion by
penetrate by faith behind the outward form of employing "Abraham's bosom" as an alternate
revelation to grasp the hidden yet present di- term for "paradise" in Luke ]6:22. Then para-
vine reality. Therefore Jesus speaks in parables dise as the abode of the righteous is viewed as
so that ``those within" can lmow this mystery. a separate section of Hades (a term equivalent
The purpose of Jesus in the parables is to to Sheol, Ps.16:10; cf. Acts 2:27, 31). Be-
reveal and not to hide the mystery (cf. Luke cause the remaining references to paradise in
18:16-]8; Mark 4:33). But the mystery is the NT are to heaven, some have concluded
grasped and the kingdom is seen not by the that since the resurrection and ascension o£
power of human reason but only by the Holy Christ, paradise has been removed from Hades
Spirit (John 3:3-6). Therefore the effect of to the third heaven, and that the "host of
the parables may be to blind the understand- captives" who ascended with Christ were the
ing - especially if men go no further than cle- OT saints (Eph. 4:8, RSV).
If paradise means heaven as the dwelling
f.:cingamwe::iy:hg:n.:sraLte=i?::ac.mnovrea.I,le,sh:.: place of God in all NT instances, then the
hearts. Thus they may ``see" and not "per- choice of the term "Abraham's bosom" may
ceive" (Mark 4:12). The possibility of this have been deliberate. Then Jesus promised to
twofold effect is such an essential part of the the thief the bliss of heaven on that very day,
which prospect belongs to all Christian be-
:::i`.a:i,o:acorfaiheen,`,`:#e=i:'a:Fe?i::b,lf;::::::: lievers (Luke 23:43; Phil. I :23; 11 Cor. 5:8).
See also INTERMEI)IATE STATE.
:I:os:I,Tabyupea|ss¥:f:3i:soFeav.ifngm:i:nogn`by|i;hd: BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLlacRAPHy
oio¥y£,'Ji|,P%.p.68!-7:3§;#Dd£;;fBi.a£|esrbE?y;:eov"Ea„tt;:+&hrf
sgpTfa%:t7ae;so§e:REgSte£;T£3##r.§ss: rloMER A. KENT, ]R.

PARADOX. A paradox is (1) an assertion

which is self-contradictory, or (2) two or more
RONALD S. WAI.LACE
assertions which are mutually contradictory,
PARACLETE. See SplRIT, HOLY. or (3) an assertion which contradicts some
very commonly held position on the matter in
PARADISE. A word of Persian origin, question.
Paradoxes may be either rhetorical or logical.
probably, appearing as pflrdgs in the OT three
times ("orchard," S. of Sol. 4:13, ASV; "for- A rhetorical paradox is a figure used to shed
est," Neh. 2:8, ASV; "parks," Eccl. 2:5). The light on a topic by challenging the reason of
Greek word par¢dejsos is found from the time another and thus startling him. The NT con-
of Xenophon, appearing in the papyri, inscrip- tains many effective examples of this use of
tions, LXX (27 occurrences, some of which the paradox (e.g., Matt. 5:39; 10:39; John
refer to Eden, e.g., Gen. 2:8, 9,10,15,16),11:24; 11 Cor. 6:9-10).
Philo, and Josephus. The NT employs par¢- Logical paradoxes arise from the attempt
the human mind to unify or to coordinate
bi::::dnt:srsee ptri.mmeiss,edto ,gen,oht: t,i:efp`a(cfu:: multiple facets of experience. Because of
23:43), the third heaven (11 Cor.12:4), and diversity and complexity of reality and also
the location of the promised tree of life (Rev. because of the limitations of finite and sinful
2,7). human reason, man's best efforts to know
Since the paradise of Eden was the place of reality bring him only to the production of
bliss man had lost, rabbinical literature used equally reasonable (or apparently so) yet un-
the term to portray the place of blessedness for reconcilable truths (or apparently so). In such
the righteous dead, in contrast to Gehenna, cases man may be nearer the truth when he
the place of torment. Elaborate and highly espouses .both sides of a paradoxical issue
PARDON 394

I.ather than when he gives up one side in favor of a word by alteration of a letter, as in the
of the other. Jews' nickname Epimanes (Madman) for An-
Two differing interpretations of the logical tiochus Epiphanes (Illustrious); (2) a play
paradox have emerged in the history of the upon words which are similar either in sound
church. One asserts actual paradoxes in which or sense, as is seen in the title of J. Sharman's
book A Ct"soiy Hjsfory of Swe¢rj#g. Exam-
#ha: i:p;:1?C`:?i.Lru e.fa's,oherea|`a':s co:ftraEi::a: ples abound in both the Hebrew and Greek
thought. The other holds that paradoxical as- Bible. Isa. 5:7 reads:
sertions are only apparent contradictions. . . . and he looked for judgment (mispat),
Often this difference resolves itself into a But behold, oppression (mispab);
mere difference of psychological attitude. He For righteousness (Sedaqa),
who takes the first interpretation of the para- But behold, a cry of distress (§e`aqa);
dox is willing to find rest of mind with in- Many of the Psalms contain paronomasia, and
coherent elements lying unresolved in his Micah is known for them. Matt. 8:26 says "a
thinking. He who takes the second believes great calm" /gczlg7ee- 7"eg¢ZgJ came over the sea.
that all truth must make its peace with the Paul is especially fond of this device; in Rom.
laws of human thought such as the law of I:28 he says, "And as they `refused' /o"k
contradiction and, therefore, does not find edo/€j7"czs¢7®J to have God in knowledge, God
mental rest' in incoherencies. gave them up to a `refuse' /¢c!oki7"o7®j mind."
Medieval thought was not uniform on the And in Ron. 1:29 he speaks of por7®eifl
question of paradox but in its ultimate rejec- ("fornication") and po7!Gri¢ ("wickedness"),
tion of double tmth seemed to veer away from phtJio"ot4 (``envy") and p7®o7cot. ("murder'').
an acceptance of actual paradoxes in favor of
apparent paradoxes. Martin Luther's objection Srfet;:s]t?oa:sit:£nn8oSu:?eancdhavne¥::absyfnpr]e[ffa£:rg
to the denial of double truth by the Sorbonne 3 :2 and 11 Thess. 3 : 11. Paronomasia generally
was in reality a defense of actual paradoxes. does not survive in translation, but Phil. 3 :2, 3
In modern theology the concept of paradox preserves it in ``concision . . . circumcision."
has assumed a prominent role in the writing DAVID H. WALLACE
of Soeren Kierkegaard and his twentieth-cen-
tury followers, Karl Barth, Reinhold Niebuhr, PAROUSIA. See EscHATol.OGT, SEcoND
and others. The infinite, timeless, and hidden COMING OF CHRIST.
God can reach into finite time of human his-
tory through events which can be discerned PASCHAL CONTROVERSY. The ob-
only by faith and even then necessarily appear servance of Good Friday and Easter was nat-
as logical paradoxes. ural in the early church, but the fixing of the
For theists of any period, of course, a para- date gave rise to many difficulties. Four main
doxical "setting aside" of the laws of logic is disputes may be discerned. First, it was argued
understood as provisional; a tnie synthesis is
always to be found in the mind of God. 3z,s:nmeA:Taatrft:.f,yhse::o:1adsaal¥.sn:esckhe:.ti
BIBIJCX3RAPHY which favored the exact dczte (see QUARTo-
DEclMANlsM). Second, there was a difference
between Antioch and Alexandria as to the
i::6F;e:g-C!fd:in;a;a!¥:t¥sfihsi;,f;ff##?#4:3hF?jD?;: mode of calculation, the former following the
KENNETH S. KANTZER Jewish scheme but the latter working out in-
dependent tables. Third, a discrepancy arose
PARDON. See FORGlvENEss. between Rome and Alexandria, for, while it
was agreed at Nicaea (A.D. 325) that the lat-
PARONOMASIA. Paronomasia is a type Of ter should determine a common rule, divergent
pun, a rhetorical device whereby similar cycles were still followed. Fourth, the churches
sounding words are juxtaposed or opposed in in Gaul and Britain clung to the older Roman
a word-play. Among the ancients it was an cycles when Rome officially adopted the Alex-
acceptable practice to arrange words in a clever
fashion, but in modem times it has come ::d\r#h:tbpyat:i:::eAinD;tt5e:5;aasng££:ii¥a:et°tFe]Z
under faint disapproval. Two kinds of parono- in Britain. A difficult point was involved in
masia predominate: (1) a change in the sense the first phase of the controversy, but the
395 PASSOVER

later stages were merely a matter of calculation sign of the blood would secure the safety of
and liaison (c£. JTS, 25, 254-70). each house so designated.
WILLIAM KELLY On the evening of the 14th of Nisan
(Abib) the passover lambs were slain. After
PASSION. (From Latin pass;o, "a suffer- being roasted, they were eaten with unleavened
bread and bitter herbs (Ex. 12:8), emphasiz-
;:g,,'i:`e:i::i.nagn.:'3EFisaws:rbdmi:ssi;iem;:I:I,fmuse.! ing the need for a hasty departure and remin-
afflictions imposed upon him, and is equiva- i]s:?:;.o#:ep£::;evrerb°wna€agefaf:ii#:ei?::::
lent to the Greek p¢tJ®gow¢, from pascJto-, "I
suffer," which the Vulgate renders by pcissjo In the case of small families, neighbors might
in Ron. 8:18; 11 Col.1:6-7; 11 Tim. 3:11; be invited to share the paschal meal.
Heb. 10:32, and I Pet. 5:9. It is especially The initial instructions concerned the prep-
used of the sufferings of Christ. In Acts I :3 aration for the historical exodus (Ex. 12:21-

:?.en,Avanadn:|sEe#rea?i`|at?ofro.i#ei"h.?y;`P|a6; :3s)e.rvsaunbcseeq.ufe:iedi::;tei:Fdsa,YeE:sgiiJ:ln.ffordhn:
Heb. 2:9-10; I Pet.1 : 11; 4: 13; 5: I) the Vul- leavened Bread (Ex. 13:3-10). The passover
experience was to be repeated each year as a
f£;,:ps;sr;nsb];te;os¥.?of.he-T"h"is(:::d£;a:°j;e£:i; means of instruction to future generations
Latin ecclesiastical writers as early as the (Ex. 12:24-27).
Muratorian Fragment, and "passion" appears In subsequent years a passover ritual de-
in the earliest English litanies (1549 Prayer veloped incorporating additional features. Four
successive cups of wine mixed with water were
E°e°kv)ufgfa:htrjst;:sSc:]£j:r££8dsiiyp¢asfsffi:ci:o:S:dLebvy used. Psalms 113 to 118 were sung at appro-
15:13, 25).
priate places. Fruit, mixed with vinegar to the
consistency of mortar, served as a reminder of
encpeas;si:Eu:`s:h:enAotes,::::Ira,eeToii;£:li.ep¥hrgi: the mortar used during the bondage.
(Acts 14:15; James 5:17) ``of like passions." The first and seventh days of the week
The root connection here is with prthos (used were observed as sabbaths. All work ceased
in Ron.I:26; I Thess. 4:5) which the Vul- and the people met in holy convocation (Ex.
gate again renders by pass;a, as it also renders 12:16; Nun. 28:18, 25). On the second day
paf},e-7"¢ in this sense in Ron. 7:5 (see of the festival a sheaf of first-ripe barley was
Tre#ch, lxxxviii, and Light foot on Col. 3:5).
Used in these last instances in the bad sense :fax:drv:syttthLee7.r££;t::a_::3:e]c:a;edjFt:o:Ton:Eg
of "lusts," this idea of a strong emotion has regular sacrifices, two bullocks, one ram, and
become predominant in the modern use of the seven lambs were offered as a burnt offering,
word. and a he-goat as a sin offering each day
BIBLIOGRAPHY
RTWB. (Nun. 28:19-23; Lev. 23:8).
DAVID H. WHEATON Passover observances were frequently neg-
lected in OT times. After Sinai (Nun. 9:I-
PASSOVER. Passover was the first of three 14) none took place until after the entrance
annual festivals at which all men were re- into Canaan (Josh. 5:10). The reforming
quired to appear at the sanctuary (Ex. 23: 14- kings Hezekiah (11 Chron. 30) and Josiah
17). The noun pesa¢ is derived from the verb (11 Kings 23:21-23; 11 Chron. 35) gave atten-
p6s¢¢, ``to pass over," in the sense of "to spare" tion to passover observance. After the dedica-
(Ex.12:12-13). Passover is associated with tion of the second temple, a noteworthy Pass-
the Feast of Unleavened Bread (kyag 7}c!7"- over was celebrated (Ezra 6: 19-22).
7#as$6!), the week during which leav-en was The death of Christ at the passover season
rigidly excluded from the diet of the Hebrews was deemed significant by the early church.
(Ex. 23:15). Paul calls Christ, "our passover" (I Cor. 5:7).
The historical Passover is related to the The command not to break a bone of the
tenth plague - the death of the firstborn in paschal lamb (Ex. 12:46) is applied by John
to the death of Christ - "A bone of him shall
not be broken" (John 19:36). The Christian
:E:¥yt:;ch:::hat::s¥]::;t3qu#{%s::::i:e7;ap:#: must put away the "old leaven" of malice and
PASTOR 396

wickedness, and replace it with "the unleav- the Jewish nation before the time of Moses.
ened bread of sincerity and truth" (I Cor. It is used in the NT of Abraham (Heb. 7:4),
5:8). the sons of Jacob (Acts 7:8-9), and David
BIBLloGrmH¥ (Acts 2:29).
In contemporary usage the ten is usually
w?.HFd&.si.efFTE!.eHTe#,%p%e:F:toss.sMinnis.%i,an4e|%%*e:3
restricted to the fathers of the Israelite nation,
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Jacob's sons, nota-
bly Joseph. The patriarchal age of Israel's his-
i;i:,ioir;I:,;:a;jd;e:h:;se,c;fli:i.ie`j:s::;,:ifi:;:=Esei#;ai;'i:e:;ih;'e;,;'¥jJi! tory is the subject of Gen. 12-50.
CHARLES F. PFEIFFER
£cfi::h:regyh£:::air££:ict:[]t£:::.aAsberEi-anfm;::
PASTOR. See MINlsTER, SplRITUAL
GIFTS. :.I;n.fof3T8eaitnwF.o.:::i:¥i:st::piep;iv#:
(Gen.14:14) and engage in business trans-
PATIENCE. At least three Greek words actions with Hittite landowners (Gen. 23: 16).
Cuneiform tablets discovered at Nuzu (since
=:;:.?;,i,:;i:daenddu:!::hte:is#g,a!:p3f;i£ 1925) and Mari (since 1935) throw light on
words, not found in classical Greek, and spe- tBh£:[£Sc°ac]]ar]eft::£%::utnodm°:rrtfha:epaat:I:a;:£ti[,:lea
cifically Christian in their connotation. Pati-
ence is first characteristic o£ God. It is his birthright find their counterpart in the cunei-
longsuffering with evil and wickedness in man form literature.
(Ex. 34:6; I Pet. 3:20). This quality leads to See ABRAHAM, ISAAC, JAcoB.
a quickening of man's own patience in the
CHARLES F. PFEIFFER
outworking o£ God's righteous purposes (Ron.
2:4; 11 Pet. 3:9,15). There is sure hope in a
future judgment by Christ Jesus. The divine PATRIARCH. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTr
C'AIJ ,
wrath is suspended for a time to give men the
opportunity to repent, and to obey the will of
PATRIARCHATE. The office or see Of a
God.
Patriarch (a title confined in early Christian
Second, patience is cultivated by the saints
(Rev. 13: 10). The word is both passive and
active in meaning. It has varying shades of
:::£:c5;engtya::i::;]t;sh,:pis::efi]e:::dr±:,mAe;:
who normally held jurisdiction, defined by a
emphasis. More than mere endurance is im-
plied. It has been described as "masculine f5egn6,ra:heco6:tchj:,dooxve;a:I::§Fh¥r:::ses:::a]t:
constancy under trial" (cf. I Mace. 8:4). It
the creation of the Patriarchate of Moscow.
resembles the Roman persistency which would
M. R. W. FARRER
=eavneronm£¥sef:eetac;£t:nf,:s[fadceefetaot.th[:*::a:I:
changes the hardest trial into glory because it PATRIPASSIANISM. A form Of modalis-
enables a Christian to see the goal beyond the tic monarchianism (q.v.) propagated about A.D.
200-50 by Noetus, Praxeas, and Beryllus of
:3;nr;s¥:nthj;thf::etsrdeet;:yatTo£:To::ddespur;fses::nn: Bostra and answered by Hippolytus, Tertul-
without relenting. This virtue he has learned lian, and Origen in that order. Praxeas con-
from God, who is patient with him in his vinced Bishop Victor to outlaw Montanism
weakness, failure, and sin (Col.1:11). and accept patripassianism which caused Ter-

tfaTh:r]f:£s:::£etnccf:f]s[c:grTe6n:d6:d]£nT:Le.€t;i:; :::]£apnar;°ci::er,tahnadt:rruacx£:::dhtahde``E:tth::.„£]£ght
11 Tim. 3:10; Titus 2:2). This grace, so Patripassianists (Latin ?ater, "father," and
pass"s, from pafior, "to suffer") with the
Pnr°h|:nseen;::ts?hr£StJesus,mustbereproduced modalists confused the persons of the Trinity
RICHARD E. HIGGINSoN and denied the union of the two natures in
the one person o£ Christ. Defending monothe-
PATRIARCH. The p¢friarchgs is, by deri- ism they held that since God was one essence
vation, the father or chief of a family or tribe. there could not be three persons but instead
The term is usually used of the ancestors o£ three modes of manifestation. Thus the Son
397 PAUL AND PAULINISM

was the Father appearing in human fom. tles (I Cor.15:3-11). Even the tmth of the
Noetus taught that Christ was the Father and
so the Father was born, suffered and died 8?u;:i:Sridth8:¥]:;fascioristd£S*]aor=ddet:uf!Z
upon the cross, hence the name patripassian.
BDIIOGRAPHY ::::al`pEr:kin:;:;6)nahl:sh::fchhiitg.wasgiven
`#£REHDso#£#popH##ES'RE.?###RE His mission to the gentile world brought
upon him the opprobrium of non-Christian
Jews (Acts 22:21-22) and of some Christian
WILLIAM NIGEI. KERR Jews as well (Acts 15:2; 21:20-21; Phil.
I: 15-17). It is a mark of spiritual greatness
PAUL AND PAULINISM. The apostle that in spite of this opposition the apostle con-
to the Gentiles appears in the Book of Acts as tinued to pray and labor incessantly for the
the founder of churches and in his letters as a
devoted pastor, an adroit controversialist, and ;?i?;:si|oon: |3: |hnisthoew:on=::::y|s:::: t`hEor::
ardent friend of the saints, revealing a spirit ception of Gentiles into the church, Paul
kindled by the love of Christ. It is by means affirmed that faith in Christ was sufficient of
of his letters also that Paul has established itself for their salvation. They must not be
himself as the leading theologian of the apos-
tolic age. R%faei:e|da#ithciisrcF:i::;I:nwoarstgre.::i:dofb:?f
on revelation and on experience, for Paul had
seen many Gentiles saved and sealed with
boi¥nxpf::EUNs:Eja€is;aJse:n°cfo:hseefoE;ir£Se£:nn;

#oeriarefdorbhyfshr;Siec:snt:Cti.set;t:ar;h:f8€:i;: s¥md:s,swpj:;t|dapba::isfri:,e:ir;uaTc;sj?en.,.o:,at::
with Paul on this issue (Acts 10; 15:7-11).
Paul's refusal to subject Gentiles to circum-
:::usrndg]teh:n#ueed::eerr:£e:nh?saiiFe.i:utth:;o:a:8:
cision was not motivated by expediency, as
tive years was his Hebraic environment, in-
though to smooth the way of the Gentiles to
eluding his home training and his education
Christ by removing something they found ob-
under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3). This is evident
from his extensive use of the OT and from jectionable. Rather, circumcision in such cases
was a symbol of salvation by human works and
his handling of the material, which reflects
therefore a denial of the gospel of grace (Gal.
his rabbinic instruction. As a Pharisee, he
5 , 2-4) .
strove valiantly to find righteousness through
fidelity to the law, but the futility of the The apostle found the purity of the gospel
effort breathes through his teaching on the threatened also in Colosse. Although the pre-
subject. cise nature of this error is obscure, it seems to
have been eclectic; at any rate it was damaging
tophai:]':o::::tiaosnath¥tr¥f:t::ii:;:trsb:ft;ae::i
were mistaken in identifying him with Israel's
:o pt:ls,o::;-fFlanse:c:e?ifgi::.rist. It was as much
Messiah. Feelings of humanity were sternly Other threats to the gospel appeared, such
repressed in order to do service to God by as the denial of the bodily resurrection of the
stamping out this heresy. But the personal saints (see I Cor. 15) and the tendency to
appearance to him of the risen Lord was su£- antinomianism. This latter deviation arose
ficient to convince him that the claims of the from a misunderstanding or misinterpretation
of the gospel of grace. Paul combatted the
fehnrisetianbsywfrheri::d:;Eii.ru;:|2a,ulanwdasb::::e: error in Romans and in the Pastoral Epistles
thenceforth his faithful servant. The outward (see also Phil. 3: 18-19).
disclosure was followed by an inward revela- 11. TEACHING. Considerable attention has
tion of God's Son (Gal.I:16), wherein the been devoted to the effort to discover a central
gospel message became luminous (Gal. I : 12). core in the Pauline message. Some have found
The crucifixion, which was once a stumbling
;t|j:e:h:pg:,ct;:::o;i:i:i.fi8a,ti::s`f;vv.!ti'a,fii:!
that union with the Lord Jesus, expressed in
the oft-recurring phrase, ``in Christ," is the
i!afL?:et,;!a:i':;;,iT,nhc6;,::;f,its;i:i:;;,:s:ai;:i#:n:d;js!
very heart of Paul's thinking. Still others have
PAULICIANISM 398

esteemed his teaching on eschatology to be the of divine sonship by cultivating the filial rela-
dominant strain. 'Iliese three are pivotal be- tion to God. The Apocalyptic School advo-
cated the position that Saul the Pharisee had
:::;:etahs*igF`:g:tsai?:,i::s:i%rf:,:s:.t,Ti:; studied the Jewish apocalypses and had become
may be seen together in Phil. 3:9-11, where familiar with the figure of the heavenly Mes-
Paul describes himself as "found" in Christ, siah pictured there. Somehow Paul came to
identify this exalted figure with Jesus of Naza-
I.eth, and in this way developed his emphasis
¥sS;h:I;e=S:°o:;:a;£:'iL;e::e:rty:::;::t:;]lj::1;uE:)hobf:atL:e: upon pre-existence and incarnation. But the
moved. Christ of Paul is a more wonderful person
On the practical side, the believer is under than the Messiah of this literature, which is
obligation to serve the flesh no longer, but in hard to explain on the theory of borrowing.
the power of the indwelling Spirit of God to
experience that freedom wherein alone the re- #::h°em££as:::]cvt:vge:i:£:n:sPporf°af:ui%u8hhtrits:
generated man may serve God acceptably tology in the mystery religions of the Graeco-
Roman world, despite the fact that his Jewish
§?:in..,8dalfs).abTr:.ugj:s:::sse:£trtehdeeerE:: background protests against such borrowing,
life and express himself through it (Gal. 2:20; and his close contact with the Jerusalem
4:6; Rom.13: 14). Every saint is thus a new church prevents the assigning of his message
creation in which the glorious power of God is to any such alien source. A more recent varia-
to be seen (11 Cor. 5: 17). The path to spir- tion of this approach is the position o£ Bult-
itual blessing and maturity consists in leaning
Christ and what belongs to the new nature :nanB,auY,:o,I:ii:sh,as,I:efon=,aitcivesin.f:rae,:.c:
(Eph. 4:20-24). about a mythological redeemer who will rescue
Ill. PAUL IN HlsTOR¥ AND CRITlclsM. In man from the cosmic powers which threaten
the post-apostolic age the influence of the him by coming and sharing the agony of his
earthly existence. But the Apostle's teaching
i?nst]:enwdae:ec?'tpor°P£:bd]ythdeueteta°cha;nngat:fra:r::: is too firmly grounded in the historic tradition
somewhat hard to believe and to substitute for
it a comfortable mixture of faith and works. :E?duta!fej::Ser£Cyhtjiere:::]dyuccehdui:hthteoGpe°pes=::
Marcion was devoted to Paul, but tortured his any such extraneous derivation.
gospel by cutting its rcotage in the OT. The Paul remains the unsurpassed interpreter of
spiritual revival which marked the Reforma- Christ - the Christ of history, of the NT, of
tion was effected in no small degree by the thesece°:i::u€nR8[T::]usr#.NEWTESTAMENT.
recovery of the Pauline doctrine of justifica-
tion by faith. Near the middle of the nine- BIBLIOGRAPHY
teenth century the Tuebingen School, headed
by F. C. Baur, professed to find in the apos-

*an¥c¥ja£:i;;;p%usf:::c¥„y;j¢;pc§#§:¥,e;##3;„];;£p;¥„;i
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
i;y:p|:a::jth:e:C:o:lil;e:tr=b;e;[wef:::::Iir|t;%;;;:;;:i:;.ie;:I;.i
tion. Baur failed to realize that the struggle PAULICIANISM. The Paulicians were a
was between Peter, Paul and other leaders, on highly independent Christian sect which arose
in the heart of the Eastern church about A.I).
:hnet::eostfhdee::£nd€.,x:a:££en€[o]seegao];s:.Set::cnh:rrs; 750. They are frequently interpreted as either
``early
the so-called Dutch School brushed Paul aside Protestants" or "radical oriental dual-
'.',
entirely, denying to him all the epistles which ists," neither view giving the entire truth.
bear his name. The Liberal School of Hamack They were the most influential sect of their
time but their formative force on later reform
::dh:sthreeTfg::::a:#dri::::fs°qrufraev]];ngu£:u:hd: parties is problematical. Though much ma-
historical Jesus, but excoriated him for erecting ligned in contemporary polemical literature
they are seen in the ancient Paulician work,
:a;he:Lo;:!,i:fwfhai:E%:;satdb:;aE:i::Cane::s:
who showed the way to the proper realization TehaeteK%\°tgT8:uatsh'atrtamn=+arteefdorbmypF:rt§..Cky-
399 PELAGIANISM

They were anti-Romanists repudiating mar- sianic times (Isa. 2:4; 9:6-7; 11:6; Mic.
iolatry, intercession of saints and the use of 4:I-4; 5:5).
relics and images. They strongly despised the "To hold one's peace" means simply to be
Roman hierarchy, having themselves only one silent (Luke 14:4). The words in the OT
grade of ministry. In rejecting infant baptism (Z!dro5 as one) and the NT (sjo-p¢o- among
they taught that thirty was the age'for immer- others) have nothing in common with the
sion during which ordinance the Holy Spirit words now under consideration.
was received. Repentance was also a sacrament
In the NT the word has reference to the
and the Agape was practiced with the sacra-
ment of ``the body and the blood." peace which is the gift of Christ (John 14:27;
16:33; Ron. 5:I; Phil. 4:7). The word is
In Christology they were adoptionists but
used many times to express the truths of the
not docetics as often thought. They valued the
mission, character, and gospel o£ Christ. The
Pauline writings very highly but made use of
other NT and OT books in The Key of Trt4t7}. purpose of Christ's coming into the world was
to bring spiritual peace with God (Luke I : 79;
BIBIJOGRAPHY
2:14; Mark 5:34; 9:50; Luke 24:36). There
is a sense in which he came not to bring
RE¥2,8f::thdfsng:¥pfpe.g:e6e.:#:g:¥¥¥stoT:m¥£:.b£R££E:
peace, but a sword (Matt. 10:34). This has
WILLIAM NIGEL KERR reference to the struggle with every form of
sin. Christ's life depicted in the Gospels is one
PEACE. The primary `and basic idea of the
of majestic calm and serenity (Matt.11:28;
biblical word "peace" (OT s7ici!67#; NT
c;r67®G) is cc;mpleteness, soundness, wholeness.
John 14:27). The essence of the gospel may
be expressed in the term "peace" (Acts 10:36;
It is a favorite biblical greeting (Gen. 29:6;
Eph. 6: 15), including the peace of reconcilia-
Luke 24:36), and is found at the beginning
tion with God (Ron. 5: I; Crem, p. 245), and
or end of the NT epistles except James and I
the peace of fellowship with God (Gal. 5:22
John. To this day it is one of the commonest and Phil. 4:7).
words among the Semites. Dismissal is also
The innumerable blessings of the Christian
expressed by the word (I Sam. 1:17). It
revolve around the concept of peace. The
means cessation from war (Josh. 9:15).
Friendship between companions is expressed gospel is the gospel of peace (Eph. 6:15).
Christ is our peace (Eph. 2: 14-15); God the
by it (Gen. 26:29; Ps. 28:3), as well as
f`riendship with God through a covenant
Eaht:eirnai;ietnhaeb|gopd.i:.f|eE:a::e(vler7hfshs;is:i,a2n3):
(Nun. 25:12; Isa. 54:10). Contentment or
the peace of God (Phil. 4:9) because of the
anything working toward safety, welfare, and
legacy of peac`e left by Christ in his death
happiness is included jn the concept (Isa.
3 2 : I 7- I 8 ) . (John 14:27; 16:33). These blessings are not
benefits laid up in eternal glory only, but are
a present possession (Rom. 8:6; Col. 3:15).
we?I:::ng|a:e.ruerfie,ry:nacsewt:||haesa:t:iet¥roosEer;tg;
Thus, peace is "a conception distinctly pecul-
(Eccl. 3:8; Isa. 45:7). The prophet Isaiah
iar to Christianity, the tranquil state of a soul
pointed out repeatedly that there will be no assured of its salvation through Christ, and so
peace to the wicked (Isa. 48:22; 57:21), even fearing nothing from God and content with its
though many of the wicked continually seek
to encourage themselves with a false peace
earthly lot, of whatever sort that is" (Thayer,
sub nyoc.e).
(Jer. 6:14).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Peace is a condition of freedom from strife
whether internal or external. Security from ppfr3e3mo'F.?.z§3£,f.I;v¥g.BJ2!;r3;P8BD7,32p.£.#;DfrG:y:::
outward enemies (Isa. 26: 12), as well as calm CHARLES L. FEINBERG
of heart f`or those trusting God (Job 22:21;
Isa. 26:3), is included. Peace is so pleasing to PELAGIANISM. Pelagius, a monk from
the Lord that the godly are enjoined to seek Britain, was a popular preacher in Rome
it diligently (Ps. 34:14; Zech. 8:16,19). It A.D. 401-9. I-]e sought to stir to earnest moral
is to be a characteristic of the NT believer also endeavor lax Christians who sheltered behind
(Mark 9:50 and 11 Cor.13:11). Peace is a the frailty of the flesh and the apparent im-
comprehensive and valued gift from God, and possibility of fulfilling God's commands, by
the promised and climaxing blessing in mes- telling them that God commanded nothing
PENANCE 400

that is impossible and that everyone may live velopments took I)lace in the Middle Ages.
free from sin if he will. First, penance at least once a year was made
Accordingly Pelagius, and his disciples Cae- compu.Isory from 1215. Second, the whole
lestius and Julian of Eclanum, taught the understanding was developed in a new way
sufficiency of human nature as created by which ultimately found codification at the
God. The will was always as free to choose Council of Trent, when penance was officially
good as evil. There was no inherited inclina- accepted as a sacrament. It was still agreed
tion to evil in human nature. Neither the fall
of Adam, nor the habits of a man's life, ever :rsa::::I:te±naie8tujLt];fbym;I:a]atso£::n;f:;rEagi
affected the absolute equipoise of the will. Christ, true contrition and the word of absolu-
Caelestius took the lead in denying original
sin. Every infant born into the world was in :iogn.,::oaTn:Eisd::c:;e,i:::,a.nc:u:roirrtyasspne.::
the same condition as Adam was befcire the argued that the temporal guilt of either mortal
or venial sin may be met in part by the actual
::1:.fl£T];£tiferheb:a::F£:i:tr?nee`a€iaantst£::: penances, thus mitigating the final exp-.ation
was "one baptism for the remission of sins." demanded in purgatory. In addition, voluntary
Pelagians denied the need of internal grace alms, masses and drawings on the so-called
to keep God's commandments. Human nature treasury of merit, e.g., by indulgences, could
was created good; and was endowed by its be used for the same purpose, and even take
the place of penances. Quite apart from the
:ars::;o:fTft±anpo;i:[redtoto:£v[:::ct,uLr;gnhyth]::e_ obviously non-scriptural nature of this whole
then and Jews had lived a perfect life. In addi- system, five main evils may be seen in it:
tion to this supreme grace of creation, Pelagius (I) it misunderstands the problem of post-
affirmed further grace from God in his provi- baptismal sin; (2) it deflects from the atone-
sion of the illumination of the law and the ment; (3) it promotes related errors such as
example of Christ. Pelagianism knows nothing
of t:3;eT]:t££or:; will man ]s emancipated from ?::%to°nryof(qs.av£.|'ts;in(a;S)es£'tjcnr::t]egsei:::}£:=dainj
formalism; and (5) it gives rise to the moral
God." This statement of Julian is the key to evils of the confessional. The Reformers cut
Pelagianism, which is rationalized moralism. through the whole falsification of theory and
Man created with free will has no longer to practice by insisting that what the NT de-
do with God but with himself alone. God only mands is not penance but penitence or repent-
re-enters at the last judgment. ance, though they saw a real val`ie in the re-
BIBLlcroRAPHy storing of true discipline and of course the
A. Harnack, Histor}7 of Dognla,. R. S. Moxon, The
Doctrine of Sin. private counseling of those troubled in consci-
DAVID BRoUGHTON KNoX ence as individually required.
See also ABsoLUTloN.
PENANCE. From the Latin poe#a ("pen- BIBLIOGRAPHY

#:t:ya:;ei:rsets:;aiir:T;d:a;;:::aepr:c:ie::rc:;,d!';:i::'t:|a::I; #:Hf|;e:;actghe;8„¥;stt¥i:„:£tt::a:¥orfete¥#:;::tta;t£:;Bes:S;
of such glaring offences as apostasy, murder, GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
adultery, who were allowed only one chance
of restoration after undergoing a course of PENITENCE. See REPENTANCE.
fastings, etc., on public confession of their sin
in renewal of the baptismal profession, and on PENTECOST. A term derived from the
acceptance of certain lasting prohibitions, e.g., Greek pe#tekostos, meaning fiftieth, which
continence in the case of the unmarried. With was applied to the fiftieth day after the Pass-
over. It was the culmination of the "feast o£
;h:sb::t:;:ttae:,I::is£:nnstht:£Sce¥tY:I;e:i;St:i:t]jfani: weeks" (Ex. 34:22; Deut. 16:10), which
we find that secret confession is allowed and began on the third day after the Passover with
the presentation of the first harvest sheaves to
Leitf:rhati°e:ombee8in:c£°m:::C;grematr:ndpe:aa;C:S: God, and which concluded with the offering
replaced by cash payments according to cur- of two loaves of unleavened bread, represent-
rent notions of satisfaction. Two notable de- ing the first products of the harvest (Lev.
401 PERFECT, PERFECTION

23:17-20; Deut.16:9-10). After the Exile it generations, as well as the present, and exist-
became one of the great pilgrimage feasts of ing at any one time in the individual with all
Judaism, at which many of those who lived their blessings and responsibilities, This is par-
in remote sections of the Roman world re-
turned to Jerusalem for worship (Acts 20: 16). :I;cr::i:lyTiruuseAnhatEeisopTun#hedth;h`;¥ofilse"s.of
For that reason it served as a bond to unite .Ioram is killed (I Kings 21 : 19; 11 Kings 9:26;
the Jewish world of the first century and to cf. Ex. 20:5-6), Gideon profits when his son
remind them of their history. Abimelech is made king (Judges 9:16, 19;
In the Christian church Pentecost is the cf. I Sam. 20:16; 24:21-22), and the people
anniversary of the coming of the Holy Spirit. of Israel are punished when David sins (11
When Jesus ascended he instructed his dis- Sam. 24; cf. I Sam. 22: 19).
ciples to remain in Jerusalem until they should So there is a common bond, a common soul,
receive power from on high. As a group of 120 a coninion experience, stretching out over past,
were praying in an upper room in Jerusalem present, and future, implied in the words `¢m
fifty days after his death, the Holy Spirit de- and lcios. The "people" of Israel are a coherent
scended upon them with the sound of a great whole, having a common history and responsi-
wind and with tongues of fire which settled bility, while all other peoples have their own
upon each of them. They began to speak with unified world as well. This then gives greater
other languages and to preach boldly in the meaning to the church as "a people for (God's
name of Christ, with the result that three own) possession" (!zos perjpol.gsj#; I Pet. 2:9;
thousand were converted. This tremendous cf. Ex.19:5). The actions of one at any time
manifestation of divine power marked the be- are the actions of all; the responsibilities of
ginning of the church which has ever since the whole are the responsibilities of the indi-
regarded Pentecost as its birthday. vidual.
In the church year Pentecost covered the BIBLlacRAPHy
period from Easter to Pentecost Sunday. The
day itself was observed by feasting, and was a klclB;?rBiiA£4;;#..2P7e5€9`9¥n47J;:;S';Zfi.I.J&aathttfag::'"i£
favorite occasion for administering baptism. It ROBERT 8. LAURIN
was the third great Christian feast after Christ-
PI§RDITION. See DESTRucTloN.
mas and Easter. In the liturgy of the Anglican
church it is called Whitsunday, from the PERFECT, PERFECTION. Two OT
custom of wearing white clothing on that day.
See also CHRlsTIAN YEAR.
;;„o¢t,st;£gjfEotEth££nc]ap[[yo:o:e;j]%£t:::,pweE;e]::::s:.
MERRILI. C. TENNEY
See Deut. 25: 15; 27:6 for the literal force of
S`¢lgt" and Lev. 3:9; 23: 15 for t67„€7#.
PEOPLE. There is a tendency in the OT
to describe the "people" of God by `at", while In the evaluations of the rulers' spiritual
reserving g6y for the heathen. Indeed in post- integrity in Kings and Chronicles, 5dlg7" oc-
biblical Jewish literature g6y becomes synon- curs frequently, e.g., I Kings 11:4; 15:3: "his
heart was not perfect with the Lord .... " The
ymous with "Gentile." The LXX and the NT
also continue this general practice with haos restriction of 5jlGt", when used ethically, to
and eth#os. Iiowever the words are sometimes such passages suggests that this word, which
used interchangeably, and the basic difference like the derivatives of f7%7% means integrity of
seems to be that g6y and et727cos emphasize moral and intellectual life (i.e., heart), implies
"people" as a national group (Ex.19: 16; Acts a covenant background. Kings were under
13: 19), while `¢wG and Laos speak of them as special obligation to fulfil the terms of the
similar individuals bound together by certain Davidic covenant and to match David's stand-
ties and responsibilities. The "people" in this ard of godly devotion (cf.11 Sam. 7:12 ff.;
latter sense may be the members of a family I Kings 11:4).

(Gen. 32:8; 35:2), a tribe (Gen. 49: 16; Acts In contrast, t67#€7# and cognates-tdt",
4:27). a city (Gen. 19:4), a nation (I Kings to-7", ti4t"7#cS -occur without the covenant
12:27), or a racial group (Acts 26:17; Rev. reference, especially in Job (1 : I, 8; 2:3; 8:20,
7:9), but they are more than a collection of etc.) and Psalms (37:37; 64:4; 101:2, etc.).
human beings. They are a psychic community, The descriptions of Job's excellence are in-
a unified whole made up of past and future structive because they define his perfection as
P ERISH 402

:::.r;?8pE:get:onnd±anvo:£]:n8oeTV£]js(J£:£n]t;±];£n8; =:cti:::ittio;raacsioausl|i;e-:::fssg=loer,tiFy?i:ifih|
right relationship to God, the standard and tendencies and bring to maturity holy dis-
judge of perfection, whose ways are perfect positions implanted in the believer through
(Deut. 32:4; Ps. 18:30). regeneration. This process is perfected only
In the NT several words are translated when the believer is translated into God's
``perfect." The artjos Christian (11 Tim. 3: 17)
presence.

:squ]:e±c£:pefie afs p:#-er::s¥"tohsat `iceomh::ette£¥ he]Fr:C::::atsat£'n!:hnthyefes¥£ba£F£:yh];Sfsp±n;#::

sanctification, though generally resisting the
:re|cy=¥#,igtruoas`=q|?ei?e:e|::kasnfo;i::gitwphr:cph- idea of sinlessness. The crux of these two
contributes to his completeness (James 1 :4); views is the definition of sin: Wesley dis-
he is whole, sound in every way (I 'Thess. tinguished willful breach of God's known law
5:23).
Kot¢rtjzo- and cognates imply ``putting in a :rnoym,.:ni:;:i:s'i.ieofRfgT|eadw¥s::io,nwErea£::
intentional or not.
g:om¥:£mc:snd£]££;::,vebmyenetq::pTnev::v:a:rsa£[Pnfnf{ For Wesley, perfection was attained instan-
Cor.13:9 (kafHrtjsjs) and 13:11, where the taneously, subsequent to justification, although
passive means "mend your ways." (Cf. Heb.
13:21, equip; I Pet. 5:10, restore in the Lh:me¥V[:r±smi8ohtt±nn£°at]]£b¥]::;£Vbeutths:]v::;aoc:
RSV.) from sin, and is best manifested in purity of
Telejos and derivatives connote perfect in intention and perfect love for God and man.
Reformed theologians reply that Wesleyan
:tiies;:d:ih3:wthhe.f|:s::efs:bus¥us,:.,`tfo,sf'e.: perfect love is a fiction: the most ardent Chris-
is the standard of perfection (Matt. 5:48, tian love cannot escape sin's taint. 8. 8. War-
where the context deals with love for ene- field analyzed historically and critically the
mies). When used of believers, tezejos appar- Pelagian and Arminian principles in the per-
ently has a relative significance. Absolute per- fectionism of such diverse figures as Albrecht
fection is not implied, for the sinless Christ Ritschl, Charles Finney, and Charles G. Trum-

¥:ags)?e;ieuc]:edth:i:°huguhrg:::£ehri:grege:?.to2:i2i #LfnThs:_c#:i]eyano|;:£ees¥pO]=;v:i]:n¥rsa£:E
turity (cf. Eph. 4:13; Col.I:28; 4:12) and among some Methodist theologians like Vin-
assuming that many were mature (Phil.
3:15), denied that he had attained absolute ie.TisT#rfe|%hJ:hfpen#f¥ies:x3:::eseciio.I:
perfection (Phil. 3:12; cf. I John 1:8-2:1). perfect love is sanctification's ideal. In vary-
Christ's sacrifice is the ground of perfection
ing degrees of modification the Reformed po-
sition continues in the works of Karl Barth
(Heb.10: 14). His imputed righteousness is
the guarantee of ultimate sanctification (11
and Reinhold Niebuhr.
See also HOLINEsS.
Cor. 5:21; Col.I:22). Steadfastness in trial
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(James I:4), sensitivity to God's will (Col.

:s:s]u2r!;:eep:Fd:::e:e¥ntFee:!£r8;(d9sa]ie3r:f:::
love (I John 4: 17-18)-these are among the
attitudes which aid in the quest for perfection, i§:8°:i:;:jei::cS::;:;¥:C§%;h;:i:i::a#:::::i:p:7;;;;;;1;i:;y¥i;:S;]]ij;
which culminates in the coming of Christ DAVII) A. HUBBARD
(Phil.1:6) or death, when the believer joins
PHRISH. The meaning Of ``perish" in the
:Led;jeucsotm?seTik:acdfri*:c;:hiH3:2.).12:23) Scriptures is explained primarily in three uses
These scriptural data have evoked differing of the word. First, purely physical destruction
interpretations. Lutheran and Refomed tra- in, or from, this world, without any idea of
ditions reject any view of earthly absolute judgment or punishment. The word '6g¢d used
in this way applies mainly to animals and in-
animate objects, but may refer to persons (11
s¥n:.%:§oEnatFu::b:e:s:t:c;fik:sheare::]£pe[::efre:c::i:e§ Sam. 1:27; Job 4:11; so also ¢poth7cGsk6
403 PERSEVERANCE

(Matt. 8:32; John 6:27). Second, much more Jesus (Acts 4: I-3, 5 ff.). Another persecution
took place at the time of the stoning of
::a#sef:o:r]gya*!:eigda:osiTgectcfrnie¥;:;ice:,u£]]yga:E5Sh= Stephen, when the Christians of Jerusalem
were driven out of the city and scattered in
usage (Deut. 4:26). This meaning is also every direction (Acts 8:1-4). Organized per-
seen in the NT. Luke 15:17 ("I perish with secution by the state did not begin until the
hunger'') is an interesting example. The Greek time of Nero, and was then probably only tem-
appoJZw"j is translated "perish" regarding the porary and local. There were traditionally ten
son and ``lost" as related to the "sheep" and persecutions under the Empire: Nero, A.I). 64;
the "coin" (vss. 4, 6, 8, 9). To the son it Domitian, A.D. 95; Trajan, A.D. 100; Antoninus
indicates an attitude of self-will not involved Pius, A.D.161-80; Septimius Severus, A.D.197;
in the others. Yet from the father's standpoint Maximinus, A.D. 235; Decius, A.D. 249; Val-
it denotes his own impoverishment (vs. 32). erian, A.D. 257; Aurelian, A.D. 274; Diocletian,
Third, the distinctive NT use is of a "perish- A.D. 303. The historical evidence for a perse-
ing" which is applied to the ``soul" as well as cution under Domitian is not clear, and not all
the body (Matt. 10:28; Luke 13:3). 'The of the other persecutions were of long dura-
antithesis to perishing is "having eternal life." tion. Those under Decius and Diocletian
The soul is immaterial and does not suffer were the most severe.
annihilation but is separated from life in the Diocletian attempted not only to extermi-
spiritual sense. It loses its present status but nate the Christians, but also to destroy their
continues to exist. literature. He confiscated and burned all copies
See also LosT. of the Scriptures that he found, and demol-
BIBI.IacRAPHy
RTWB.
LEWIS T. CoRI.ETT
:;g:de:i:dc*uhrec:cb::]s€;:::;eqgc£:i.¥;S3ecbu;
the Edict of Milan declared a policy of tol-
PERPETUAL VIRGINITY. A tradition, eration for all religions, with a view toward
dating from early church Fathers, that Mary enlisting the public support of Christians for
kept her virginity before, during, and after his regime. Ultimately Christianity (q.v.) be-
the birth of Jesus. The Fathers contended that came the official religion of the Roman state.
for Mary to have had children conceived in The causes of persecution were numerous.
sin would be unreasonable and irreverent. The Christians were misunderstood by the pa-
This tradition entered official Romish doc-
gans, who considered them atheists, anti-social,
trine. Pope Siricius wrote to Anysius (392): and politically subversive. The decline of the
"For the Lord Jesus would not have chosen
Empire in the third century was attributed to
to be born of a virgin if he had judged that the failure of the people to worship the old
she would be so incontinent as to taint the
gods, and the Christians were consequently
birthplace of the body of the Lord, the home blamed. Because worship of the gods was part
of the eternal king, with the seed of human of the state activity, the Christians, who would
intercourse." Many councils referred to "Mary not participate in it, were deemed unpatriotic,
ever Virgin." The Council of Trent (1545- and consequently a dangerous element in the
63) declared: "If anyone says that the mar-
population. Persecution was the protest of
riage state is to be preferred to the state of heathenism against the gospel in its spiritual
virginity or celibacy and that it is not better and social manifestations.
and holier to remain in virginity or celibacy BIBLIOGRAPHY
than to be joined in marriage: let him be H. 8. Workman, Persect4tjot. of tJle Early Cht.rch,.
a. ul`\hom, The Conflict of Christianity with Heathen-
anathema."
EDWARD JOHN CARNELI
§a%a":;E„m:ph;re:;:Ed:e;,„,pfa;g:?tt:'i:E;;:Ti%:isr:r'iT.,TtyEss'a"yst?f
PERSECUTION. Persecution (literally, a MERRILI. C. TENNEY

pursuing), is the systematic attempt to sup-

press or to exterminate Christianity by social PERSEVERANCE. Perseverance (¢dzaq
pressure to the point of violence. Persecution in Nun.13:20 and pi.oskartereo-in Acts 1 : 14;
o£ Christians began with the action of the 2:42; 6:4; Ron.12:12; Eph. 6:18, as well
as in classical Greek and the papyri) means
§oarn?i:::np:gcaianitat?oe:CrofantfeJ°r:snurfrnec:]Fopnr]S:: the steadfast continuance in anything. Theo-
PERSON OF CHRIST 404

logically speaking, it refers to the fifth point and hurried index of character. Very often it
of the Calvinistic doctrinal system that true is used as a contrast, such as "he has a fine
Christians will continue in faith and holiness personality, but when you get to know him,
forever (John 10:28; Phil.I:6; I Pet.I:5). hpeer£:iLfnty°#ehs.'iacBkyo;=:tis:::°nnc'ys£::::g
Thus Jonathan Edwards finds the very defi-
nition of a Christian to be, according to John the "true" man and the external impression.
8:31, one who continues in the word of The meaning implies a distinctiveness in
Christ. behavior and reaction to different stimuli -
Against perseverance, the Arminian theo- that is, we do not always react in the same
way to each person, group or incident, or in
::g:ahnsth:£t;ecfie=st£,tytho: sT:Pv]£engpatsLcaugkees ]T;c4: the same way to the same person, group or in-
Col. 1:29; 11 Tim. 2:5), and which wan cident at different times, but there is a com-
against falling away (Ezek. 7:20; I Cor. 9:27; monality that forms the basis of an under-
Heb. 6:3 f.); second, contend that this doc- standing of oneself or others as distinct persons.
trine logically leads to antinomianism, for a There are many definitions of the term, but
man's sense of security would incline him to they generally fall into two classes: external
sin boldly; and, third, this doctrine would
make all exhortation and command futile. To :i::I;£tft°hnefets£::Vejr°rma°:.„£n#::]bos:ScdrejE
the first objection, the advocates reply that nition attempts to be complete enough to
their doctrine is not inconsistent with striv- include both areas.
ing for this is the very path of perseverance. There is no direct reference to "personality"
Warnings against falling away, they say, are in the Bible in most translations. However,
not inconsistent for merely professing Chris- personality may be substituted for "person"
in some passages without doing violence to
:£raensw::yedfa:Lfax:y:rn?onus:he::Pd::e:S££°ZHaenbi the meaning.
6:3 f.) while true Christians may test their
condition by their resistance to this tempta-
tion. Secondly, perseverance not only dues not,
¥>F#i;Eji::i:`<::;££¥::i;t;h:¥E;£[`:s:±h:;i;
hibit the external characteristics which would
i:inc.,a::6n:::;:!e::::;;=A:.:i:ae::,::I,:h=eh:.r?ni:'::I be considered as "Christ-like." A further ex-
continue, it not only promotes but consists in tension of the meaning implies a centering of
strenuous and persevering efforts after con- all of the various divergent I)ersonality traits

£::;taypptr°op::tre£S:.orEfh:iast£:nhs;:Fefrg£?in=r: ::mcshroj;t'actrt::tns*££tnhgndeti:e€nadsfvc£°dnus:i.tea:Ptate-
to the very course exhorted. And, finally, the unorganized person these traits are in conflict
commands of God could not be improperly with each other. Organization in terms of
addressed to persons whose dominant desire is
"speak, Lord, for thy servant heareth."
:f::accehni:rvae`d,P:uT:sseui:::tte:;f=u]£ih::::ti;:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
:anct:#iss:i:e:£nme:Satnhde:rgha£%£hz::giepviFC;£]Cadi
g6er:S°g&ertha=ce,.RIA?ar£:'s¥o¥g¥'sF%£Prfe5#9;:Z'gr¥#:
justment is attained.
JOHN H. GERSTNER

PERSON OF CHRIST. See CHRlsTOLcoT. .fTdo;::=r.,nt,oi:h,e.cc::i,set:a:I,|tF.:iFsigiEes6i:yse,:

Potentially there will be no conflict in such
PERSONALITY. This word is derived
from the Latin word perso71¢, with the follow- ::Sat::Z]?:i::;#ubtho:tsh¥k;ie:i,t*:thwnhoeec]ia:L'
ing psychological meaning: the fluid and
changing mental organization within an in- :Fo,Egthhuemsa¥ks:,=onaa,l',yo`L:Fnegd:::=re:aii:
dividual (and as obsertJable to others) of all Christ avoid inner competition. The result is
the thinking, emotional, and physical charac- asonsfi:tny?]L££:thegia::driespoas£:;vae]o€h];i::;anpel-
teristics which have enough consistency to es-
ta6]lishcohi:oaf aus:::qu;r¥:Sa:rt} is a popular BmlloGRAmT
an9.H#RT;'#S#j#'REal±8chigfkcJS?j#u"Dot:
40 5 PETER

P#rfe#?berr5in3#;PPF.i¥88?'3#.e7i;PSGyGr#gh#
Persord;fy. byotE: %fyn:St,Pcrfg[:i,]t£:nw:]svet,h:i: ::a€E:£cat:£
STANI.ET E. LINDQUIST natural spokesman (cf. Matt. 15:15; Mark
I:36; 9:5; 10:28; 11:20; Luke 5:5), par-
PERSONIFICATION. In heathendom
there is much error and variety here: animism 8Ca::::Leya£;hcfii;pS£.,¥;::±Stthheefrc::v£:#::
(endowing lifeless objects with consciousness); the idea of the suffering Messiah, and makes
the disastrous representative boast (Mark
14:29-31) and denial (Mark 15:66 ff.).
::u±rre:%:;8];ri¥:ngfos§§:i::i;tjoer=:Cdr;i:°i:li: Christ chooses him, with James and John, as
ing personified city, nation, tribe, power, into an inner circle within the Twelve (Mark
a god or legendary hero, e.g., the critics' al- 5:37; 9:2; 14:32).
leged Samson, st"myth). Personification was The significance o£ Matt 16:18 ff. is con-
troverted. From early times "this rock" has
:=£ai]grsi::°(nq.£v:)[SorfaeieasB::i:inthhuemaann- been identified with Peter's confession of faith
actions or relations transfened to deity or in Christ, the archetypal apostolic testim.ony.
things, e.g., "trees clap hands" (Isa. 55: 12);
"0 death, where . . .?" (Hos.13: 14); "eyes of
Fc:al;;h:rm.I:stR:omma:o:a:a::.Trej:tti::,(:::
Jehovah" (Zech. 4:10); Jachin and Boaz (I gards the rock as Peter himself, who thus re-
Kings 7:21). Also, Jotham's fable (Judg. 9); ceives special pre-eminence and commission
and Proverbs' humorous horse-leech with three
daughters (30: 15). Similar in principle is the i:£etFeencfeou.nfd';ns?:;tE:,cI:vr:I.,hTevi¥wr,sog::
treatment of wisdom (e.g., Prov. 9:1); the elsewhere in the NT the church's foundation
name of God (Ex. 23:21); face (presence) of
God (Ex. 34:14); the Targum's Memra
(word) regarding God (Ex. 19:17); NT is:;::cri:a,,t`n:se?::(;;glhla2s2ia?:hef|:F::a::dLc:::I:
Logos or Word (John I:1)-not derived a passion context, but we must recognize that
from Philo and Greek notions. One must dis- Matthew gives it in a confession context. Note
tinguish true revelation of God from heathenthat, even were Peter the rock, there is no
error, e.g., Tammuz, the personification of hint that his pre-eminence was transferable.
agricultural engagement, condemned by Ezek- Cullmann, who argues that Peter is the rock,
iel (chap. 8). shows that only the historic Peter, not any
ROBERT F. GRIBBLE successors, can be in question.
Peter undoubtedly leads the first Jerusalem
PETER. Symeon (or Simon) bar-Jonah church. He is the first witness of the resurrec-
(Matt. 16: 17, John 21 : 16), though his origi- lion (I Cor.15:5; cf. Mark 16:7). He leads
nal name continued in use (Acts 15 : 14,11 Pet. in the gathered community before Pentecost
I:I), was known in the apostolic church (Acts 1 : 15 ff.), and is the first preacher there-
after (Acts 2:14 ff.) and the representati`'e
g:£ni£]Pma,]]y„tbhyethReo:ka,Te£:h::thheJresTtssc°Anrfaemnae£€
form Ke-p}?a (Gal. 2:9; I Cor.1:2; 15:5) or E;ea4C:h8erff?;.thHeee;rr]eys££:sapft:rsju°dfg£:;St((3Ac][
Graecized as Petros (Gal. 2:7; I Pet. 1:1; 5: I ff; 8:20 ff.). Paul regards him as a "p
11 Pet. 2: I). Matthew associates this with the lar" of the early .church (Gal. 2:9).
In a sense, he is also the first instrument
:ou:fe;:io:e:i:::s::::::i:lLpap,i,(h?:a::.|elf;1:2: of the gentile mission (Acts 15:7) and his
dowment was the first time the name had experience is represent.ative of the intellectual
been given (cf. Mark 3: 16; John I :42). revolution involved for Jewish Christians (Acts
He was a fisherman from Bethsaida (John 10: I ff.). At the Jerusalem Council he urged
I :43), but had a home in Capemaum (Mark the admission of gentile converts without sub-
I:29 ff.). His brother Andrew, who intro- mission to the Mosaic law (Acts 15 :7 ff.) and
had table-fellowship in the mainly gentile
i:f:d ,i:mBtaop,!se,Su(,,.land P:;; :f.;,isci:`f ::church of Antioch (Gal. 2: 12) until, to Paul's
possibly had he. The seashore call o£ Jesus disgust, he withdrew in deference to Jewish-
(Mark 1 :6) was evidently not the first meet-
ing (John I:41 ff.). gehr::tftahneocE::;o:;£sE:sne,Ft{a6[ay].h£:ya£.;nb,Latp:::
PHARISEES 406

mained, despite obvious difficulties, a warm PHARISEES. Ph¢rjscljo; (Hebrew

friend of gentile Christians, whom he addresses perd§im) = Semitic term for separated one,
in I Peter. separatist, though rarely found in sing. (Luke
In his lifetime and later, anti-Pauline forces 7:36; Acts 5:34; Phil. 3:5). The Pharisees
sought to use Peter, without his encourage- are usually associated with the Scribes (Matt.
ment. There was a Cephas party at Corinth 5:20) and Sadducees (Matt.16:I) or Hercr
(I Cor.I: 12), and in the pseudo-Clementine
romances, Peter confounds Paul, thinly dis- #:;I(o¥:l:;:2:ii)kn];nuno.pFg:lil:nh;:dJetshues;
separated from Judas Maccabeus at the advent
guised as Simon Magus. Possibly party strife
in Rome over the Jewish question (cf. Phil. of Alcimus 162 B.c. and were the Hasidim,
I : 15) brought him thither. a passive resistance group devoted to the ob-
servance of Judaism. Josephus distinguishes
There is no evidence that he was bishop them from the Essenes and Sadducees in the
of Rome or stayed long in the city. I Peter was days of Jonathan 146 B.a. Others regard them
written there (so probably I Pet. 5:13), as the Haberim who deserted Hyrcanus 135-
doubtless after Paul's death, for Silvanus and 104 B.a. and vowed scrupulous observance of
Mark were with him. Probably (cf. Eusebius the law (Mishna). Under Alexandra (76
HE, iii:39) Mark's Gospel reflects Peter's B.c.), whose brother was a Pharisee, they were
preaching (cf. C. H. Tuner, St. Mc[rk, S.P. admitted to the Sanhedrin and began to domi-
C.K., London, 1924). Peter died in Rome in mate politics; they supported Antipater's pro-
the Neronian persecution (I Clement 5-6), Roman policy, and Herod the Great co-oper-
probably by crucifixi\on (cf. John 21:18). ated with their leading rabbis Pollio and
Recent excavations reveal an early cultus o£ Sameas. In the time o£ Jesus they controlled
Peter, but the original grave is unlikely ever synagogues and schools and were revered by
to be found. the masses (Ant.18:1,3).
Spurious writings in Peter's name, mainly Their creed lay midway between the fatal-
in heretical interests, caused difficulties in the
second century (cf. R. M. Grant and G. ::omn:ff:i:sEas£::::e:n(dvi:res.f2:e8,Ci%£;:T¥:1;
Quispel, Vjgjz;ae Christj¢%ae 2). Canonical believed in the resurrection of the dead, angels
works reflecting his teaching (including Mark's and future rewards and punishments, (Acts.
Gospel and the Petrine speeches in Acts) 23:8), and quoted the Pentateuch in support
unitedly reflect a theology dominated by the
(e.g., Nun.18:28) like Jesus (Luke 20:37).
concept of Christ as the Suffering Servant and They especially reverenced the scribal tradition
the thought of the ensuing glory. Crises in
(Mark 7:9; Ant. 13, 10, 6) which they re-
the life of Christ (e.g., the transfiguration, I
garded as binding. While the Sadducees ig-
Pet. 5:1; 11 Pet.I:16 ff.) have made a deep nored change they tried to fit the law to new
impression. environs by practical in-terpretation. They prac-
By the late second century the Roman ticed exorcism (Luke 11:19). Their tithing
Church was applying the promise of Matt. and fasting (Mom. and Thurs.) was volun-
16:18 to Peter and thence to herself, per- tary (Luke 18:9-14). For blasphemy and
haps as possessing Peter's grave; and this was adultery they prescribed the death penalty.
being vigorously resisted by non-Roman Their messianic hope finds expression in the
churches (Cf. Tertullian, De Pi,idicffia 21). Psalms of Solomon (cc!. 50 B.a.), which con-
Resistance long continued (e.g. Cyprian, De trasts the pious (Pharisees) with sinners, de-
U#j€¢te 4-5; Augustine, Refrflctc}tjo„es i.21.I). nounces the Hasmonaeans and hails Pompey
The Middle Ages developed the idea of the as God's deliverer. The pharisaic Testament
transfer of the powers o£ Matt. 16: 18 ff. to the of the Twelve Patriarchs (ca. 120 B.c.) por-
Popes, as Peter's successors. The Reformers trays Messiah binding Beliar, executing judg-
ment and establishing new Jerusalem.
=u::coersttt:f:£rcrae]::i:tfzo„ns,,pt:t:tfsv£:r%T.patrfstfc
The points of conflict between Jesus and
BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Pharisees were: (I) their tradition which
invalidated the law (Mark 7:12); (2) their
&:2#ifu¥£?#!:S;aa±j`.)E38g,ie5T6r¥;.)H;.JgTas;eanke#H#Bt! rigid sabbatarianism which restricted healing
ANDREW F. WALLS (Matt.12:12); (3) defilement and moral re-
407 PHILOSOPHY

generation (Mark 7:18-23); (4) merit and (I) Classical usage applies the term more
to the product than to the activity (love of
2e3T3d)S;((i;k:he]7i:s°s}:n(:o)dr#£::;Syan(dMoaut:: wisdom) which gives rise to it. Philosophy,
casts of society (Luke 7:36-50); and (7) their thus, is the over-all interpretation of the uni-
lack of humility (Luke 18:9-14). Jesus shared verse from a particular viewpoint. In this sense,
some of their more spiritual teaching (Luke philosophy is the equivalent of the Geman
10:27-28) and certain Pharisees like Nico-
demus supported him. ¥aeitop%,Ch]:"::8.ov£:.8r[St:=i:naprpe?i]t?::Pho¥'tfh°:
BIBLIOGRAPHY universe from the viewpoint of St. Augustine;
and his philosophy of history is his over-all
interpretation of history.
B¥T§i:;'9i':C%ir2;uhf:re¥*£J'#S'#a?":dSo¥oi3ip:#si3jz..tt#§ (2) The term philosophy, as used in the
DENls H. TONGUE phrase "philosophy of life," differs considerably

PHILANTHROPY. Though this word is ::onTis,cs`as:i:.ael|yus:ge;h9s:e'ieTiheif`sosowphhi!hofseli`:

to guide a man's life, however uncritically
not found in the Bible it is derived from two
Greek words, p7tjleo-, ``to love," and a7¢thro-pos,
"man." The teaching of philanthropy is found :::!isTe:[ahna:.eprboevei:ciaaiotpht:;::yhL:everin-
in the Bible under the term of "almsgiving"
and is found in such passages as Lev. 25:35;
an(.3v)erT|oi:,aesap4:,uai,T.a:;ifm,if:du:Fvi::::p:zicti
can be secured by reason alone apart from spe-
Deut. 15:7; Matt. 6:I; 19:21; and Luke
cial revelation. In this he is followed by Roman
11:41. It is a part of a central notion of
Catholics and by many Protestantsi
Christianity, that of love. It can be conceived
as the Christian perfomance of social duty. (4) Modern critical philosophers (positivists,
analysts, etc.) define philosophy as the attempt
It is an antidote to what is signified by the
to investigate and clarify meanings and rela-
NT term "ungodliness," which Calvin feels
tionships rather than an attempt to a
is anything that is repugnant to the serious
any ultimate truth (the latter being a
fear of God. Philanthropy on the part of the
which these thinkers largely despair).
Christian is an invariable and necessary con-
classicist, critical philosophy represents only
sequence of saving faith. The summary of the
the first stage in progress toward the goal of
law is that the Christian's love to God is to be
an interpretation of truth (q.v.).
expressed by the Christian's rendering of serv-
The ancients stressed the necessity for dis-
ice to man, and to all men whether they be
interestedness in the pursuit of philosophy.
in the faith or not. It has no place for a sys-
Modern thought, to the contrary, stresses that
tern of double morality, one for believers and
man cannot be neutral when he philosophizes
another for unbelievers. Philanthropy is a
but that personal and social conditioning are
discipline of the cross in that it is the out-
largely or wholly determinative of the philo-
working of man living by the will of God
sophical process.
instead of by his own inordinate desires. It
The fact that the Scriptures say little about
finds its expression in the Christian perform-
ing acts of love, of helpfulness, of mercy, of philosophy (the word is used only in Col. 2:8,
and that in a somewhat derogatory manner),
kindness to his fellow man. The love of God
does not relieve the Christian from the respon-
working in and through the heart of the
sibility to engage in this art. Paul's reference
Christian constrains him to such acts.
to philosophy is against a type of worthless
LEONARD THOMAS VAN HORN speculation which is not based on scriptural
presuppositions and includes mystical pagan
PHILOSOPHY. The word philosophy is elements. Although it presents no formal
derived from two Greek words, p7ij!ej74 ("to statement of a world view (with the possible
love") and sophjcz (``wisdom"). The exact ori- exception of the book of Ecclesiastes), innate
gin of the term is somewhat obscure, but within the OT is a philosophy of history and
through the years it has come to denote sev- of moral and religious experience (note espe-
eral different types of activity all closely re- cially the books of Job and Proverbs). The
lated to the original words from which it is NT, however, contains passages which are
derived. clearly formal attempts at the presentation
PIETISM 408

of broad universal principles in ethics (Ron. persistent mark of liberal Nco-Protestantism.

7, 8), in cosmology (Col. I), and in history GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
(Rom' 9-11).
BIBLIOGRAPHY PIETY. See GOBI.INEss.

PILGRIM. See STRANGER.

f¥fe,:=:gfz;##jig;¥v:#:iba:#d;a,i;i:%::;,;SFt£;LE::;;;; PIT. See HELI..

KENNETH S. KANTZER
PITY, PITIFUL. Pity is an undefinable,
almost universal, human passion; in Aristotle,
PIETISM. The origins o£ Pietism are to be
the basis for tragedy; the actuation of Prone-
found in seventeenth century Germany, when
the after-effects of the Thirty Years War and
a hardening of orthodoxy had robbed the
:feuf:dse|(f:sa:;i:`Lc,ee.bf:Iran:Can,': ;gu?,i:e )i.n i:i:i
Hebrew and five Greek roots (ca. two hundred
church of much of its evangelical vitality. In
times in the OT; eighty in the NT) are trams-
lated variously pity, mercy, compassion. The
idea is notable in Psalms and Prophets (Pss.
;h.e:Sp:1::t:::imf::v:is::i:at:I;!sgEse?:n:erhpir::e::dha:si: 103:13; 136, every verse; Isa. 54:8, 10).
being upon informal gathering for prayer,
Pity is withheld from heretics when true re-
Bible study and the nurture of the Christian
ligion is jeopardized (Deut. 13:8; cf. also 11
life within the framework of orthodox doctrine
and allegiance. He quickly found support John 10; Matt. 23:33). It characterizes God,
touching penitents (Isa. 55:7). In man, a
among both people and neighboring pastors,
signal illustration is the good Samaritan (Luke
10:33, 37). The greatest manifestation is
;:adms:itaii:*yoTknsofwir.e&:Eadrdft?rrih:I::: seen in God, through the Saviour (11 John.
tility of the theological world was incurred
3).
Pitiful is predicate, regarding God (I Pet.
ra:£:a:E:n:er;Schf:Sgc;P±:th€as¥;dF::::t:]ua=
2:8), or man (James 5:4); once attributive
at Leipzig, but a home was found for the
Pietists in the newly founded University of
Halle. Although Pietism never became an
S:oai:s;fs:`ao)..foEe;Fi:iforovpe;t¥;k€::'P!::£e:I
an indication of Godlike strength of character.
ROBERT F. GRIBBLE
:;:o:n:1:ZEeid:gs:yhe°¥:lil:er€ni:¥ig:tip'i::§e::Lgseu:I:ace:.
teenth century. Even such thinkers as Lessing PLEASURE, GOOD PLEASURE. The
word pleasure and its derivatives represent
:,:dpf.a,n:nw:i:nao;aT::Tne;te.dfb&itin:ip|li:g:ai about eighteen different root-words in Hebrew

::::.isLn,:.df;tj:ndtdois:.:;ci,Tvfleu::;:esus¥:i:ug: ::S%„:ree:£;k#eancdhfehfe_£::.:sfirg:pe:G.:.:££Feds
work of the Moravians and Zinzendorf, and delight, enjoyment, happiness (Job 22:3; Ps.
Ill:2; Eccl. 12:I; Jer. 22:28), or that in
:i::gc::t:ibeu:evdant:e:Fcea,g;e::,dTifiorno:rgyha,woahk: which delight is taken (Isa. 58:3, 13), and
Wesley it came to have a powerful effect is ascribed to God and man. It can also mean
will or purpose, generally of Jehovah (Isa.
:opdoany:i:reEanr:]£=h:snpyeafke;ant:re:o::dLvaanndge]e;::I_
:::,2:jat4e::e]££o£:a:,]a4n)a:;eitghjs¢r(eiE:v:t4?;--i;
i:r:iicFtg:ir|iv,eoiinnfll::gnecep:iteof,roogTcapi:tei;:I: Rd$6# also means will or that which is accept-
able and pleasing (Ezra 10:11; Neh. 9:37;
Esth.1:8; Pss. 51:18; 103:21), being used
i¥:::y,;;tgh:O:i;:::]3eEtahT]]tsefrr:o:m=geh]at:nsc;e:a:rr:I; o£ God or man. Other words in the OT trams-
center of more critical biblical enquiry and lated "pleasure" are #e.pe5, ``breath," "soul,"
"desire" (Deut. 23:24; Ps.105:22; Jet.
the strong concentration upon individual spir-
itual life and experience produced in Schleier- 34:16), re#£, "will," "wish," (Ezra 5:17),
macher and his successors the subjectivism or and '¢wwd (Jer. 2:24) and `ed7q6 (Gen.
man-centeredness which is the distinctive and 18: 12), both indicating sexual desire.
409 POOR POVERTY

Ewdokin, apparently confined to Jewish and BIBI.IcroRAPHy

LC; |ewEnc; ISBB.
Christian literature, conveys the idea of satis-
J. THEOcoRE MUELLER

ia£::]i°en'w:]¥ra°:£]'£s8seon:reat}]Xe:ntrrae|:;i::dt?gi;h: POLYTHEISM. See GODs.

pleasure" (Eph.I:5, 9; Phil. 2:13). In 11
Thess. I:11 it represents good thought, POOR, POVERTY. The chief OT words
expressing poverty are 'e9y6", drl, `6#€, and
%#et.edLubkye82#;Siftrf:hnedv£:Sr:i:§r£:adgi:g€ r4t5. The approximate idea is expressed in the
NT by penes, penichros, ende6s, z\nd espe-
ArJng.senoduet.sdi?:r.edn;i|i,Spe(Ci::.,ofbee,:?:i`¢ineT): cially pfo-cJios and its cognates.
the RV suggests enjoyment of divine favor, In the OT the following facts are set forth
regarding the poor: (1) Many provisions are
prescribi'd in the Mosaic legislation to safe-
fe?I;:kt!h.fe::aon?a,;.g`o::::;I:e:a:sau:e:,:.Tisi:'li;.f
guard the poor. A slave must be released in
12:10; Heb.10:6, 8, 38). A rare use, o£ the seventh year (Ex. 21:2 ff.). A garment
taken in pledge must be returned at sunset
pleasure in evil things, is in 11 Thess. 2:12.
He-do%G refers more specifically to earthly (Ex. 22:26 f.). Wages must be paid daily
pleasures, sometimes evil in nature (Luke
8:14; Titus 3:3; 11 Pet. 2:13). Other words
with a bad sense are spatahao-(I Tim. 5:6) faLue:Vrp±:n::3::das(:£See:n;t:a2`y4'¥v`:e2m;;et;r7s3u(S£:ni:t:
and tryphco- (James 5 : 5). 15:I f.). Provision was made for the food
R. COLIN CRASTON of the poor (Deut. 24: 19-22). (2) The equali-
ty of the rich and poor is clearly stated (Prov.
PLEROMA. See FULNEss. 22:2). (3) A man's poverty must not be al-

POLYGAMY. Polygamy, or polygyny, de- b°oWv::tyt°£n¥::eirft£]su:t;:ea(:i::u:.3:i'an6y).p{o4v)_

notes the practice of having more than one erbs specify the evil causes of poverty (Prov.
wife at one time. It occurs where woman oc- 6:10 f.; 10:4; 12:24; 13:4,18; 14:23; 20:13;
cupies a low station in human society. Islam
permits a man four wives, but in recent times, %L:Z`;c2t3i;2]a;ga2,:;t]9t)h.c(:T};s::{:t,1?::?h:;tfs:i¥
in some Mohammedan countries, notably in poor (Isa. 3:13-15; 10:I f.; Ezck. 18:12;
22:29; Amos 8:4). (6) The afflicted and the
::treke]¥iv.thAScc::i:;i;etoh:£ebde:vnfn:¥[]:St?:dt;obn?
lawful marriage consists of one man and one Fo°:sa(rss.°f3t;?]6:P3r;:e]n4t;efo?:7t;h:8#;y86a:n]:
Isa. 29:19; 41:17; 49:13; 51:21; 54:11).
:£of:og(a:;n:s?i:8;ni2y4}igh?ft;i;:r=u:fp°:t:rq The NT speaks of material and figurative
riage (Matt. 19:4-6). While the Bible does poverty. On the material side: (I) Poverty is a
not directly condemn the plural marriages
Z#Erakne]n4t:;}acrfa.CtBr::tt£:i::t]h]e).Pr(e;;n:rr:::,€
:i:te#|cueE::tsin.fthf|yog7;yi,tafsrai:k:Zed;asemri|i:: Messiahship is evidenced by his preaching to
of Jacob (Gen. 35:22; 37:18-28), o£ David
:?ev¥b;e(i:ke,h4:18iiz:222i`#ti;itu(ai'ai:;
#ssoiominoi3:(]]-29kfn]g5s:Ills.I).J]2a):dAe:¥:iail,¥ 12:42 ff.; James 2:2-5; cf. Luke 16:20-22).
marriage with his wife's maid Hagar, upon (4) Christians are not immune to poverty
(Rom. 15:26; Gal. 2:10). (5) Christians
should help the poor (Matt. 19:21; 11 Cor.
;io:3:;s.yms.f:;:a,t`eodr5;ur:e:gtea|!:?.:as,.#:|Z:g;:i'o.uh:: 8:2 ff.; I John 3:17 I.). (6) Poverty should
promised heir in accord with the custom of not be a cause of social discrimination (James
the land. His wrong consisted in his lack of 2 : 5-9) .
efun[deurtffegre:::td;:p£:t:t£;ev£=:£]gr:faftse;essuc]rtfepj On the figurative side: (I) True poverty
of spirit characterizes the members of Christ's
also from this union (Gen. 16:4-16), while
Paul rebukes it even as he censures work- |ina8id?,Te(£y::tjn5d:3a)ino(n2g)dAecrd::rttyc£:,r:E{er:
rig!::o:i:e;sAigLa!;#::;:;3i. (Rev. 2:9; 3:17). (3) Christ's incarnation
made him poor so that we through his poverty
POPE 410

PORTION. See LOT.

F:£§h;f,¥come rich (11 Cbr. 8:9; cf. Phil.
POSITIVISM. Positivism is that philoso-
BIBIJcORAPHY
phy which limits knowledge claims to mathe-
lsB^B#&.Sf.EifaEE*=|EDFP;s.W*±.HW#I*in
WICK BRcoMALI. :va:i,Csfna:get?een=mtph£:t::r=i::::S.£t[±iffst:P:i£:
given, the experimental, the factual, the in-
POPE. The ten pope is generally under-
stood as referring to the bishop of Rome, but
in the early centuries it was used as a fom o£

ii;iic;:b:I;tFi:e;I::ji!t'::plea::;!jii;sf.;n;::aELisi::::i
£f#::d::it:]n(?SreL]::tr:I::)rs#ocni'a:atf::h]es#;::°=
name for "father." ::u;§]:t:::C:ui:p;i:;ei;sit::;£:i=:thai::tri::tpe,aii]Z£};iu:i:.
asT:hp:¥difre,hg:rdcehdurtz::meaanr,hfatE:'i::
termed the "Vicar of Christ." His prerogatives
are said to be derived from Christ's appoint-
:F57;:Vficeatiesn::df.:guhsistediv¥i:;e.I(i7agn!:
intellectual history into three periods: the
ment Of the apostle Peter to this position,
Peter's subsequent bishopric at Rome and the
transmission of his authority to his successors.
There is, however, no early support for this
:;I:i:s:§;:a::s:i:=¥ap;!°±:);n:ta¥::°:at8;i:trv::
understanding o£ Christ's words to Peter re- (explanation in terms of the given, the sen-
sory). Other modifications and refinements of
corded in Matt. 16: 18, nor is there clear his-
torical evidence that Peter was ever at Rome.
*t£Va£SFeww)er:si:d;.b#£;:ChK.m£:a£°n,naa::
Emst Mach.
Eu;u,:t:Veanni£:exceegne:£Sarciraee;?o:]Sct:P`£rsehsetahr:hffrts:
confirln the early tradition that Peter was
anr:wth£:Lw:[natt££:tnhf;nLueryv¥;i:£av£;¥rcr[:cet£:leg
martyred at Rome under Nero, there is still
no proof that he passed on his leadership to
all subsequent occupants of the Roman see.
%:,¥t;::::e¥:p°.`r¥:s]:£¥[S,?id]:°£g8:Crsa.[tfr¥£`;:]¥i€;:
oneTt:£oentor]odvees:¥nc::::cTfnhgsttoh;.I:p]::7£]=
1054, to the break away of the Eastern
;::::tc::osgi:::bi:aft:tnh,:.mnat.i:a:Log;ct'ic::ahna:
it has worked in closest connection with the
churches from the Western, and, in the six- discoveries of the new physics and behavioristic
psychology.
:eheunrtchhc]:nnttourtyh:Opt?oete3::::ucph::cihe:yn:St:hme
icaTs:n:::-c¥si:i:,iitesis::ccl:rsedwteiftaaslltthheei:::cg,-
:;es:cnctasf.hnurbceheno`mg:in.ef..¥,i::d::gpe:bF|:,vy:
contributing to the well-being of the whole
church, others have been men of totally des-
;:::i:|tst:i:e|]ico:I;§r¥°i!;):t:;:d:j§i:hiii§je:::je:::i:ii:gi§£j;::
i:fi£:lei;;f::ij]C:i:g±:abe::he:ide:Co;:onm¥;i:gae:£i;.:|!
Church, entailing a total commitment to his
ex cclthedra pronouncements (see INFAI.LIBIL-
ITv). In view of this development, it is in-
!l:Eufssset?a:;ul:;l¥::tnhd:I,ta:Ice:a:o!tteg::ocl;Lg=yobllo:;:c:Ti
revelation (as a give7®) in contrast to a theology
of speculation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
:#a:ulo:sit;::a:t::t:psea:p;I:et;aec;Es;out¥g:onEu:|t::n::::::,a::f
unity. ;owJrfrreYei?kry8i,A£„#%:#thof„¥g#glie?os;fro-
BIBLIOGRAPHY BERNARI) RAMM

Mfnfat,T#T#dFap%e;8"!Cal#Thfro;[P„afpa#]#b'.;zj!;:i POSSESSION. Peripoiej" means (1) to

tic Cthttrch.
W. C. G. PROCTOR save or preserve for oneself, being used of
411 POWER, POWERS

one's life (psyche) in Luke 17:33; (2) to and exot4s!.a is used of spiritual agencies (e.g.,
acquire for oneself, as God purchased the Ron. 8:38; Eph. 6:12), generally of an ad-
church with the "blood of his own one" as the verse character, but sometimes neutrally of
ransom price (Acts 20:28; cf. Ps. 74:2; Isa. earthly rulers (as the exows!.ai of Ron.
43:21 [£ormed = per;poje;", LXX]), or as 13: I-3). See also AUTHORITy; MIGHT.
deacons gain good esteem of the Christian The NT idea of the pre-eminent power of
community (I Tim. 3:13 RSV); and (3) to God is a development of the similar OT con-
bring about something for someone (11 Mace. cept (cf. I Chron. 29:11; Job 26:14; Pss.
15:21). 66:7; ]45:11). The NT, however, is not
Per;pol.gs;s means (I) keeping safe, pre- dominated by an overwhelming display of
serving, saving (Heb. 10:39, with psyche); divine power, but rather a personal manifesta-
(2) gaining or obtaining, e.g., of salvation tion of that power in Jesus Christ. His mes-
(I Thess. 5:9) or glory (11 Thess. 2:14); sianic power was in a direct line with and yet
(3) possessing, possession, of property. In this was infinitely greater than the power with
sense it occurs in (a) I Pet. 2:9 (cf. Mal. which the prophets were endued. It was mani-
3 : 17, LXX per;po;e-sis), where Christians are fested in two ways, by his life and by his
the new Israel, a people for God's special pos- 1.esurrection. His miracles (q.v.) were intended
session, the terms haos and t#oj defining as messianic signs to corroborate the powerful
per;POI.e-sis; and (b) Eph. I:14, where effect of his teaching. They were not mere
per;poje-seo-s is found by itself, and the context wonders, for there was nothing akin to magic
concerns the guarantee of our inheritance. in their form, in the words which commanded
Beza suggests we distinguish two deliverances them (as contrasted with magical incanta-
(¢po!ytr6se;s), one past, the other awaited in tions), or in the faith which they required.
the future (Ron. 8:23). We best understand They reveal a close personal relationship be~
perjpoj8se6s as acquisition at the second de- tween Christ and the Father as the explana-
liverance and translate ``with a view to a com- tion of their origin. The resurrection of Jesus
plete redemption, which will give possession" was the climax of the manifestation of divine
(cf. RSV). Theodore Mopsuestia and Sev- Power.
erianus rendered it "with a view to our full The power of the Holy Spirit is seen not
recovery of our privileges as sons of God," but only in the commencement of the ministry of
this involves reading in t6 t7ie6. Christ's prom- Jesus (Luke 4:14, 36), but also in a special
ise that "by your endurance you will gain your manner in the commencement of the church
lives" (Luke 21 : 19) and his references to the (Acts 2). This power was not an external
heavenly treasure may have prompted the hope possession which could be mechanically trans-
of ultimately acquiring possession of the in- ferred (cf. Acts 8:19 ££.), but a living I)res-
heritance. ence in the believer (cf. Rom.15: 13; 11 Cor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 13 : 3 ff.). Those who possess the Spirit possess
„,.„Ag¥#c]g,fs't;aA„?t*tt|v°,Dp:.P26|].;24bnKAc?sak2eo':2B8e.8;"- power; their words and their works are mighty
in proportion as the Spirit controls them.
DENls H. TONGUE
In the Pauline Epistles much is made of the
POSTMILLENNIALISM. See MILLEN- power of Christ's resurrection (Phil. 3:10),
NIUM. which is the operative principle in the believer

POWER, POWERS. Of the Greek words t`,Eprhe:o'g.n'i:;2do;tf:.t`i`ncporr:a:3i,n3:4:heT:reosaspise-

used in the singular to express the idea of was preaching Christ as the power of God
power, dy"clt#js describes the general ability (I Cor.I:23-24).
to perform, exot/sja the authority of freedom The conquest of opposing s|]iritual powers
from any inward restraint in the exercise of is well illustrated in the life of Jesus. His
that ability, and kratos the general idea of in- power over demonic forces is frequently
tensity of power. All three terms are applied shown, while Paul declares the overthrow of
to God (I Cor. I : 18; Ron.13: I; Eph. I : 19), these powers to have reached its climax in the
to Christ (Luke 4:36; Matt. 28:18; Rev. c`ross (Col. 2: 15). By describing this triumph
5:13) and to believers (Eph.I:19 ff.; John as a stripping off of the powers of e\'il the
I : 12; Eph. 6: 10). The plural of both dy"a"t!.s :`postle implies a deliberate self-emancipation
PRAGMATIC SANCTION 412

from all opposing agencies. The same idea is qualities, his majesty (Ps.104:1) and holi-
found in I Pet. 3:22, where angels, authorities ness (Isa. 6:3).
and powers are grouped as subject to Jesus at Praise occasionally has man as its object, in
the right hand of God, and in the Apocalypse which case the commendation may be worthy
where supreme authority is vested in God
(Rev. 19:I) and in the enthroned Lamb Ereov;::t:I:8Jp::I):ru::r°trh¥yg{o¥at:f6a)i
(Rev. 5:12). The apostle Paul, on the other rather than the praise of men (I Thess. 2:6),

Fpai:.:|av|ivsi,diyggd|eesc:;:::s:h:hecs:ri:::n:;phr:::iE: ?ourt:e£:;iniz:siead]e€itri:ta;taenp:£e{c:s?][tribdt:
powers (Eph. 6: 12). 8: 18). Such praise may become an incentive
BIBIJOGRAI'HY to holy living (Phil. 4:8).

8oDf%:C#?::§nm:frFa.rmD=dastwffi;"I?inBfpEE:ori fu|[|tyfju:°i8dtortohevIitahshs°a]±dd!,hwehgL°¥£fre£:ehi-
DONALI) GUTHRIE
praise glorifieth me" (Ps. 50:23). Every be-
PRAGMATIC SANCTION. A pragmatic ](i;::n97?:air.t]4W)?£C*h:£dfrt:;::nutspoEfshfi:i:;]i:
sanction is strictly a limitation of the sovereign
in relation to the succession. Ecclesiastically it
is applied to the declaration o£ A.D. 1438 (the stEs;k:3]3e:2g,£[taz€[wdifgd:T3[;s;jnf£:±uthne_
praise of God not only a duty but a delight.
E::g:hat;:ersga,T::iso:icot:dB:i:g;%a:7i:hri:Iba,::: BmcoRAPHy
ISBE; HDB.
to the administration of property and nomina- GERAI.I) 8. STANTON
lion to vacancies.
GEOFFREY W. BROMII,EY PRAYER. I. OLI) TESTAMENT. (I) The
PRAGMATISM. See Gool> WoRKs.
goTn'So¥£e&::E::?::Stt:rna;fdr°:;,]t;sghth:n&E
PRAISE. The Bible is full of praise and thinks, wills and feels; yet is omnipotent,
adoration to God. Praise may be defined as omniscient, holy and gracious. Communion
homage rendered to God by his creatures in
worship of his person and in thanksgiving for ¥at¥.eael:.::I::i::fimhais,e:o(23an#oopie:::
his favors and blessings. Angels that excel in
strength render their praise unto the Lord (Ps. Rhb:aif:sin,thfr.isneg,iv;daumaLe:,s¥nci;:rep=:zfr..e|:-
103:20). Their voices were lifted in adoration gious devotion reached remarkable heights at
at the birth of Christ (Luke 2: 13-14), and in
tribulation days yet to come, they shall join in :::erfcne€;#:a]A]bervae£;mThi£:teTcased:n¥Cf£::]yso=o:
crying "Worthy is the Lamb that was slain . . ." (Gen.18), Moses for Israel (Ex. 32:10-13),
(Rev. 5:11-12). Job for his friends (42:8-10). The impression
Praise is rendered to God by Israel, espe- is that only outstanding personalities partici-
cially in the "Hallel Psalms" (Pss.113 -118). pated in intercession; probably because it was
Not only Israel, but all who serve God, both an unusual ministry. At the individual level
heaven and earth, the seas and all that moves petitionary prayer is common in the Psalms,
therein - in fact, everything that has breath however, (e.g., 31, 86, 123, 142); as is also
must rightfully render praise unto the Lord adoration, praise and thanksgiving. (3) But
(Pss.135:I-2; 69:34; 150:6). because Israel was a covenant community so-
God may be praised with musical instru-
ments and with song (Pss.150:3-5; 104:33). :;aiepreaxyae::ie:|fpnr::;:::|ti:a;::PaE.aE;:o:
Sacrifice (Lev. 7: 13), testimony (Ps. 66: 16), nounced social flavor. Moses, Samuel, and
and prayer (Col.1 :3) are also activities where Solomon prayed as representatives of the com-
praise finds expression. Praise may be public munity (Ex. 33:7 ff.; I Sam. 7:2 f£.; I Kings
as well as private (Ps. 96:3); may be an in- 8 :22). The corporate aspect is also prominent
ward emotion (Ps. 4:7) or an outward utter- where prayer is conjoined with sacrifice: this
ance (Ps. 51:15). It is rendered to God for redeemed the latter from mere slaughter and
his salvation (Ps. 40:10) as well as for the
greatness of all his marvelous works (Rev. ::::I:irc%.|[s:ae:hfosff::enju£::£°f;g£:stprsaey;;ceant€
15 : 3-4). He should be praised for his inherent the Lord. Lawgiver, prophet and psalmist
413 PRAYER

petition the Father. Then the prayer ends, not

with our needs or desires but with God, with
¥e¥roe|ovfae]ihe::::icn:g:fd]¥;:|itseaas::e]f]:;:ie:oE:hfh::::a:y:er:
herd. ri3°gTo;.big£E;,vy.£#ht£:#r°a?'rFgitF::[a
tan]t[.f!cEtso:Si'nT€£:i:t]J:Gd.o{t]r[?net:fep::;:r£Ts¥:: ::i:fa:1r±:!u¥L;saikeE;icroHr:d:S:hF#ye::;:a#u:g¥:h:;::i:
insistence upon the Fatherhood o£ God (q.v.).
God is essentially Holy Father, however, who,
while acting in a fatherly manner to all men,
is a true father only to those who are his chil-
dren through his grace and their repentance ;de:I;:nt::::i:o:uE:t::.;a;:::i;:ax::1;;i,::n.fo.i!:P:rn;2::;:i:::
and faith. (2) Jesus also emphasized the value The Greek words in verse one provide a re-
warding study. (1) Prayer in worship was im-
:i[;h:s£:hde£V:i::;£dbue:fr:h]gdoffnth:raHeera.vex:;

::i:raf:Su::sdur°efdathwa:Lcti=eF::h:ishpar:Se£Cee: ¥or[::n±:f]i:]£;a:|=;e:I:::n:eacd¥np:I:n::ill;:::rs;°]r::f#i
going out in love toward him, to bring him
home to himself. (3) Christ also taught men
that true prayer is spiritual, not formal. In

#:.ay6e:r;-#i;eehxirpser:esTi;Fan;I:r°jfnfj:E?]# ;i;i:so;;i;d:[8;a:;iic;ffii:i;i:s;i;i;:;;afgr:;io;in:;eu|
emphasizes the inwardness of communion.
Spontaneity, therefore, should also characterize :anc::n:tecop:opbu]]esTont#ea:.ay2f:t3egr.c:i:.wTt:g::
true prayer. (4) Arising from its inwardness understanding the petition. We may simply

ft::i,:;T:`fitEr;syet.[eaE;ovred':lle¥ihe:sisp.:;e.thi: :isgp:rao,I.tn;:ait::T'a,teea.ieessi,re:;eT?negseen:::e¥k3;

:ha:hoe:ti:inugn::.:hdeeEefaarit,fo?#:rfe|F:2?:2Zl)y :i:ms:;rftth¥h:a;i,erthaesre,f:::;ceasbs::n::€;;se]n:
Ron. 8:34 it is Christ who intercedes for us.
See also Heb. 7:25; I John 2:I. This means
Esis:;i:i:o:a:nd:;:.;;fg:.ill:e:;ee?mL;ik::.r:a:yd.:8i that the Trinity is involved in Christian
other conditions for success in prayer. Prayer prayer. In a word, the indwelling Spirit initi-
must originate in a loving and forgiving dis- ates a Christian's prayers; the Son then sup-

#fs::1:Odnfn(¥ha::;tls]:;2n]-:a52'e?fodhnftl6T:Stf.i

t`i:3l?fitn3::yfiremdT.setc:sonucser,noi;:a';T.i.thbper:::
forgiveness, victory in temptation, power over !io:s;cio:im¥:s:i:aji::i;isi:at:hE::;si):§i:;:i:;a!s;:b:;t):ni§
evil spirit forces, the mission field, enemies,
the Holy Spirit. Jesus himself petitioned his :;iierTt:sa,to `,`,:3::iyz,: " :itahra::=ri::dpraI;ra.pEFais:
Father in prayer. For example, in John 17 he prayers (Col. 4: 12). It is in this light that we
requests the Father to keep believers united
in tnith, and to preserve them from sin. This
does not mean, however, .that petition is the ::;:i:n:;en;_p;r:aeye£:t:]e:S9:e]#a£S;Sh;i2ni5n:t2e|ri
only, or even the main element in prayer, as 3: 14-21). And yet he did not hesitate to ask
is clear from the form of prayer which he his converts to engage ceaselessly in interces-
taught his disciples to use. (6) Indeed, the sion. In the NT every believer is an intercessor
Lord's Prayer is a fitting summary of Jesus' (Jas. 5:16; I Tim. 2:1), because each is a
teaching on the subject. God, to whom we
pray, is a Father who, dwelling in heaven, re- Por£;a:£E:]ys.tfa]:,:)ieaYr:t(5iafr.e:::I:i):h#nakcs:
ceives our adoration. The true aim in prayer giving was also an essential part of Paul's
is not the imposition of our wills upon God prayers (Ron. I:8; passim). When he re-
but the hallowing of his sacred name, the
extension of his kingdom, our submission to ::£evpeedn::mheftshfcnogmdrifuf::::tfr£:hm&Sdr:!re€toi:
his will. Only then does Christ direct us to 12:7 ff.). The Book of Acts emphasizes the
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD 414

corporate nature of prayer; Jas. 5: 13-18 bears (11 Chron.15:3; 17:7-9; 35:3). Ezra and his
the same witness.
BIBHOGENHY ;s:I;st:enat:3:obi:cb|lyyaif:::Tieeterdefuth=::owma;ait
H. Tlcvol Huches, P7.aphef;a P7iayer,. F. Heilel, tivity (Neh. 8: 7-8). In the synagogues public
P'aye'.
reading of portions from the law and the
JAMES G. S. S. THOMSON
prophets was followed by homiletic interpreta-
PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. No pas- tion.
sage in Old or New Testaments enjoins or Prophets were functioning in Israel from
even implies this practice. Of the single pas- the time o£ Moses to the days of the kings, but
sage in the Apocrypha which appears to allude prophetism became the outstanding mode of
to it, it may be said that text, translation and divine revelation in the days of Israel's apos-
interpretation of 11 Mace. 12:46 are all un- tasy. The great prophets were the heralds of
certain, and that there is considerable evidence
that orthodox Jewry of the intertestamental gedffte:::rLnogpetfoofr:aL:£t#a£,djcur;gnmgeEftoa=€
:idqf::,i2lae:ad::t.fieei;i::ciiiiensgoofftieeE:#e-
Earl::sd::I:3e=;£:tLfr:i€rr±::;:s::rib;:I:a;S6!,;8§:E::; ets was often given by God immediately and
transmitted as received, while the preaching
of the Levites was based upon the written
;::a#r`:t°r¥:I:'dsp{:Le=a#das2t:::3?nr:t§o::L±Fi;: word, the Torah.
probationary period; after death, even prior to
the resurrection of the body and the last judg-
ment, the soul is fixed in a permanent state ;I;t[J:J::j£N#:e;:ie?t;h¥rc;::dig:f°±r:J:°thrs:e£±nBii
of bliss or misery (see especially Luke 16: 19- most important are ke-ryssei", "to herald," "to
31). Hence prayers for the dead are, at best, proclaim" (used sixtyi>ne times, ktrygt»a
irrelevant and unnecessary.
The Apostolic Fathers do not mention ;k:tnne`::„ti(mue:i'.ev¥r¥.ff',i;e:t#eis,,`:t#gugu3!ii;:
prayers for the dead. The custom seems to over seventy times); and didrskeim, "to teach"
have arisen in the church at the end of the (used around ninety times, the nouns djdrs-
second century. In the Church of Rome the hazja and djdrc7ig also being used, especially
practice is an integral part of an erroneous in the Pastoral Epistles). All of these verbs
system of salvation and is particularly connect-
::,d.a-i#'sit£Etivis;e;o.`|8¥negqu.g:|enp,::t:=n,of
;:n:e£:ha:dolt::::s|fnri:n]£Pfuurrgfaets°¥;dfncdou£: strong note of authority. The preacher has re-
fessions o£ Protestant churches do not coun-
tenance prayers for the dead. ::;:ehdet:smaesss;£TtEetEte::dthomr:tsyseogfeh::osmeng
0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON The NT terms for preaching cannot be dis-

PREACH, PREACHING. Preaching is

the proclamation of the word o£ God to men gh'.i;;#iFn,:ne2:;deeafi:i.:.hf:;!l:.:,:;oaf:eI:sn::
by men under assignment from God. It is the
ordained means for the transmission of the fi:a::rgd,¥t;edham:stt::::no#tf:£affy„z:e;a„:
word of God to the world and serves also as eye-witness."
an of ficial means of grace for the edification The primary message (kgrygrm, et4aggezjow)
of the church o£ Christ. of the apostles consists in a declaration of the
In the patriarchal period and even after redemptive-historical facts of Christ's life,
death, resurrection, session, and coming again,
:i:a.;nTiceoviriawnedr:::t:o:fmdinic:;ettEeei.p:ohE:
dren (Gen.18:19; Deut.11:19). In Israel ;:i:g`e,:.*:h#:cka;:,tgo=er:sntfaunnc:aLq;:.,'a|antg

;hy£Sapr;Vuabt,efcfn::rd::i;no¥atsh:°]¥wsuepvpe];m=nvt:i :i:ll:ehi:`hthseer:t:rct:aE#euapposioeliccie;:chh-
years during the Feast of Tabemacles (Deut. (d;drchg, teaching, parakle-sis, exhortation, and
31 :9-13). During the revivals in the reigns o£ 7?ot4thesj¢, admonition, etc.). "The contents
Jehoshaphat and Josiah the Levites went from of the `kerygma' and the didczc7ie in the
city to city in Judah reading the law publicly New Testament are the same, but the modality
415 PREDHSTINATION

is different .... [W]hat in the opening of the rendering of ydq6r in Isa. 28 : 16 with e"ti7mos
New Testament is called the `kerygma' of the is followed in I Pet. 2:4. The word expresses
Kingdom of Heaven, in the later parts assumes the high evaluation to be placed on Jesus as
a different shape, that of religious teaching the select cornerstone. In I Pet. 2:7 time-
and doctrine" (Herman N. Ridderbos, VI/71e7® (rendered "honor" in I Pet.1 :7) is translated
"precious" in the AV (margin, an honor). The
the Tine Had Fully Corme, Eerdmans Pub-
lishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, point is that Jesus spells eschatological honor
1957, pp. 94 and 95). for his believers. In a similar vein the adjective
Paul's letters to Timothy describe the transi- t7."jos is used to evaluate the blood of Christ
tional stage from the apostolate to the pastorate (I Pet.1:,9).
and evangelism. Timothy must hold fast to the FREDERICK WILLIAM DANKER
apostolic teaching and the OT Scriptures and
communicate this teaching in pastoral preach- PREDESTINATION. We define predes-
ing and evangelism (I Tim. 4: 13-14; 11 Tim. tination as that theological doctrine, primarily
2:15; 3:14-16; 4:I-5). The transmission of associated with Calvinism, which holds that
the word is secured for the church in history from eternity God has foreordained all things
by the commissioning of faithful men able to which come to pass, including the final salva-
teach others (11 Tim. 2:2). tion or reprobation of man.
Origen's preaching marks the change from The doctrine of predestination is contained
the hortatory homily to the expository sermon, in the creeds of many evangelical churches,
but his exposition was clouded by the use of and has had a remarkable influence in both
the allegorical method in interpreting Scrip-
ture. Through Augustine the defects of this :.P.:rci:f.nudnft:;e.,hpero#::?miit:s,feu.Il:s:n::sps::s:
of Faith, which is the authoritative standard
:e:i:dt;sesr,:fiectefui:hp:ena,ciFi,nhgeyie:::a::: for most of the Presbyterian and Reformed
Reformation. The Reformers expounded and churches throughout the world. The Estab-
applied Scripture directly, often preaching in lished Church in England and the Episcopal
series on entire books of the Bible. Radical re- Church in America have a mildly Calvinistic
interpretations of the Bible have influenced creed in the Thirty-Nine Articles. And while
the Baptist and Congregational churches gen-
preaching for evil but some see encouraging
signs in the twentieth century of a return to erally have no official creeds, it is expressed in
the writings of many of the representative
preaching which aims to be based on an under-
standing of the Holy Spirit's intended message theologians of those churches.
for the church in Holy Scripture. During the first three centuries of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Christian church patristic writers left this doc-
trine largely undeveloped. It received its first
ThE;GKpo£%t8£n'pfeacHh3is#Iya°nfdp{tesachstay83ioc;}rmE2ts?#'. full and positive exposition at the hand of
7:13; K. Dijk, De die"st de7. pred{.kj7.g, T. H. L. Parker,
THwha€da%ilfye¥!mfe%dt;I.FHosis%Nittao#£ha°!?asG##gkr:n?£DmB£ Augustine, who made divine grace the only
ground of man's salvation. In the Middle Ages
P'edigt. Anselm, Peter Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas
CARL G. KROMMINGA
followed the Augustinian view to a certain
PREBENDARY. See OFFlcEs, EccLEsl- extent, more or less identifying predestination
ASTICAL.
with God's broad providential control over all
things. In pre-Reformation times Wycliffe and
PRECIOUS.` A variety Of Hebrew and Huss set forth strict predestinarian views.
Greek words unaerlie§ the translation "pre- At the time of the Protestant Reformation
cious," most frequently used to describe objects this doctrine was set forth with emphasis by
of fine quality, but extended to define theolog- Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, Melanchthon, Knox,
ical concepts. Thus the word y6q6r, used to
express the high regard in which a person or *iaa:]chtFheo:utisattae:d£:%d],:f:ed:rsh?sftvh£:L?,er;°nda
thing is held, is applied in Ps.116: 15 to the under his leadership the Lutheran Church
death of God's saints. Their death is not some-
thing lightly esteemed by God. Wisdom is said ;ao:£s,t°T£:P°BS:„£t:ed:;tr:£:.t;#r:Sndchi::
to be more precious than rubies, Prov. 3: 15, Co7#7#e#tflry o7® Ro7"o7¢s, show that he went
that is, worthy of highest regard. The LXX into this doctrine as heartily as did Calvin. It
PREDESTINATION 416

was, however, Calvin who set it forth with anoint, both Herod and Pontius Pilate, with

ijaiFi::o:if:1e;:e:d:;siif:i:,pi:i:::oti:.iits:h;:s:
England and those who early settled in Amer- iife!.:¥njc;o7::;;e,i?:rf::I:a:;;:!j,i:C:o;gjeii|g:Wit
ica, as well as the Covenanters in Scotland
and the Huguenots in France, were thorough- :::]Fse°Wief:efi¥:ifyye:Zdths:ay}r¥Ac°j
2:23). See also Acts 13:48; Ron. 8:29-30;
going Calvinists. In more recent times the
doctrine has been set forth by White field, 9:11-12, 23; I Cb[. 2:7; Eph. 2:10; Ps.
139: 16; etc.
Ft::g:; E:;=e?,a::nwi:[gf?ea,:., smith, shedd, Even the sinful acts of men are included in
The Westminster Confession of Faith states
the doctrine thus: ``God from all eternity did
by the most wise and holy counsel Of his own
;i:e::v;gj;d¥o¥rETjct:fo¥ef::rd=E=:I:g;:digy]t#[
¥v]::ocfd:em::t:o::ha::n:::;):?a|±oyrfrsredr;:b:¥e¥±ath¥:
fered to the will of the creatures, nor is the ;:£wf:;t,:c:;?f:'!.g.`2:a::2:8d;;S::#djlaT:
The doctrine of election (q.v.), which re-
i;::ryt,yb°:tcr°a:i£:rgee::ayb[::h:edc.3ndcausestaken
The doctrine of predestination thus repre-

:::tds]t:::ai,u¥dseepe°£dgtdoa£S3?eso]:ieo]aen€Enu£?: i;e:I;i¥e:ufii#o::fo.i:!:c:ils¥EF:ia.o:isE::
Scriptures are concerned primarily with the

;:ae,a;1:o,i;I::Fa!nf::.ao,|fg:i:a%ne:a#t:;Z::n.itehi|oseTt.3
down to the minutest details. His decrees
therefore are eternal, unchangeable, holy, iffeim;p.:tlSnz=:t:hi:f;u;a.::io:::;:i:i¥¥::ai
forth an eternal, divine decree which, ante-

:::n£]yve:?£:¥radt=ffeieencheuirand::cretintom;:
portions, one of which is chosen to everlasting
ij:iti::i:;;I;o::::iirig;ne;i|5iz:in;:=¥g:ifn::?:i;a::i lj:e,faTilse!iesod?ce.reeis::i:,t:etvoeri::inl!ddeeasFg:

nat?objes:i:rnsvI?tgha£:atuatih:o:c¥:;na:n:tftEreedfeosr€: mates the counsel o£ God concerning those

knowledge of God, because what God fore-
knows must be as fixed and certain as that xE:mh:geaamsops:ivmaetr!gn,`a5::abtehochl::tcethiant
which is predestinated. When we say that we
know what we will do, it is evident that we ::an::.rnA;t:d:es£]etfr°fmg:v::]]a::eyvlaor:gr:]n¥
have already determined, and that our fore- they cannot work out their own salvation.
knowledge does not precede determination,
=:cyyahna:em££g°hiej£:::iyah]:vec]£:niue#:os#fd::
E:;;:]]toh:s£Ltt:rnedj:c::=dh:¥:;£t6rgda::[eej
the future. ::ieie¥::I:gis°£wgr:£rie€::Bbeu€;:::teea¥,aa]]££rt:g:
of the race, the elect members, are rescued
d.cs,:=::rcer:ip.:I.I:hr:5:::n:::e::itai.¥edfo:Fuf,:
:::om:h:tas::teo£°£bg¥dannedssst:;£nfoifr:e?sr.°urfuh:
aT:Ps:£i°f:a::ors:]Pnsgtttr°£8hgfedsu;,e:shu¥tofuEtt:
will" (Eph.1 :5); ". . . in whom also we were
made a heritage, having been foreordained ac- :£Oenn:))i;tr#:s;):s:iy::I,:nf:n]£)t:nekr:¥t::d:Ot;i:::i;
as men but as sinners.
:::i;:gatfo.etrhe,hpeu¥usensoe`lh:Fhl?ovlvyl::ke(tEpal:
1 : 11); ``. . . for of a truth in this city against foi::wt,hebu:a:treer::tsa:I:t£:neft:nqo:s°rckasufq.V;i
thy holy Servant Jesus, whom thou didst salvation. Christ himself says, `Ye did not
 PRE-EMINENCE
417

and another unto dishonor (Ron. 9:21). The

elect and the non-elect are regarded as being

:i;gg1:n:a![£yd:][::hafr:emEm::iorg:ltze:°:£Er:]==n:t:a:ea:S:£i|;
:=:=-::-=_:-:=::_:::I-;:::--:i_:_:i-I:::::i:-=:-::::-_:l=:_:_:-::=:-:I::-:-::::-::-

a;c:t:e;::::a::saa:sLa::::t:;¥::]s£R,:nfn:£P:e5,v:;£:cx£
B|BHOGRAPHY _ .,.. __.,.__jL:_.
ffreendci:£fe°Filanj,nrisetoqu:;ti:;defe:::;,en#r:
. _____|^-^J
#L±:ed=E#Biji,£#D¥i#io:top#:ee;#P##9:s#:
LORAINE BOETTNm

PRE-EMINENCE. Paul's head-on clash

with incipient Gnosticism (q.v.) evokes his
classic statement concerning the plc-eminence

;a;,:Iig:::::a;;;::;if::::riii::¥;e;?;:::;:e;:e;:,i::;i; o£ Christ in Col. 1 : 13 ££. Gnostic stress on the

exaltation of angels and the need fo[ a sub-
divine mediator in creation to bridge the gap
zr30)lose:|e(c]t)sot:ecr:::e;f(:h),st:affe::asthset;a#
sia:¥E:i,n;i:;t]i:o:i:;aafijoc€;;::ci:::I;:£e:I:::gfs€;¥g{:£
i::f!e:::c::ee£:s:a`efc:fgn:ps::cl:s:oma!.i`f:,tfETs::t;En:-
1;I:s;i;t;hj;1:;i;i:;::::;in:i;;::s;:;::t::ii::::ioi;:I:E:±i;

.rdAe:c:;a::gn,tsoisTeG.S:P;:;a£=iazl;i:owel?c:
some creatable men (that is, men who were
to be created) to life and to condemn others to
::Ts]ifboied.d[d)t8oi:Onl:.1`;;t3:hfnma,gel:,£t,h8e,
i:[s,t;mtc4tr;ont;ts:2dtocfrr::tte:otr3e,deteom¥hT;:,e¥te,

::ddei5p:,.t:::n,iett:ecT.oLyccsopr.dr:;gtotoaEE:sypTa`: F::db:i:a3t*H¥at,:ah£S,uS::t:h::leo:nreo_£:X;Teen:]nc;rv:e:I;=7;,
e]efioen£:;::lea;essar::::ar[£;rofeventsseemsto
John 1:3; Heb.1:2-3); (3) he is the tri-
be the more scriptural and logical. In matters

g;:;Fjih:i:a:):i:e::t::I::hje]:3u*oir}!sbsio:::::;11:;i]Oe::2;:::.
g;I,g::g::n:;V;o:¥:ns°otrt:P,;::C!]g:;I::;ie:::1:i:I?:;S±:.;:_ :;%]:I. ih: 9P2]8:S;2n:g9 , 0;ohr:C°,:.C,1:i;t£on to God
volve sin, but a choice such as is made here,
tfesna[:sats££onnneor[s:suTt]sstomg::at,,b=:i::andte;:Eta;; -__-=__i_--:__:-_-i-ii_-::-i:=l=__:_i_-_:=i--

sovereign, but his sovereignty is not exercised

1:%e:I::::I:ball;::i:a]¥,:ufs?,::a,1tthEeorT,:je;s:ha:::a:;:,e:1::e;;

It
L\ is
\® not
\\\,, -`in
-----hamony
__ I with the scriptural idea:

o£ God that innocent men, i.e., in-en who are

not contemplated as sinners, should be ple- 2`j:Z2arndd:cutpert`£:b]ae:S[:tios:enc.a:;a.n3k5e:£o3;
d_esii;,tsi:ar;;t:I::Tai:deT:.rsi:tl:!,s;e:dn:::t:ta:;:I:i:

;:[s:et;e:Pvdt:]Sfnogr£:Ecehri:s:t-Cet¥nde:h¥sS(t;};Cloos:a]r:6:tt::o-:;yi
John 9).
¥ua°i::,,:(:I:I:Eta:o:V:I::tip:a::d]:tyh;e`s¥it:urn:;es::;jr:
PRE-EXISTENCE OF CHRIST 418

BIBLIOGRAPHY bishops and archbishops are considered prel-

ates.
Pfeh#_'£°7L¥[SoSO*'ie£.es#sOS:£chs€#f%eca#E
Among nonepiscopal denominations prelacy
Cwl¢..te, I-11, pp. 258-59.
DAvlD A. HUBBArm and related words have of ten been used in-
vidiously of the episcopal system. This was
PRE-EXISTENCE OF CHRIST. See especially true of the Puritans and Baptists in
CHRISTOLOGY. England and of Scottish Presbyterians in the
seventeenth century, when the Stewarts were
PRE-EXISTENCE OF SOULS. Three attempting to impose episcopacy upon them.
major theories have been advanced concerning DONALI) G. DAvls
the origin of the soul: (1) Pre-existence;
(2) Creationism, which holds that each indi- PREMILLENNIALISM. See MILLEN-
vidual soul is a direct creation of God and is NIUM.

placed in the human body, either at birth or PRESBYTER, PRESBYTHRY. See

some time prior to it; (3) Traducianism, ELDER.
which holds that the soul, as well as the body,
is¥r£:apgraet::£sbt¥ntcheetE::eryntio|dsthatallsouls, PRESENCE, DIVINE. In the Bible the

whether they be eternal or created by God in

eternity past, exist in an abode or "treasury," ¥o°°£:£L:§eu:s:e:¥i:°i::nd:`:ln:=e±benc¥:#f;p;)e)::
from which they are called forth to inhabit to God, there seem to be three main senses.
men. It dues not pretend to be a scriptural
Ei::'£erafthasegdeens:rn:|adnd££nep=.ap]a?;e:7pr:;:
:i:cntr;:ei::rptFi:rB,.;blAdnaemv:rNSo¥:sksthoe`;recsree::
condition of the human race ascribed to any
i?C:°:ng::hd::ee=;ociie:oh:ea3:?:LLg::th:I:nh=t:::;;tfo:VL:

::g¥a:]m:du:a:,cc:f]t,;::n;etiErs:t:s:a:::a:puO¥uh:rs::;I:eaq:ua:i:|tz
i::iu:I:Tieuy:I:b?i:jtfc,:beg,:.i(£:v£J:s;Ts;,w:e8;`iris:a.::i
i#e:::es:i:b:y:rj:n:gf:a;;f:t:Ipeh.o:£s,:1:VI:#:I:!oi: tineueHdo}?res;rncte(]fraat:.d2¥:]2t;h,[osh£'S,C|P]]e:f:}
Jews at the time of Christ.
and his final coming in glory (I Thess. 2: 19).
MOA=::g ;:een:ieeth c£::£furey;e::gn£:sn;Sot;J ih£:
theory. They contend that the soul, being

F:;s:::;;::hf{:£hfctrfthet:ha::rj;i:f:s:tffd:¥±:k::i::a;:c§;
|!ae:n:,n:E;nut;I:it::::!|!l:i:iis:|oT:;hgdrsh`:
no scriptural foundation. The Bible teaches :tdm:trfeont°([¥riae:::h:?9)YftEutev±r::::£nfhfceh-

;hua=£ssh°:]esntd::a:iseth£`;Sr]t££:'p::tsheenrcef°orfe£:a[
*]£iveer;o¥i][ofbecfrrfes:Z;euddefa2u;t)I:Stshi::irj:ye.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
:ig,i.ays(hpes.p%l:i|s:::.refs:o23hof3,.t|htef:`ynef
3;rc;;a,gaie#;,a;y:oEa?f:.:c?jge.?o5!7E:,.JT,F?Ps.-%:7bo:trittv; noted that the emp-basis of the Bible is not on
GERALD 8. STANTON
;heenc€£vtfhneeE:=:]cnees:swaftfienweE::h£Tomnaanhenccae:
PRELACY. Prelacy, from the medieval

:,:tj: g:ffec#'S're:erhsf8tho rtahnek]:frec;Vofi :[hur::L-

g:i,;Ldprl:::i::or:p¥:I:;h5i£°;::o:cd;S::Pur]iseei%:I:
who cannot see God or abide his presence, the

!;:vie:I;sTneanr£,!.:fohi:;htE.:::::fnl:;:;a:S:V::d;t.e::art.:n:
;[sc¥prrt:a;::£t:h::ugsst:1:s¥ea:FoegesLa:;::tile:ef:;::slat;:::p:t:
p±eospeL=CeLLTeenper;sef::veonfa:ddeaarThon]gthh£:
i:=:S::(°S:ei;epjEe;1:S:es:'i:;tit:3S8:6:::c:a:::tii)i:gi¥j
419 PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD

goal of the divine work as initiated already by PRIEST, PRIESTHOOD. I. OI.D TESTA-

rue,i.n.cafact;on:ua:i:,nejdoy.ei|;nap:hF:i:,s#
"Behold, the tabernacle o£ God is with men,
%:rNeT.full:iiFeadtri£;chhae[a:I:in:;Far£:,t£]eysfournc:££°£:
(Gen. 8:20; 22: 13; 26:25; 33:20). From the
and he will dwell with them, and they shall
be his people, and God himself shall be with
them, and be their God" (Rev. 21:3). This
ultimate immanence, however, cannot be io::ar::e4::,:I:ie:ice:p;#di:a:.:!jisni!:!n:aos*e:xsi:tf
known and enjoyed by sinners merely in virtue men, a minister in holy things on men's be-
of the divine omnipresence (Rev. 21:8). We ha]£Ta::¥]C]];:]]tyhef:,;tr::setsmewnet:eseparatedunto
are received into God's eternal presence only
as we have first received God present to us in God. Their consecration to priesthood was a
Jesus Christ (John I: 12). very elaborate piece of ritual (Ex. 29; Lev. 8).
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY They also wore special vestments (Ex. 28).

PRIDE. Pride may be defined as "inor- £teehaft8hthperEeft;Symo:£nA::::i::twcaesret:o:fffe£:

dinate and unreasonable self-esteem, attended
with insolence and rude treatment of others." (I:::ifl'3-2'u;,haenda'£eofd£:irle,d:I:nalo;:::i:ng;
It is an attempt to appear in a superior light
:,Leayl. ::.I.:fif:3; a:v?rii:;:ydE:leas.tesdof,fi:ia:eni
clean clean after examination (Lev. 13-14),
and perfomed other minor duties (Nun.
;ii:i;ati¥h;du§r:e:e::::;:a:::::I:a:t;::¥a::n:*§is.§|;;i:
Pride is universal among all nations, being i°;0:t]e%;bJe?rie2t:tL2e€;f2:;9f)iiF%st¥:rges,Sai]E
variously attributed in the Bible to Israel, the various sacrifices (Nun. 18).
Judah, Moab, Edom, Assyria, Jordan, and the 11. NEw TESTAMENT. Aaron and Meli`hize-
Philistines. It is connected with the sin o£ dek (q.v.) form the connection betwetm th.e
Sodom (Ezek. 16:49). Indeed, the ambitious Testaments. They are distinctive because they
were first in their orders, and because both
pride of Satan was part of the original sin of
the universe (Ezek. 28: 17, with I Tim. 3:6). typified Christ's priesthood: he summed up
It may well have been the first sin to enter
God's universe, and no doubt will be one of :rne€tecd°::i';t:£±heebTe.ws:hsr::t':sFperc£:asiti?cO2iii:
the last to be conquered. 18; 4:14-16; 5:I-10; 7.

The Bible teaches that pride deceives the As to orc!er, Jesus' priesthood is that of
heart (Jer. 49:16), hardens the mind (Dan. Melchizedek (Heb. 7). His qualifications are
divine appointment (5 : I) and divine prepara-
tion (5 :2-9). His priesthood is kingly (7: I-3),
:;:s°e}':£nu8tsic£%:te:t£:hna£(npr:;.s.]37:31:06))',C:=:
brings men to destruction (Prov.16:18). A unique (7:8-12) and indissoluble (7: 16-24).
As to Christ's priestly dt4tz.es, however, they
proud heart stirs up strife (Prov. 28:25), and
is an abomination unto the Lord (Prov.16:5). ahliemsa.i,t,e`asAa?I?an:i±,£.`iesft.h,=idicE_?v2±|n,iEfefe#

£og:o:dho]o::ga%dthhearteefsntsEra:y.s£::Z]:::g sents his blood within the veil (6:20; 8:3;

fall (Jer. 50:32). 9:7, 24). Having thereby obtained eternal re-
Pride is the parent of discontent, ingrati- demption (9:12), and established the new

i:g::r,:refi:petioi:,hpaa.s;i;n,a:xter:lylag.a.n:e;i,a,:: {°9Ye2n3a)ntfs(:;;5-2£};£b]::eaannsingsanfcrt:#cat[S;:
without pride being connected in some sense. (10:14), free access to the throne of grace
Augustine and Aquinas held that pride was (10:19-22), and dedicated service (10:23-
the very essence of sin. Since God resists the 25).
Priesthood is also applied to Christians in
proud (James 4:6), the believer must learn to
hate pride and to clothe himself with humility. the NT (I Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev.I:5 £.). This is
BIBLIOGRAPHY natural because our High Priest has given us
access to the throne (Heb.10:19-22). Our
s,sig#!:.sc Tuhcek.,,og|y#ogp::I 6P-';c!j,onfyTsy',; i.. a. gF.:fne:;
Systematic Theology, D. 569. priesthood before God is a function of our
GERALD 8. STANTON sonship with God. Since also this access is
PRIN CIPALITY 420

through Christ (13: 15) no priestly ordinance Fig:.hofogh n; E. A. Bultt, Rjcht t7.j~k;~g; HERE;
is required. E. SrvERTSEN

bibT|p.:;grr:::,hp.r.i::ipfdeTheergefa,tE:rn,e:reor;- PRISCILLIANISTS. Followers Of Priscil-

where takes the initiative in appointing priests lian, a Spaniard (d. A.D. 385), whose teach-
ings were widely accepted for about 150 years

;;5:i-s6e:nitds:rn:Se:rss(%5e#::¥sin;e;sdi)::f:e¥::e¥re:; i::rpi:i::hnist:;cEri:ngce*a:sg:I::a:::,ianndGil;c::
tian, and in general terms was a Manichaean
:£t::s`nagresagcrr:i£:ede£8£::);h:hsr£::::,Stsa'to':net:r:::: dualism, denying the pre-existence and real

JAMES G. S. S. THOMSON i:,=:t:I:t£¥n::mfhfit:£ran€jea;cetEt::gthaemho::I;s:

body was devilish led in practice both to
PRINCIPALITY. See PowER, PowERs.
severe asceticism and license. In 380 Priscil-
PRINCIPLES. The term is derived from lianism, which encouraged mixed gatherings
the Greek a".che-. Thus the ten "first" is basic for reading and interpreting the Scriptures,
to the concept and has resulted in the redun- was condemned at Saragossa. Priscillian ap-
dant phrase "first principles." Other double
terms are "first tmths," "basic assumptions"
and "basic elements."
|i::Ey;i;:;ge;ie::ia;ij;I:.rt:.:::ie:::p;a|.¥¥i|e;s?,:
In 400 the Priscillianist bishops who would not
FL:;.a::ehr:;I:C3tL;t:S:::::nedast%VL\:;;:i:t,s::La:p:i:]cc]ta:: abandon the heresy were deposed. In 563, at
Braga, Priscillianism was formally condemned,
::oe,h:e.I:e:nc::::`i:i:i::i;:s;ee!;ncisr:1ft:Bi:r:d:ite.o:: Sulpicius Severus is the chief ancient authority.
M. R. W. FARRER
according to Thales was water, for the atom-
ists, the atom, etc. PRIZE. The word brazJejo# used by Paul
Closely related to this use of the term in
;:ev::se:;beso:heewhpa;t]z:ar:TaiinegLf#]Pn[steT=
uses c[thfo#, and the association with moral
Fr::ac¥:|yes]:seal;sfttsheu:ifsefp,[sstte£:Ot]hogyor¥eh[e:: exertion in IV Macc. 9:8 is paralleled in
explanation. Explaining the concept that water

;::ui's'.sn.g:,:t;:gga;£d`:£:||:k3!:hf|.ts::i;;?,;Eko:
prize here is inextricably linked with God's
:s:i;sa;nf:i::I.i:;e`E:e:s;ce:i:i:o!f.;pi::::s:;i:;gto::e;¥diF|:
:gp:::ri::::tLeiEaoti:oefo8c°:h¥sLtgl:;hi:o:rsca3£2#:n:
#ese.z::a|:i':tit:or:!s:,:;:ug;o::i;ii,co:nys,;t:sE.:nnci!i::s:
!e£Gse:lea:5[n£:I;:Th:e]esp::z=:;:i::gn;:::ht:t:h;:otsg.:°:£]1le:;e:
g:p=:fhs;d9r:I:h:tr:ra:n::,¥:e::Eotdooprrignec£:::; liverance, and being free to enjoy the un-
habit of reasoning may be called his leading
trammeled life of the redeemed in heaven. In
similar vein Paul exhorts Christians (I Cor.
:or£:rcjEtef£££trhuethc:snsacsfcoeur:]a¥n:3::st:h.ats.£tp]ee;:::
9:24-25) to exert every effort to win the
in Batdwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology).
::=ep'a£:o=:::ersfsd:h:nu:g:::ey.r¥:£rrd:nL°:
With reference to morals, the ten refers to Christian is to run as though he were in a
the laws which control the factors of conduct. race in which there could be only one winner.
Closely related are principles of ethics, or the This interpretation finds recent support in a
basic assumptions of the good life such as
indulgence for the Cyrenaic and control for f=The:toDeumnoks:a:esoseE:]££catT££.t£#h]::g:ft£
the Stoic. ZNW, 48, 101-10).
BmlloGRAPHy FREDERICK WILLIAM DANKER
J. M. Baldwin (ed), I)ictioaer). of Ph;Zosofi7.y cod
421 PROFANE

PROBABILISM. In moral theology, Proba- approbation through the trial to which he is

put in life, the Bible indicates that the general
:i`i£:mop££Sn]:::fda:ot::ni:b:I:;£:Feareij:es:]ffdacpt:::: probation or "trial which is coming on the
it may be followed even though a more prob-
able opinion is against it. Originating in the f*:[ew¥:crid';:iyat£::?afi:::ecocnhdre£:,:a#
fourteenth century, the view was first devel- be delivered (Rev. 3: 10 RSV; cf. Matt. 6: 13;
oped in the sixteenth under the Dominican 26:41; Luke 21:36; 11 Pet. 2:9).

c¥ae|:;n3.u::e:)asa:!oE::d,:yc:i:i!:::ii:(I:smp; bit:;°b:ilo:aisdfad[::esus::r°fofi:::£ngw£Th:nsuiiae-
where only slight probability was accepted as church (e.g., I Cor.16:3; I Tim. 3:10).
sufficient. Reaction came in seventeenth cen- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tury France with Pascal and the Dominicans, F. R. Shields in HERE,. W. Grurfuann in TWNT
Cdohimos).
the latter favoring Probabiliorism, i.e., that DONALD W. 8. ROBINSoN
only a more probable opinion is to be followed.
However, Probabilism re-established itself un- PROCESSION OF THE SPIRIT. Apart
from Matt. 3: 11 and Acts 2:33, the definitive
s;rtE:g::sr:;I:;s,:g:I::egf:;th]8S:;easnafe¥su::f]; texts are found almost exclusively in the
Pauline and Johannine writings. The Spirit is
:Tiec p:ehduorEi?ant teaching in the Roman Cath- "of God" (I Cor. 2: 12), but also "of his Son"
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
(Gal. 4:6) and "of Christ" (Ron. 8:9; Phil.
I:19; cf. I Pet.I:11). The Father gives the
PROBATION. Probation denotes the idea
Spirit (John 14:16) sent in Christ's name
that man's life on earth is a period of testing
his fitness for fuller life beyond. In this sense, (John 14:26); but Christ himself stmds the
Comforter (John 15:26; 16:7) wht) "shall
despite its strong appeal to exponents of the
receive of mine" (John 16:14), and in John
reasonableness of Christianity such as Paley
20:22 he bestows the Spirit by breatliing on
his disciples. It is thus clear that both Father
::ally?i:I::oa:1?;°arfymbfiEfi::ai:h|et°::gnftaa:;sgtehne- and Son are intimately connected in the
Spirit's procession, but their precise relation-
:::Vichti:nmtahnat]sthc£:n]t££fneu];S][';ncu°nmd::e:iefne;:e;:
ship has been the subject of endless dispute.
the eternal God. Insofar as it expresses the
Gregory of Nyssa shaped the typically East-
truth that "God will render to every man ac-
ern formula "from the Father through the
cording to his deeds" as expounded in Ron.
Son"; but Augustine, to avoid undue subordi-
2:6-16, the theory of probation is biblical. But
nation, insisted on a double procession from
when the Bible speaks specifically of God's
both, maintaining in De Tri". v. 14 that the
probation it is chiefly a testing of his own unity of persons obviates any duplicity o£
elect with a view to confirming them in their
source. The Latin addition of Fjljoqwe ("and
i.rom the Son") 1o the Niceno-Constantino-
iafro:a)i,Oit:efpe:n:ep;]F£:;:;]vO{i?fb:;[}:2:5:(ge:; politan Creed, noted in 589 and officially
sanctioned by 1017, led to the schism between
Deut. 8:16; ]udg. 2:22; Ps. 66:10; Zech.
Eastern and Western churches.
13:9), his servant Job (Job 23:10), and the
"righteous one" of the Psalms (Ps. 17:3; BIBLlcroRAPHy

139:23-24). sc£;3F.thsew#obyHsth;,*"#eDPoKEgds]ds,:Eat,,#echp£.c£=
In the NT it is the Son of God who is G. S. M. WALKER

;e,:bpat,eighr::aEj::::tii:g,ineh;si|:eT:e=r:::tehx: PROFANE. In the OT "profane" is a cere-

hibiting even to death unswerving faith in his monial word, an antonym of "holy" (cf . I
Father. The probation of Christians is viewed Sam. 21:4; Ezek. 22:26). To profane is to
consequently as fellowship in the sufferings of
Christ to establish their faith (Heb.12:3-11; :aok,em:?Tiefte?inTgh:uLeofr:;eps,a,:rewdh:gehe.Ire.g::ta:
I Pet. 4: 12-13; cf. I Cor.10: 13; James I : I-2). force was apparently to untie, means the re-
See also TEMPTATloN. moval of a prohibition, either illegitimately as
in Lev. 21:4, 9,15, etc., where prohibitions
des:I:nryfrdoempeLefsd£:gE:st:b:]Tpypotsoeet£:tE=:: are imposed upon priests, or legitimately, e.g.,
PROFESSION 422

in Deut. 20:6 and Jer. 31 :5, where ZIIl signi- PROMISE. The English word promise de-
f:£:#E:i::v:.t:ef;o:::sseTsao;::::.iEgt;::ei;:t;oya:rle: rives directly from the Latin prot#jss¢, mean-
ing exactly what our word promise means, "a
declaration or assurance made to another per-
profane or conimon, i.e., usable by inan.
Sw°,:[Wd];thorre:gfercatfnt°£::ifsuo:reess:::££¥[gedth::t,°::

that one will give or bestow some specified

co::eonL°:£'jsecntamo:(;.leo.ia::tryson()L:Sv.the]8T2°::
20:3; 21:6; Ezek. 36:21-23; Amos 2:7, etc.);
thing, usually in a good sense implying some-
but what God has sanctified by his presence
:A:;:ug:,t|:,,:hf.e:;V.alit?gn:r;:eEP!E?e;iu:`eewDot`:i.i:ye;:
::nEt;:arwyorwdfthm:tys::ss:e]3etE:::az:i,12:.g2.i:t]h5:
Ezek. 22:26; 24:21), the sabbath (Ezek.
22:8), and the covenant (Mal. 2:10). De- ;::ieprtai;;st:.aanssltah,:Sde;::iiTeeai:intE.eEiw=:t!
]j}e;a„t.;a:r]°nfa,ne]rt.y23(#,]e[S;n{:::±S¥peox::::;e)i ]dnr8if:££::,¢r;Ire:adyeremdorsepeaEa:Veorn:£ghh:nhdruenj

The NT (like the LXX) employs the verb

bez7eloo- to express ceremonial defilement in
:i:sees-prt:n:aj:,cet:Cunt:er,eLobE::enoThnece.id¥aheonf
something promised, the word is so used, e.g.,
Matt. 12:5 (sabbath) and Acts 24:6 (sanc-
in the ordinary promises of men to men, and
especially the promises of God to the people of
::::y';aTehse::je:tivme.::|bG;:s,I:pi::;aunse,'t'o::wj
`;go2do[;es[S[''T:i."I;;:I;?£fruest'.{!:T6£;.c:i:io4n:izi Israel (Deut.1:11; 6:3; 9:28; 15:6; 19:8,
etc.) or to one particular individual, as to Solo-
mom (I Kings 5:12).
g::ia=eonn::Sor)S¢k:#:i)t¥s,eE:eci:eadn„b(ycf.k°#a°rsk In the NT Scriptures the word is epc[ggel;a,
which in the overwhelming number of in-
7:2 ££.; Acts 10:14 ££.).
See also CoMMON.
:tna:ctens::sst:rpb]ay,t;:rn:I.dtfieprr::tts:i:££::oour:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
aggezifl means something announced; aggefos,
the announcer or the messenger, and etraggelie,
ge£`g+Tt;pj:..273E4e.dge6¥R'. iraes`ialLB 5kf£„c#vde |Cd:Ltw'3 a message of good tidings. On rare occasions,
DAVID A. HUBBARI)
the word is used of some incidental promise
of man to man, as in Acts 23:21. Its occur-
PROFESSION. The two basic meanings rences in the NT may be gathered into three
groups. There are, first, the frequent refer-
:£,)th:nwtiredgper::::i::nf=Tntdo£=atfeeaAVpuabr]:; ences to God's promises to Abraham concern-
declaration about something, and (2) more ing an heir (Ron. 4:13-16, 20; 9:8-9; 15:8;
particularly, to declare (publicly) faith in Gal. 3:16-22; 4:23; Heb. 6:13-17; 7:6; 11:9,
someone or something. In the former sense
tt6g"a (rendered "declare" in the RSV) is
used once (Deut. 26:3) in the OT, while ;:eanj]:7:)?s¥:e:ra::¥a:n¥a;¥!i#1rs::p;i:I;:£r§¥'St:h::
p7i¢skej# (Ron.1 :22), epoggellesthaj (I Tim. promised seed should come. The relationship
2: 10) and Jtomozogei7® (I Tim. 6:21; 11 Cor. of Christian believers to the promises in Abra-
9: 13) are found in the NT. The idea of in- ham will be considered later.
sincerity or pretense is sometimes found in the The second major theme of these promises
word profession, as in Ron.1:22 and Titus is David's seed, "a Saviour according to prom-
I : 16. In the sense o£ (2) above, profession is ];Sfe"th(eA:tfv::;2a3s).thsattep£:enwiE:£k:ttifet?£emtefmo:
not found in the OT, but the NT has several
occurrences (I Tim. 6:12; Heb. 3:1; 4:14; the promise drew nigh" (Acts 7:17). This
promise to David of a Saviour has been con-
firmed in Christ (Acts 13:32). It is to this
;e:nm£:3;;E#ft#s;oRPo%':'9Len*dt:Sre:::::LEI:ny=: group that webymust
"the promise faithassign Paul's
in Jesus allusion
Christ" to
(Gal.
:tseoc:::eri°n;:th°fppor:::s:::,°:einds::see;£otz£!tgej: 3:22). It is probable that this dual grouping
in the above passages confession. of promises, those to Abraham concerning a
WALTER W. WESSEL seed and those to David concerning a king to
423 . PROPHET, PROPHECY

reign, are united in Paul's references to this While there are prophecies relating to Pales-
subject as ``the promises made unto the fa- tine, it is never called "the land of prophecy,"
thers" (Ron.15:8); in the familiar discussion but "the land of promise" (Heb.11:9), and
of lsrael's future, he refers to them as "the continues to be that down through the ages
children of the promise" (Ron. 9:8-9) and even though disobedience forfeits for a time
reminds the Israelites that they are the ones
who possess the promises of God (Ron. 9:4). ;i:in:suelsfilaTee::n3!tiot::1,Ereoj:is;;n,(:)p.nMoaiz
Closely associated with this is the gift of God dience to the word of God, as the Beatitudes,

#r°]¥jese]it°c::£sftn(f]hris]:in:h::]£;',t?I:::°:;Se: :rt:mTt°esity#]Phb:C];eus]f±:i:d.u(n5C;n&tioe:::iyat::
where expressed, "the promise of eternal in- concept of promise embraces many utterances
heritance" (Heb. 9:15), or, as John wrote, of God, as in the phrase `he has granted to us
his precious and very great promises" (11 Pet.
i`itfheeeE::nmafig(t#nhe2:P2:;;£Sedus,eventhe I :4), whereas prophecies are ordinarily di-
The third group of promises concerns the rected to more specific events or individuals.
g].ft of the Holy Spirit after our Lord's ascen- WILBUR M. SMITH
£°en'renseuvrer:crt::;Ire(dL:°keas2a4:P4r;,T:Sf:uAnctt£:a]f:::
PROPHET, PROPHECY. The word
2:33; Eph.I:13).
Other subjects related to the promises o£ prophet comes from the Greek propJ®elGs, fro
God are mentioned only incidentally in the pro (`before" or ``for") and ¢hG"j (`
NT: the promise of rest (Heb. 4: 1); the ful-
:3::E:,befTee£:I:hpehe=n]ssetohfu;I;h[:££TeorT
filment of the promises of a new heaven and
a new earth (11 Pet. 3:13, from Isa. 52:11
and Hos. I :4); the promise of the resunection ?ndd?.h° Speaks for, i.e., in the name
In the OT there are three terms for the
(Acts 26:6); ``the first commandment with
prophet: ro-'eh, 7®fi9€' and Z}6zeh. The first and
promise," regarding obedience of children to
their parents (Eph. 6:2, from Ex. 20:12). last are distinguished by nuances bearing on
the habitual or temporary character of the
visions. Ndg€' (he who witnesses or testifies)
:::Tp:I:e:ah::c;:hr:e;:,;:g,I:a:rs':::;e:?:;ei¥pi:n:tii; is best adapted to charac.terize the prophetic
Israel" for the most part refers to the proph- mission.
ecies given to Abraham and the patriarchs, I. pROpHETlc INspiRATION. The Originality
beginning with Gen.12: I-3 (see Rom. 9:4, 8; of biblical prophecy derives from the phenom-
15:8; Gal. 3:16-22, 29). But there are some enon of inspiration. As distinct from the sacral
notable differences: (I) All promises relate figures of pagan antiquity (cf. Frazer, in
to the desirable, the good, that which blesses
and enriches, while some prophecies refer to
:e::i;,i,;dd:::sd;I:::I:foac:::psrft:tt9:nstt§:t£::;£::
i:€8moefntes;ed=;::u::f°8Srir,:sntyassi°c:S'a:h:h:P#t:ire- invites, summons and impels him, e.g., Jer.
horn, the man of sin, etc. (2) Promises ordi-
narily. have a more general scope than proph- 1o2157_ifc_:[^i:ivEheesr:hf!Es%eannceisd1:oSr3ptohneet,is#.,
pp. 97 ff.).
:i:eus;hofteenrienac||:edi,nhga,tha:,e:;i:ii::Tsa:n:a.c|:ei By inspiration, God speaks to the ur-!€',
in <nme prophecies also - thus, the Fifth Com- who has to transmit exactly what he receives.
mandment is called "the first commandment The mode of inspiration is verbal. The Bible

Toftrtfeprr:omii:';£=:hbey6jh2£}'c::dmawn°dT]8oS]efi= g:,pi:;s ;i:chme::3n;su:s o;.i::p;;act,i;:, :: !:

mouth of the sacred writers. God said to
T:iie,.th(e3`;PIS:.iieis::lif:;e(IaTi:;e4:.8.,n::nT;::
fulfilment, generation by generation, than do Fmoos:;:t;]e;rg:e:££rseen,tE:k:::toatE::ThaentdfLo£H
put my words (verz7fl) in his mouth" (Deut.
Fh°rsatse,P:?tEtecj::'mi:eso££nthteheFa:£teerE-I:pea:£€
i8y:]w8o)I.dssi:£t]£;]ym;°ut!9,re(Tej:.hi:;`;.hrfuv:RUTt
Rrcot:i;:4:f2:tF;,F9:,]yGasffr3£:,;4,tLEupkhe.3f;3;: confirms the verbal nature of prophetic in-
PRO PITIATI0N 424

spiration (cf. Gal.I:11-12; I Cot.15:1-4; I (52: 13 -53). (3) Eschatological prophecies.

Thess. 2:13; 4:8). These refer to the last days when the kingdom
Yet inspiration does not suppress individual- of God will be set up on earth.
';tyi6[;.£ST:h:o:i:a:iefc::etie£:Ptfeot:Sgtiats(::=£e:;

God uses men of different culture, character

::,:::I,:i:e;a::u;;!cie#e;::::Tia::.,gfa:::,p:a?ns3dapi:::!j
;::d::;;3u,:|s|:;n(acfi!rd:ion::;|t::hp,ir:=:,s;I:e:g:u;a:Es Ess#:acfanse7°2f2NB:::3e¥nd[Sr]asea]£a£#r:emdfa£:
in Jer. 20:14-18, etc.). Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, and Micah in the case
of Judah (exiled in Babylon in 586 B.a.), and
of[t[ieTOHEapr:0::ifT£;o#n:rhr:t;ngrepL°sPu::I;
divided into the four major (Isaiah, Jeremiah, ;I..cpohue=esti:cpo.:.i:sgso.ffE:'rfiiitmFi=seAf.g`£i
Ezekiel, and Daniel) and the twelve minor
(Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,:taasteefno£P°[£snrtaef,S.thrfu:es;°rroapti°ency°£otfhe,e:e°£:a:
31:31 (c£. Isa. 27:12-13; Ezek. 37:21) found
:I?ahh?rna,nFa!|aak|::Ei,)zea:ch.a|Eiianhg,F.a¥h:i,,e¥;i; miraculous fulfilment on May 15, 1948, and
of their writings. the physical resunection of the Israelite na-
In addition there were many other I)rophets. tion, as yet incomplete, is a new and up-to-date
Moses, who wrote the law o£ God, was regard- guarantee that other prophecies will come to
ed as a ndp£' without equal (Deut. 34: 10-12).

:fr°tphhee:£ucdg:ic:S,u¥::e2:i¥5;I:i:;:]i?4?4e;8:¥: ¥:o]vca:::y;:;e§e:r])ets:::I;::;C#:::I:tsiyfs:j£:£[':;i
I Sam. 3: I). Samuel came as a second Moses (Isa. 27:12-13; Ezek. 37:11-14; Jer. 31:I-5,
(Jer.15: I; Ps. 99:6), and his work was con- 31, etc.). The second is the destruction of
tinued by Gad and Nathan (11 Sam. 12 and Israel's enemies (Jer. 30: 11; Isa.17: 1-3; Ezek.
38-39). The third is the collective conversion
:e4::r£¥e£;gsA±£)j;hAf(tfrKt,Pnegsse2P)a,ra£?i?ah°,fatE: of Israel (Ezek. 37:6b, 10; Zech. 14:4 f.;
Elisha (I Kings 18-19; 11 Kings 5 f£.) call 12:10). The fourth is the establishment of
forAI:er:icFo`:: ::::orT:s of prophetic silence the kingdom o£ God on earth. Many proph-
ecies describe the coming of the Messiah, the
King of Israel, and the restoration of humanity
:(f#tE:;?v:e:nt.:::t;s:£et:f:,t;f:,:::usfp:ro;fh|e!t:;;; to righteousness, peace and happiness under
his rule (c£. Isa. 2:4; 11 : I-10; 65: 19-23), the
John I:23, 29). In addition to the Baptist, reconstitution of nature (Ezek. 47: 13a; 48:1-
the NT also refers to a prophetic ministry 35, c£. Ron. 8:19-21) and the re-establish-
exercised by both men and women. After ment of converted Israel in the prerogatives
Pentecost, mention is made of Agabus (Acts of its original vocation (c£. Isa, 49:6; Ron.
2:28; 21:10), Jude and Silas (Acts 15:32), 11:15; Joel 2:28-32; Hab. 2:14; Isa. 55:4-5;
and the four daughters of Philip (Acts 21:8- Zech. 8:23). Before the kingdom of God is
10). We might also quote Anna the daughter set up, the earth will be the scene of the re-
of Phenuel (Luke 2:36). turn and temporary reign of the Messiah (c£.
Ill. THE PRopHETlc MEssAGE. The proph- Rev. 20:2b-3, 4b) and Israel will be God's
ecies of the writing prophets of the OT may instrument (Zech. 8: 13) for the conversion
of the nations (cf . on this whole theme, A.
::£eds!Vc;od::ei:::gthtLeee;:taefrnngir°dueps::n;I?fp|:::ehi: Lamorte, La Vocation d'Israel et le Vocation
de !'Eglise; R. Pache, Le.Retoc" de /est4s-
Christ., G. N. H. Peters, The Theocratic King-
dom).
ANDRf I_AMORTE
;h§|i=t:]Sx:e,;:e::a;::§j!:tiin:;i:t;::::i:±ir:::;:#;:i::g:e:¥a!:§! PROPITIATION. Propitiation properly
the world. They attain an astonishing clarity
signifies the tuning away of wrath by an
::pdec:::]c;sios:,a]:.tEieca[::t::gh[4v[:sahus(:s]tika[:: offering. In the NT this idea is conveyed by
summary of the saving life and work o£ Christ the use of hl.haskot"G3 (Heb. 2: 17), hjl¢stgrjo"
425 PROSELYTE, PROSELYTISM

(Rom. 3:25) and Jijhas7mos (I John 2:2; (Heb. 2: 17). His propitiation is adequate for
4: 10). In the OT the principal word is kipper all (I John 2:2).
(see ATONEMENT), usually rendered in the The consistent Bible view is that the sin Of
man has incurred the wrath of God. That
wrath is averted only by Christ's atoning offer-
;u¥Ee:hLee%:r,Le:e]S:ko¥:os::£e¥::¥::o:;:eegs:t:::P;ebr:t§ ing. From this standpoint his saving work is
ing wrath. But in recent times it has been properly called propitiation.
scu.ggfi:te5odthdatar;±eesBsftt;engT;agfat±,s;£fe£:retEt; See also ATONEMENT.
BIBHOGRAPHY
word group occurs in the LXX and the NT,
it denotes expiation (the cancellation of sin), F=dS]TC:0:I;eAMp¥#£7:,£e}a?#:5:t;beBrd:°,Sis:"cfhI§:.2:?'5;.:4t';
LEON MORRIS
:°rtathpr:fp£&£3:r]tethdeent£::nt,:ft,:#:yw:afthtt:
God" denotes anything more than a process of PROPORTION. The only NT occurrence
cause and effect whereby disaster inevitably of this term is in Rom. 12:6, ``the proportion
follows sin. /¢7c¢logj.¢J of faith," where it is most natural
For a criticism of his arguments see the to take it as equivalent to the "measure
/"etro7®J of faith" in verse 3 preceding. Not
;ho;|sHt:eTti::1:u;f:fieifto,I:isn.i,:.:h,ehab,ibnl::,ghr:: pride, but such faith as God has apportioned,
Dodd nor others who argue for "expiation"
seem to give sufficient attention to the biblical Tou;:vceor?tioo}mtFe]2e.r6er::¥ersoftosp<£triteu:|f8t{,ts(ti£:
teaching. The idea of the wrath (q.v.) of God body of belief), as many take it, the phrase
is stubbornly rooted in the OT, where it is would mean that prophecy must conform to,
referred to 585 times. The words of the and not contradict, the gospel (cf . I Cor.
12:3). Another possibility is that "faith" here
:':vhaesnke°esm";rgcr::cpei]€:£o:°tofd:inn:tebus;mt£]aet;::: carries the idea of the Hebrew root 'dt.i¢tz":
giveness or cancellation of sin which includes
the tuning away of God's wrath (e.g., Lam. ::ruf:,i';h`,`,fa:::#,,ti::co:dei:f:omttEefuT;;,pofratiitohn-
3:42 f.). This is not a process of celestial fully, thus combining something of both the
bribery, for the removal of the wrath is in the above interpretations. Wett aptly quotes Jer.
last resort due to God himself . Of the process 23 :28 (where "faithfully" translates Hebrew
of atonement by sacrifice, he says: "I have
given it to you" (Lev.17: 11). Note also Ps. #.!imLaxyxwee,f'un"5ifrTiee''";iu|f:o,:ac:inEaEsearg:
78:38: "Many a time turned he his anger BIBLIOGRAPHY
away." G. Kittel in TWNT,. C. Hodge ofl Ron. 12:6.
While God's wrath is not mentioned as DONALD W. 8. ROBINSON
frequently in the NT as the Old, it is there.
Man's sin receives its due reward, not because PROSELYTE, PROSELYTISM. The
of some impersonal retribution, but because word proselyte is derived from the Greek
God's wrath is directed against it (Ron. I : 18, prose-lyfos (lit. "one who has arrived at a
24, 26, 28). The whole of the argument of place," therefore "a stranger") used in the
the opening part of Romans is that all men, LXX to identify the resident alien (Hebrew
Gentiles and Jews alike, are sinners, and that gGr) within ]srael's borders (Ex. 12:49; Deut.
they come under the wrath and the condemna- 5:14; 31:12, ef ¢Z.). The ggr who did not
tion of God. When Paul turns to salvation, he identify himself with the full religious require-
thinks of Christ's death as 7?jl4istGrjo„ (Rom. ments of Israel was a resident in Israel by
3:25), a means of removing the divine wrath. swu.f::I::-:,ehoont:v::,dcawiteho,:tb:i`;i;pr,iigeEts...I?:
The paradox of the OT is repeated in the
New that God himself provides the means of eigners who became Yahweh's worshipers and
removing his own wrath. The love of the adopted Judaism's religious ceremonial, as
Father is shown in that he "sent his Son to Nicolaus (Acts 6: 5); these converts to Judaism
be the propitiation for our sins" (I John (q.v.) were granted full legal and religious,
4:10). The purpose of Christ's becoming "a though not necessarily social, equality, and
merciful and faithful high priest" was "to were known technically as proselytes. That
make propitiation for the sins of the people" they were Jews in every sense of the word is
PROTESTANTISM 426

not invalidated by Acts 2:10 which merely which in seeking to reform the church accord-
distinguishes between born Jews and Gentiles ing to the word of God withdrew from papal
obedience in the sixteenth century. Hence, it
fads:pttfhnrgee,uc€:£Lmr;escup[r:cr:i:3n€£t:on€h]r:st::: denotes the system of faith and practice de-
era stimulated Judaism to intensive missionary rived from the principles of the Reformation.
zeal (cf. Matt. 23:15). J. Klausner (Fro7" The name originated in Gemany when at the
second Diet of Spires in 1529 the supporters
/esws to P¢w!, New York, 1943, p. 33) esti-
mates more than three million Jews, the ma- o£ Luther entered their Protestation against
J£:tyD::s#:.mp:I:::uht:oV:sbaeen:i:%Sae[[y:::{r££cn.
:i:ctre¥£a]]?f26t?eApr::log:i£:rndst:t:I:e;°t:erin:
tions after the destruction of Jerusalem initiate J"strcw"e7®ttit" Appezhatio"is, made it clear that
a decline in mission effort, or proselytism. the evangelical minority took their stand, as
Luther himself had already done, upon the
theA:Ei:£rae]npsrobo]£em¥:Sh;a:Eedkfnnothne¥sThbo¥
¥;rd.I;:ThiseH%]Zrps:£°ai£.S.i.?a:]h:?£n8:cT:rceea:
phoz7o"me"oj or ``God-fearers." They include
the centurion of Capemaum (Luke 7:5), the
:Th£,sngwtiradt]:s]O:oen:t;u]:oi:.i:e,?scht:€'oann];
Tmth. It is the sure rule of all Christian doc-
trine and conduct. It can never fail us nor
deceive us."
:::;i;:s;;0;£;e:;i::;;:I:I;t:i;:C:C;:I:y:i]::i:i{}ieeisi;:e¥;P;:: As R. H. Bainton has pointed out, "the
had become Jews in the full sense of the word. emphasis was less on protest than on witness"
E. Schuerer (Geschjchte des /wed!.sche7t CT]he Refori'I'ration of the Sixteenth _€ent±:±:ry,
Volkes, 3 ed., Leipzig, 1898, Vol.Ill, 124 ££.)
Pnedaeceo:isp:::s,pup:sat;n:,;::?;giE;|`sfggn'iiic¥::
:;reeset]°t::tthtie]dtehnot:f:iatt£:F'haaTf€p:oas:ry:ecsh°c]oan= of profestot].o in post-Augustan Latin, and,
flicts with Judaism's basic tenets. As a result according to Dean lnge, "it is ignorance which
seeks to restrict the word to the attitude of an
::±uge:'isg:;Sdi:firyeabseecdan=eisas::nci:t=dphwaistii,c:hn: objector" (Protest¢"t;s7„, E. Benn, London,
verts to Judaism. To avoid confusion between
;:e3:;c?.o]f).thAe::`rtivest::[Stfr::na?n:°tfted¥:
tinguishing feature of Protestantism.
;d`oS;t::;d=;i::a::::,::t%::et::I:I;:n:;:Swga:n:dto;:ate:¥: BIBLIOGRAPHY
adopted. Later Jewish discussions involved the
EL#R:¥.g#:,oFfrond#hT;,r%*ht:fw:%>:s¥fro#EL¥g£
A. SKEVINGTON WOOD

PROVIDENCE. Providence is one of the

words which do not occur in the Bible, but
;§|;n;I;;i;h;eo{iiei:::§|:ij¥::;:;tit;;:i§:§|ii:}i;02§j:I:
which nevertheless represent truly a biblical
knows of no half-way condition, nor does it,
doctrine. There is no Hebrew equivalent for
according to Schuerer (op. cjt., Ill, p. 127), "providence," and the Greek word translated
use the term ge-r ha54`¢r. Details on the cere-
t(hAucS;spr£Z:i?']Rou::a:g!y]4°)£.huF=rant£°eres;gig
=;:efsa]arce°nt:e::ego:i:h£:hi;:CeTP¢t;;n„d°,£yper£::
moth 47a (London, Soncino Press, 1936), I, pro7®oeo-, see Ron.12: 17; 11 Cbr. 8:21; I Tim.
5:8. Rather, the Bible uses ad hoe words like
pp. 310 ff. "he givet71 food to all flesh" (Ps. 136:25), or
BIBHcroRAPHy `he se7cdeth forth sprj7®gs into the valleys"

(Ps. 104: 10), expressing in concrete situations

±£,:#irE;I;gpuj;::,:::uS:¥:;#ja3ija:ge;;£dE::,£:p7;¥3:;k5e{{ his mighty acts towards the children of men.
FREDERICK W. DANKER

PROTESTANTISM. An inclusive term to :oe:hj:eFn:as*trac¥::;s¥dae:ntcr;sji:]=T::ellti=as#lo::

indicate that sector of historic Christianity draw on certain Psalms and the Sermon on
427 PSYCHOLOGY

ttrhieneM:funi|?: er:faTi:lne:h :3 =oaki isupcraea?i:cn-

which had nothing to do with Jesus Christ. ;;;i::d:.;T.y::;:.:f:s2hi-:3e:,;otrhi::::iFd';::e;I:t.he::i

But since it is in Christ that this relationship from all anxiety about their earthly future.
is established, an attempt to understand it The other creatures (as exemplified by the
birds and the wild flowers) have been set in
;rpoa:ttfhr::ta¥:r|nwj°eus]udsEhrafstm6Sfteh¥sresteatt£:; a definite relationship to God which he faith-
the relationship between himself and his fully maintains by caring for their needs. Will
creature, promising to carry through his pur- God bestow less care upon man, to whom he
pose in creation to its triumphal conclusion, has given a higher place in the creation? (cf .
Ps. 8:6-8). Men therefore ``glorify their Crea-
#,ip#:aa|r:8:i::s3:2|Y2i2h,,Ai!a=,.I::sesw:: tor . . . by a daily unquestioning acceptance of
Christo than is the covenant with Abraham His gifts" (D. Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Djs-
or Moses. The Mediator who is the incamate
Word establishes this.relationship, and in him i`'5P4e,s.h`g;h?;dc;h¥.dopcr,e.:i,ei:ensd::;:i#F;
God becomes the God of men and they be- and the loving freedom of God.
come his people. (In passing, we should also In sum, the doctrine of providence tells us
note that the Mediator must be regarded as that the world and our lives are not ruled by
chance or by fate but by God, who lays bare
#i:.gear:re?:,;:I.at;i:;h`!a::;wA:n,hgrdGaond: his purposes of providence in the incarnation
he will take up the responsibility for their of his Son.
earthly existence. BIBIJOGRAPHY
We may now consider the doctrine of provi-
dence from three different aspects. ::s?;I:t;£;I;ro!Y.!:8%:Vii,;;:#Re5gg:#'';#|.;Z3,',EJ;3?aa`tviic::
(I) The creation is the stage on which are T. H. L. PARKER
enacted God's dealings with mankind. Provi-
dence is God's gracious outworking of his PRUDENCE. Several words are rendered
"prudence," the same also being translated
"understanding," "subtlety." Main Hebrew
#trhp°ieai:#Satrewffocthaftss:he£Ssf#£:g]e£;I;:n8;
over into the doctrine of predestination, but root-words are I?£# (Isa. 29:14; Jer. 49:7),
`6ro-7#, which can express either virtuous pru-
:::e::Z£Ptgheth::ufrrs°emo;h:v::gin:::gargd,e::: dence (Prov. 8: 12; 19:25) or evil guile (Gen.
Christ and his incarnation. From the biblical 3:I), S6Ec}l (Isa. 52:13; Amos 5:13). NT
point of view, world history and personal life- words are pbro7!gsjs (Eph.I:8) and sy"esis
stories possess significance only in the light of (I Cor.I:19), generally and correctly ren-
the incarnation. The squalid little story of lust dered "understanding." Prudence is wisdom
in Judah's dealings with Tamar (Gen. 38) issuing in right action.
falls into its place in the genealogy of the R. COLIN CRASTON
Messiah (Matt.I:3). Caesar Augustus was
on the throne in Rome for the sake of the PSEUDO -ISADORIAN DECRETALS.
unknown baby in its manger! See FALSE DECRETALs.
(2) According to Acts 14:17, 17:22-30,
and Rom.I : 18-23, God's providence served PSYCHOLOGY. Psychology is the scien-
also the purpose of bearing witness to God tific study of the behavior and experience of
among the heathen. God's fatherly care was a living organisms. "Behavior" ref.ers to responses
of an organism to its environment observable
to an outside person; "experience" refers to
:=f8a¥:::¥i:c::8t*t::Wt::isFL#o::::°nfd:hr::mwaL:Ln:2:: inner events which can be fully observed only
excusable for not knowing God: ejs to ej"flj by the experiencing person - such as memory
at4fo"s ¢7®czpozoggtows. At this point also, there- or perception.
fore, providence is included in the doctrine of The field consists of two major subdivisions :
reconciliation. experimental and applied. Experimental psy-
(3) The God who gives man life also pre- chology is concerned with basic research.
serves him while he is on the earth. God is Through empirical techniques it seeks verifi-
not a God of the soul alone, but of the body able data which will make possible the pre-
PSYCHOLOGY 42 8

diction and control of human behavior. "Ap-,Jo±t_ij}gin_ia~qii!e

iii;,:::g:y;:zi::o:e;I;;;;iij;i:e;iv;ci;i|i\i:;g;jf:i;;ioiei;- widespread, and many have felt that Freud's

research and clinical observations undermined

:::I::ste.re±`:s£°c:Sncru[sffeo£;st:r£:iser]%dn:ro:e:#:
uncritical application of nineteenth century
;:ieii;silt;:jj:::;i:;::§j:;i:eg::;¥o::i;i¥§;:e[:::;:tie;i:: :fo::pai'ia::I;I:t;esiag::::I;;||:,:,i:i;ii:tdhEre;fsoe;::;i::

;:;g:c!.:lteTrs:hf¥¥:=a¥o?i:ndc'eay::I:hctE:e:::vst:e:n:e!t
wishes. Mature religious experience frequently
;;r§;ri:i:::;;ngiiee:i£;i;;;1;;;e:e;:;iii:j|§:;:::a:;I:;P;Saaii:i
"pass;:::i:tsi:chwo::fyi: the psychology of re|i-

:;;ga::::::r:eci;::cseka|:!:af;fn;e=¥E;:::,:sJ;of,E:e::-
fantile pleasures in the interests of truth and
:I::::TE;ins::d::I:snryg.£::jnv'?itsro!:ifl::hje:f||ta5f goodness.
However, the work of Freud has been of
James' monumental analysis of religious ex-
perience. gHr:atsy¥t:=`ittictoe£,=r`:tggna:fepfaf:tcotra;fcaur::

:xees:I:::e-gh:::,:I:I,=,:,i:udeth::deeEtyf|;aznc:h`£;,c:i:,o!j£oa:::oufav:o::edse#Tr:d¥hr:epct;omnp]::i:y¥;
of religion. Depth psychology is concerned behavior, and served as a corrective against the
with the inner urges and strivings of men,
especially unconscious strivings.
;0:u;:]gy[£r:s;::¥st°°nf:hct:hs:.:¥a::O:£h:::thfuo:a;dxo¥:t':i:
theD:::i::ysFg°i°ugnydr:Cr:i::da;tai=¥=£fart°e: nature of freedom, responsibility and guilt. His
Freud took a materialistic view of man, and

!el]a:i:';j!S]rs#€[e:£=:I::i:£ourt¥:':Eftyril¥nl;[n:ed;f::::he:i Fiiim?'g:n:el.£i;.e;jumfi:f:lie;:in;t;:f,iia,egi;
objectify some wish - e.g., providence is the the individual's level of development before
desire to believe we are important in the uni- judging it.
Moreover, many things he said about reli-
gious belief are true. People do put their be-
liefs to psychological uses that foster in fan-
tilism and neuroticism. Men do create God in
their own image. And it is imperative that
iif!:::i;::f:f;;I:S:h;:b;::;:js§:i:i:]i;;§j::;¥¥§::e:::i: resulting behavior be seen for what it is. More-
nature" (Freud, F"twre of a" "wsio", pp.
:I:re,dT:osz:t::d::ttahneE:Egohfethdeev£L:¥£€nh:;
3?;n:i2n'gThheic:ouernseha:;esnattL:e¥hs:;bul:ihtyaopf C#:;:i::ioannsdoff°r3i::n:;:t:nmsphi:T=albeger:Wdthe:

#h::gijj¥:--
gii'p ,.o. L``. int"`rl.n,,?,
=o#°HTnQLi:;=e:Ii_eTi=
imp[9b_ap.1£.,_±b.e~+P_ej±_nLS_
;::]°su¥:wis:sa::;e:nd'£°e::a]i¥::£i:ip:i;:;:F:re:r:i;¥
:ohomuTernei:gi::,sree,I,iigni:nf.rtEethteal:sssen¥:i,ti;:1rz
429 PSYCHOLOGY

posiveness of human life and the need to find inherent unity of the individual psyche with
religious answers to life to attain personal society. Freud, on the other hand, insisted
maturity. On closer scrutiny however, he upon a fundamental conflict between individ-
offers little comfort to Christianity. What ual desires and society's demands. The Chris-
beckons man forward and provides him with tian finds the latter view more in accord with
his ultimate purpose is the Self, which seems his observations of human life, and considers
to inean perfect humanity. He is to achieve the Christian gospel to contain both the
Self through individuation, i.e., realizing his dynamic for creating a sense of community
unique potential. In the western world in- and the basis for properly defining "commu-
dividuation is conceived as redemption and nity" (I Cor.12:12-27).
Christ is its basic, personalized symbol. The Where Freud's materialistic view of nian is
Christ symbol receives validity from the fact sometimes said to have taken man's soul from
that it expresses the Self in symbolic form and him, Otto Rank's concept of "will" may be
is valid to the extent that it does. Jung goes said to have given it back. Rank conceived of
on to assert that in oriental religions other "will" as the expression of the person's un-
symbols than Christ represent the Self and are conscious potentialities: latent creativity, irra-
no less real. God, to him, is "an obvious tional urges (instincts or purposes), the or-
psychic and non-physical fact, i.e., a fact that ganizing principle of personality in which
can be established psychically but not phys- resides the source of individuality - an enu-
ically" (Jung, A7cswer to /ob, p. 169). To meration reminiscent of the Christian view of
Jung a psychic fact is real but not objectively the person as unique manifestation of the
verifiable. Nor does he show any great con- 7.7"czgo Dej, by which he is also energized.
cern about the objective reality of God. He is
Recent contributions, represented by the
too conc.emed with demonstrating the point
work of Erich Fromm and Carl Rogers, have
that "psychic" (subjective) truth is genuine
reiterated the position that man's basic task is
truth. God in this sense is real and necessary,
to actualize his potential self . Society is to
but to press his reality in the objective sense
make it possible for him to do this in his own
either is a question outside of psychology or it
way, since he alone knows what is best for
betrays a materialism that regards psychic data
himself. Both stress the deleterious effect of
as unreal.
external authority upon the human personal-
While this "two realm" theory of truth is
ity, and both find hope for human healing
unpalatable, Jung nevertheless has made im-
and growth in the "accepting" huinan rela-
portant contributions to the psychology of reli- tionship, a relationship equivalent to the bib-
gion. Where Freud emphasized the past and lical concept of the redemptive relationship,
instincts, Jung saw the importance of aspira-
i.e., characterized by flgape, by seeing the
lions and the future. Men need to find out
other as subject (Buber's I-T7iot4 Relation-
the purpose of their lives and allow this to
ship) rather than object (Buber's I-;t).
fulfil itself . He also sensed that behind man's
irrational gropings was something not irra- Today much of the hostility between psy-
tional; that his search for God is not neces- chology and religion, which was largely
sarily a substitute for some frustration. brought about by Freud's onslaughts, is dis-
Alfred Adler's influence has been indirect. appearing, with the realm of psychotherapy
The significance of his contribution is in- serving as the basis of rapprochement. Theolo-
c.reasingly recognized. Like Jung he empha- gians and psychiatrists are thoughtfully read-
sized the wholeness of man. This is a healthy ing one another's writings with more openness
antidote to Greek dualism and its overtones in than has been true for several decades. It is
Christian theology, for it serves to remind us possible that our time will see a resurgence of
that man cannot be dealt with solely as body recognition within psychology that ". . . the
or as spirit, but as an inextricable composite very fact of human personality carries meta-
of these in which what affects one component physical overtones. Man's psychological nature
affects the other. Adler also emphasized the suggests something transcendent of which the
acquisition of "social feeling," i.e., a sense o£ psyche is but a partial reflection" (Ira Progoff,
community, as a necessary pre-condition for The Death and F\ebirth of Psychology, ]whan
attaining personal maturity. However he de- Press, New York, 1956, p. 256). When this
rived this from what he considered to be an takes place psychology can be said to be i`on-
PUNISHMENT 430

ceming itself with the. totality of man's be- to purgatory where, for a longer or shorter
havior and experience.
BIBLlacRAPHT ;£fTeer'wthhei¥hsiifee;:met;:I:i]s]Sa£:east:uf8:Se:ray
The sufferings vary greatly in intensity and

£;;#;%R%;jjoA?f:;ii##;:itf;i?#P;i
Crisis of Our Cwltw{e. i::iistl:E;i-::a,:;:t:I;e?i:.:inia:::s:¥:;;i:t;h:e::s:i£;
LARS I. GRANBERG a few hours, while in other cases little if any-
thing short of the torments of hell itself and
PUNISHMENT. Throughout the Bible it lasting for thousands of years. But in any
event they are to terminate with the last judg-
:s|,::s:::e:e:hseatcg:;i|t|osebeetE:,ni,sEi:dis`:.nae: ment. Gifts or services rendered to the church,
but temporarily the obligation is laid upon
prayers by the priests, and masses provided by
those in authority to see that wrongdcers are relatives or friends in behalf of the deceased
can shorten, alleviate or eliminate the sojourn
of the soul in purgatory.
:t:t::t:h:e:e€sXp¥s:el;;:otfj%'s°tv:c:Sd:cftt£:ex:]p:I:it::ridzt5E[: Protestantism rejects the doctrine since the
poor are to be treated alike), and a penalty evidence on which it is based is found not in
proportionate to the crime. the Bible but in the Apocrypha, in 11 Mace.
12:39-45.
BIBIJOGRAPFT
rssaI;q°aTd;=wTj:I:inuts:¥i;:st:I::::e?:sgeeFoof:r`?p;nd,?i: Blunt; CE; SHERK.
LORAINE B0ETTNER

;o.Tisf'nft:frecso::ot:;t:nwu';:edc:::::;,s|:;`aarh:`dms,.:o:!,:f; PURIFICATION. Israel, chosen by a holy

involves punishment. Jehovah to be his people, was required to be
holy (Lev.11:44-45; 19:2; 21:26). Under
as[tpcotnh:e¥nTat,£<opnu,E;s*F£::t,Ljasyn:::;g::£Tc::: the Mosaic legislation the holiness of Israel
To be condemned is sufficient. Punishment was from the first recognized as moral separa-
is implied. The removal of punishment is tion from sin (Lev. 20:22-26); but it was
brought about by the atoning death of our
Lord. It is not said in so many words that :gfrge::et:d°u:::]reda]Z.byus:g]aeraa:]i°enssfroc:n:rbajcetce€
Jesus bore punishment, unless bearing our through contact with such objects required
sins (Heb. 9:28; I Pet. 2:24) be held to cleansing. Unclean utensils and clothing were
mean this. But that his sufferings were penal washed in running water; but if a porous
seems clearly to be the NT teaching. earthenware vessel became unclean, it had to
See also ETERNAL PuNlsHMENT. be destroyed (Lev.15:12). Metal was some-
LEON MORRIS
times purified by passing it through fire
(Nun. 31:32-33).
PURGATORY. The teachings of the Israelites who had contracted uncleanness
Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches had to separate themselves from the congrega-
set forth a place of temporal punishment in tion, the length of time depending on the
the intermediate realm known as purgatory, in nature of the uncleanness (e.g., Nun. 5:2-3;
which it is held that all those who die at Lev.12; 15: 11-13). They were to wash them-
peace with the church but who are not perfect selves in water and for the more serious forms
must undergo penal and purifying suffering. of uncleanness they were required to offer
Only those believers who have attained a state
of Christian perfection are said to go imme- ::::i£]ctehr::;gi']:;:;sy]2(:f?;.F,04r)P::S:E:ouugnh-

:::acnhsiinnggab;orsppsrein(k¥:gin.w:.9h)=ao,reereLapnogr,act:
:#sse:]nywg#:o];:±ev:ediaatEil;s]#h%:t]c££ema:€r:e;is£::: with blcod or ashes was required in addition.
The unclean Israelite who would not purify
:ofw:£r[tja#?thsaticet£;ieudrc€r:i:tt;a;iodz:nv€r:Eeifees]; himself was executed (Num.19:19).
are encumbered with some degree Of sin, go As revelation progressed, the concept o£
431 QUICK, QUICKEN

holiness deepened. Ps, 51:7 and Ezek. 36:25 culture and a noble tradition of moral and
both use tens drawn from the purification pastoral theology, which inspired eighteenth-
ritual to describe the cleansing of the heart century Evangelicalism in both Britain and
from sin. In the NT, though ritual purifica- New England. Puritan theology was charac-
tion is referred to (e.g., Luke 2:22; Acts teristically Reformed and of a federal cast
21 :24), our Lord abolished the uncleanness (witness the Westminster Confession). Two
of certain foods (Mark 7:19, c£. Acts 10:15) distinctive features were its elaborate treatment
and Paul affirmed that this abolition extended of the work of the Holy Spirit and its concep-
to every object formerly designated unclean tion o£. Sunday as the Christian Sabbath.
(Ron.14:14, 20; Titus 1:15; I Tim. 4:4). Notable Puritan theologians were J. Owen,
The NT writers confine purification to cleans- R. Baxter, T. Goodwin, J. Howe, R. Sibbes.
ing from sin through the blood of Christ BIB1.IOGRAPHY
(I John I:7; Heb.1:3; 9:14) and interpret
OT ritual as foreshadowing this cleansing E#:.fMiwK„P££3#,.'fi#arp##%#.#greRrife¥£
(Heb. 9:13 £., 23). JAMES I. PACKER
DAVID BRoUGHTON KNOX
PURPOSE. The English word "purpose"
PURITAN, PURITANISM. The nick- is the translation for a wide variety of Greek
name Puritan was coined about 1564 to de- and Hebrew words used in the Scriptures.
note members of the Church of England who Frequently only the context gives a clue as to
desired a more radical reformation of its wor- the purposeful element in the word (e.g.,
'dt.®¢r in I Kings 5:5 and 11 Chron. 28:10).
ship and order than was prescribed by the Act
of Uniformity (1559). These Puritans at- The word may refer primarily to a goal set up
tacked allegedly superstitious ceremonies and by choice or conceived of as desirable (Dan.
6:17; Prov. 20:18; Acts 27:43; 11 Tim.
:;=te;a:f:riE:sn.`ez.as:`opna,.ocahni:I::sTiEii!:,edbe,::: 3:10); or it may refer to the mental act o£
preaching and more energetic recruitment for will by which this goal is chosen or decreed
the ministry. Elizabethan Puritans were not (Dan.I:8; Jer. 4:28; Lam. 2:8).
separatists, nor were Elizabethan separatists The purposes of God are eternal (Eph.
called Puritans. In the seventeenth century, 3.11), unchainging (Jer. 4:28), and certain
however, the name was used loosely and com- Of accomplishment (Isa. 14:24). Salvation is
the chief concern (Ron. 8:28-30), charac-
g:eFnednesfen`zei::;`|.eE':s,cdopaa`!:I,vipnri::?cyt:rr::: terized by grace and centered in Christ (11
and practiced serious piety. Puritanism in this Tim. ,,9).
broader sense developed a rich, if austere, KENNETH S. KANTZER

QUARTODECIMANISM. The practice of date, and in spite of a rebuke by Irenaeus

keeping the Easter festival on the fourteenth excommunicated the Quartodecimans. His ac-
Nisan irrespective of the day of the week on tion was both resented and resisted, and al-
which it fell. The main strength Of this view though he represented the dominant view
was in Asia Minor, where it was said to derive Quartodecimanism persisted in a separate com-
from the Apostle John. On a visit to Rome in munion (cf. JTS, xxv, 254-270).
A.D. 155 Polycarp tried to persuade Bishop WILLIAM KELLY
Anicetas to adopt the custom, but they finally
agreed to differ. Later in the second century, QUICK, QUICKEN. Quick (ten tines in
Victor of Rome attempted to impose the more the AV) never means rapid. Isa.11:3, rti¢b,
``make of qt.jck understanding," suggests
general observance Of the day rather than the
QUIETISM 432
``acute"; but the verb indicates "delight," ASV. BIBI,IOGRAPFT
"Quick" generally represents be)J, "alive," ASV,
inchB£"BalsT8=ee#,RE8%#ff°StTE;BF.&ch.BSson
or related forms: Korah went down "alive" to J. BARTON PAYNE
hell, 5C6l (Nun. 16:30; cf. Pss. 55:15;
124:3); and "quick," raw (?), flesh distin- QUIETISM. Although used Of earlier
guished leprosy (Lev.13: 10, 24). In the NT movements, this term applies properly to the
"quick" translates the participle of ze-7®, "living
particular teaching Of de Molinos, and to some
(ones)," ASV. Heb. 4:12 calls the word Of extent Madame Guyon and F6nelon, in seven-
God (his spoken promises, ExpGT) ``quick," teenth century France. The main concern of
active; and the Apostles' Creed describes God's the Quietists was for a complete passivity in
judging "the quick and the dead" (Acts which the will is destroyed, in which there is
0:42). no desire even for God or for salvation, but
"Quicken" (twenty-five times) translates the believer is completely filled by God him-
causative forms of kydy4 and its Greek equiva- self . For the attainment of this state, a prac-
lent z6opojej7®, "make alive" or "give life," as ess Of mental prayer was recommended aiming
in the ASV NT. A planted seed is ``quickened" at perfect rest in the presence of God. All
into life (I Cor.15:36). God "gives breath to f orms of works were naturally regarded as
all living creatures" (I Tim. 6: 13, alternative futile and even harmful, and the dangerous
reading, z6ogonej7®) and preserves them alive position was advanced that when com|]lete
(MM; I Sam. 2:6; but cf. Crem). Quicken- passivity was attained sin was impossible, since
ing brings life after death. So Abraham, ``as what might seem to be sin if performed in
good as dead," was quickened to beget Isaac others was merely the devil's work in the
(Ron. 4:17; Al£; cf. Ps. 71:20). Christ's Quietist, and preoccupation with it should not
resurrection quickened him from limited f lesh- be allowed to disturb his mystic death. Molinos
ly existence into full spiritual life (I Pet. himself was condemned by Inner:ent XI in
3: 16). Thus the Son, like the Father, "quick- A.I). 1687, a formidable total of heretical prop-.
ens" men (John 5:21; I Cor. 15:45). By ositions being extracted from his writings.
regeneration (John 5:24-25) he makes us Madame Guyon was protected by Madame de
alive with him, st4zo-opojej7® (Eph. 2: 5), when Maintenon and found an able advocate in
we were dead in sin. His Spirit "quickens" by F6nelon, but the movement in its stricter sense
leading men to himself, giving spiritual pe_I- never attained to any strength. Quietistic ele-
ceptioi (John 6:63; cf. Ezek. 36:27-28), ments may naturally be found over a much
``quickened in thy way" (Ps. 119:37) from wider field, including many forms of Prot-
spiritual dullness. Quickening signifies relief estantism which tend to emotionalize or sub-
from personal troubles (Ps. 143:10), by jectivize the passivity or receptivity of faith.
means of God's written word (Ps. 119:25), o[ It is to be doubted, however, whether these
revival from national oppression (Ps. 80: 18). may be described as Quietism proper, and in
most cases there is certainly no wish to main-
John 5:21 men's
``quicken" climaxes
mortalwhen
bodiestheintoSon shall
resurrec- tain its distinctive tenets.
tion (vss. 28-29, cf. Ron. 8:11). GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY

RABBINIC THEOLOGY. See JUDAlsM. gest that no one can circumvent death through
payment of a ``ransom," cf. (Isa. 43:3). (2)
RANSOM. Three basic Hebrew words un- In contrast with the private nature of the

::;lice:|eidaedae°£;nra::°b?t;fu(t:3nk°-fi::ri:€:iaetre,: ;rearnbsa;#£sfmppn!£grii;atsteaci:t°eudnw#e;;mt[|;,
life. Ps. 49:7 (a difficult text) appears to sug- relationships, rooted in the obligations of the
433 RAFTURE

kinsman or g6'g! outlined in I.ev. 25:25 ff. back to the rapture is highly improbable, for
Thus Isa. 51 : 10 suggests that God has played this tern dues not indicate mere departure (for
the role Of a concerned kinsman in ransoming which a27hiads, as used in Acts 20:39, would
Israel from the sea (cf. Jer. 31 : 11). (3) The have been a fitting word) but rather rebel-
word z76dd, used in Isa. 35: 10 and Hos.13: 14 lion or apastasy.
Of God's gracious salvif ic activity in general, Three views are held concerning the rela-
expresses specifically the redemption Of some- tion of this event to the tribulation period
thing claimed by God, as in Ex.13:15, Of which the prophetic Scriptures place immedi-
the first-born. ately before the return Of Christ. Pre-tribula-
Through the LXX which renders these con- tionists put the rapture before the tribulation,
cepts in most instances with the verb lytrow" holding that the tribulation is marked by the
or the noun !ytro".. the substitutionary note pouring out upon a Christ-rejecting society Of
apparent in the OT appears in the NT notably the divine wrath, which is not intended for
in Mark 10:45 (= Matt. 20:28): "The Son the church and is utterly unsuited to her,
Of man came . . . to give his life a ransom for however much she may prof it by the expe-
many." No particular OT practice seems em- rience of tribulation in the general sense. Ad-
vocates of this view believe that God has prom-
phasized here, but rather the general concept
Of liberation achieved by the payment Of a ised to exempt the church from this whole
price, with perhaps accent on hellenistic as- period of trouble and judgment which is com-
sociations connected with liberation of slaves. ing upon the world. The rapture is God's way
Of fulfilling his purpose. The language of
See also REI)EMPTloN.
Paul requires a removal from the earth scene.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amdt; F. Buechscl in TWNT. There would be little point in a translation
into the air to be followed by an immediate
FREDERICK WILLIAM DANKER
return to the earth such as the post-tribulation
view demands. In the interval between the
RAPTURE. Derived from the Latin rapjo,
"to seize," ``to snatch," the word may denote rapture and the public appearing of Christ
before the world he will reward his people.
an ecstasy of spirit such as the mystic aspires
to enjoy, or it may refer to a removal from one Mid-tribulationists hold that it is improper
to speak of the great tribulation as coextensive
place to another b}' forcible means. Here it
is being considered onl}' in the latter sense, with the seventieth week of Dan. 9:27, for
as a phase of the prophetic revelation dealing both there and in the Revelation the period is
with the future coming of the Lord for his conceived as divided. Only the latter half is
church. Paul seeks to comfort believers at to be marked b}' tribulation. It will be pre-
Thessalonica whose loved ones have recently ceded b}' a period of peace and safety (I
died, with the assurance that at the return Thess. 5 : 3). Since the saints will be spared the
of Christ these shall be given f irst considera- ordeal of tribulation, the rapture will cx=cur
tion. When they are raised, the living saints approximatel}' at this midwa}' point. In sub-
will be "caught up" (h¢xp¢gGsormetha) to- stance, this view does not differ from the pre-
ceding, for both maintain the exemption of the
gether with them in clouds to meet the Lord
in the air, nevermore to be separated from church from the tribulation era.
him or from one another (I Thess. 4: 17). This Post-tribulationists maintain that the church
will also be the time of the bodily transforma- will remain on the earth during the predicted
lion of believers (Phil. 3:20-21; I Cor.15:51- time of trouble` and wrath, and will experience
52). tribulation but not wrath. The former is visited
The verb harpc}zo- cx:curs thirteen times in b}' man, the latter by God. He will provide
the NT. We read that`the Spirit caught up protection for his own when his wrath is mani-
Philip near Gaza and brought him to Caesarea fested. There will be no appreciable interval
(Acts 8:39). Paul was caught up into Para- between the rapture and the coming of the
disc, where he experienced inef fable things Lord with the raptured saints to judge the
world and set up the kingdom.
(11 Cor. 12:2-4). There can be no doubt that
Paul's language in I Thess. 4:17 requires a The divergence in viewpoint is due to the
removal Of the saints from earth at the time of fact that nowhere in Scripture is the rapture
the Lord's return. The supposition that the treated in relation to the coming so as to place
apostas;a Of 11 Thess. 2:3 is intended to refer it temporall}'. Post-tribulationists emphasize
RATIONALISM 434

that their view`is the more simple and natural other. All rational empiricists emphasize the
solution. In 11 Thess. I :6-10, where the effect primacy Of sense data in the determination and
of the coming upon both believers and unbe- verification of truth. No other authority is ad-
lievers is sketched, there is no suggestion that mitted.
the return has two phases. Pre-tribulationists In theology rationalism has been present
emphasize the difficulty involved in the ex- throughout man's history, but it is more evi-
emption of the church from judgments which dent in modern thought. This means that
are represented as poured out on the earth as man's natural abilities are to be used exclu-
a whole, (hough this difficulty is lessened by sively in the formulation of religious beliefs.
the fact that the tribulation saints (Rev. 6: 14) There is no reliance on authority or revelation
survive the ordeal. They also feel that, just -nothing but man's own reason. Human rea-
as the coming of the Lord in the OT was son is considered full}7 competent to discover
largely undifferentiated in its prophetic por- and to define religious beliefs without any
trayal, but turned out to be a double coming, supernatural aid or divine revelation. All re-
separated by the present age, so the future ligious data are to be found within man's
coming of Christ, though sometimes presented natural or ordinary experience.
as a single event, may well be effected in two In religion rationalism may take the form
stages, one of which involves the saints only,
the other the unbelieving world as well. :fuLfa¥:sa#s:I oargna:tt££.cs£:=.mdiunrear[:;1: ::t::naa[:
BIBIJOGRAPHY ism emphasizes the development of all modern
religions from primitive beliefs and supersti-
vcoft?rReEha#: QThL&t*Ze.Seed Hope; )ohn F. wal.
tions.
EVEREIT F. HARRISoN
In the eighteenth century the dominant in-
RATIONALISM. Rationalism (Lat. ra- fluence and siiirit of the Enlightenment was
tio7¢a!es, from ratio, "reason") is the assertion rationalistic. Its religious expression took the
by human reason of its own supremac}7 and form of deism and agnosticism. The Age of
sufficiency in all realms of experience. It is Reasott by Tom Paine probably is the best
the view that human reason alone is suff icient known American representation.
to solve all the problems relating to man's na- See also NATURALISM.
ture and destiny. This dues not mean that all BIBLIOGRAPHY
questions will be answered and all problems
solved, but it does mean that, if a solution is
to be found, human reason alone is the in-
:„:d¥:##y;:?:Hp¥?%"£+2hfsans#nairsd£'.'B:n:ch£:°±a&ast#
WARREN C. YOUNG
strument 6£ discovery.
In philosophy the term was, for a time, re- READING. There was public reading of
stricted to those who insist that reason by it- the OT Scriptures in the s}'nagogues (Luke
self (a priori, that is, without the aid of the 4:16-20; Acts 13:27; 15:21; and see 11 Cor.
senses) is the source of all human knowledge. 3:14-15), and this practice was continued in
The criterion of truth is not sensory but de- the earl}' church (cf. I Tim. 4: 13). Writings
ductive. Rationalism of this type is rooted in of the NT were also read in the churches.
the thought Of Plato. The term is often asso- Paul charged (in the case of I Thess. ad;tired)
ciated with the attempts to introduce mathe- that certain letters be read in the churches
matical methods into philosophy as in the sys- (Col. 4:16; I Thess. 5:27). It is not strange
tens of Descartes, Leibnitz, and Spinoza. that writings backed by such authority as Paul
Empirical rationalism (a posteriori, that is, had been given and which were read along
with the aid of sense data) replaced pure ra- with the OT in the church were at an early
tionalism with the development of modern time clearly affirmed to be Scripture (11 Pet.
thought. The work of Francis Bacon, John 3:16). In the see.ond century Justin Martyr
Locke, John Stuart Mill, and many others, is mentions the reading of the memoirs of the
of extreme importance in the development Of apostles or the writings of the prophets in serv-
inductive logic and the empirical or scientific ices of public worship and says that the read-
method. The empirical method of verification, ing was followed by admonition and invitation
as well as of discovery, is claimed as the sole to imitate the good things which they com-
authority by thinkers varying from theists on mended (FIRST ApoLOGy 67). On the matter
the one hand to extreme positivists on the of private Bible reading in the early church
43 5 REASON

see Ha:rnack's Bible Reading in the Early human mind; (4) only names, words (7®07"j7®a,
Chwrc7z (Eng. tr., New York, 1912). voces), fictions of our language. Strict Nom-
BIBLIOGFIAPHY inalists, as Roscellinus (d. 1123-25) held (4).
The classic or moderate Realism of the great
scholastics combined (1), (2), and (3). Peter
F%ig*iT¥i#fr#arEfoi;p"og;!b;;.;#;e;!£?:%iiBicahi:j Abelard (d. 1]42) emphasized (3) over
pp. 116 f., 130 £.
JOHN H. SKILTON against (2) and (3). This Conceptualism was
revived in the "modem school" of the 14th
READY. Related words in Greek convey century (Ockhamism) and then is also called
the idea of readiness. The verb hetoji'i¢¢zo-, the Terminism or Nominalism in the wider sense
noun 7ieto;7"c!sifl, the adjective hefo;7"os and the (since for it there are no universal forms in
adverb hefojtwo-s all come from the same root. the reality outside of our mind, as in Realism,
The active aspect emphasizes the act of prcr but only individuals - although the universal
ducing or creating readiness. The passive as- concepts or terms are not merely arbitrary
pect stresses result -being prepared or being fictions, as in strict Nominalism, but rather
ready (cf. TWNT, 11, p. 702). In the LXX our mind's way of conceiving reality and of
the verb "to put or keep in readiness" repre- corresponding to it).
sents eighteen different Hebrew words (cf. BIBLIOGRAPHY
HR,I, p. 563). However, the verb, noun, and
adjective usually represent the Hebrew word ±Sv%\±`eL\:erA.B#Eh#an¥vV.ch¥#¥LA±
k&7c (BDB, pp. 465-67). MARTIN ANTON SCHMIDT

The parables teach that God's blessings are RHAL PRESENCE. The reference in this
ready for those who come to participate (Matt.
phrase is to the presence of Christ in the
22:4, 8; Luke 14:17). Readiness is also re-
sacrament o£ Holy Communion. In the more
lated to Christian conduct. We are to be ready
general sense it is not objectionable, for all
to produce good works (Titus 3:1; 11 Tim.
Christians can agree that Christ is really pres-
2:21); to oppose disobedience (11 Cor. 10:6);
ent by the Holy Spirit when they gather in
to defend our hope (I Pet. 3: 15). Readiness is
his name. Theologically, however, the word
important in the Christian's expectations: the real indicates a particular form or understand-
return of Christ (contrasted with sleep or un- ing Of the presence in terms o£ Realist philoscr
preparedness, Matt. 24:44; 25:10; Luke
phy. On this view, the so~called "substance"
]2:40); positions in the kingdom and the
of Christ's body is a reality apart from its "ac-
kingdom itself (Mark 10:40; Matt. 25:34);
cidents" or specific physical manifestations. It
the salvation to be revealed (I Pet. I:5);
is this substance which is supposed to be pres-
Christ's preparedness to judge (I Pet. 4:5);
ent in or under the accidents of bread and
punishment to be visited upon those banished wine and in replacement o£ (or, as Luther
by the judge (Matt. 25 :41). would say, in conjunction with) their own
A. BERKELEY MICKELSEN substance (see TRANsuBSTANTIATloN). There
is, however, no scriptural basis for this inter-
REALISM AND NOMINALISM. It is pretation, and in Reformation theology it is
typical of medieval Scholasticism (q.v.) that rejected and replaced by a more biblical con-
the philosophical question of the reality of ception of the presence.
universal notions (genus and species, e.g.,
"man" for several individual men) became GEOFFREy W. BROMILE¥

important for the discussion of such theological REASON. In accordance with NT psy-
problems as creation, God and man, faith and chology which (1) stresses the unity of the
reason, Trinity, incarnation, etc. Four main psychophysical person, and (2) employs popu-
solutions were offered: Universals are (1) lar, not technical, consistent terminology, the
``before the (individual) things" (a7?te re7"),
Greek terms for which the most suitable Eng-
as their transcendent, original forms (ideas) in lish equivalents are "reason," "reasonable"
God's creative mind (view of Augustinian cover a wide range. Thus aresfos, which in
Platonism); (2) "in the things" (j7? re), as Acts 6:2 is translated "reason" (AV), means
their immanent, created forms (Aristotelian primarily "pleasing," "acceptable." The terms
Realism in the proper sense); (3) ``after the which come closest to our concept of reason
things" (post re"), as their concepts in the are logos (``a word, reason, science"); 72otts
REATUS CULPAE, REATUS POENAE 436

(mind or understanding); phrG7® ("understand- reason as resident in humanity, or in a smaller

ing"); and their derivatives. Sy7tesjs, frow human group, regarded as an organic unit, and
sy"jgowi (sy% and big"ij, "to send together"), only reflected in, or partially shared by,
is also translated "understanding." individuals. A rationalistic romantic, such as
This phenomenon suggests (and the history Hegel, went further, as the Stoics had previous-
Of Western thought confirms) that the word ly done and as science by implication does,
reason is employed with widely varying shades identifying Reason with Reality. Hegel
Of meaning. Common to them all, perhaps, are thought of Reality as Reason, evolving accord-
the concepts of systematic organization in ing to its inherent, dialectical logic of thesis-
terms, not of particulars, but of universals, and antithesis-s}'nthesis, towards self-consciousness
a. consequent value or reliability. The ten in philosophy, which received s}'mbolic expres-
may claim such characteristics for either a view sion in religion and concrete realization in the
of reality or of some portion thereof , or for a state. Marx "stood this Hegelian conception on
faculty or aspect of the knowing self , or for its head," applying the dialectical process to
an activity of the self whereby reality is a materialistic, economic development through
known. class conflict.
Thus, when man is defined as "a rational In Kant, reason (Vemtt#ft) is the power
animal," reason is indicated as that characteris- whereby first principles are grasped a priori,
tic or competence of man wherein he differs as contrasted vyith understanding (Versfa"d)
from all other animals-a characteristic or in which intuitive, valuational prcx=esses pla}r a
competence which consists of man's ability to part. But Jacobi exactly reversed this distinc-
know reality, not merely in terms of sense- tion when he identified Verttimft with Ghattz7e,
faith, -an intuitive activity whereby "spirit-
particulars as the other animals do, but in
terms of logically organized general proposi- ual" tmths are apprehended. In this, he was
tions. Even so, there may be very great dif- followed by Schleiermacher, Coleridge, Emer-
ferences as to what reason is. It may be son and others.
thought of as a mere "logic machine" - in- Reason may refer to a process-reasoning,
dividual intellection in its highest form, dear ratiocination, more or less broadly conceived.
to the eighteenth century thinkers (cf . Thomas According to Pringle-Pattison (The Idea of
Paine, The Age of Reaso". Note that Amold God, p. 62) this is how A. J. Balfour employed
Lunn, in complete rejection of this concep- the term. And, again, a reason is a statement
tion, criticizes this whole movement as a of fact whereby a vindication is sought for a
Flight Fro7" Rcaso#,. cf. his book by that title). belief or an action; cf . giving "a reason for the
But, when reason is so conceived, it may be faith that is in you."
regarded as creative Of truth, as by the Con- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tinental Rationalists (Descartes through
Wolff), or as merely a coordinator of the scat-
tered sense-impressions in which truth is
g:;::e¥d::ijtt;s#:#.t'?feiis:ir§e:;i:a;*3§t#.%§:;¥fi=;{§
•orical Reason.
thought to lie, as by the English Sensationalists ANDREW KERR RULE
(Locke, through Hume and later English
thinkers). On the other hand, reason as a dis- REATUS CULPAE, REATUS POE-
tinguishing characteristic of man may be more NAE. Reafi.s c.izpae is the state of guilt
broadly conceived. It may be identified with viewed as blame, reatiis poe"fle the state Of
consciousness in its totality, as an "organ" of guilt viewed as penalty. Although this distinc-
truth, involving "feeling" (as with Hermann tion has little force in general jurisprudence,
Lotze) and/or "volition" (c£. William James, it is essential to the structure of systematic
The Will to Beljet7e). Or it may be thought theology. It grew out Of the biblical emphasis
Of more broadly still as the total self , including on federal representation (Ron. 5:12-21; I
the "subconscious," in one of its characteris- Cor. 15:45). The first Adam acted in the
tic activities. stead of the human race. While he alone is
Reason, as so understood, is attributed pri- blamed for his transgression (reatt4s ct/lp¢e),
marily to individuals; but romanties and oth- the penalty of his transgression is imputed to
ers in the nineteenth century, mainly when the human race (reqtt4s poe7i¢e). Christ is the
engaged in developing a philosophy of history last Adam. He bore the penalty of sin (reatlls
or in certain sociological emphases, represented poe„ae), but not the blame of sin (i-eatt4s Owl-
43 7 RECONCILIATION

rae). only the guilt of punishment, never the and often condemnation. Failure to rebuke
guilt of blame, can be imputed to another. makes one a partaker in the wrong. God re-
EDWARI) JOHN CARNELI.
bukes the heathen (Ps. 9: 5); Israel's enemies
(Ps. 76:6); the devourer (Mal. 3:11); the
REBAPTISM. During the second century Red Sea (Ps.106:9); Satan, the accuser of the
the church in Asia Minor, faced with con- brethren (Zech. 3:2); even his own people
siderable heresy, refused to recognize the for their chastening (Rev. 3: 19). Jesus like-
validity of heretical baptism. Converts to the wise rebuked demons (Mark I:25); fever
orthodox faith from heretical groups, were ac- (Luke 4:39); the wind and the sea (Matt.
cordingly rebaptized. The church at Rome, 8:26); and his own disciples when they acted
however, took the position that the rite was contrary to God's mind (Mark 8:33; Luke
valid when properly performed, i.e., with the 9:55).
correct fomula and with the right intention, DONALD W. 8. ROBINSON
despite the erroneous views of its administra-
RECOMPENSE. See REWARD.
tor. In North Africa Tertullian, then Cyprian,
would not recognize the baptism of heretics. RECONCILIATION. Reconciliation is a
Cyprian carried on a bitter controversy with change of personal relations between human
Stephen, bishop o£ Rome (253-57) on this beings (I Sam. 29:4; Matt. 5:24; I Cor.
issue. An anonymous writing, de Rez7aptjs7"te, 7: 11); or between God and man (Ron. 5: I-
set forth the position Of the church at Rome. ll; 11 Cor. 5:18 f.; Col.I:20; Eph. 2:5). By
It made a distinction between water baptism this change a state of enmity and estrangement
and Spirit baptism. When a heretic was ad- is replaced by one of peace and fellowship.
mitted to the church by the laying on of "All things are of God" (11 Cor. 5: 18, cf.
hands, the Spirit was conveyed, making fur- Eph. 2:4; John 3:16) in restoring the rup-
ther application of water unnecessary. The tured relationship between himself and rebel-
Roman position was endorsed by the Council lious man. He is the subject of the whole
of Arles (314) and was championed by Au- reconciling process, whose gracious love reaches
gustine in his controversy with the Donatists. out even for his enemies. Men do not recon-
Its advocates could point to the fact that Scrip- cile God, but God so changed the situation
ture contained no instance Of rebaptism, that between himself and men that he reconciled
the analogous rite of circumcision was not re- the world unto himself .
peatable, and that the questioning of the legiti- God wrought this reconciliation for us in
macy of heretical baptism made the efficacy Christ, so that apart from the Peacemaker and
Of the rite depend upon man rather than God. his passion God would not be to us what he
The Council Of Trent, in its fourth canon on is. We were reconciled to God through the
baptism, reaffirmed the Catholic position. death of his Son (Ron. 5:10; Col.I:22);
In Reformation times the Anabaptists in- through the blood of his cross (Col. I:20;
sisted on baptism for those who had been bap- Eph. 2: 16). Moreover in Ron. 5 and 11 Cor.
tized in infancy, and this has continued to be 5, reconciliation so strictly parallels justifica-
the position Of the Baptist churches. The tion (q.v.) that they seem to be different de-
Roman Catholic Church and the Church Of scriptions of the same event. As Christ died for
England practice what is known as conditional the ungodly, so are we reconciled by his death
baptism in cases where there is doubt as to and justified by his blood.
the validity of prior baptism. The formula used Man's rebellious enmity against God (Col.
in the Church Of England begins, "If thou art I:21; Rom. 8; 7 f.) has called forth his holy
not already baptized, I baptize thee." enmity against evil (I Cor. 15:25 £.; Ron.
BIBLloGR]apHy 11:28; Jas. 4:4); his wrath (Ron.1:18; 2:5,
E. W. Benson, Cypria#, pp. 331-436; Blunt; H. G.
Wood in HERE. 8-9; Eph. 2:3, 5; Col. 3:6); his judgments
EVERETT F. HARRISoN (Ron. 1:24-32; 2:3, 16; 3:6, 19; 11 Cor.
5: 10); his vengeance (Ron.12: 19; 11 Thess.
REBUKE. The word describes God's reac- 2:8); and the curse of the broken law (Gal.
tion in the face of evil. It is also enjoined on 3:10). The wrath (a.v.) of God in the final
God's people when confronted with wrongdo- judgment stands in immediate connection with
ing in their neighbors (Lev. 19:17; Luke the enmity which is removed by the reconcilia-
17:3; I Tim. 5:20). Rebuke involves reproof tion (Ron. 5:9-10). Thus God so acted in giv-
RECTOR 43 8

ing his Son to be made sin and a curse for us emphasis here may well be upon the great out-
that his wrath was averted and his righteous- put Of strength needed to accomplish this ob-
ness made manifest even in forgiving believers jective - strength which itself serves as a kind
(Ron. 3:25-26). The grace of the Lord Jesus Of ransom price. Once again God's people are
Christ assures them that the sentence Of con- found in captivity (Babylon), and again the
demnation is no longer against them. language of redemption is used in connection
By shedding abroad in our hearts God's love with their release (Jer. 31:11; 50:33-34).
for us, the Holy Spirit makes the reconcilia- The probable meaning of Isa. 43:3 is that the
tion wrought in Christ effective in us. Thus he conqueror of Babylon and therefore the libera-
brings the prodigal back from self-seeking re- tor of Judah, even Cyrus, is being promised a
bellion into grateful loving obedience in the domain in Africa as a compensation for giving
Father's family. Knowing the fear of the Lord, up captive Judah and restoring her to her in-
the believer rejoices in receiving and in prcr heritance in the land Of Canaan.
claiming the word of reconciliation (11 Cor. The individual also is sometimes the object
5:11 f.). o£ God's redemption, as in Job 19:25, where
BIBHOGRAPHY the suf ferer expresses his conf idence in a liv-
ing Redeemer who will vindicate him eventual-
ly, despite all present appearances to the con-
gg§;':Rfmfel£C;£tofi#Ec#¥cR#jg¥c%¥#¥ari
Of the Cross.
trary. Prov. 23:10,11 presents the same gen-
eral cast of thought.
WII.LIAM CHILI)S R0BINSON
It is rather surprising that redemption is
verbally so little associated with sin in the OT.
RECTOR. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTlcAI„
Ps. 130:8 contains the promise that Jehovah
REDEEMER, REDEMPTION. Though will redeem Israel from all his iniquities. Isa.
closely allied to salvation, redemption is more 59:20, which Paul quotes in Ron. 11:26,
specific, for it denotes the means by which says much the same thing in more general
salvation is achieved, namely, by the payment tens (cf. Isa. 44:22). In Ps. 49:7 the im-
Of a ransom. As in the case Of salvation (q.v.) possibility Of self-ransom for one's life is em-
it may denote temporal, physical deliverance. phasized. It is possible that the scarcity Of ref-
In the OT the principal words are pdd4 and erence to redemption from sin in the OT is
gd'¢], which are usually rendered by lytroustha due to the ever-present proclamadon of re-
in the LXX, occasionally by rhyesthaj. In the demption through the sacrificial system, mak-
NT lytrot4sthaj is the usual verb fom, and ing formal statements along this line somewhat
nouns are Zytr6s;s and apolytro-sis. Occasionally superfluous. Furthermore, redemption from
ago7-azej% is used, or eaegorazej7i, denoting the the ills of life, such as the Babylonian captivi-
act of purchase in the market, especially the ty, would inevitably carry with it the thougbt
slave-market. For "ransom" lytron and q"- that God redeems from sin, for it was sin
tjlytro7c are used. which brought on the captivity (see Isa.
In ancient Israel both property and life 40:2).
could be redeemed by making the appropriate The occurrence of numerous passages in the
payment. Since the first-born were spared in OT where redemption is stated in terms whicb
the last plague which God visited upon Egy|)t, do not explicitly include the element Of ran-
he had a special claim on these, so that the son has led some scholars to conclude that
first-born thereaf ter had to be redeemed by a redemption came to mean deliverance without
money payment (Ex.13: 13-15). According to any insistence upon a ransom as a condidon
the Pentateuchal legislation, if a man lost his or basis. The manifestation of the power Of
inheritance through debt or sold himself into God in the deliverance Of his people seems at
slavery, he and his property could be redeemed times to be the sole emphasis (see Deut.
if one near of kin came forward to provide the 9:26). But on the other hand there is no hint
redemption price (Lev. 25:25-27, 47-54; cf. in the direction Of the exclusion of a ransom.
Ruth 4 : 1-12). The kinsman-redeemer was also The ransom idea may well be an assumed f ac-
the avenger of blood on occasion (see GOEL). tor which is kept in the background by the
God's deliverance of his people from Egy|)t very prominence given to the element Of power
is spoken of as a redemption (Ex. 6:6; 15 : 13), needed for the deliverance.
and he as Israel's Redeemer (Ps. 78:35). The This observation affords the necessary bridge
439 REFORMATION

to the NT use of redemption. Certain passages Lord has given himself for our sins in order
in the Gospels reflect this somewhat vague use to deliver us from them.
Of the word as implying divine intervention on BIBHOGRAPHY
behalf of God's people without specific refer-
ence to any ransom which shall be paid (Luke g#%#8=BFSBELin°ErE_inHDHADCFGBibE±ied'i!_E£*rain,
2:38; 24:21). EVERETT F. HARRISON

Mark 10:45, though it dces not contain the REFORMATION. In its ecclesiastical con-
word redeem, is a crucial passage for the sub- notation, reformation indicates the removal Of
ject, because it opens to us the mind o£ Christ abuses and the re-ordering Of affairs within the
concerning his mission. His life of ministry church according to the word of God. For
would terminate in an act Of self-sacrifice scriptural instances, cf. the reformations under
which would serve as a ransom for the maiiy Hezekiah (11 Kings 18:1-8) and Josiah (11
who needed it. The largest development of the Kings 23:4-20). Historically, refomation re-
doctrine in the NT comes in the writings Of f ers to the renewal of the church in the six-
Paul. Christ has redeemed from the curse of teenth century by revitalization from its source
the law (Gal. 3:13; 4:5, eacgorceei# in both in the word. Schaff rightly regarded the
cases). In the Apostle's most concentrated sec- Reformation as, "next to the introduction of
tion on the work Of Christ he couples redemp- Christianity, the greatest event in history. It
tion with justification and propitiation (Ron. marks the end of the Middle Ages and the be-
3:24; cf. I Cor.I:30). One prominent feature ginning of modern times. Starting from re-
Of Paul's usage is the double reference to the ligion, it gave, directly or indirectly, a mighty
word-with a present application to the for- impulse to every forward movement, and made
giveness of sins based on the ransom price of Protestantism the chief propelling force in the
the shed blood Of Christ (Eph.I:7; cf. I Pet. history of modem civilization" (msfory of
I : 18, 19), and a future application to the de- Chrisfjfl7i CJ®t"ch, Scribners, New York, 2nd
liverance of the body f ron its present debility ed.1916, Vol. vi., p.I).
and liability to corruption (Ron. 8:23). This Although there were advocates of reform
latter event is asscoiated with the day of re-
prior to the sixteenth century and notable pro-
demption (Eph. 4:30), not in the sense that tagonists during the struggle itself , the Refor-
redemption. will then be operative for the first mation nevertheless hinged upon the testimony
time, but that the redemption secured by of a single man. It has been said that Luther
Christ and applied to the soul's forgiveness is apart from the Ref ormation would cease to be
then extended to include the body as well, so
Luther. The reverse is equally true. Luther's
that salvation is brought to its intended con-
spiritual experience was a microcosm. His in-
summation. ward quest for salvation reflected the birth-
Redemption, though it includes the concept pangs of a new Christian era. His discovery
of deliverance, is a more precise term. Other- of a gracious God as he confronted the open
wise it would be expected that biblical writers Bible, unimpeded by sacerdotal intermediation
would make more extensive use Of words de- or philosophical presuppositions, represents the
noting deliverance per se, such as lye;" or essence of the Protestant reform.
r7®yestha[j, to the neglect of words for redeem. It was a reform, not a revolt. Continuity
Yet such is not the case. It is significant that was preserved, so that the Reformers could justi-
Paul can content himself with the use of fiably claim that what seemed to be the new
rhyesth¢j when setting forth the relation Of church was indeed the old church purged Of
Christ's saving work for us with respect to hos- offences and reconstituted according to the
tile angelic powers (Col.1: 13), yet when he scriptural norm. If social, political and intellec-
passes to a contemplation of the forgiveness of tual factors were involved, it was basically re-
our sins he must change his terminology to ligious and theological in origin and purpose.
that of redemption (Col.1:14).
A convenient distinction may be drawn be-
No word in the Christian vocabulary de- tween the magisterial Reformation (Lutheran,
serves to be held more precious than Redeem- Calvinist, Anglican) and the radical Reforma-
er, for even more than Saviour it reminds the tion (Anabaptist, Spiritualist).
child of God that his salvation has been pur- BIBLIOGRAPHY
chased at a great and personal cost, for the BaTHT=.o#Tinheds%e'forH*%°offth#eRset:#entt#;cftwHny.;
REGE N ERATION 4 40

duced by any human efforts (John 1:12-13)

8#:::chin EERg.eritog€ of the Refomation; H. M.
A. SKEVINGTON Wool) or merits (Titus 3:3-7), and not, therefore,
to be equated with, or attributed to, any Of
the experiences, decisions and acts to which it
REGENERATION. Regeneration, or new
birth, is an inner retreating of fallen human gives rise and by which it may be known to
have taken place.
nature by the gracious sovereign action of the
Holy Spirit (John 3: 5-8). The Bible conceives I. BIBLlcAL PRESENTATloN. The noun "re-
salvation as the redemptive renewal Of man generation" (P¢Z;7¢ge%esja) occurs only twice.
on the basis of a restored relationship with God In Matt. 19:28, it denotes the eschatological
in Christ, and presents it as involving "a radi- "restoration Of all things" (Acts 3:21) under
cal and complete transf ormation wrought in the Messiah, for which Israel was waiting.
the soul (Ron. 12:2, Eph. 4:23) by God the This echo .of Jewish usage points to the larger
Holy Spirit (Titus 3:5; Eph. 4:24), by virtue scheme of cosmic renewal within which that
of which we become `new men' (Eph. 4:24; of individuals finds its place. In Titus 3:5
Col. 3 : 10), no longer conformed to this world the word refers to the renewing Of the in-
(Ron. 12:2; Eph. 4:22; Col. 3:9), but in dividual. Elsewhere, the thought of regenera-
knowledge and holiness of the truth created tion is differently expressed.
after the image Of God (Eph. 4:24; Col. 3: 10;
In OT prophecies, regeneration is depicted
Ron. 12:2)" (8. 8. Warfield, Biz7]ical a%d
as the work Of God renovating, circumcising
Theofogicol S}wdies, Presbyterian and Re-
and sof tening Israelite hearts, writing his laws
formed Publishing Company, Philadelphia,
upon them and thereby causing their owners
1952, p. 351). Regeneration is the "birth" by
to know, love and obey him as never before
which this work of new creation is begun, as
(Deut. 30:6; Jet. 31:31-34; 32:39-40; Ezek.
sanctification is the ``growth" whereby it con-
11 : 19-20; 36:25-27). It is a sovereign work Of
tinues (I Pet. 2:2; 11 Pet. 3:18). Regenera-
tion in Christ changes the disposition from purification from sin's def ilement (Ezek.
36:25; cf. Ps. 51:10), wrought by the per-
lawless, God-less selfseeking (Ron. 3:9-18i
sonal energy of God's creative outbreathing
8:7) which dominates man in Adam into one
Of trust and love, of repentance for past rebel- ("spirit": Ezek. 36:27; 39:29). Jeremiah de-
clares that such renovation on a national scale
liousness and unbelief , and loving compliance
will introduce and signalize God's new mes-
with God's law henceforth. It enlightens the
sianic administration Of his covenant with his
blinded mind to discern spiritual realities (I
Cor. 2:14-15; 11 Col. 4:6; Col. 3:10), and people (Jer. 31:31; 32:40).
liberates and energizes the enslaved will for In the NT, the thought Of regeneration
free obedience to God (Ron. 6:14, 17-22; is more fully individualized, and in John's
Phil. 2:13). The use Of the figure of new Gospel and First Epistle the figure of new
birth to describe this change emphasizes two birth-"from above" (¢"6fJ®e7®: John 3:3, 7,
facts about it. The first is its decisjve#ess. The as Moffatt), "of water and the Spirit" (i.e.,
regenerate man has for ever ceased to be the through a purificatory operation Of God's
man he was; his old life is over and a new Spirit: see Ezek. 36:25-27; John 3:5; cE. 3:8),
life has begun; he is a new creature in Christ, or simply "of God" (John I : 13, nine times in
buried with him out Of reach of condemnation I John)-is integral to the presentation Of
and raised with him into a new life of right- personal salvation. The verb ge#"a6 (which
eousness (see Ron. 6:3-11; 11 Cor. 5 : 17; Col. means both "beget" and "bear'') is used in
3:9-11). The second fact emphasized is the these passages in the aorist or perfect tense to
w¢07®ergism of regeneration. Infants do not in- denote the once-for-all divine work whereby
duce, ol coroperate in, their own procreation the sinner, who before was only ``flesh," and
and birth; no more can those who are "dead as such, whether he knew it or not, utterly
in trespasses and sins" prompt the quickening incompetent in spiritual matters (John 3 : 3-7),
operation o£ God's Spirit within them (see is made "spirit" (John 3:6) -i.e., is enabled
Eph. 2:1-10). Spiritual vivification is a free, and caused to receive and respond to the sav-
and to man mysterious, exercise of divine ing revelation of God in Christ. In the Gospel,
power (John 3:8), not explicable in terms of Christ assures Nicodemus that there are no
the combination or cultivation Of existing hu- spiritual activities-no seeing or entering
man resources (John 3:6), not caused or in- God's kingdom, because no faith in himself
441 RELIGION, RHLIGIOUS

-without regeneration (John 3: I ff.); and tifying regeneration with a moral change or a
John dedares in the prologue that only the religious experience.
regenerate receive Christ and enter into the The Fathers lost the biblical understanding
privileges Of God's children (John 1: 12-13). Of the sacraments as signs to stir up faith and
Conversely, in the Epistle, John insists that seals to confirm believers in possession Of the
there is no regeneration that does not issue in blessings signified, and so came to regard bap-
spiritual activities. The regenerate do right- tism as conveying the regeneration which it
eousness (I John 2:29) and do not live a life signified (Titus 3 : 5) ex opere operato to those
of sin (3:9; 5: 18: the present tense indicates who did not obstruct its working. Since in-
habitual law-keeping, not absolute sinlessness, fants could not do this, all baptized infants
cf. I:8-10); they love Christians (4:7), be- were accordingly held to be regenerated. This
hieve rightly in Christ and experience faith's view has persisted in all the non-Reformed
victory over the world (5:4). Any who do churches Of Christendom, and among sacra-
otherwise, whatever they claim, are still unre- mentalists within Protestantism.
generate children Of the devil (3:6-10). BIBLIOGRAPHY
Paul specifies the christological dimensions
Of regeneration by presenting it as (I) a life-
giving coresurrection with Christ (Eph. 2: 5;
Col. 2: 13; cf. I Pet.1 :3); (2) a work of new §¥;I;i8¥,:;i§:Kfyisi;:ii;s;§§ji.tc::;1:v*%::agt!;i!rEs:£B£€B:i;.:z:;1:
creation in Christ (11 Cor. 5:17; Eph. 2:10: JAMES I. PACKER
Gal. 6: 15). Peter and James make the further
point that God "begets anew" (a"age#7ico-: I RELIGION, RELIGIOUS. "Religious" is
Pet. I:23) and `brings to birth" (apokyeo-: in general the adjec.tive Of the noun, ``reli-
James 1 : 18) by means of the gospel. It is un- gion"; but it is also used, without the noun,
der the impact of the word that God renews in a specialized sense, to indicate connection
the heart, so evoking faith (Acts 16: 14 f.; see with a monastic order. Thus, a monk may be
also CALL). called "a religious."
11. HlsTORlcAL DlscussloN. The Fathers
The large number, and of ten contradictory
did not fomulate the concept Of regeneration
character, Of the clef initions to be found in
precisely. They equated it, broadly speaking, modem discussions Of religion suggest that
with baptismal grace, which to them meant
scholars f ind it impossible to formulate a
primarily (to Pelagius, exclusively) remission
Of sins. Augustine realized, and vindicated generally acceptable definition. The confusing
discussion Of this problem in J. H. Leuba's
against Pelagianism, the necessity for pre-
God or Ma"? (Henry Holt and Company,
venient grace to make man trust and love God,
1933, chap. 2) hardly suggests the amazing
but he did not precisely equate this grace with
variety of the definitions offered. The etymolo-
regeneration. The Reformers reaffimed the
substance of Augustine's doctrine Of prevenient gy Of the term does not help, both because it
is uncertain and because neither reJ;g`are nor
grace, and Reformed theology still maintains reljgere throws much light on the present
it. Calvin used the term "regeneration" to cover
meaning of religion.
man's whole subjective renewal, including con-
version and sanctification. Many seventeenth Many Of the suggested definitions have been
century Reformed theologians equated regen- drawn up to serve a particular purpose, e.g.,
eration with effectual calling, and conversion the purpose of psychology, or of sociology, or
with regeneration (hence the systematic mis- of some philosophical position such as human-
translation of epistreph6, "turn," as a passive, ism. Whether they are adequate for such spe-
"be converted," in the AV); later Reformed cial purpose must be decided by the specialists
theology has defined regeneration more nar- in that field; but they clearly fail to give a
rowly, as the implanting of the "seed" from characterization of religion that is useful for
which faith and repentance spring (I John more general purposes. This need not cause
3:9) in the course of effectual calling. Ar- confusion, provided that their special purpose
minianism constmcted the doctrine of regen- is noted and that their use is confined to that
eration synergistically, making man's renewal special purpose. When such a definition is
dependent on his prior co-operation with grace; employed as adequate for some other purpose,
liberalism constructed it naturalistically, idem- however, confusion results. Thus F. H. Brad-
REMISSION 442

Icy writes, ``1 take it to be a fixed feeling Of BIBLIOGRAPHY

fear, resignation, admiration or approval, no
matter what may be the object, provided only
that this feeling reaches a certain strength, and
is qualif ied by a certain degree Of reflection"
(Appeara#ce ¢%d Reality, p. 438n.). This may
¥T¥!c,e:Egg;1?ig;fgas##c;;ii?fi,i"##i;
ANDREW KERR RULE
or may not be good for the |]urpose of psy-
chology, but Bradley makes use of it in a dis- REMISSION. See FORGlvENEss.
cussion that is not confined to psychology.
Such confusion is much too common. REMNANT. The translation of several
The effort to gain a definition by isolating words in the OT, only two of which are Of
the common characteristics of the recognized consequence: yd!flr with its noun ye!er and
religions runs into the following difficulties: 5d'¢r with its derivatives 5e'jir and 5e'Gr€¢. The
(I) there are border-line cases the inclusion NT equivalents !o;pos and Z;t»7ma with i& com-
or exclusion of which will determine the re- pounds are infrequent. In the majority Of cases
sulting definition; e.g., including original the words concerned are used in a literal and
Buddhism or Marxism in the cases studied selkexplanatory way. They merely refer to
will remove from the definition a mention Of things or peo|)le left over after famine, con-
a supernatural Object. But the decision to in- quest, division, passage of time, etc. In the
clude or to exclude must in either case seem books of the prophets, however, the hope
arbitrary. (2) The characteristics of the vari- promised for those of the nation lef I over aftei
ous religions differ so widely that it may be the fall Of Jerusalem crystallized into a prom-
impossible, by this method, to find any com- ise (a.v.) not only of preservation for the few
mon features, or, if any are found, they must people remaining, but a promise for the kernel
be so vague as to be of doubtful value. For of the nation which could be kept in all vicissi-
example, in Bradley's definition, quoted above, tudes and at length returned to its land and
note the indefiniteness of the expressions, "a blessed status in messianic times. For this con-
certain strength" and "a certain degree of re- cept, the word 5e'Gr£± is principally used.
flection." However, those for example who The thought perhaps goes back to Deut.
call Marxism a religion in spite of its aggres- 4:27 where the promise is given to the ones
sive repudiation of religion, must feel that a lef t after dispersal that they will be blessed
satisfactory definition can be attained in this again if they seek the Lord. Isaiah named one
manner. of his sons Shear Jashub, "a Remnant Shall
Perhaps a satisfactory definition can be at- Return" (Isa. 7:3; 8:18). In 10:21 this is
tained only by confining attention to one or a interpreted to mean the remnant shall return
few Of the "higher" religions, the others being to God, referring, perhaps, to revival in the
treated as defective and so not normative. This days of Hezekiah. Yet in 11:10-16 there is
would be to apply to religion the method ad- reference to a "second" return from dispersal
vocated in philosophy by Bernard Bosanquet, in which the Gentiles shall join. The quota-
namely that reality can be properly under- tion in Ron. 15: 12 assures us that this refers
stood only from the standpoint of its highest not to the return from Assyria or Babylon,
manifestation. One could not, of course, ex- but a second return at the time of the messi-
anic age.
pect anything like unanimous agreement in
the selection on the basis Of which such a In Mic. 4:7; 5:7-8; 7:18 the remnant of
clef inition would be reached, but a fairly gen- Jacob is practically a name for Israel in the
eral agreement might be hoped for if the selec- future days. In Jeremiah, the remnant is used
tion were not too rigid, and the actual selec- of the return from Babylonian captivity in
lion might be capable of defence. Such a 50:20; 42:2, etc., but it is also used to refer
method would yield, as clef initive characteris- to Israel in the messianic age in 23:3; 31:7.
ties of religion, the acknowledgment Of a Zechariah also uses the term for the Jews who
higher, unseen power; an attitude Of reverent came back from Babylon (Zech. 8:6,11-12),
dependence on that power in the conduct Of as well as f or the residue of the people (yefer
life; and special actions, e.g., rites, prayers, 7id'd7m) of the messianic age (14:2). The re-
acts Of mercy etc., as peculiar ex|)ressions, and pentant mouming of the Israelite remnant is
means of cultivation, of the religious attitude. detailed in Zech.12: 10 -13 : I as taking place
443 REPENTANCE

in the day of Israel's salvation. These verses However, the Remonstrants in 1630 were
are quoted in the NT in connection with granted freedom in Holland. Their theological
Christ's second coming (Matt. 24:30; Rev. influence has been great from that time.
I : 7). See also ARMINIANlsM.
Much discussed is Amos 9:12, quoted in SHERMAN RODI)Y
Acts I 5 : 17. The a-millennial view is defended
RENEWAL. This is an integral concept in
by 0. I. AIlis Cprophecy and the Church,
Christian theology, denoting all those processes
Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co.,
of restoration Of spiritual strength subsequent
Philadelphia,1945, pp.145-149). In brief, the
to and proceeding from the new birth. It has
argument is that the conquest of the "remnant
its roots in the OT (Pss. 5:10; 103:5; Isa.
o£ Edom" in Amos is spiritualized in Acts to
40:31; 41: I), although it is not predominant
refer to the conversion of the Gentiles in this
in pre-Christian times. The main NT words
age. An alternative view, presented in Alf and
are ¢7c¢haj7®7.2:6 and fl7icz7ceoo-. In Ron. 12:2
Meyer's Commentary (j" loco) is that the
this renewal (ci„cl/€aj7io-s;s) is applied to the
LXX which Acts 15:17 quotes quite closely
mental faculties, and indicates the reinvigorat-
had before it a variant Hebrew text. If this be
ing effect of Christian committal on conduct.
true, the Amos passage prophesied a day when
This is further illustrated by the apostle's
Gentiles and Jews (the remnant of men)
teaching regarding the new man (Col. 3: 10),
would seek the Lord. Heretofore it has often
which is represented as in constant need of re-
been assumed that when the LXX differed
newal (11 Cor. 4:16). A more specific de-
from the Hebrew, the latter was right. Dead
scription is found in Eph. 4:23 where the
Sea Scroll material gives a. new perspective on
these matters. At least here, where the LXX phrase "renewed in the spirit of your mind"
shows the spiritual character of this renewal.
is supported by the NT, there is good argu- "The spiritual principle of the mind must ac-
ment that its text is accurate and that it speaks
of the promise of salvation for the remnant. quire a new youth, susceptible of spiritual im-
pressions" (J. A. Robinson, c!d loc., S£. P¢w}'s
In Ron. I I : 5 the remnant of grace appears Epjs£1e to the Ep7}esi¢#s, Macmillan, London,
be the saved of Israel (q.v.) of Paul's day. 1904).
seems equally clear that this age, when Jews
In the sub-apostolic age the idea of renewal
cast off and Gentiles graf ted into the stock
tended to become linked with that of baptism
the people of God (Ron.11:15-22), will
followed by an age when the Jews will be (cf. Bcim¢ZJas 6: 11, and the apocryphal Acts
of TJ}o7mc!s, 132). It was not strange that the
1.eintroduced to the privileges of grace (Rom.
initiatory rite should mark in Christian thought
11:25-31). Verse 26 then gives the eventual
the commencement of the process of renewal,
promise for the Jewish remnant of the last but there is nothing in the NT teaching to
days.
support any notion of baptismal renewal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Another word, pal;#ge#esja, is used of the
9..Ef,?:hE.i;:Eh;,e!3?e5:f:-"8i,'e8id¥eas'tkaefei?,2HngA£ event of rebirth which leads to renewal. The
R. LAIRD HARRIS two ideas are linked together in Titus 3:5,
where they appear to describe different aspects
REMONSTRANTS. The Remonstrants, of one operation. The linking of pci!;7ige"esin
followers of Jacobus Arminius and led by in this passage with "washing" suggests the
Bisschop and Grotius, presented to Holland words may have formed part of a baptismal
and Friesland in 1610 a series of articles formula, but gives no basis for the later magi-
known as the Remonstrance. Their positions cal estimate of baptism.
were: (1) The decree of predestination was BIBLIOGRAPHY
conditional; (2) Christ died for all; (3) A
man may reject the grace Of God; (4) A man !Jf¥:;d;i?:i;;:!::!:!i:g#g:I;'s,.p%.fear.?,:iEhpu:,t,egzgpT
may fall from a state Of grace. DONALD GUTHRIE
The Remonstrants were criticized for both
theological and political reasons; some were im- REPENTANCE. In the OT the verb ``re-
prisoned and executed by Maurice of Orange. pent" (niph`al of #6dy¢m) occurs about thirty-
Adjudication came at the Synod of Dort five times. It is usually used to signify a con-
(1618-19); the Calvinistic views prevailed. templated change in God's dealings with men
REPENTANCE 444

for good or ill according to his just judgment selves the Son Of God afresh and cannot be re-
(I Sam.15:11, 35; Jonah 3:9-10) or, nega- newed to repentance (Heb. 6:5-6).
tively, to certify that God will not swerve NT writers often distinguish between re-
from his announced purpose (I Sam. 15:29; pentance and conversion (Acts 3: 19; 26:20),
Ps.Ilo:4; Jer. 4:28). In five places »6Zz¢7» and between repentance and faith (Mark
refers to human repentance or relenting. The I : 15; Acts 20:21). ``/Ei7istrepJ.oJ has a some-
LXX translates .¢6J}¢7„ with nceto%oeo- and what wider signification than meto%oe6 . . .
naeton¢ezow¢aj. Eithe.I Greek verb may occur [and] always includes the element Of faith.
designating either human repentance or divine Meta"oeo- and pjstewej# can be alongside Of
"relenting" (so the RSV in some places). each other; not so epjstreph6 and pjstetiej""
However, the background of the NT idea (Louis Berkhof, Syste7#atjc Theology, Eerd-
mans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids,
Of repentance lies not primarily in foms Of
Michigan, 1946, p. 482). Tbe distinction ha
7!dziam (except in Job 42:6; Jer. 8:6; 31: 19),
tween "ceto#oe6 and epjstrepho- should not be
but rather in forms o£ 5ft9, meaning ``to turn
back, away from, or toward" in the religious pressed. Meto7.oz.a, at least, is used to signify
the whole process Of change. God has granted
sense. The LXX consistently translates 5rfe!
the Gentiles "repentance unto life" (Acts
with forms of epistrep7io- and apostrepho-. Re-
11: 18) and godly sorrow works "repentance
pentance follows a tuning about which is a unto salvation" (11 Cor. 7:10). Generally,
gift Of God (Jer. 31:18-20; Ps. 80:3, 7,19). however, ".et¢"oj¢ can be said to denote that
Isa. 55:6-7 gives the typical OT call to re-
inward change of mind, affections, convictions
pentance and conversion. Heartfelt sorrow for and commitment, rooted in the fear of God
sin (a.v.) and conversion are sometimes placed
and sorrow for offenses committed against him,
in an eschatological setting, being linked to the
which, when accompanied by faith in Jesus
remission of judgment, the return from cap-
Christ, results in an outward tuning from
tivity, the coming of the great time of salva-
sin to God and his service in all of life. It is
tion and the coming Of Pentecost (Jer. 31 : I 7-
never regretted (o"et¢melGto7i,11 Col. 7: 10)
20; 31:31-34; Joel 12:12-32).
and it is given by God (Acts 11 : 18). Metoroed
In the NT t#eta7}oja (noun) occurs twenty- points to the inward conscious change while
three times and meta7ioeo- (verb) thirty-four epjstrep7to- directs attention particularly to the
times. Metomehaj occurs seldom and is used changed determinative center for all of life
almost exclusively in the sense Of "regretting, (Acts 15:19; I Thess.I:9).
having remorse." Meta#oeo- (meto#oin) is al- Calvin taught that repentance stemmed from
most always used in a favorable sense. serious fear Of God and consisted in the morti-
Repentance is the theme of the preaching fication of the old man and the quickening of
of John the Baptist (Matt. 3:1; Mark I:4; the Spirit. Mortification and renovation are
Matt. 3:8). Baptism in water unto repentance obtained by union with Christ in his death
is accompanied by confession Of sins (Matt. and resurrection (J7®stjtwtes,Ill. iii. 5, 9).
3:6; c£. I John 1:8-9). Jesus continues John's Beza (after Lactantius and Erasmus) ob-
theme but adds, significantly, "The time is jected to the translation of oweta7®oeo- by
fulfilled" (Mark I:15). His coming is the "poe7®;fe"tin#® agjte" but the attempt to replace
coming of the kingdom in person and is de- this with resi27jsce7etifl (``a coming to one'S
cisive (Matt. 11:20-24; Luke 13:1-5). All self") was infelicitous. Luther occasionally used
life-relationships must be radically altered "Tbw£ Bwsse./" but his thesis was that Jesus, in
(Matt. 5:17-7:27; Luke 14:25-35; 18:18- giving this command, meant that all of life
30). Sinners, not the righteous, are called to was to be penance before God.
met¢7!oj¢ (Matt. 9:13; Mark 2:17; Luke Roman Catholicism teaches that the sacra-
5:32), and heaven rejoices over their repent- ment of penance consists materially of contri-
ance (Luke 15). The preaching of repentance tion, confession and satisfaction. But the judi-
and remission Of sins must be joined to the cial pronouncement of absolution by the
proclamation Of the cross and the resurrection church is needed to give these elements real
(Luke 24:44-49). The apostles are true to validity.
this commission (Acts 2:38; 3:19; 17:30; BIBLIOGRAPHY
20:21). Unfaithful churches must repent
(Rev. 3:5, 16). Apostates crucify to them- Fh?:!o.di!,:p£:ge;¥oiTz.,¥vT#j.Bi:usf.i!*;.::##
445 RESERVATION

(LXX) it is translated "dross," while in I Con.

----------:i:::---:_---:--==---::------I----I------:---:i-- 9:27 the AV renders it "castaway," the ASV
and the ERV "rejected," and the RSV with
"disqualified," the last being preferable. In
Heb. 6:8 the land, bearing thorns and thistles,
CARI. G. KROMMINGA does not meet the test and is rejected.
BIBIIOGFLAprly
REIPROACH. There are various words Amdt; JSBE.
used throughout Scripture to convey the idea J. THEODORE MUEI.LER
of reproach, and in all Of them the primary
REPROBATION. See ETERNAL PuNlsH-
meaning is that of shame (q.v.) or disgrace or
MENT.
damage, not simply that of rebuke. On occa-
sion the specific sense o£ "scorn" is in view, REPROVE, REPROOF. The most fre-
that is, something intended to bring shame
quent signif icance of these words in the OT
upon someone else. Thus the punishment o£ is that of rebuke. "Reproof" occurs frequently
Israel by God for covenant unfaithfulness in this sense in Proverbs, particularly with a
would merit the scorn (kyerpd) Of the Gentiles view to correction; and "reprove" is found in
(Mic. 6:16), and the failure of Chorazin, Job, Psalms and Proverbs. In Isa.11 :3-4, how-
Bethsaida, and Capemaum to repent af ter wit- ever, it bears the meaning judge, especially
nessing the miracles caused Jesus "to reproach in defending the oppressed. In association with
(o"ejd;ze;#) the cities" (Matt. 11 :20; cf. Mark the idea of argument at the root Of this latter
15:32; 16:14).
use, HDB gives the meaning disprove, refute,
At other times the emphasis is on the "dis- in Job 6:25-26 and Isa. 37:4, but BDB pre-
grace" or "suffering" which rests upon oneself. fers the sense Of chide, and thus also the RSV.
So the inability Of lsrael's armies to cope with In the NT "reproof" occurs only in 11 Tim.
Goliath brought humiliation (Z.erp4) to the na- 3: 16, where it connotes conviction, the nega-
tion (I Sam. 17:26), and the failure to have tive side of doctrine. The verb ``Ieprove," trams-
children was considered the disgrace (Z}erp4) lating e!egc7i6, indicates conviction, whether
o£ Rachel (Gen. 30:23; c£. Job 19:5; Isa. of persons in proving to them their guilt (John
54:4). Paul challenges Christians to a life of 16:8; 11 Tim. 4:2), or of their sins in prov-
selflessness by invoking the example of Christ, ing them subject to condemnation (John
who bore the "sufferings" (o7leidis7#oj) due to 3:20). The RSV thus rightly uses the verb
others (Ron. 15:3; quoted from Ps. 69:9). "expose" in Eph. 5:11,13 in preference to
And when Moses is commended for enduring reprove.
the ``reproach (o"e;disowo7®) o£ Christ," that is,
J. CI.EMENT CONNELL
shame and suffering for righteousness' sake
(Heb. 11:26), the implication is that such RESERVATION. This is the practice Of
undeserved reproach would bring reward in keeping some of the bread and occasionally also
heaven (cf. Matt. 5:11,12; I Pet. 4:14). the wine consecrated in the sacrament, pri-
ROBERT 8. LAURIN marily for the purpose of administering Holy
Communion to the sick. Justin Martyr men-
REPROBATE. The adjective "reprobate" tions in his Apology (chap. 65) the custom
in the sense of disapproved or rejected trams- of sending a portion of the elements from the
lates the Hebrew tnd'¢s, as reprobate silver, Eucharist to the absent. This was hardly reser-
that is, worthless silver (Jer. 6:20) and the vation, however, but rather extended adminis-
Greek adok;mos, ``disqualified," "morally cor- tration or concurrent communion. Other evi-
"pt," ``unfit for any good deed" (cf. Ron. dence shows that the practice arose of keep-
1:28; 11 Cor.13:5-7; 11 Tim. 3:8; Titus 1:6). ing the elements at home so that communion
In all these passages the condition of being could be taken constantly before other food
reprobate is the result Of man's perverse mind (Tertullian, Ad. wxore7# 11. 5). The sacra-
which stubbornly refuses to obey God's will. mental species was sent from bishop to bishop
The original meaning of ¢dokj7"os is not to as a sign of charity, or from a bishop to the
stand the test and therefore to be disqualified. chief churches of his diocese as a sign of unity,
The Greek term appears both in the LXX and or carried as a charm on a journey. Two fac-
in secular Greek. In Isa.I:22 and Prov. 25:4 tors which affected most the practice and
RESPECT OF PERSONS 446

theory of reservation were (I) the theory Of 2:2 and John 5:17. The present continuing
vietfco«», that by reception Of the Eucharist work of God is one of preservation and salva-
the dying were prepared for the last journey tion ratber than creation. For Israel the sab-
and assured Of resurrection, and (2) the de- bath was less a day Of rest than of desisting
velopment of the doctrine of transubstandation from normal work-in Ex. 23:12 the rest is
and its corollary, concomitance (a.v.). Reserva- for the animals.
tion is now usually in the single kind Of bread, Rest for "the people Of God" should be a
"sabbath rest" (Heb. 4:9 ASV -sa[bz7¢tis~®os),
but in the Eastern Church the bread is dipped "not an isolated sabbath but a sabbath-life"
in the wine and then dried.
RICHARI) J. Cfo^TES C.`^1estcott, The Episde to the Hebrews, p.
98), because God's goal for them must be
RESPECT OF PERSONS. The literal consonant with his nature - his rest (hapar.-
meaning Of the Greek pros6pole-psie and cog- s;s, Hebrew mendkyd) must be a sobbatjswos.
mate terms, "receive the face," is derived from In spite Of the vast majority Of commentators
the Hebrew 72dsd' pdnfr», to "raise the face,"
i.e., to accept favorably. It is confined to bibli- *iE:::i:sa::lo££esq::;edinbyH:gr:illh:;
cal and Christian writers. A typical instance Of this rest is defened to heaven, though it will
the idea appears in Deut. 10: 17: God cannot not know its perfection until then. When a
be bribed to accept favorably those who should man is crucified with Christ, he ceases from
be rejected. In the OT the idea may be used his own works. It is highly probable that
in a good sense (e.g., I Sam. 25:35; Mal. Christ was implying the same truth in Matt.
1 :8-9) but it frequently means "showing par- I I :28 ff. A7rapowsjs ("rest") is regularly used
tiality," as in Lev. 19: 15, where a guilty man's in the LXX Of sabbath rest.
poverty is no ground for his being accepted BIBHacrmHT
favorably. In the NT the good sense disap ThEDEBpi%ti#th¥_rfeRbes,esfs=pdp."%E8bo®#.:BG..EmTquf%,
Hebrcgs, pp. 91-lot.
pears and it invariably means to show par- H. L. ELLlsoN
tiality to a person because Of his external pos-
sessions, position, or privilege without regard
RESTITUTION. The OT law dealt vari-
to his true worth. God is no respecter Of per-
ously with Offences requiring reparation. Ex.
sons (Acts 10:34), neither accepting the Jew
22:1 legislated for stolen goods already dis-
because of his privileges nor rejecting the Gen-
tile because of his lack Of them. So also in pased of and required a f ivef old restitution for
oxen and fourfold for sheep. The latter be-
Ron. 2:11; Gal. 2:6; Eph. 6:9; Col. 3:25.
came the normal extreme penalty (11 Sam.
Jesus, while not accepting persons showed 12:6; LXX ``sevenfold" agrees with Prov. 6:31
that respect must be given where it is due
where with the parallelism "all the substance
(Luke 20:21-25; cf. Ron.13:7). James 2: I-9 of his house" would suggest "full measure" as
well illustrates the meaning of the term in
in Ex. 22:3). Stolen property unconsumed
Christian conduct.
was repayable in double (Ex. 22:4, 7). Gain
BIBHOGRAPHY
by fraudulence or oppression and robbery free-
foost:n8:ZtafdsT8a£:ag}I6;:CndEt:in.2:11);J.8.Licht- ly confessed involved full repayment plus one
J. CI.EMENI CONNELL fifth (Lev. 6:5; Nun. 5:7). The simple resti-
tution of I Sam. 12:3 is tco general to serve
REST. The standard rendering Of Gen. as legal evidence, especially as Samuel was
2:2, that God "rested" on the seventh day, is blameless. The Talmud (BOB. Metz. 37a) con-
seriously misleading. The verb used, 569a! not eluded that penitents against whom robbery
7efro4, means primarily to cease or desist (see could not be proved should restore what strict-
Driver WC or Skinner ICC nd loo., where it ly they need not. In Luke 19:8, Zacchaeus
is rightly interpreted as desisting from creative donated half his goods to the poor, when
work). These two verbs are brought into jux- Jewish precept required only a fifth. He thus
taposition in Ex. 23: 12 (c£. ASV mg.); there accepted the extreme penalty Of Ex. 22:I in-
the rest results from desisting from work- stead Of Lev. 6:5. Christ saw in this evidence
714afe and its derivatives are always used when Of repentance and conversion (Luke |9:9,
relaxation from toil is meant. It is this f alse cf. Luke 7:36-50), not a meritorious work de-
shade Of meaning in our translations that serving forgiveness. Elsewhere in the NT,
makes some find a contradiction between Gen. apart from civic duties (Matt. 22:21; Ron.
447 RESTORE, RESTORATION

13:7-8), the spirit of the gospel (Matt.18:23- 23:39; Luke 21:24). In answering the query
35) rather than legalism (I Cor. 6: I-8) is to Of the disciples about the restoration Of the
guide on such issues (Philem. 18-19; Gal. kingdom to Israel, he did not deny the fact,
6: 1). but only the present realization Of the hope
GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT (Acts I:6-7). (5) Paul's statement about
divine wrath being visited on the Jews of his
RESTORATION OF ISRAEL. The non- own time (I Thess. 2:15-16) should not be
restorationist position seeks to establish its case taken as ruling out a glorious future for Israel,
principally on the following considerations. since the latter is suggested so strongly in
(1) OT prophecies often appealed to in sup- Ron.11:26-27.
port of national restoration, such as Isa. I 1 : I 1 This latter passage has been the focal point
and Ezek. 37, were fulfilled in the return of much discussion. How are we to understand
from Babylonian captivity. (2) What was not Paul's statement that "all Israel shall be
thus fulfilled must be regarded as realized in saved"? To hold that all Israel is the totality
the church Of the NT, the new Israel. (3) of the elect, whether Jew or Gentile, on the
Jesus frankly told the Jews that the kingdom ground that the reference is to the new Israel,
of God would be taken from them and given the church, overlooks the fact that from the
to a nation bringing forth its fruits (Matt. beginning of this section (Ron. 9-11) Paul
21 :43). This emphasizes that the restoration is talking about his kinsmen according to the
promises regarding Israel in the OT must have flesh (9:3). Repeatedly in the course of his
a conditional rather than an absolute character. exposition the apostle contrasts Israel with
Israel failed to meet the conditions. (4) In the Gentiles. A second possibility is that "all Is-
unfolding of the divine purpose the NT rael" signifies the sum total o£ Jewish believ-
church includes both Jews and Gentiles, the ers in Christ. This viewpoint does not grant
middle wall of partition between them being that there are two stages in Paul's argument,
broken down by Christ. A return to special namely, the existence of an election according
consideration for one nation would seem to be to grace (Jews now in the church) and sec-
an anachronism once the church is a reality. ondly, what may be called the promise Of a
(5) The return of the Jews to Palestine in f uture "comprehensive conversion of Israel"
considerable numbers in modem times, how- (Vos) mentioned in 11:26-27. The remnant
ever interesting as a phenomenon Of history, was in existence in Paul's day. He belonged
does not in itself guarantee for this nation a to it himself . Yet the problem of theodicy re-
spiritual future in terms Of national conversion. maimed unsolved until the prediction of 11 :26-
The restorationist position emphasizes sev- 27 reasserted God's pledge to the covenant na-
eral factors. (I) The OT prophecies relating tion. So it is that the third approach to the pas-
to Israel's restoration as a people are too nu- sage understands thao there will be a national
merous, too emphatic, and too precise to admit turning Of Israel to the Lord at his coming. The
of identification with the return f ron cap- principal difficulty inherent in this view is
tivity, which did not represent a summit in the absence of any teaching in the passage rela-
Israel's history either politically or spiritually. tive to the regathering of Israel into their land
(2) It is poor exegesis to assign to the church and the institution of an earthly kingdom in
what was spoken o£ Israel. If the curses and which Israel fills the leading role.
See also ISRAEL, PROMlsE, PRopHEc¥.
judgments pronounced on Israel for disobe-
dience belong to her in a literal sense (which BIBLIOGRAPHY
no one denies), then the future blessings ought
to belong to her as well. (3) One element in gLTg,.H:e9edi¥rsfnrfup;:Td#a;#[#a:efd%';§::E;.a#ii
the Annunciation was the declaration that the EVERETT F. HARRISoN
One to be born would mle over the house of
Jacob for ever (Luke I:33). It seems impos- RESTORE, RESTORATION. Restora-
sible to assign this reference to the church. tion and restitution refer both to property and
(4) Jesus, despite his pronouncements of judg- to persons. The Mosaic code provided for the
ment upon the nation Israel for her sinful return or replacement of property that was
condition and especially for her rejection of stolen (Ex. 22:1-15; Lev. 6:I-7, etc.). In the
himself , yet indicated a time of blessing and light of this requirement Zacchaeus offered to
glory for her in the future (Matt. 19:28; restore fourfold (Luke 19:8). The Hebrew
RESURRECTION 448

5dha" refers likewise to the reviving and re- founder had, in point of time, on this earth,
covery of those needing comfort (Isa. 57: 18). come forth from a tomb in a resurrection body.
The Hebrew 5tlb refers to restoration of If Jesus Of Nazareth actually rose from the
property (Deut. 22r2); and by David is used dead, in his own body, on the third day, as he
to describe his re-animation of soul by the Al- predicted, all the other doctrinal affirmations Of
mighty (Ps. 23:3). the Christian faith hold together, including
Renewal of joy may be expected for the those that pertain to our own ultimate destiny;
if such an event did not historically occur, Paul
penitent transgressor (Ps. 51:12; Mic. 7:9).
For the weary and the infirm there is rehabili- declares, our faith is vain, our preaching is vaiD,
tation (`¢14, Jer. 30: 17). and we are yet in our sins. This fact has been
recognized by believers and unbelievers in every
Scripture contains frequent reference to the
age, and accounts for the reiterated denial Of the
reclamation of the backslider (Job 22:23; Prov.
resurrection from the days of the apostles down
24:]6; Jer. 3:12). The responsibility and
to this hour.
privilege f or restoring, hotart;z6, impinges upon
spiritually minded Christians (Gal. 6: 1); thus I. THE NOMENCLATURE oF RESURRECTION.
becoming "the restorer of paths to dwell in" The Greek noun most commonly used to express
the idea of resurrection is 4!7cc}stGsjs, derived
(Isa. 58: 12). There is reconstruction and re-
trieval for wasted years ``that the locust have from the verb a"jstGmj. The verb egejr6 is
eaten" 56ha7" (Joel 2:25), with resultant assur- used with equal frequency in the NT to con-
ance of plentiful satisfaction and praise to God vey the idea of rising from the dead. It is dif-
ficult to detect any specific difference in the
(2:26-27).
connotations of these two words in the minds
The re-establishment of the Davidic king-
of the NT writers. In the Gospel records, both
dom is promised in the Scriptures. The apos-
are used in parallel accounts; e.g., in Matt.
tles inquired about the restoration, apohatJ®js-
16:21 and its parallel, Luke 9:22, the word
te-t"i, of the kingdom (Acts 1:6). The risen
is egefro-, but in Mark 8:31, it is ¢wjstG7wi;
Lord did not deny the re-establishment of that
in Matt. 17:23, it is egg;ro-, but in the parallel
kingdom; rather, earlier he had told them it
in Mark 9:31, it is a7®isfg7#j,. in the account Of
would not appear until af ter his going away
the raising of Lazarus, ¢";stGt"; is used ex-
and returning again (Luke 19:11-27). He
clusively. Even in such a definite concept as
taught them that at his coming would occur
God raising Christ from the dead, both words
the "regeneration" (p¢]i7¢ge7tesi¢), the making
are used, e.g., a7®jstgt#j in Acts 2:24 and 3:26
new Of all things (Matt. 19:28). Peter in his
and egejro-in Acts 3: 15; 4: 10; 5:30, etc.
sermon at the Beautiful Gate repeated this
truth by referring to "the times of restitution 11. RESURRECTION IN ANCIENT RELIGIONS.

of all things," cipohatast¢se6s (Acts 3 :21 ). Paul Whatever be the rich legacies of the great
spelled out the same truth in Ron. I I :25-26. thinkers and cultures of the ancient world,
BIBLIOGRAPHY they have lef t no contribution to the doctrine
HDAc,11, pp. 32i-22; rsBE, IV, pp. 2504<i. of the resurrection of the body. When such an
V. R. EDMIN impartial work as the Orford E"g]jsh Djct;o#-
any wholly ignores Osiris rituals, Greek myths,
RESURRECTION. When a Christian ut- and Zoroastrian speculation, and gives as the
ters the two theme-related clauses Of the Apos- first definition of the word resurrection, "the
tles' Creed, "I believe in Jesus Christ . . . who rising again Of Christ after his death and
. . . the third day rose from the dead," and "I burial," it bears witness to the uniqueness of
believe in . . . the resurrection of the body," this event in world history. Toynbee's treat-
he confesses the absolute uniqueness and the •empefthaffs,t"hde,I.e,sufir.:sc,t.i,o,niso`m.:,hi:iiEca:
supernaturalness of the person of Jesus Christ,
and the particular hope which he has brought The chapter, "Christus Patiens" is devoted to
to men. No other world religion has framed a the subject o£ "correspondences between the
confession embracing such clauses as these. story of Jesus and the Stories of certain Hel-
Some religions vaguely af firm belief in im- lenic Saviours with the `Time-Machine." In
mortality, in one form or another, and Judaism, this attempt at parallel tabulation, Toynbee
in its orthodox affirmations, may even creedal- lists eighty-seven events in and aspects of the
ly give expression to the idea Of a future bodily life o£ Christ for which, he says, parallels can
resurrection, but none ever hints that its be f ound in the stories of the heroes of an-
449
RHSURRECTION

tiquity, beginning with "the hero is of royal passages, the early church used other OT
lineage," and closing with "the executor's con- texts as prophecies or typical foreshadowings
version." There is no hint, however, that in of Christ's resurrection, such as Jer. 18:3-6
the ancient world there is a story worth plac.- and Ps. 88: 10.
ing at the side of the NT account of the resur- Faith in the resurrection is in the OT,
rection of Christ. As f ar as one can tell, Toyn- awaiting the advent Of the Messiah to whom
bee does not believe in the resunection of the OT Scriptures so definitely pointed, he
Christ, but it is interesting that he does not who would indeed bring life and immortality
care even to consider supposed parallels to I.ght through the gospel (11 Tim.1:10).
this supernatural event. did of trie OT is the eternal, ever-living
though death came as a consequence
Ill. RESURRECTION IN THE OLI) TESTA-
n, if redemption is to have complete vic-
MENT. While it is true that the conception of
tory o;er sin and death, there must ultimately
resurrection was not thoroughly developed in
be the sure hope of a resurrection f ron the
Israel, and the literal resurrection of the body
dead. (See Edmond Jacob, Theology of the
is not frequently referred to in the literature
Old Testo7"e7¢t, London, 1958, pp. 308-15).
of the OT, the truth is there, and that not
only with Israel's prophets. There was surely As faith in resurrection became increasingly
some idea of the possibility Of resurrection common, more and more frequently expressed
even in the days of the patriarchs; f or when during the post-exilic and Maccabean periods,
Abraham offered up Isaac, he was convinced at the time of the advent of Christ it ``had be-
that "God was able to raise him up from the come an almost universally accepted dogma o£
dead, f ron whence he did also in a figure re- Palestinian Judaism and a test of orthodoxy"
ceive him back" (Heb.11:19). In that early (William Fairweather, The Backgrow7®d of the
Gospels, Edinburgh, 1908, p. 292). The Sad-
period the concept was expressed in such a
ducean denial of the resurrection was an ex-
phrase as "to sleep with the fathers" (Gen.
47:39; Deut. 31:16; I Kings I:29), and as ception, and did not express the common view
sleep infers an awakening from sleep, such of first-century Judaism.
burial would imply a resurrection from the IV. RESURRECTION IN THE NEW TESTA-
dead. MENT. The theme of the resurrection Of the
The writer to the Hebrews (11:35) in body, including the bodily resurrection Of
speaking of women who received their dead Christ, is given more space in the NT than
raised to life again was no doubt referring to any other one basic Christian truth, with the
the three resurrections occurring in the days Of possible exception of the death of the Lord
the Kings (I Kings 17:17-24; 11 Kings 4:18- Jesus. Rarely did Christ speak of his coming
37; 13 :20-25). Whatever be the exact transla- death without uttering a prediction Of his
tion of the di££icult passage in Job 19:26-27, resurrection within three days following. As an
here is deep conviction of the truth Of resur- indication of his own power over death, on
rection from the dead (c£. Job 14: 13-15). The three occasions he brought back to life those
most important single passage on resurrection who had died, and he gave his disciples power
in the OT is the conclusion o£ Isa. 26: 16-19. to raise the dead. All the Gospel writers make
With this must be linked two later declara- the fact o£ Christ's resurrection the climax and
tions Of the same truth, Hos. 6:1-2 and the conclusion of their narratives. In his first post-
familiar passage on the valley Of dry bones, resurrection appearances, the whole emphasis
Ezek. 37:1-14. Granted that the primary of Christ's discourse and conduct was the fact
meaning of these verses is a restoration of Is- that he had risen from the dead. Apostles were
rael, yet there would be no comfort for ancient chosen because they were witnesses to this
Israel in such predictions if the Israelites Of resurrection. It was the basic theme of apos-
ancient times were not to be participants in tolic preaching, according to the Book of Acts.
this future restoration; and if so, they will be By setting forth proofs of this miracle, the
raised from the dead. The same teaching is church was able to shake the foundations of
set forth in Dan. 12:2, which certainly refers the ancient religions then predominant in the
to the end of the age, and whatever its sym- Mediterranean world.
bolic or typical meaning, it emphatically pre- In the NT Epistles, the deity of Christ, the
sents a belief in a resurrection of bodies from certainty of his coming to judge the world, and
the dust of the earth. In addition to these basic the hope of our resurrection are related exclu-
RESURRECTION 450

sively to the fact of Christ's resurrection. The voice, as though he were extending himself
historical resurrection of the Son o£ God be- into the other world, and the world the other
comes the great type of the spiritual resurrec- side of death was accessible and obedient to
tion of all believers passing f ron death unto him.
life, and these believers are given the assur- a. The Opening Of the Graves at the Tiiine
ance that they may live in this present life in of CJ"jst's Res#rrectjo#. Matthew's account of
the power of that reality. The apostle Paul re- the last week includes an incident not men-
garded the tnith of the resurrection of such tioned elsewhere. "Many bodies of the saints
importance that he devoted to it the longest that had fallen asleep were raised; and com-
chapter of any epistle of the NT. This age ing forth out of the tombs after his resurrec-
will end in the resurrection f ron the dead of tion, they entered into the holy city and ap-
both the just and the unjust: as resurrection peared unto many" (27:52-53). Note that
was the marvelous conclusion of our Lord's this took place offer our Lord's resurrection:
incarnate life on earth, so it will be of our it did not precede his. Here, as in other resur-
life in this earthly tabernacle, when we shall berections of the Gospels, it must be assumed
given a body suitable for a heavenly, eternal that these individuals did not come forth in
and glorious life. Remove the truth of resur- true resurrection bodies; our Lord is the first-
rection from the NT, and its whole doctrinal born from among the dead (Col. 1 : 18).
structure collapses, and hope vanishes. D. Christ's Predielions of His Own Resur-
A. Christ's Teaching Concerning Resurrec- rectjo#. The most dai-ii-ig statement Christ ever
tjo7®. Although there are four di££erent views made was his prediction that he would rise
o£ John 5:21-29, most interpreters believe that again from the dead, on the third day af ter his
both a spiritual resurrection of the immediate death. The initial announcement was made
present and an ultimate, final physical resur- at the very beginning of his ministry, at the
rection are here involved. On Tuesday o£ same time he spoke of his approaching death
Holy Week, among the many questions asked (John 2:19, 21). Once our Lord identified
of Jesus, tempting him, was one proposed by his resurrection with the experience of Jonah,
the Sadducees, who denied there was a resur- who was three days and three nights in the
rection (Matt. 22:24-43 and parallels). The belly of the great fish (Matt. 12:40). The
Sadducees, accepting the Pentateuch, insisted principal statements of his coming death and
that one of the reasons they rejected the resur- resurrection, with numerous details, were given
rection was that it was not taught there. Jesus immediately after Peter's confession (Matt.
concludes his answer by going back to the 16:21; Mark 8:31; Luke 9:22) and at the
great patriarchs Of Genesis: when the Sad- time of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:9, 23;
ducees said their God was the God o£ Abra- Mark 9:9,10, 31). According to the Markan
ham, Isaac and Jacob, they were confessing account, the disciples "kept the saying, ques-
that these patriarchs were living, inasmuch as tioning among themselves what the rising
God is the God Of the living (see Gen. 50:24; again from the dead should mean." The pre-
Ex. 2:24 and 6:8; 3:6 and 15:16; 6:3; Lev. diction was repeated as he approached Jeru-
26:42). salem (Matt. 20: 19 and parallels).
8. The Three Resurrection Miracles Of The time element, ``the third day," is drawn
C7irjst's Mj7®js€ry. On three occasions Jesus from the OT Scriptures (Luke 24:46), as the
himself raised individuals from the dead in, apostle Paul later said, Christ rose "the third
we may say, a progressive order. The first is day according to the Scriptures" (I Cor.15:4,
the son of the widow of Nain (Luke 7: 11-18). taking us back to such passages as I Sam.
All the Synoptics record the raising of the 30:12; 11 Kings 20:5, 8; Lev. 7:17-18 and
daughter of Jairus at Capernaum (Matt. 9: 18- especially Hos. 6:2 and Jonah I:17). This
19, 23-26; Mark 5:22-24, 35-43; Luke 8:40- explains the amazement of the disciples at
42, 49-56). Finally, there is the extended ac- finding the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea emp-
count of the raising o£ Lazams, who had died ty, for "as yet they knew not the scripture that
four days before the arrival o£ Christ in Beth- he must rise again from the dead" (John
any. Calling this man by name, Jesus com- 20:9). If Christ's predictions had not come
manded, "Lazams, come forth" (John 11 :43). true, if he had not risen again on the third
One factor is common to each of these mira- day, one must believe that confidence in his
cles: Christ spoke and the dead 7}e¢rd 7ijs other utterances would have been shaken, if
451 RESURRECTION

not destroyed; and surely we would not be as voluntarily at making the evidence palpable,
reading the NT today, nor worshiping Christ and independent, as far as may be, of the
as the Son of God. moral qualifications, to which we have already
V. THE RESURRECTION oF CHRIST. adverted; it is an original, independent and
A. The Reality of His Death. 1t is allmost unmotived part of the apostolic testimony"
axiomatic, but nevertheless necessary to say CJames Denney, Jesus and the Gospel, T`.Y.,
that resurrection assumes previous death. Our 1909, p.131). Any theory which attempts to
Lord frequently said he would die (see refer- explain how the body was removed from that
ences for predictions of his resurrection). tomb is confronted with records of Christ's
When the soldiers came to break his legs a post-resurrection appearances in his own body.
few hours after the crucifixion, they said he C. Post-Reswrrecf;o7c Appe¢r¢7cces. These
was already dead (John 19:33-34). It is in- are generally reckoned as ten in number, five
conceivable that the Jews, determined to de- occurring on Easter Sunday: the early morn-
stroy Christ, should have allowed any decep- ing appearance to Simon Peter, the two ap-
tion or substitution at this point. The death of pearances to the women and Mary Magdalene
Christ is repeatedly referred to in the Book o£ at the tomb, the afternoon walk with the dis-
Acts, by seven different Greek verbs: to cru- ciples on the road to Emmaus, and the evening
cify (2:36), to slay (2:23, etc.), to kill meeting with the ten in the upper room. The
(3:15), to handle severely (5:30), to hang following Sunday, Jesus met with the eleven
(5 :30), and those whc, participated in this act disciples, Thomas being present. There was an
are called murderers (7: 52). The entire theo- appearance to James (I Cor.15:4), of which
logical system of the Epistles rests upon the we have no details, to several disciples at the
fact that it was Christ who was crucified and Sea of Galilee (John 21 : 1-23), to the apostles
who died for our sins. The Apostles' Creed and about five hundred brethren on a moun-
affirms the reality in three successive phrases: tain in Galilee (Matt. 28: 16-20) and finally,
he was "crucified under Pontius Pilate, dead, at Jenisalem at the time of the ascension
and buried." Assuming the reality of Christ's (Luke 24:50-52; Acts I:3-8). Paul was per-
death, the problem is, was his certain death mitted to see the Lord at a later time (I Cor.
followed by an equally certain resurrection 15:8). The following basic facts concerning
from the dead, a coming f orth f ron the tomb these appearances should be noted: Our Lord
of that which was placed in the tomb? The appeared only to believers; the appearances
evidences of the reality of this stupendous were infrequent (only four occasions after Eas-
event are four: the empty tomb and the testi- ter Sunday before the ascension, approximately
mony of the angels, the post-resurrection ap- forty days); there is nothing fantastic in the
pearances Of Christ, the transformed apostles details of these appearances; they were notably
through whose witnessing the church was different in nature-in the places they oc-
founded, and the institution of the Lord's curred, in the length of time involved, in the
Day. words spoken, in the mood of the apostles. All,
8. T7ie E"pfy To7#Z7. Of the several at- however, were Z7oc!!.Jy appearances, and Christ
tempts to explain rationalistically the empty wanted the disciples to be sure of this fact (see
tomb-theft Of the body by the disciples, re- Luke 24:39-40; John 20:27).
moval by Joseph of Arimathea, the swoon the- Apart from the fantastic assertion, generally
ory, the confusion of Jesus' tomb with one rejected today, that all these records are fraudu-
which was empty, the disposal of the body in lent, the two theories most often proposed to
some other place-it need only be said that explain these appearances are the vision theory
none is inherently credible or has commanded and the telegraph theory. To account for a
general respect. ``The empty tomb comes be- visionary experience, there must be, first, a
fore us only as a fact, not as an argument. psychological condition for creating such a
. . . The empty grave is not the product of a state - in this case the burning expectation on
naive apologetic spirit, a spirit not content the part of the disciples that they would be-
with the evidence for the resurrection con- hold their Lord again. But such an expecta-
tained in the fact that the Lord had appeared tion had not had time to develop in the apos-
to his own and had quickened them into new tolic company. The women who went to the
victorious life; it is not the first stage in a tomb Easter morning planned to anoint a dead
process which aims unconsciously as much body, not to see a risen Lord. When they did
REsuRREorloN 452

see the Lord, they viiere frightened, and through the grave clothes and through the
thought they had seen a spirit, which conclu- sepulcher, without the stone having been
sion Jesus emphatically and immediately de- rolled away, and through the walls Of the
stroyed. The disciples on the Emmaus road room in which the disciples were assembled
were depressed, before they realized that it on Easter Sunday night. He was able to van-
was the Lord who was walking with them. ish from their midst instantly (Luke 24:31,
Furthermore, these appearances were solemn, 36). In this body our Lord ascended, and the
not filled with fantastic accretions so common church has always regarded the ascended Lord
in abnormal experiences of supposed visions. as being in the form Of a man, the risen Jesus
Though they were to different groups in dif- of Nazareth as well as the Lord of glory.
ferent places at different times, the vision Surely the body in which Christ appeared to
hypothesis would assume that all these in- the disciples is to be identified with the body
dividuals had this vision experience. The rul- placed in the tomb of Joseph Of Arimathea,
ing temper of the church, moreover, was not but a great change came over that body when
one Of emotional outbursts, but Of work: there Christ rose I ron the dead, though the exact
is no indication that they gathered together for nature Of the change is not revealed. We know
ecstatic experiences. Finally, the appearances more} perhaps, of the risen body Of our Lord
suddenly ceased; they occurred rarely, and f ron Paul's description of our future resurrec-
only "until that same day that he was taken tion bodies than from the Gospel records them-
up from them" (Acts I:22). selves.
The telegraph theory (Keim, Streeter and D. The A#ge]ie Appcam#ces. All the Gce-
others) assumes that the ascended Lord tele- pels record the appearance of angels at one
graphed back to his followers I)ictures Of him- particular hour following the Lord's resurrec-
self in bodily form, which convinced the disci- tion, early Sunday moming (Matt. 28:I-8;
ples that they had actually seen the risen Mark 16:5-8; Luke 24:3-9, 22-23; John
Lord. This cannot be reconciled with the facts 20: 11-13). These give no more difficulty than
of the records that we have. For example, Of the presence of angels at the annunciation,
the walk to Emmaus, are we to believe that temptation, etc.
the Lord took a walk in heaven, and tele- E. The Tra#sformed Apostles. The fourth
graphed down his bodily presence as the dis- basic testimony to the fact of Christ's resurrec-
ciples moved steadily along the road, and then tion is the instantaneous, profound and per-
sat down at a table (in heaven) and broke manent change that came over the apostles
bread, so that these men thought they were when, during the days following Easter mom-
eating with him? Did he also telegraph to earth ing, they became convinced that Christ had
the conversations? That the Lord was in their been raised. The cowardice dis|)layed imme-
midst, all records indicate. If, however, these diately before the crucifixion is gone, never to
were only his images, the Lord deliberately de- return, and in its place is a courage that will
ceived the apostles. endure through the remaining years, to the
The principal question related to the ap- hour of martyrdom. That they went every-
pearances involves the nature Of Christ's resur- where preaching Christ and the resurrection is
rection body, so much like the body Of a man commonly acknowledged: their reward was
that at one time "their eyes were holden that persecution, hardship, imprisonment, and
they should not know him" (Luke 24:16), finally martyrdom. Nothing could have driven
and at the lake ``they knew not that it was them, and their successors, to the four comers
Jesus" (John 20:14); in fact, Mary Magda- Of the earth, enduring hardness for Christ's
lene did not recognize the risen Lord, mis- sake, but the conviction that this Christ had
taking him for the gardener, until he called indeed been raised from the dead by God, and
her name. He showed the disciples his hands thus declared to be God's Son. Their convicr
and feet (Luke 24:20; John 20:20, 27). On tion was honored by the Holy Spirit, and it
one occasion he ate, not of necessity, of course was "with great power" (Acts 4:33) that they
(Luke 24:43), and Milligan's words are wise, proclaimed this tmth. The conviction became
``It seems better to say that I neither know nor contagious, so that Jews and Gentiles alike
can offer any satisfactory solution of this act." were convinced that Christ was risen, and
On the other hand, the body of Christ was churches sprang up throughout the Mediter-
able to pass through obstructions Of matter: ranean world. The apostles and their associates
453 RESURRECTION

could preach the resurrection o£ Christ because him would be eternally condemned. The emp-
they, Of that generation, had been witnesses ty tomb and the fact Of the risen Lord should
of these things (Luke 24:48; Acts 1 :8). assure us forever that when Jesus said he was
F. The Observance of the Lord's Day. One going to prepare a place for us, that he would
more consequence of the resurrection recorded come again and receive us to himself, that
in the NT and testif ied to down through sub- when the dead heard the voice of the Son Of
sequent centuries of Christendom is the change God, they would come forth from their graves,
in the day of worship from Saturday, the and that he would be the judge of all man-
seventh day, so religiously observed by the kind, he was speaking the truth. It is impos-
Jews throughout the world from earliest times, sible to accept the resurrection of Christ and
to Sunday. The phrase, "the first day of the entertain any doubt about the truthfulness of
week" is not found in Scripture until the any utterance that proceeded from his lips.
dawn of Easter, and is introduced by both the 8. Its Bearing Upon Christ's Person and
Synoptic writers and the apostle John into Work. In Ron. I :4, Paul gives a concise state-
their respective narratives of the events of the ment of the universal belief of the church,
day of resurrection (Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:2, even in the generation immediately following
9; Luke 24:I; John 20:I,19) see also Acts our Lord's earthly life-that he must be ac-
20:7; I Cor.16:2.
knowledged as both Son of David a human be-
G. The Preaching of the F\esurTection in ing and Son of God a divine being. The text
the Ecirly CJiwrch. The Book Of Acts testifies says that the latter fact is decz¢red "by the
to the fact that it was by the preaching of the resurrection from the dead."
resurrection of Christ that the world was Paul further asserts that while Christ died
turned upside down. The first sermon on the for our sins, he was "raised for our justifica-
Day Of Pentecost was but a proving from the tion" (Rom. 4:25), implying that the divine
I)rophetic Scriptures, and from the fact of the act by which sinners, because of the death of
empty tomb, and the risen Lord, that God Christ, are justified by a holy and righteous
had made this person Jesus, whom the Jews God, is sealed and declared by the resurrection
had crucified, both Lord and Christ. The early of the one who died for us.
apostles took seriously the fact that they had C. Its Relation to the Resurrection of Be-
been commissioned to be "witnesses Of these l;evers. The First Epistle of Peter opens with
things" (Luke 24:46-47; for other references a doxology the like of which cannot be found
to the preaching of the resurrection see Acts in the literature of any other religion or faith
2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39; 13:31-32; 26:16). in the world: "Blessed be the God and Father
It was to this fact that Paul constantly alluded of our Lord Jesus Christ, which according to
in the various defenses he was compelled to his abundant mercy hath begotten us again
make before the rulers of Palestine and Syria: unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus
"touching the hope of the resurrection of the
Christ from the dead, to an inheritance . . ."
dead I am called in question" (Acts 23:6;
(I :3-4). Delete the phrase, "by the resurrec-
24:15; 25:9; 26:8, 23). tion of Jesus Christ from the dead," and the
VI. THEOLOGICAI. IMPLICATIONS OFpassage falls to pieces. It is faith in the Lord
CHRIST'S RESURRECTION. Jesus Christ which gives us this living hope,
A. Its Confirination of the Truthfulness of faith in one who faced death, overcame death,
Chr;st's Te#cJ®j7cg. 1£ Christ said, with definite- and is now living in the glory of resurrection.
ness and detail, that after he went up to Jeru- But even this would not give us a living hope
salem he would be put to death, and on the except that we who believe in him are identi-
third day would rise again, and this prediction fied with him. This identification unites us
came to pass, then, it would seem, everything with his death, witli his life, and with his
else he said must also be accepted as truth: resurrection. We are assured "that he who
that his blood was to be shed for the remis- raised up the Lord Jesus shall raise up us also
sion of sins; that he came down from the Fa- with Jesus" (11 Cor. 4: 14). The apostle argues
1her above; that the words he spoke the Father that if Christ has not been raised, our faith is
had given him; that he and the Father were vain, and all who have fallen asleep in him
one; that he was the Son o£ God; that who- h.ave perished; but he affirms positively, "Now
ever would believe on him would have ever- hath Christ been raised from the dead, the
lasting life, and whoever refused to believe on first fruits of them that are asleep. For since
RESURRECTION 4 54

by man came death, by man came also the ;de7®t;caz,. it will have the qualities of incor-
resurrection of the dead . . . Christ the first- ruptibility, beauty and power; it will be a
fruits; then they that are Christ's, at his com- spiritual body, in contrast to our present nat-
ing" (I Cor. 15:20-21, 23). The Christian ural bodies, and it will be like unto the body
lives over again the life of Christ; he is born of the Lord Jesus. There will be a similarity
again by the power of the Holy Spirit; he between the bodies we now have and those
walks as a pilgrim and sojourner on this earth, of the resurrection. We will be at home in our
going about doing good and living in the resurrection bodies, and will recognize one an-
will of God; he may expect the opposition and other. The body that suffered death because
hatredLof the world; to the world and to sin Of sin will be raised from the dead. Here a
he is crucified and dead, and now living in mystery arises: around what will this resur-
newness of life, he has that hope that he will rection body be built? If the stalk of wheat,
be like unto Christ in the day Of his revelation. e.g., must come from a living germ buried in
D. Its Influence Upon the Bel,iever's Pres- the ground, is there some hidden germ of our
e„t Life. Both Christ and the apostles empha- own being around which Christ will build our
sized the fact that we are to be living day by resurrection bodies? This was the view o£
day in that power manifested in Christ's resur- William Milligan (Res"rrecfjo" of t7}e Dead..
rection. The relationship Of the risen Lord to Edinburgh, 1894, pp. 122-23).
Christians of every age is the basic theme o£ 8. T7}e Tjt#e of the Reswrrec£;o7?. The fit-
Romans 6, the essence of which is contained teenth chapter o£ First Corinthians, especially
in vss. 4-5: "We were buried therefore with vss. 20-28, contains more data on the time of
him through baptism into death: that like as the resurrection than any other passage in the
Christ was raised from the dead through the NT. Paul gives the following sequence of
glory of the Father, so we also might walk in events: Christ himself is the first fruits, and
newness of life. For if we have become united we are to be raised at his coming; he must
with him in the likeness of his death, we shall reign until he has put all enemies under his
be also in the likeness of his resurrection." The feet, the last of which is death; when he has
apostle concludes his argument with the words, made all things subject to him, he will deliver
"Even so reckon ye also yourselves to be dead up the kingdom to God the Father, and he
unto sin, but alive unto God in Christ Jesus will be subject unto God who put all things
. . . Present yourselves unto God, as alive from under him.
the dead" (vss. 11, 13; see also 7:4; Ron. The resurrection is not something that will
8:11; Eph.1 : 18-20; Phil. 3: 10-11; Col. naturally conclude human history; it is a super-
2: 13). natural achievement. Christ is the first fruits
VII. THE RESURRECTloN oF BELIEVERS. of the resurrection; he is t7ie resurrection; our
bodies will be like unto his glorious body; it
A. The Nature of the Resurrection Body.
will be at his second coming that the dead
The Christian believer does not have to ask
will hear the voice Of the Son o£ Man and will
if there will be a resunection for him, for this
be raised. Everything relates to the person and
he knows with conviction; but he may often
work of the second person Of the Godhead.
ask the question in the minds of many in the
Human history, philosophy and science know
church of Corinth, "How are the dead raised
nothing of such an event, and, without Christ,
up and with what body do they come?" (I Cor.
no one has any right to hope for such an eter-
15:35). There is no answer to this question
Pal destiny.
apart from the revelation o£ Holy Scripture,
where the most elaborate reply is f ound in the VIII. OPPOSITION TO THE TRUTH 0F THE
fifteenth chapter of Paul's first letter to the RESURRECTION OF CHRIST AND OF CHRIS-
Corinthians. The first part of the chapter is TIANS.

concerned with the resurrection of Christ, its A. 1" f7®e New Test¢7„e"t. Three different
certainty and importance; the central portion, groups mentioned in the NT repudiated the
with the problem of sequence in the resurrec- resurrection. First, there were the Sadducees
tions, and the last section, with our resurrec- (Matt. 22:23; Acts 23:6-8). Then, some in
tion bodies. Paul here sets forth four basic the Corinthian church were saying that there
truths regarding the body we will possess in was no resurrection of the dead, an attitude
glory: it will be identical with the earthly which may have derived from Sadducean in-
body, though care must be taken in defining fluence, but more likely fr.om the incipient be-
455 RESURRECTION

liefs of Gnosticism (I Cor.15:12). Finally, was still being felt when the most powerful
Paul refers specifically to two men, Hymenaeus attack of the nineteenth century was launched
and Philetus, who were teaching that the by David F. Strauss (1808-74), who, in his
resurrection was an event of the past (11 Tim. Lez?e" /esw (1835-36), developed the idea
2:17-18). These men, and no doubt others, that this was simply an oriental legend or
were insisting that the only resurrection prom- myth constructed from mythological themes
ised in the Scriptures was a spiritual resurrec- current in the first century, a view still found
tion, or regeneration, which had already taken in some extreme liberal works. The mid-twen-
place with Christians, and no later bodily tieth century has seen a new form of attac'k
resurrection need be expected. upon the historicity Of Christ's resurrection.
8. J# the E¢rzy Heresies. The denial of the This has been promoted most powerfully by
resurrection in the gnostic heresies plagued the Rudolf Bultmann in his scheme for demytholo-
church for many decades, and references to gizing the NT. He denies that there was any
this heresy are frequent in the writings of the bodily resurrection, though he does not at-
Church Fathers. For references see Irenaeus, tempt to account for the empty tomb, and
Ago;7¢st f7?e Heresies, I, 19:3; Basilides, 11, frankly asserts, ``The resurrection itself is not
48:2; Justin Martyr, Djc}Zogt4e LXXX; Ter- an event of past history." The church, how-
tullian, The Prescrjptjo71, VII. That the church ever, is not to abandon the theme of the resur-
successfully met these heretical teachings is rection: "The real Easter faith is faith in the
generally acknowledged. word of preaching. If the event o£ Easter Day
C. Aowo7¢g t7®e Deisfs. The initial attack of is in any sense an historical event additional
modem times upon the resurrection narratives to the event of the cross, it is nothing else
Of the Gospels was that of the Deists, par- than the rise of faith in the risen Lord, since
ticularly in the works of John Toland (1670- it was this faith which led to the apostolic
1722), Anthony Collins ( 1676-1729), Thom- preaching" ("New Testament and Mythology,"
as Woolston (1669-1731) and Matthew Tin- in Keryg774¢ ¢71d Myth, ed. by Hans Werner
dal (1656-1733). These men attacked every Bartsch, London, 1953, pp. 39-42). In other
major aspect of biblical revelation that involved words, Bultmann argues that we must strip
belief in the miraculous and the supernatural, the NT of events that partake of a supema-
striking principally at the so-called fulfilment tural aspect because, so he says, supernatural
of prophecies and the miracles of our Lord, events cannot take place in history. But they
including his bodily resurrection. Deism, how- do stand for something: they are symbols, and
ever, was smothered by the mass of apologetic the twentieth century must retain the truth of
literature which it brought forth, some written the symbol even if it forfeits what was once
by men of as great ability in argument as any believed to be the historical reality behind the
of the Deists, one of the principal volumes be: symbol. Faith in a risen Lord was there, but
ing that of Gilbert West, Observotio7cs o7¢ the there was no actual rising from the dead.
History and the Evidence of the Resurreedon
F. In the Soviet Encyclopedia. Fhassiz.n com-
of Christ C\747).
munistic propaganda rules out the resurrection.
D. In FTench and German Rationalistic Lit- The historicity of Christ himself is denied in
er¢fwre. Deism had not completely died out the large Soviet Encyclopedia. In the article,
before another, different approach was made "The Resurrection of the Dead" (1929, Vol.
in the assault on the cardinal truth of Christ's XIII, p. 196, trans. by D. V. Benson for this
resurrection, that known as Gospel criticism. article) the doctrine of the resurrection in the
This originated with the German scholar H. S. Nicene Creed is stated, with the comment,
Reimarus (1694-1768), who left a number of "This dogma is found to be in the most de-
papers attacking the historicity of the Gospels,cisive contradiction with scientific natural
principally the resurrection, later published byknowledge which confesses the inescapability
the German writer G. E. Lessing, then li- of death as the destruction of individuality
brarian of the Wolfenbuettel ( 1774-78). (See with its physical and psychical peculiarities."
A. S. Fa"a,I, Critieal History of Free Thought, The writer refers to "the dogma about the
Bampton Lectures for 1862, London, 1862, resurrection of the dead" as "a primitive belief
pp. 316-19, 602-4.) peculiar to all uncultuled peoples." The
E. In Nineteenth and Twentieth Century grounds for such a statement are not given,
Biz7[jcc[! Crifjcis7#. The influence o£ Reimarus but the article concludes, "Factually speaking,
RETALIATION 456

the contemporary church preaches only the im-

mortality of the soul about which the theolo-
gians are completely not in a position to
reconcile this religious-philosophical spiritual-
ism with the coarse primitive belief in the pre-
serving or possibility of regeneration of life
in corpse."
otogy.
G. The Disbelief of Moderm Science. The WILBUR M. SMITH
denial of the resurrection in the name Of mod-
em science is not exclusive with countries RETALIATION. See REVENGE.
dominated by Marxian materialism, however.
In a caref ul poll of the biological and physical RETRIBUTION. See ETERNAL PuNlsH-
scientists listed in VI/7®o's VI/Ilo j% America - MENT.
228 replying out of 521 inquiries sent-36
affirmed faith in the resurrection, 142 denied REVELATION, NATURAL. The term
that Christ rose from the dead; 28 indicated natural revelation describes the fact that God
they did not wish to express an opinion, and the Creator is self-revealed in his work. As
23 said they did not know. This means that Paul tells us in Ron. I:20, ``the invisible
only one out of five of the leading scientists Of things of him from the creation Of the world
our country today believes in the resurrection are clearly seen, being understood by the
Of Christ. Of the 88 who indicated member- things that are made." The implication is that
ship in some Protestant church, 41 said they man, as God created him, may enjoy the
did not believe in the resurrection, 7 did not knowledge of God without the special revela-
know and 12 had no opinion. (See my article, tion attested in Scripture. It is the triune God
``Twentieth Century Scientists and the Resur- who is revealed, for both Christ and the Holy
rection o£ Christ," in CJ"jstie"jty Tody, April Spirit were active in creation as well as the
]5,1957, pp. 3-6, 22). Unless there is a re- Father. And it is genuine revelation, deriving
surgence of firm belief in the Christian doc- from God and not from man. In virtue Of his
trines in our generation, the pro|)ortion of meg- sin and fall, however, man is blind to this
ative replies will increase. plain witness of creation (Ron. 1:21). He
In view of the bombardment of the new cannot attain from it to a knowledge of the
school of demythologizing, of atheistic educa- true God, but only to ignorance or idolatry. If
lion in Russia, and the increasing dominance traces of the truth remain in natural religion
of a naturalistic science in the Western world, and philosophy, they do so only in a corrupt
the Christian church must engage in the task or fragmentary fom. The revelation itself re-
of completely re-examining the reason for its mains, but sin constitutes a distorting veil
belief in the resurrection of the body, or be which is removed only by the new work o£
prepared to see these two great truths (Christ's saving grace. For the sinner, therefore, natural
resurrection and ours) more frequently denied; revelation serves only to condemnation: "They
and with their elimination, many related car- are without excuse." See also NATURAL LAw.
dinal truths of the faith vanish. We must a£- GEOFFREY W. BROMII.EY
firm, however, that modern thought has not
developed any basic incontrovertible reason REVELATION, SPECIAL. The mid-
why men cannot still declare, "I believe in twentieth century's revival of interest in special
Jesus Christ . . . who . . . the third day rose divine revelation occurs at a significant time
from the dead," and "I believe in . . . the in modern history. Naturalism has become a
resurrection of the body." virile cultural force in both East and West.
BIBLIOGRAPHY In previous centuries the chief rivals Of re-
vealed religion were speculative idealism and
philosophical theism; today the leading an-
tagonists are materialistic Communism, logical
positivism, atheistic existentialism and variant
forms of Anglo-Saxon humanism. Since com-
munist philosophy refers the whole movement
of events to economic determinism, the recov-
45 7 REVELATION, SPI]CIAL

Cry of the Judecrchristian emphasis on special temporarily able to hold a line against the de-
historical revelation gains pointed relevance. cline to naturalism.
The term revelation means intrinsically the While the Bible indeed aff irms God's gen-
disclosure of what was previously unknown. In eral revelation, it invariably correlates general
Judeo-Christian theology, the term is used pri- revelation with special redemptive revelation.
marily of God's communication to man of di- It declares at one and the same time that the
vine truth, that is, his manifestation of him- Logos is Creator and Redeemer (John 1). It
self or of his will. The essentials of the biblical does not present general revelation on the
view are that the Logos is the divine agent in thesis that the true knowledge of God is pos-
all revelation, this revelation being further dis- sible to fallen man through the natural light
criminated as ge7ceral or universal (that is, Of reason apart from a revelation of Christ, but
revelation in nature, history and conscience) rather introduces general revelation alongside
and spec;¢l or particular (that is, redemptive special revelation ii. order to emphasize man's
revelation conveyed by wondrous acts and guilt. Thus the Scripture adduces God's uni-
words). The special revelation in sacred his- tary revelation, general and special, to display
tory is crowned by the incarnation of the liv- man's true predicament; he is a finite creature
ing Word and the inscripturation of the spoken with an eternal destiny, made for spiritual fel-
word. The gospel of redemption is therefore lowship with God, but now separated from his
not merely a series of abstract theses unrelated Maker by sin.
to specific historical events; it is the dramatic Special revelation is redemptive revelation.
news that God has acted in saving history, cli- It publishes the good tidings that the holy and
maxed by the incarnate person and work Qf merciful God promises salvation as a divine
Christ (Heb. I:2), for the salvation of lost gift to man who cannot save himself (OT)
mankind. Yet the redemptive events of biblical and that he has now i.ulfilled that promise in
history do not stand uninterpreted. Their au- the gif t of his Son in whom all men are called
thentic meaning is given in the sacred writings to believe (NT). The gospel is news that the
-sometimes after, sometimes before the incarnate Logos has borne the sins of doomed
events. The series of sacred acts therefore in- men, has died in their stead, and has risen for
cludes the divine provision of an authoritative their justification. This is the fixed center of
canon of writings, that is, the sacred Scrip- special redemptive revelation.
tures, providing a trustworthy source of knowl- Christian theology has had to protect the
edge of God and of his plan. biblical view of special revelation against many
Despite the distinction of general and spe- perversions. Platonic preoccupation with "eter-
cial revelation, God's revelation is nonetheless nal ideas" accessible to men by rational con-
a unity, and it must not be artificially sundered. templation alone, plus the disregard of his-
Even prior to man's fall, Adam in Eden was tory as a meaningful arena of events, tended
instructed by specially revealed statutes (e.g., to militate against essential elements of the
to be fruitful and multiply, to eat and not to biblical view, viz., divine j77jtjatjve and p¢r-
eat of certain fruit). In view of man's corrup- tict4harjfy, and redemptive history as a carrier
tion, af ter the fall any one-sided reliance sim- of ¢bsoz"te revelation. The idealistic notion
ply on general revelation would be all the more that God's revelation is given only generally,
arbitrary. Yet we are not on that account to that it is a universally accessible idea, is de-
minimize the fact and importance of general structive of biblical emphases such as the par-
revelation, on which the Bible insists (Ps. 19; ticularity of special revelation and a historical
Ron. 1, 2). But taken alone the scrcalled sequence of special saving events (climaxed by
theistic proofs have led few men to the living the incarnation, atonement and resurrection of
God. The assumption of Thomas Aquinas that Christ as the unique center of redemptive
God can be known by natural reason apart revelation). Eighteenth century rationalism re-
from a revelation Of Jesus Christ may be vived the notion of pre-Christian Greek ideal-
viewed, in fact, as an unwitting preparation ism that historical facts are necessarily relative
for the revolt of early modern philosophy and never absolute, and that revelation conse-
against special revelation, and its contrary em- quently is to be divorced from historical ac-
phasis solely on general revelation. The many tualities and identified with ideas alone. While
types of speculative theism and idealism aris- still professing to speak of Christian revelation,
ing in the wake of this emphasis were only this form of rationalism dissolved the essential
REVELATION, SPECIAL 458

connection of special revelation with historical While it is the case that Christianity in
disclosure. Moreover, it freely abandoned cru- contending for special revelation is concerned
cial aspects of redemptive history without pro- f or spiritual decision between Jesus Christ and
test to the destructive critics. And it surren- f alse gods, and not merely for an acceptance
dered the defense of the uniqueness or once- of certain revealed truths, yet the Christian
for-allness of special revelation in deference to movement does not on that account demean
the notion that revelation is always and only the importance of divinely revealed doctrines.
general. Wherever Christianity has been con- Christian experience involves both asse#sws
f ronted by idealistic speculations of this kind, (assent to revealed doctrines) and fjd¢icja (per-
it has had to contend against a detemination sonal trust in Christ). Moreover, saving trust
to dissolve the central significance of the vir- is impossible without some authentic knowl-
gin birth, unique divinity, atoning death and edge of God (Heb. I I :6, I Col.15: I-4, Ron.
bodily resurrection of Christ. Since revelation 10:9).
was equated necessarily with a universal mani- Since Schleiermacher's day, Protestant the-
festation, every historical event was regarded ology has been influenced repeatedly by anti-
simply as one of many reflections (in lower or intellectualistic strands in modem philosophy,
higher degree) of this general principle, while especially by such thinkers as Kant, James
an absolute revelation in some particular strand and Dewey. Schleiermacher's formulas, that
or at some particular point Of history was ar- we know God only in relation to us and not
bitrarily excluded. as he is in himself, and that God communicates
Modern evolutionary theory, on the other l].fe and not doctrines, have been influential in
hand, has attached new importance to the encouraging an artificial disjunction in many
historical process. But this concern for history Protestant expositions Of special revelation. Al-
also has generally been pursued on presuppo- though often striving to advance beyond these
sitions hostile to the biblical view. The ten- restrictions, more recent existential and dia-
dency to exalt evolution itself into an ultimate lectical expositions nonetheless do not con-
principle of explanation works against the rec- sistently rise above the quicksands of a merely
ognition of a fixed center or climax of history relational theology.
in the past. While history may be approached Because Of its implications for rational
with sentimental notions of hidden divinity, revelation, the traditional identification Of the
and major turning-points in the long sweep of Bible as the word of God written has been
events singled out as providential, the sacred especially repugnant to contemporary nco-or-
redemptive history of the past is levelled to thodox (a.vJ theology. It is contended that
the plateau of other elements in history, and
Jesus Christ alone should be identified as the
history as a whole is no longer understood in Word of God, and that to speak of Scripture
relation to the unique revelation of God in in this way demeans Christ. The evangelical
Christ as its center. Protestant, however, distinguishes carefully be-
In fact, the tendency to view reason itself tween the logos t7.eot4 and the r7igi.¢¢ tJieot4,
only as a late emergent in the evolutionary that is, between the ontological Word incar-
process suppresses the biblical declaration that nate and the epistemological word inscrip-
reality itself has its ultimate explanation in turate. The motives for the necrorthodox com-
the Logos (John I:3), and in effect contra- plaint are, in fact, speculative rather than
venes the doctrine Of rational divine revelation. spiritual. For the witness o£ Scripture, to which
That is why the question of the nature and neo-orthodox dogmaticians profess to appeal, is
significance Of mind is one of the crucial prob- specially damaging to their case here. The OT
lems of contemporary philosophy, in its bear- prophets Consistently speak of their words as
ing both upon Christian and Communist phi- the words of God, using the formula ``Thus
losophy. The modern philosophical revolt saith the Lord" with untiring regularity. The
against reason, anchored first in skeptical the- NT apostles, moreover, speak of divine revela-
ories about the limitations of human knowl- tion in the form of definite ideas and words
edge about the spiritual world, and then in (cf. I Thess. 2:13, where the Thessalonians
evolutionary dogmas, has an obvious bearing are said to have "received the word Of God
upon the Christian contention that God com- which you heard from us not as the word Of
municates truths about himself and his pur- men but as . . . the word of God"; c£. also
poses. Ron. 3:2, where Paul characterizes the OT
459 REVENGE

as "the oracles of God"). The disciples also reasserts the priority of revelation over reason.
spoke of Scripture as divine revelation and, in Thus the epistemological formulas representa-
fact, had the sacred example and authority Of tive of Augustine (``1 believe in order to un-
Jesus Christ for so doing. Jesus identified his derstand") and of Tertullian ("I believe what
own words with the word Of. the Father (John is absurd," i.e., to the unregenerate man) are
14:34) and spoke of Scripture as the word of much in the climate of current theological dia-
God (John 10:35). The Bible nowhere pro- 1otgue. But the modern tendency to exaggerate
tests against the identification of Scripture the transcendence of God, by way of revolt
with revelation, but rather supports and ap- against the classic liberal overstatement of di-
proves this identification. The nco-orthodox vine immanence, subserves the Tertullian more
tendency to look upon Scripture as simply wit- than the Augustinian formula. The historic
ness to revelation, in fact, contravenes the his- Christian confidence in a revealed world-and-
toric Christian view that the Bible itself is a life view takes its rise from a prior confidence
fom of revelation specially provided for man in the reality of rational divine revelation. The
in sin as an authentic disclosure of the nature modern tendency to veer toward a doctrine Of
and will of God. revelation whose locus is to be found in an
From all this it is clear how significant is immediate existential response, rather than in
the Christian assertion that the laws Of logic an objectively conveyed Scripture, thwarts the
and morality belong to the j7"ngo Dei in man. theological interest in biblically revealed doc-
Christian theology has always been under bibli- trines and principles from which an explana-
cal compulsion to affirm the identity of the tory view of the whole of reality and life may
Logos with the Godhead, and to find a con- be exposited. Thus it is apparent that a re-
nection between God as rational and moral covery of confidence in the intelligible integra-
and the form and content of the divine image lion of the whole of life's experiences depends
in man. That Jesus Christ is himself the significantly upon a virile sense of the actuality
Truth; that man bears the divine image on the of rational divine revelation.
basis of creation (a.t7.), and that this image BIBLIOGRAPHY
while distorted by sin is not destroyed; that
the Holy Bible is a rational revelation Of the :--_----
nature of God and his will for fallen man;
that the Holy Spirit uses truth (a.v.) as a
meal\s of conviction and conversion -all these
facts indicate in some measure the undeniable
CARL F. H. HENRY
premium assigned to rationality by the Chris-
tian religion. Yet human reason is not viewed
as a source of truth; rather, man is to think REVENGE. Njijt¢7" is the common He-
God's thoughts after him. Revelation is the brew word (c£. Nah.urn the prophet), cognate
source of truth, and reason as illuminated by with vengeance and avenge. Oddly, four other
the Spirit, the instrument for comprehending it. words have similar translation in the AV
Contemporary theology is marked by its re- (yG5G', "save"; p6qa¢, "visit"; 5clpcI.f, "judge'';
affirmation of the priority of revelation to rea- p6rc}`, "free"; along with g6'#], "-release"). In
son. In this respect it is distinguished from the the NT, kr7.7io-, "judge"; ekdjkeo-, "avenge";
liberal Protestant dogmatics of the nineteenth orgg, "wraf7i." An impro|)er human passion
century, which tended to view human reason (Ezek. 25: 12) of retaliation for personal sat-
as a self-sufficient and independent criterion. is faction, from a sense of being galled or mis-
Some Nco-Thomistic studies today restate the treated (I Sam. 25:26), revenge is related to
philosophy even of Thomas Aquinas so as to egotism. In both Testaments it is forbidden to
set the usual summary of his a|)proach, ``1 man (Lev.19:17 f.; Rom.12:19a); it per-
understand in order to believe," in a context of tains only to God (Deut. 32:35; Ps. 94:I;
faith. The Thomistic hostility to innate ideas, Rom.12: 19b), or to gods (Acts 28:4). God's
and the Thomistic support for knowledge of vengeance, much found in Scripture, is the
God by the way of negation and the way of inexorable execution of eternal right, divine
analogy are, however, firmly reasserted. Prot- justice. It is only through anthropomorphism
estant theology, heavily influenced by Karl confused with man's vengeance; for God, with-
Barth and Emil Brunner, now characteristically out any passion, vindicates his justice, majesty,
REVIVAL 460

world-order, against any assault (Jer. 46: 10; man can schedule a revival, f or God alone is
Nab.I:2; 11 Thess.I:8), as he also avenges the giver of life. But when darkness deepens,
wrong done to his own (Deut. 32:43; Rev. when moral declension reaches its lowest ebb,
19:2; Luke 8:7). when the church becomes cold, lukewarm,
There is vast difference and no little con- dead, when "the fulness of time" is' come
fusion between private execution of presuma- and the prayer ascends from a few earnest
ble justice, which is anarchy (Gen. 4:23), hearts, ``Wilt thou not revive us again that
and public maintenance Of general right, thy people may rejoice in thee" (Ps. 85:6),
which is obligatory (Josh. 20:5; Luke 18:2 then history teaches it is time for the tide of
I.). The provision of the goel ("revenger of revival to sweep in once more. Revival always
blood") in the Mosaic revelation was ideally involves the preaching of divine judgment,
the means of effecting theocratic jurisprudence confession of sin, repentance, acceptance o£
in criminal cases (Nun. 35:19, e.g.). Lee salvation as a free gift, the authority of the
ta[jo7!js, so of ten misunderstood, gives no man- Scriptures and the joy and discipline Of the
date in Scripture to private or personal prcr Christian life. While revivals do not last, the
cedure, but to the theocratic administration Of effects of revival always endure.
F. CARLTON BcoTH
justice (Ex. 21 :23; Lev. 24: 19). The Sermon
on the Mount is addressed to individuals as
REWARD. The word reward, if all of its
(in effect) Christians, who being such, are to
take insult or injury, as God's grace may lift related forms are included, is found one hun-
them to such a high plane; but our Lord in dred and one times in our English Bible (AV).
no sense contradicted the OT theocratic law Four Greek words and several Hebrew words
are rendered by this one word.
([ex tazjo"js, Deut. 19:21); he endorsed it
unequivocally (Matt. 5:17 f£.). To this day
In present day usage, a reward is a gif t
the rule, Suit the punishment to the crime, is given in recognition for some service rendered,
the state law, never to be abolished as long as either good or evil. Its biblical usage, however,
is quite varied, including such ideas as a
there is to be a state.
bribe (Ps.103:10), |>unishment (Ps. 91:8),
The futility of revenge is shown in its al-
and gift (I Kings 13 : 7). It includes, therefore,
ways provoking reaction in kind (Gen. 4:23).
the punishment one experiences in this life for
The efficacy of "turning the other cheek" is `evil deeds (Matt. 6:5) as well as future retri-
the resulting end of strife, the disarming of
bution (Ps. 91:8). Several times the word is
the adversary: "If thine enemy hunger . . ."
used of evil done to a person where good was
(Ron. ,2:20). expected (Gen. 44:4; Ps. 35: 12).
ROBERT F. GRIBBLE
Christ often used rewards as an incentive
RHVIVAL. In many instances the word for service. This has been a disturbing thought
revive, Hebrew ¢6y6, Greek a"az¢o-, means to some. One need not be troubled by this if
literally to come back to life from the dead: he understands the scriptural nature of re-
"the soul of the child came into him again and wards and dismisses any thought of material-
he revived" (I Kings 17:22); "Christ both
ism. Rewards are the result of human effort,
died and rose and revived" (Rom. 14:9), i.e.,
to be sure, but as Weiss says: "As the servants
"died and lived again," RSV. Even when this of God in the Israelitish theacracy were en-
is not the meaning, the word carries greater titled, by reason of their covenant relationship,
force than it bears to us today, for we have to look f or the fulfillment of the promise as
confused revivalism with evangelism. Evan-
a reward for their fulfillment of their covenant
obligations, so the disciple of Jesus is entitled
gelism is good news; revival is new life. Evan-
to look for the completion of salvation as a
gelism is man working for God; revival is God
working in a sovereign way on man's behalf.
I.eward for the fulfillment of the demands
which are made upon him in virtue of his be-
To speak of "holding a revival" is a misnomer.
ing a disciple" (8. Weiss, Biz7Zical T7ieo!ogy
No human being can kindle the interest,
of the New Testq7"e7", Vol. I, T. & T. Clark,
quicken the conscience of a people, or generate
Edinburgh, 1885, p. 144).
that intensity of spiritual hunger that signifies
revival. All spiritual life, whether in the in- For the Christian, rewards have an eschato-
dividual or in the community, in the church logical significance. Paul teaches that every
or in the nation, is by the Spirit o£ God. No man shall appear before the judgment seat of
461 RIGHT, RIGHTEOUSNESS

Christ for the judgment of his works (Ron. stand dark sentences" (8:23), that is, be
14: 12; 11 Cor. 5:10). This must be kept dis- skilled in "double dealing." Ps. 78:2, however,
tinct in our thinking from judgment for sin, "I will utter dark sayings," is followed by a
for this, as far as the believer is concerned, is straightforward historical poem; and this verse
forever past (Ron. 5:I). Salvation is a gift is referred by Matt.13:35 to Christ's parabolic
(Eph. 2:8-9) whereas rewards are earned (I preaching.
Cor. 3: 14). The two chief passages of Scrip- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ture that discuss rewards at length are I Cor. HERE,. JeipEtic.
3:9-15 and I Cor. 9:16-27. Additional in- J. BARTON PA¥NE
fomation can be found by studying the vari-
RIGHT, RIGHTEOUSNESS. Right is
ous passages where rewards for service are de-
the translation of many Hebrew words. The
picted as crowns (I Cor. 9:25; Phil. 4:I; I two most important are y65Gr and roj5p¢f . The
Thess. 2:19; 11 Tim. 4:8; James 1:12; I Pet.
former has the sense of "being straight" while
5:4; Rev. 2: 10; 3: 11).
the latter is a forensic term meaning "judg-
Various types of service merit rewards such
ment," as in Gen.18:25. In the NT the chief
as enduring temptation (James I:12), dili-
word is dik¢jos, meaning "equal." It is usually
gently seeking God (Heb. 11:6), dying for translated "just" or "righteous."
Christ (Rev. 2: 10), faithful pastoral work (I
The concept of ``right" in the sense of ``fair"
Pet. 5 :4), faithfully doing God's will and lo.v-
or "equal" is arrived at early in the developing
ing his appearing (11 Tim. 4:8), soul winning
consciousness of a child and is firmly held.
(I Thess. 2:19-20), faithful stewardship (I In a community it is the office of a judge to
Cor. 4:1-5), acts of kindness (Gal. 6:10),
declare what is right. From the beginning in
hospitality (Matt. 10:40-42). Rewards can be
the Hebrew community the judges were re-
lost (Rev. 2:10; 11 John 8). Then too it is
garded as acting on the behalf of God (Deut.
possible to be busy in the Lord's service and I:17). God is the Judge of all the earth. It
receive no rewards at all (I Cor. 3: 15; 9:27)
was unthinkable that, as such, he should act
or to receive little when one should receive
unfairly. "To slay the righteous with
much (11 John 8).
wicked, that so the righteous should be as
See also CRowN.
wicked; that be far from thee: shall not
BIBLIOGRAPHY
judge of all the earth do right" (Gen.18:25,
RV).
:;o?;,evN?!Fwcl[V+ien?'paFm?#SEi.§|..'g:ei:i,I;3;Zy,s::ccaTai.;ceoTohgey-
God is the fountain Of justice, so that every-
HOWARD Z. CLEVELAND thing which he does may be relied upon as
just (Deut. 32:4; Ron. 9:14). God's equity
RICHES. See WEALTH.
Judge will be seen most clearly "in the day
the revelation of the righteous judgment of
RIDDLE. The OT term for an enigmatic who will render to every man according
or perplexing saying is ¢£dc!, perhaps from the works" (Ron. 2:5).
root 'Zld, "hold fast" or "cover" (KB). Trans- ce God's verdict is absolutely just, man's
lated "riddle," ky€dd describes Samson's wager righteousness may be clef ined in terms o£ God's
with his Philistine wedding guests (Judg.
judgment. The righteous is the man whom
14: 12-19). Riddles (Prov. I :6 ASV mg.) were God's verdict has declared just; the wicked the
serious matters (cf. possibly Prov. 30: 15-16, man whom God has condemned.
24-28); and Solomon profited by answering Righteousness is the regular translation in
the ¢fdc3, "hard questions," of the queen of the EV of the Hebrew sedek and Seddqf and
Sheba (I Kings 10:I). the Greek dikczjosy"G. Originally these words
Ezekiel's allegory of the eagles is called signified that which conforms to the norm, and
a "riddle" (17:2). H€dd could thus identify for biblical writers this norm is the character
any matter needing interpretation (Num. of God himself .
12:8; cf. I Cor.13: 12 ASV mg.), for example, Amos, in particular, emphasizes that God is
a predictive "I)roverb" (Hab. 2:6; ASV mg. impartial in his dealings. The prophet called
"riddle"). It describes a perplexing moral prob-
i.or a similar righteousness in men (Amos 5 : 15,
len (Ps. 49:4), when retribution overtakes the 24). Inflicting retribution is an element of the
wicked only after death (vs. 15); and Daniel righteousness of God (Isa. 61:2; 11 Thess.
predicted that Antiochus IV would "under- 1:6). Moreover, if in a world of unrighteous-
RITSCHLIANISM 462

ness and oppression, righteousness is to be people is based on the redemption wrought by

established, God himself must become the Christ (Ron. 3:24). In effect, it is a right-
protector and vindicator of the oppressed. Thus eousness through complete forgiveness; but this
frequently the Bible speaks of God's righteous- forgiveness is based on an objective fact, the
ness as manifested in his defense of those who blood Of Christ (I John I :7, 9).
have no helper, i.e., the poor, the widow, the There is no suggestion in Scripture that
orphan and the stranger (Pss. 10: 14; 72: 12). God's declaration that believers are righteous
Thus it comes about that righteousness is is in conflict with the sense of right implanted
closely linked with shewing mercy to the poor in our heart. Such a conflict is indeed un-
(cf. Matt. 6: I-2; 11 Col. 9:9-10). thinkable, as God is the author of both. Yet
Similarly, God is righteous in his protection Paul recognized that God's passing over Of
Of his people, and in his rescue Of them from sins done aforetime, rather than the visiting
the heel of the oppressor. In so doing he vin- of them with wrath, called for explanation,
dicates them as his people and shows that they which he found in the death of Christ for sin
are in the right, that is, he justifies them. (Ron. 3:25-26). It is here that he solved the
This meaning is clear in each stage Of God's apparent paradox of a righteous God declaring
dealing with his people: sinners righteous (Ron. 4:5).
(I) In his rescue of the chosen nation from See also JusTIFlcATloN.
the oppression of Pharaoh and his establish- BIBLICX3RAPIIY
ment of them in Canaan in the face of their ma¥sD4:a %P[:i.;aTy¥T #.TckdfojgcEtj#eesa:3 Ph:
foes. The victories which accomplish this are Greeks,. N. H. Snaith, Distj"ctive Ideas of t7ie Ozd
Testament.
described as the righteous acts of God (Judg. DAVID BRoUGHTON KNoX
5:11; I Sam.12:7), while Pharaoh himself
acknowledged that the ten plagues were evi- RITSCHLIANISM. The theology of Al-
dence o£ God's righteousness (Ex. 9:27). brecht Ritschl, of Goettingen (d. 1889) and
(2) In his redemption of his people from of his followers, including such men as A.
the Exile, God showed his righteousness by his Hamack, J. Kaftan, F. A. Loofs, and J. Weiss.
deliverance of his own. Righteousness is very It was the dominant liberal theology from ca.
closely associated with salvation (Isa. 45:8; 1875 to 1914. Its influence is still felt in the
46:13; 51:5-6). contemporary ``Necrorthodoxy" or "New Mod-
(3) In his redemption of his people from ernism." (H. R. Mackintosh speaks of Barth
sin, and from bondage to the devil. The as "Ritschl's great successor.")
Messianic hang, foretold in Zech. 9:9, is ``just It is a negative mediating theology, reacting
and having salvation." The Gospel is the against the speculative rationalism of Hegel
power of God unto salvation to everyone that and against the subjective mysticism Of Schleier-
believes; in it is revealed the righteousness of macher. The attempt is made to establish an
God (Rom.I:16-17). independent sphere for theology, from which
God's righteousness is shown in his saving both the intellectual and the emotional are
Of his people from their sins through the cross excluded. This is done by maintaining that
of Christ. His people are now no longer re- religious knowledge comes independently of
stricted to the Jewish race but include all who either of these as a result of value judgments.
believe on Jesus. ``As many as call upon the This is a decision that an object is of worth
name of the Lord shall be saved." to the individual. Ritschlianism is thus a re-
God declares righteous those wfio have faith ligious pragmatism.
in Jesus. That is, he justifies them. There can It is subjec.five in its emphasis on the value
be no doubt that those whom God declares judgment, and yet objective in its insistence
righteous are righteous. It is this righteousness upon a return to the h.istorical records about
of God with which Paul was anxious to be Christ as found in the Bible. To Ritschl Chris-
clothed, rather than with that righteousness tianity is the highest form of religion, being
which might be thought to be derived from his absolutely ethical as founded upon Christ, the
own partial keeping of the moral law (Phil. founder of the kingdom o£ God (q.v.). This
3 :9). The former he describes as the righteous- kingdom is described as "the organization of
ness of God, the latter as his own righteous- humanity through action inspired by love."
ness. The kingdom or community Of believers is a
God's declaration of the righteousness of his sort of moral collectivism. It is only as the in-
463 RULE OF FAITH

dividual identifies himself with the community lievers have their place as living stones (I Pet.
that he partakes of the religious good of justi- 2: 5).
fication and redemption. The example Of Jesus The stone appears in a context of judgment
inspires us to believe that God is love, and as well as salvation (Dan. 2:34, 35; Luke
that we are forgiven, and then we become rec- 20:18), depicting by its massiveness and
onciled to God. This, of course, is a reversal weight the inevitability of crushing destruction
Of the orthodox order. for those who repudiate God's Son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY In general the figure of the rock or stone
as applied to Christ conveys the thought of
permanence (Heb.13 :8) and indispensability
as the basis for the redeemed life (I Cor.
3:11). It also betokens the breadth and
strength of the future messianic kingdom
MORTON H. SMITH
(Dan. 2:35, 44).
RITUAL. More precisely, ritual is the form For the allusion in Matt.16: 18, see PETER.
of words prescribed for a liturgical function. EVERETT F. HARRISoN
More popularly, however, it is used of the
accompanying ceremonial. Thus the so-called RUDIMENT. See ELEMENTs oF THE
Ritualists of nineteenth century England were WoRLD.
mainly attacked for their introduction of vest-
ments and ceremonies rather than for verbal RULE, RULER. In the OT eleven He-
alterations. brew words are translated ``rule" and "ruler,"
GEOFFREY W. BROMILET the most frequent being the verb t"65¢!, which
appears rather pervasively throughout the OT.
ROCK. The principal words are the He- It is used o£ Joseph who was ruler of all Egypt
brew seha`, "elevation," and Stlr, ``sharpness,"
(Gen. 45:8), of David's lineage (11 Chron.
and the Greek petrc}. In addition the Hebrew
'ebe# and the Greek lit7zos are used for "stone." 7:18), of God's nile over Jacob (Ps. 59:13)
and of the Messiah, one of whose titles is ruler
Israel had an awareness o£ Yahweh's de-
(Mic. 5:2).
pendability and helpfulness early in her his- Of the five NT words for ruler the pre-
tory (Gen. 49:24; Ps. 78:35). David put the
dominant is czrch67¢, a substantival participle of
Lord to the test many times, finding in him the verb c}rcho-, "to rule." Rev. 1 : 5 affirms that
his sure defense (Ps.18:2; 28:1; 62:2). Paul
Christ is the ``ruler of the kings on earth,"
refers to Christ as the Rock of refreshing sup- which is a reflection of the widespread Jewish
ply in the wilderness (I Cor. 10:4). On this idea of the character and role of the Messiah.
see H. St. J. Thackeray, TJ®e Rehatio7! of St.
This word is used of Christ only once, but
Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought, pp. the same thought appears many times, e.g.,
204-12.
Ron.14:9 and Col.I:18. In the NT archol¢
The OT contains hints (Isa. 28:16) and
generally refers to those in positions of rc-
predictions (Dan. 2:44, 45) of a messianic ligious or political authority. Officers in charge
nature involving one to come who would be of synagogues were called rulers (Luke 8 :41),
rejected by his own people (Ps.118:22). That and members of the Sanhedrin also bore this
which is spoken Of the Lord God, that he appellation (John 3:I). Another use of the
would become a stone of stumbling and a rock word applies to evil spirits whose ranks and
of offense to Israel (Isa. 8: 14), was specifical-
offices parallel visible organizations. Satan is
ly fulfilled in Christ (Rom. 9:32, 33). Jesus
described as the "prince of demons" (Mark
of Nazareth was a stone of stumbling to his 3:22). Jesus himself calls Satan the ``ruler of
own nation because he refused to adopt the this world" (John 12:31). Paul alludes to the
role of a political Messiah. Instead he pre-
devil as the ``prince of the power Of the air"
sented himself as the Suffering Servant (I
(Eph. 2:2).
Cor.I:23). In the resurrection God took the DAVID H. WALLACE
rejected stone-a living stone indeed (I Pet.
2:4)-and made it the foundation (I Cor. RULE OF FAITH. (Regwha Fjdej) D.
3:11), the chief corner stone (Luke 20:17; van den Ende has shown that in lrenaeus and
Acts 4:11; Eph. 2:20; I Pet. 2:7) of a new Hippolytus the term refers to "the living doc-
edifice, the church of Christ, in which all be- trine of the churches" and not to any set pat-
RURAL DEAN 464

ten. For Tertullian it seems to have referred Church. Protestants reserve the term for Scrip-
to the settled and unchangeable doctrines of ture alone. The Protestant confessions, though
the faith. Many historians believe it to have serving as secondary noms, are not refened to
referred to the baptismal formula, though this as "the rule of faith." This is reserved for
has been questioned recently. The term does Scripture alone, which is called "the only rule
not seem to have been used in reference to of faith and practice."
the Bible itself in the Ante-Nicene church. MORTON H. SMITH
Today it denotes the source or standard o£
Christian doctrine. The Roman Church cle- RURAL DEAN. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslAs-
f ines the rule of faith as the teaching Of the TICAL.

SABBATARIANISM. Christian sabba- Akkadian. Therefore, the root appears to be

tarianism, or enforced sabbath-rest, was initi- old Semitic, meaning cease, rest, interrupt.
The sabbath was instituted at creation
stueida;y labs,nsi:::in;;s| , I:iudlatioiTi €EaairT:: (Gen. 2:2-3), was next referred to in the
magne's justification of such from the fourth giving of manna (Ex. 16:23-30), then at
commandment, 789, sabbatarianism officially Sinai (Ex. 20:8-11; Deut. 5: 12-15). Violation
was a capital offense (Ex. 31: 14). I.eviticus
prevailed. Luther rejected sabbath-keeping as
Romanistic extemalism, but the Puritans es- and Numbers give numerous regulations for
tablished England's comprehensive sabbath the sabbath. The individual was to rest. Extra
law o£ 1677. The Scottish and colonial ``blue- Oof:a:;rngfseayter:aypsre::|¥da]£t;:1:edta¥Fbaac|e;
laws" are today being increasingly relaxed or
eliminated. (Lev. 16:31, etc.). The seventh year was a
sabbatic year and the Hebrews therefore
Judaistic sabbatarianism has been perpetu- counted years more by sevens than by decades.
ated by sectarian attempts to re-establish pre-
The sabbath is mentioned in Kings, Chron-
icles, Ps. 92: 1 (title), Isaiah, Jeremiah, Eze-
:::£S :£8;, :e;'eecnttehd-a;¥ch°PsseaE£:a::;gilgtarf:;:
kiel, Hosea, and Amos. The day is to be
nesians ix); and the Council of Laodicea con-
observed in the messianic age.
demned it officially, 343. Judaistic sabbatarian-
ism has reappeared among post-reformation Critical students have sought far afield for
its origin. J. R. Sampey (JSBE) remarks, "The
groups such as the Seventh-day Baptists, 1671,
and the Seventh-day Adventists, 1845.
BIBIJOGRAPHY

s„:S#.day/ HERE; Paul Cotton, Fran. Sabziath to

J. BARTON PATNE ih:;:::;h:e£:„:f;°::i\iett::¥±[:;:e:§ef:sj;i:;:g:d¥;:i§;::;I:
I.ondon, 1935). He finds certain unlucky
SABBATH. The name for the Jewish day days, especially in certain months, mentioned
of rest and worship. Hebrew: 5az7Z7d!; Greek: in tenth century Assyria: days 1, 7, 9, 14, 19,
s¢Z7Z7¢to". It is not used in profane Greek, and 21, 28, 29, and 30 were unlucky for any
is perhaps borrowed from the Aramaic 5az7ba_t6'. work. Assurbanipal in the seventh century re-
duced these to days 7, 14, 19, 21, and 28 o£
which 19 was especially unlucky. Langdon
argues that the seven day week began here,
§fab#:g#a]bs£::]guu;a::::s:£ifb;afss:i:f:o}:;=ji:i;i::a;s:n;
based on the phases of the moon. But the
New Testame#t Words, Oliphants, London, lunar month is 29% days, not 28, and the
1940). The word has a cognate in Arabic and moon's phases are not exactly seven days
465 SACRAMENT

apart. Also the unlucky 19th dry breaks the church (Acts 2:41-42; 20:7,11; 10:47, etc.).
Both these rites were regarded as means ap-
;eat:e:caes. cTe::;y if:rpoori::rt, tit: E:s?rew sab- pointed by Jesus Christ to bring the members
The obligation of the Christian for sabbath of the church into communion with his death
keeping has been much discussed. The sab- and resurrection and thus with himself
batarian (q.vJ view is ably discussed by through the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19-20; I
Cor.11:23-27; Acts 2:38; Ron. 6:3-5; Col.
g.::is8,T,ovdg.::|f|?S;epT3t2c|-4T8#gysevsecnii 2:11-12). They were linked together in our
Lord's teaching (Mark 10:38-39) and in the
f:yfdavnenetsissetnv,i:r::::'k.ef':;:gi.of,tFsessue:emn:E mind of the church (I Cor.10:I-5 f£.) as
having such significance. They were the vis-
::front::rJsb?nEdinTghefsvfegYve¥atb;hevi;aab,?earthi: ible enactment of the word proclaimed in the
Martin in Eter"ity M¢g¢zi"e, May 1958, pp. kgrygowc! and their significance must be under-
20-23. An alternative view is that the sabbath stood as such.
was essentially ceremonial and thus was done The kc-rygt7'ra or proclamation of the gospel
away in Christ. Ceremonial laws, however, in the NT was no mere recital of the events
involve basic and eternal principles and have of the life, death, resurrection and ascension
analogies in NT truth and practice. The of Jesus, the Son o£ God. It was the re-
analogue of the sabbath is the Lord's day, the
presentation of these events to the bearers in
first day of the week, clearly celebrated by the the power of the Spirit so that through such
apostles and the early church.
proclamation they could become related to
BIBLIOGRAPHY these events in a living way through faith.

?:gf.t;2S3:#:#y.:###foy#:hf#gr.:ts3a:2ei;
ISBE.
::I_:FIG epvreo::a::;i,oi:u:i t?.e g#sF:[fetch,:veon;::
R. LAIRD HARRIS salvation (I Cor.1 :21; 11 Col. 5: 18-19). The
word of the kgrygm¢ gave men fellowship in
SABELLIANISM. Taking its name from the mystery (7",ysfgrl.o#) of the kingdom of
the third century Sabellius, this is an inade- God brought nigh in Jesus (Matt.13:I-23;
Mark 4: 11), and the preacher in fulfilling his
quate conception of the Trinity which in the
attempt to guard against tritheism reduced the task was the steward of this mystery (I Cor.
three persons o£ Father, Son and Holy Ghost 4:I; Col.I:25; Eph. 3:8-9). The miracles or
to three characters, modes or relations of the signs accompanying the kgnyg7"ci in the early
Godhead assumed for the purpose of the di- church were the visible aspect of the living
vine dealings with man. Thus God is eternally power which the word derived from its rela-
and essentially one, but economically, i.e., for tion to the mystery of the kingdom of God.
specific purposes, he takes the form o£ Father, It was inevitable, therefore, that baptism
Son and Holy Spirit and may be confessed and the Lord's Supper, the other visible coun-
and worshiped as such. This overfacile solu- terparts of the kgrygmci, should also come to
lion of the mystery of triu+ity attracted many be regarded as giving fellowship in the same
followers, but it was quickly realized that, al- 7"yste-rio# of the Word made flesh (I Tim.
though Jesus Christ is wholly God, he is no 3:16), and should be interpreted as them-
mere mode or function but the pre-existent selves partaking in the t#yste-rio" of the rela-
and eternal Son (John 17:3, 5, 24), thus tionship between Christ and his church (Eph.
demanding confession of an essential trinity 5:32).

The Greek word "ystGrjo# was later often

:;gi::;¥Ls[nofcAni::::i=[Sa:3fa±hi:fu°sprnsjtjf]:
teaching were condemned at a council at Rome given the translation in Latin sacro7"e7zft„
and the rites themselves became spoken of as
(under Pope Dionysius) in A.D. 263. s4!craowe7®tcz. The word scicra7"e7®tw" meant
WILLIAM KELLY both "a thing set apart as sacred," and "a
military oath of obedience as administered by
SACRAMENT. Along with the proclama- the commander." The use of this word for
tion (krtygmtz) and teaching (d;c!¢c7ie-), bap- baptism and the Lord's Supper affected the
tism and the Lord's Supper were given a thought about these rites, and they tended to
prominent place in the fellowship of the early be regarded as conveying "grace" in them-
SACRIFICE 46 6

selves, rather than as relating men through priest was involved. He caught the blood and
faith to Christ. disposed of it. In the case of a sin o££ering for
A sacrament came later to be defined (fol-
lowing Augustine) as a "visible word" or an £]epdri::ts:;eFet£:ehso]£fcoor:g:i:aS:]T,,g:tsfrLn:
"outward and visible sign of an inward and on the homs of the altar of incense and
spiritual grace." The similarity between the poured the rest at the base of the altar. If it
form of the sacrament and the hidden gift were for an individual other than a priest, the
tended to be stressed. Five ``lesser" sacraments seven fold sprinkling was omitted and the
became traditional in the church: confirma- blood was put on the altai of burnt offering
lion, penance, extreme unction, order, matri- instead of that of incense. In the case of all
mony. But the church had always a special the other offerings, the blood was simply
place for baptism and the Lord's Supper as poured out at the base of the altar. The fifth
the chief "mysteries" and at the Reformation stage saw certain prescribed parts, mostly the
these were regarded as the only two which
had the authority of our Lord himself, and innt]emmaf;,fftu£:dt::bthuem:it°afr:er#e'ft]Pneaiws?a°::
therefore as the only true sacraments. was the disposal of the remainder of the
carcass. In the peace offering certain parts
Since God in the OT also used visible signs
were given to the priest, and the rest was
along with the word, these were also regarded
as having sacramental significance. Among
the OT sacraments the rites of circumcision
:a:;:[iytftes£:°arsnhd£Pe;:]t!no£;enTnegas]tife£;:i:r:
and the Passover were stressed as being the
OT counterparts of baptism (Col. 2:11-12)
;:rnst:::dse]Sees,C;r£:;S'£tu:]aesssb:h=e°df£±enri:8c]¥aa=
and the Lord's Supper (I Cor. 5:7). place outside the camp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY The significance of all this is. disputed.
\V. Robertson Smith held that the basic sacri-
3hoe:.a3§;a;B#S#ot£#4#¥a¥]:£B=#&efrE¥cSh'a"np3¥; fice was the peace offering, so that sacrifice
in 1%te7.comm«"jon, pp. 303-50).
was primarily a process of communion be-
RONAI,D S. WALLACE tween the worshipers and God. G. Buchanan
Gray took the burnt sacrifice as primary with
SACRIFICE. The OT provides both for
special sacrifices, like covenant sacrifices, and
regular sacrifices, which are detailed in Leviti-
8;ed?a£]Lctftdheeaort]t:two:r£:din:iet'oangt££te::sdi:::
the activity of primitive man will not neces-
cus. Of these there is an offering of cereals,
sarily apply to the men of the OT who were
the meal offering (wrongly "meat" offering in
far from primitive. In the Levitical system
AV), one of liquids, the drink offering, and
there can be no doubt that sacrifice expresses
various animal offerings. These last are the
a variety of ideas, among which atonement
most important, and we will concentrate on
them. They are four in number, the burnt (q.v.) for sin is prominent. The expression "to
make atonement" recurs with frequency.
How this is effected is disputed. The most
natural view is that the worshiper merits death
on account of his sin, a view which is freely
;;:;r¢r:;,Cog::h[;:er::;:tr;e:s:f:f;egn§::ear;:e:o;i:;::5:£FerF:jE:;
etc.
We may divide the ceremonial of o££ering
into six parts. First, there was the "drawing
i:a!d:ss=jt;ln:,tfhf::elf:a;,:ild:#:itls:,?ima:t::-
near." This was so characteristic that the
causative of the verb "to draw near" was
::;:rhj:a:::cset:££triaTn£;1:Sonsfue:¥ornte8fbs¥ntha:
this point. The objection usually raised, that
synonymous with "to sacrifice." It signified
the flesh of the animal would not be described
the selection of an unblemished victim, chosen
as "most holy" if it were bearing sin, is not
from the domestic animals in accordance with
really valid. It is "most holy" because it has
the regulations, and the bringing it to the
discharged the holiest of all functions.
altar. Then came the laying on of hands, a
leaning with firm pressure on the animal's In modem times an idea has sprung up that
head. Thirdly, the worshiper slew the victim. the essential thing in sacrifice is not the in-
The fourth stage was the f irst in which the fliction of death as sin's penalty, but the
467 SADDUCEES

presentation of life before God. The worship- SADDUCEES. The term Sczddouhajof is
er's life may not be thus presented because it confined to the Gospels and Acts. It is taken
is stained with sin. But God graciously per- by some to denote the descendants of Zadok,
mits him to substitute the life of the animal. Solomon's priest (11 Sam. 8: 17) and therefore
Thus sacrifice is essentially the collection and the legitimate priesthood (Ezek. 48 : 11 ). ``Sons
presentation of the blood. This view is not of Zadok" is applied to priests of the Dead
adequate. In addition to its faulty exegetical Sea Sect in the Manual and to all members in
basis (see BLooD) it does not do justice to the Damascus Document. Others derive the
such acts as the burning on the altar, nor the term from the Greek sy7®d;kos, a name for a
confession of sin in later practice. It does not
square with the repeated affirmation that a:mpbaerr,yofwti?is?:%;e"cn9guhn,:I;l|s:;,sofia:e€abd?
sacrifice is "to make atonement." It does not ducees are often traced back to the party
appear how the release or presentation of life which supported Antiochus Epiphanes in his
makes atonement for sin. policy of hellenization.
The Bible does not regard sacrifice as hav- They are mentioned by Josephus along with
ing efficacy in itself . It avails only because the Pharisees and Essenes under Jonathan,
God has himself given it as the means of 146 B.a. Supreme under Hyrcanus and Jan-
effecting atonement (Lev. 17: 11). The spirit naeus, they I)ersecuted the Pharisees, 88 B.c.,
in which the offering is made is important, but when the latter recovered under Alexan-
and the prophets constantly castigate those dra, 76 B.c., they associated with them in
who put their emphasis on the outward act government. Herod appointed Boethus the
and do not offer in penitence and trust. Some Sadducee to be high priest in 26 B.c. In the
have felt that the prophets desired the aboli-
tion of sacrifice. But though passages like :irn.1:pof.Jfes:se:I,iysagfi:tcoe.e.sa,::mfparis:I?esa,s:.a::
Isa.I:11; Jer. 7:22 f.; Hos. 6:6; Amos 5:21 trolling the temple through the Sagan or
f£.; Mic. 6:6 ff., are forthright, close exam- Captain (Acts 4: I) and having a majority in
ination shows that it is not sacrifice as such the Sanhedrin. They collaborated with the
that is castigated, but sacrifice as the prophets Romans, standing apart from the common peo-
saw it practiced with scant regard for upright ple and poorer priests (many of whom were
living. Pharisees). They organized the persecution of
the church (Acts 4 and 5) but were restrained
In the NT it is recognized that it is not by the Pharisees.
possible for animals to take away men's sin They regarded the law (written Scripture)
(Heb. 10:4). But what beasts could not do,
as binding, but rejected the scribal tradition
that Christ did in his death. Sometimes sacri-
fice in general is used to illustrate his death and held the prophets less authoritative. They
disliked innovation, hence rejected: (a) the
Persian concept of two hierarchies of good and
£Ec:£¥j.c::(2|;:opr:t;:17:,2o)jtsfemBt;;eosfaA?::te£:ue]::
evil spirits (Acts 23:8); (b) the resurrection
sacrifice, Heb. 9 and 10). But throughout
Christ is thought of as fully effecting all that of the body (cf. Luke 20:27-33, where they
the ancient sacrifices dimly foreshadowed. He argued that the law of levirate marriage dis-
proves it, but were shown from the law that
ieia:I.yif:oTso,Erepia:fee.c,Hseact.:;ife:uEi:in.sff:.::: God assumes the continued existence of the
was made willingly (Heb. 10:7), but it was patriarchs and that the resurrected are as
angels), though Josephus may exaggerate
not, as some allege, simply a sacrifice consist-
ing of obedience, for the writer goes on to say when he says that they denied even the im-
that the particular will of God that he obeyed mortality of the soul (Ant. 18.1.4); (c) re-
was that requiring "the offering of the body wards and punishments in Hades. They assert-
o£ Jesus Christ once for all" (Heb. 10: 10).
ed human freedom of action against Essene
BIBLIOGRAPHY
fatalism. Messianic hopes interested them lit-
tle, and they despised nationalist passions and
religious enthusiasm. Preferring indulgence to
Pharisaic fasting, they argued that God was
Eef!;;i?viifi:ig:n¥ieni!#£T;6y,.a#d:;!;;faftt#rs:;sffh¥5: not concerned with men's good or evil deeds.
LEON MORRIS Some of their families engaged in feuds with
SAINT 46 8

=;?d%hro:I(#;,,Te33;3fst;s.Eherasseug;:s:e-#:
;:::;:W:£:h:ecth::I:e::I:,{:I:]0%ree;ai:h)i;,1:nbeo;Pfh::
::c2eos;asBt::TSDTas.:o=e¥::?niy,baa,:::d:::: almost a refrain (I : 15; 3:8; 3: 18; 6: 18). The
spiritual Sadducees left the party to join the Apostles' Creed enshrines this significance of
Qumran sect. the word in the statement, "I believe . . . in
BIBIJOGRAPHY the communion of saints."
See also HOLY.
BIBIIceENHy
gj:2fi3rofiJ!:;se!p,i:;;3i:,:i;,,;;iiiis:,;;;:4:;¥cS:gig:j¥EE:Ih; REiE;.I; R. H. Strachan in HZ)AC; o. s. Rndin in
EVERETT F. HARRISON
DENls H. TONGUE
SAINT. In the OT this word appears as SALT. Biblical symbolism utilizes salt in

o¥eq;£fet*E%]yo,f,.ffides:g££co::,eag:fly;;,d6:,n±€ ::rr,£ay:.:5)I)d`:SseenaapbensedVIYfths;]eti:%];cf:i:
separation unto God, whereas hasfd stresses but not insipid. (2) Purity of bumf offerings,
like ]ericho's water (11 Kings 2:20-22), is
fa°edr];;.esiLgero#ewdor°dnjsth£;:ocsep(tt££:]y°,:)Std:: associated with salt (Ezek. -43:24). (3) Sod-
regularly used in the LXX to render qdd65.
From Ps. 85:8, where the saints seem to be
izii;|s?:7:ii:,:I.fnuK?zgo;`h,tz::3D,iai.£i:.i,t;s;:i:I:
:#:ensT£:ts¥:hethmeph¥:i:]ed°£sG°n:'t°;ae]]C°onn- became salt (Gen. 19:26), and destroyed
cwhearreacnt::gt:d];;bauptp:enc£3:i:ned:Foci:effno:£¥ cities were sown with salt (Judg. 9:45). Evil
speech, like brackish water, cannot coexist
with good (James 3 : 12), though Ezekiel fore-
:::t|oyw£|o.:.g#Sia:o:.a::noTser.Ft=:=g!: saw an eschatological sweetening of the Dead
out by the term. But if the ethical connotation Sea (47:8-9). (4) Eating a man's salt (Ezra

yhear,e.I:rawm.::nsti.:i:=¥rct::ifrn,arYyoui`nd,h¥ 1::o[vfe:4a]:¥f£:I;i]¥f?:e€;:::1;(fug#:hrl:pg:£p£¥:
absolute fom-the saints. Yet, ever and
again, we read of "thy saints" or "the saints of 18 : 19). By the fire of hell the lost are ``salted
the Most High" or, as in the NT, of saints in
Christ Jesus. {Pkeas,ekrv:i];;),£nwhfrecvaret:ad;:i,tE:sn£:i::::
Saints acquire their status by divine call
(Ron.I:7). Doubtless there is latent in the
isl:I::{v;::t:h;eEsef|gei:,"c¥.rae::ca:a];]gn:#.¥if)rd#a?i
%S£°£fn;:i;e:e:n£T:i:;atochhaftsr#]t£::ih':Phat:
acter (Eph. 5:3). In this way the term be- s=ivkaft:8nth(e#a`:Fe5:#):£theearth"forothe|s'
comes linked with the thought of faithfulness BIBHcORAPHY
J. Peuro§e Harland, BA 5, 2; Mst.
(Eph.I:I, Col.I:2).
J. BARTON PAYNE

theTE:.!e.xfta:avgee|a:i:n?e:eh`:pen::tar:?i¥na:n: SALUTATION. This word is used to

the Lord, which characterizes saints, leads to translate ZJdraE, "to bless" (I Sam.13:10),
Satan-inspired persecution from the world 56'¢Z ZC56k5t# (lit. "to ask for the peace Of,"
(Rev.13:7; 14:12) and even to martyrdom
(Rev. 16:6; 17:6). Here are the seeds for the Lei:i.,:i9;f)Hisat::icaff;¢isnr::ci:;:i:I:etlio&:,
greeting or salutation was not simply a formal-
]RyomhaoTycaotFo]::]f.::::Eftc[Pnfgsa£;:I:;na¥Fo]£a:: ity but rather entailed a deep reality (J. Peder-
worthy of veneration (see CANONIZATloN). son, Jsraez, Oxford University Press, London,

be'`i:v:t:.¥Ts,ah:,wne.vneis:;:tdir:sp,::iedbrt.othae`: :rga2:aTie;o3l)e.sseLjk:::sean:htheenr::e:£e,se:
(Col.1:2). Except for Phil. 4:21, it is not confirm their fellowship (Gen. 24:60; 31:28,
used in the singular, and even there it re- 55).
flects the corporate idea - "every saint." The The use of "peace" in salutations was no
469 SALVATION, SAVE, SAVIOUR

less meaningful in the beginning. When one

granted peace unto another, a real gift was
bestowed and this gif t added to the blessing
of the other (J. Pederson, op. cff., p. 304; cf. ie,ei;,;,e:E'.:i:`s:iifi;f::j|;ed:o:fse(:f:sa.5:;o`|:eiF:y?ij;
solGr (Isa. 45:21; 43:11; Ps. 61:2) because
f#owo'i;cPu;i:ed::tcyoc#:aa,cep.bugt4g:;sfei:i=y salvation of men is vain (Pss. 59[60]:11;
and referred to every kind of material and 107[108]:12). Only in the sense that men,
spiritual well-being, the greeting became ac- such as judges (Judg. 3:9, 14; 12:3; Neh.
tually a prayer (S. Johnson, 18 Vol. 7, p. 9:27), and Mordecai (Esth. 8:13), are God's
304). Later the salutations became so compli- instruments, are they saviours. Although sole-r
C#,:snudst:rddf:ruesda:]qstd*ipi:sst°o¥sua:=tet£=: is used thirty-seven times for God in the LXX,
seldom is it a title, because usually it has the
man by the way" lest they became distracted pronoun (I Chron. 16:15; Deut. 32:15,
from their primary task (Luke 10:4). et al.). But occasionally it was a title (e.g.,
the LXX gives solgr in place of Jehovah
GLENN W. BARKER
[Prov. 29:25]) and as an appositive (Isa.
45 : 15).
SALVATION, SAVE, SAVIOUR. The
Greek NT verb so-zo-, "to save," its cognate
God the Father and Christ the Son are both
nouns sole-r, "saviour," and sole-rj¢, "salvation,"
and adjective sole-rjos -o# absorbed Hebrew ::]°vkaet:on:f]:St3:V£8uTr,Sfrne€sftahhusre:Set;gsenstasiv::
tion from God (Pss.19:6; 20:I-2; 11 Kings
meaning via the LXX translation which some-
what enlarged and modified the classical idea. [Sam.] 22:51), but he in turn comes to offer
salvation to the ends of the earth (Zech. 9:9;
So-z6 classically meant to make sound, heal,
Isa. 49:6, 8; et ¢1.). In the NT, God the
save, preserve, and, in regard to people, to save

:rp°oTha;:atohr :;ot*e„ee-Psk6:]£Vie]sne ::?itnr;St act:

sometimes were performed by gods, and the
i;ot:;eerns::rrs§:Vi:i:i:nt]h:4:7d:e#:I;dh:S,£iaiv2at:1:3:
4:10; Titus 3:4-6). The Son was born to
participle was sometimes used substantively save God's people from their sin and their
as their name. (Cf. Deiss LAE, p. 179; LSJ,
enemies (Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:71, 77) and
p. 1748, Vol. 11 for other special uses.) Of
473 uses of s6z6 and cognates in the LXX
;:£tnw£:]t};.aiE°sfa:i:uT,£n,i::ruys(hLeua¥serri:fk
5:34; 10:52), justifies (Titus 2:13-14; 3:6,

;::F#;r8#F::i:aj,::::6:h:eba.I:.1;.sdfa::::;g;5;i :s)c,h:te.a|gsi::|e::,I;:?an(cEep:;d5`3|3e);i:;d(giEfi:
which in Arabic meant be capacious, is free-
don from what restricts and binds. The Hiphil
means to deliver, save, liberate, save from
i;:°t;heT]:::n2;:-f3G}.o?lit:::ihf,Jtiseuspedo£€]en::
Samaria recognized him as the So-tGr of the
moral troubles, give victory, while the Niphal
conveys these meanings in passive voice. The
world (John 4:42) and Paul freely used that
designation (Titus 2:13; 3:6). Most uses of
cognate nouns crystallize the ideas of the
sole-r occur in the Pastoral and General Epis-
verb (cf. BDB pp. 446-48). Of the other
tles. In the NT the Hebrew root, y65¢`, is
uses of so-zo-, sixty-eight are translations of
transliterated in the name Jesus, clearly show-
5616rm, "peace" or "wholeness," and its cog-
ing the OT was the source for the NT mean-
mates. However, fifty-five of these are sole-r;os
-o# (adj. as subst.) for 5e]em, "a thank-offer- ing of Christ's Saviourhood.
ing for covenant deliverance" which occurs in It has been shown (Arthur Darby Nock,
the Pentateuch, leaving only thirteen other Joy of Stt4czy, New York, the Macmillan
occurrences, and there are other roots which Company, 1951, pp. 127-48) that the view
are translated more frequently or nearly as that the pre-Christian Greek meaning of solgr
frequently by so-zo- and its cognates than this. implied membership in a hierarchy of beings
Most LXX uses of s6zo- and its cognates mean
deliverance, escape, or save, and it may con- :[d#!£e(dD€:s£:yLaAn£,¥i:;h6e3S:fT;rc:t°a£„N|
not correct. Rather, solgr does no more than
::¥ta;ifv:LyesE:.e:::g,thheatdesiixvtey.a;o.es::e,netz.vpaehr: crystallize the verb s6z6 and must always be
SANCTIFY, SANCTIFICATION 470

understood in the light of the function which (Heb. 9:28; John 14:2-3; Ron.13:11; I Pet.
the context explains. The view that the NT 1 : 5, 9; etc).
s6fGr is derived from mystery religions (Holtz- BIBIJOGRAPFT
mann, et al.), is refuted in that in them sal-
vation is primarily from limitations of earthly E;q|6„n:.##¥,:%:tt£D¥atdl#sF!ELE#Pp:a:'29B:.#:t;
life and especially death, and it lacks the ethi- CARL W. WII.SON
cal note and the emphasis on resurrection of
the NT (cf . Albert Schweitzer, P¢t41 a7®d His SANCTIFY, SANCTIFICATION. While
J7®ferpreters, New York, the Macmillan Com- the etymological origin of the Hebrew root
pany, 1951, pp. 182, 193). q6dr5 is surrounded by obscurity, its funda-

sivTyeunbf;:Ills:]b::::egetn:rfais#°end:src°r¥b:Sj
as follows. Personal evil power deceives and F:e¥as!erfdo:r:cae;i;i:a:gn:,Ofa¥dtao]:sepe::all:t;cri;¥1g:1:Ju:s:):
leads man astray from God and his will. The apart for God. In biblical Greek its equivalent
evil power, Satan (meaning e71e7#y), was first is 7i¢gjaze;7®, "to sanctify."
the serpent of Eden, later pagan gods and na- I. To SEPARATE FOR A HOLY USE. At
tions against which Israel contended, and
finally, evil spiritual forces called demons led =::St:Orb:agn£Sfn¥°osfesthsean]Cat;ffeasttsh£:a[Pe(°Ei:
by the prince of demons who work in and 19:10,14); all the first-born, both of man
against the individual, and through unbeliev- and beast, are sanctified to God (Ex. 13:2;
ers, against the church as a whole. Because of Nun. 8 : 17); Aaron and his sons are sanctified
man's sin or alliance with evil, God often in- to minister to God in the priest's office (Ex.

;g£;;¥sE;a;E:ed;;I:;;e;:¥j;s:;i::goe±¥d:gu:1:::: :;:r:I:n:a;;:¥£d:zZSs:]§C:±;;e2c::;::g:I:eLg;;:ir:I:S;sgtl:fs:=§;
2:15-16; 3:9); Job sanctifies his sons by o£-
Thus salvation involves three ideas. ( 1 ) Jus-
fering sacrifices for them (Job 1:5); Samuel
tification. Man must be freed from the lust
sanctifies Jesse and his son prior to offering
punishment which God's judicial sentiment sacrifice (I Sam.16:5); even before his birth
:eflqe:;rteosa:?abtu?efnmsauychVI;thw°:yt£::balee:0:; Jeremiah is sanctified - set apart by the divine
will - for the sacred work of a prophet (Jer.
still be just in his justifying or saving action.
I : 5); mount Sinai is sanctified and set out of
Pn]gcofdncadin;fsftc,:,d¥ahtLc,hfsd:i::ogh:ctshgr[:pTtieaat= bounds to the people (Ex. 19:23); the sab-
bath day (Gen. 2:3; Deut. 5:12; Neh.
God's wrath and saves (Ron. 5:9). (2) Ten-
13:22), the tabernacle and its vessels (Ex.
poral victory. Victory over evil was promised
through the ``seed of the woman" (Gen.
3 : 15). It was accomplished by the Holy Spirit ;e°i2s:ie=ev(I::]&r¥nT;:71:61))':iedtec¥]Pe]sei;
::ef]udgseiJa°yshbe2°;7n)ct:frfeedsa::t£:iced;Lho°r:Se{Laenvi
a::5Sgani:ev?llni::adeelrsan3sc.:hqeuyeresduEg:::
nations and supremely by the victory of the
Christ (anointed one) over Satan (Matt.
3;:s`a4ncft:i);inJgehaus::Lsnti:sewmo::;i%rrsBoa`alB:fl
Kings 10:20 ff.); Christ is the one whom
4:11; 12:26-29). Finally, in the church age,
the Father sanctified and sent into the world
Christ sends the Holy Spirit to work in and
through the church so that believers work out (John 10:36); and, finally, every created
thing is sanctified through the word of God
their own victory over evil (Luke 10: 17-20;
and prayer (I Tim. 4:4 f.).
19:9; Phil. 2:12-13; I Tim. 2:15; 4:16).
(3) Final deliverance and blessing. Christ will 11. MAN IS CAI.LEI) UPON TO SANCTIFY
come a second time to deal finally with evil HIMSELF. Those who have been sanctified,
set apart, by God are required to sanctify
themselves, that is, to separate themselves
F:fee:cnod:n:dl|:::a:|v|:C:t,:#;I::r:en;a,:h:::::die::treoh?:I: from everything that defiles (Lev. 11:44;
he will give immortal bodies to believers and Josh. 7: 13; cf. Ex.19:22; I Chron.15: 12 ££.;
usher them into a new heaven and earth 11 Chron. 29:15 ££.; 30:3). The significance
471 SANHEDRIN

of this self-sanctification is clearly given in the VI. I CoR. 7:14. This verse relates to the
words of Lev. 20:26: "Ye shall be holy unto problem arising when either a husband or a
me; for I the Lord am holy, and have sep- wife is converted (i.e., from God's side, sancti-
arated you from the peoples, that ye should
be mine." To sanctify oneself for the worship ££:I?e)f.W±i]±estdhoeess¥outsecornesT]::i:]ang¥::annd¥::
and service of God represents man's responsi- disrupting the marriage. By the conversion of
bility within the covenant of grace. For the husband or wife the whole falpily, not least
same thought carried through to the NT see the children, are brought within the sphere of
11 Cor. 6:14-18. God's covenant of grace, which has great re-
Ill. GOD SANCTIFIES HIMSELF (oR HIS spect for the solidarity of the family (already
NAME). God sanctifies himself, that is, shows founded on the decree of creation), so that the
that he is altogether separate, by his mighty unbelieving spouse is sanctified (in a formal
works of judgment and salvation, which vindi- sense) in the believing spouse and brought
cate to his creatures the uniqueness of his into touch with the grace of God (vs. 16).
sovereignty and power (cf. Ezek. 36:23; See also HOLY, HOLINEss.
38:23; and this is also the meaning in Nun. PHILIP EDGCUMBE HUGHES
20:26). Christ's sanctifying of himself (John
17: 19) has a different sense, namely, that o£ SANCTUARY. In the first reference
self-consecration and dedication for the work (Moses' song, Ex.15: 17), God's sanctuary is
of his mediatorial office. his mount of inheritance (Palestine). His
established earthly abode, the tabernacle build-
IV. MAN SANCTIFIES GOD 8¥ HIS WoR-
ing (Ex. 25:8) had its forerunner in heaven
sHlp AND OBEDIENCE. Unbelief and disobedi-
viewed as a sanctuary (Ps. 102:19). The
ence are indicative of failure to sanctify God,
earthly tabernacle was his own choice for an
that is, to acknowledge his unique lordship
abode among his people. He is also described
and authority (Nun. 20:12; 27:14; Deut.
as making Judah his sanctuary in a special
32:51). Justice and righteousness (Isa. 5: 16)
sense (Ps. 114:2). Mjqcz65 and qo-de5, used
and reverence of his name (Isa. 8: 13; 29:23)
interchangeably, are referable to the temple
are evidence that man is sanctifying God.
(11 Chron. 20:8), and particularly to the
holy of holies whether of the tabernacle or
:?rristi:nsthaer£:i:t:trste{[t°pest:n:t:£!y5;Cc¥:isle::
temple. The plural (Lev. 21:23; Jer. 51:51)
10:3; Ezek. 20:41), that is, to let him, as is
is generally used to denote idolatrous shrines
his right, exercise his sole lordship in their
which in heathen practice were the ``high
lives.
V. GOD SANCTIFIES HIS CHURCH AND ITS places" where the gods (q.v.) had their seat
and where they revealed themselves. In such
MEMBERs. As, in the OT, it is the Lord who
cases h gh place and sanctuary were synon-
sanctifies Israel (Ex. 31:13), so, in the NT,
ymous Amos 7:9). Bethel (king's sanctuary,
it is he who still sanctifies his redeemed (I
Amos :13), Ramah (where Samuel sacri-
Thess. 5:23). Christ prays his Father to
ficed), Shechem, etc., were perhaps former
sanctify them in the truth (John 17:17,19).
heathen worship-centers. Conversely, God is a
God's elect are precisely his sanctified ones
Slain:C]t;;:ysefe°ra]sho£Sth:e;:::lie([[Ssat;te8i:i;;=Z;i:
(Acts 20:32; I Cor. I:2). It is the Holy
Spirit who sanctifies them (Ron. 15:16).
90 : 1. Associated in significance, but not called
They are living vessels in the new, spiritual
sanctuaries, though presumably marked by
temple, ``sanctified, meet for the master's use"
altars, were the places of refuge where un-
(11 Tim. 2:21 -the NT does not speak of intentional manslayers found temporary asy-
the sanctification of inanimate objects). The
lum (Ex. 21:13). This was anticipatory of
effective ground of their sanctification is the
cities of refuge in Palestine (Num. 35) whose
blood of the covenant (q.v.) shed by Christ
on the cross for his church (Eph. 5:26; Heb. general idea was widely characteristic of an-
cient nations (cf . our expression, ``to find
9:13; 10:10,14, 29; 13:12). Baptism is the
sanctuary").
sacramental sign of their being sanctified (I
ROBERT F. GRIBBLE
Cor. 6: 11) and the symbol of the union, by
faith in Christ (Acts 26:18), of both Sancti- SANHEDRIN. The Sanhedrin (Aramaic
fier and sanctified (Eph. 5:26; Heb. 2:11). form of Greek sy"edri.o7c, "council") was the
SATAN 472

ruling body of ecclesiastics in Judaism who

Cth°:tro°;:er?hi:wre;:£ct°thu:a,::[X'£:::±£o£:wue:i£ ioenn,sa.tan,!easin,ai:gpt;::|dwi:ys,?:g?vDea=:

Lne|i.Dria:Oi.,I±sg::gipis£:c:rv:inlyTd:rsra:i:
advised Moses (Ex. 24:I), but no evidence i§sbtije:I:e;a:#h±se:Li:::h:er:±£e£¥dn:;g¥=¥:::¥%:a.Cia::n::
exists of the persistence of any organized
council from the time of the Exodus. In the
Persian period the "elders" mentioned in Ezra ::::-:|bi':I.:s.,:'kgt:;a:len;:i.:%gtrTeEer!g::
(Ezra 5:9; 6:7,14; 10:8) and the "rulers of (Rev. 12:4).
the people" in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. These fallen angels (demons) fit into two
2:16; 11:I) may have ruled community af- classes: (I) those that are free and (2) those
fairs. The first clear reference to an organized that are bound. The former roam the heaven-
body is in the time of Antiochus the Great lies with their prince-leader Satan (Matt.
(223-187 B.c.). It had a membership based 12:24) and as his emissaries are so numerous

S:iesatgepr:s:gedTeAlftFe,r :i:I Mwahci:ahbe:Ee rehviglht :Sftot:s.mrfuk:a:ag¥'S(d¥mwoenrs)P:icatt£::]eybuou:iqj

are evidendy guilty of more heinous wicked-
::;:!dir;:I;;::;wB.¥T[:.,T#h?eemf,o.mj ness and are incarcerated in Tartarus (11 Pet.
was divided into five s}Jt®edria, of which the
s,y7!edrjo" of Jerusalem, the capital, became ie4iJiumd;rii:n6e)d.d¥=n.isthw¥,Logi:F|sencoannngee::
the leading factor in forming Jewish policy. who cohabited with mortal women (Gen.
Membership in the Sanhedrin was limited 6: 1-4).
to Israelites of pure blood, and was held for Satan caused the fall of the human race
life. Its jurisdiction was limited to Judea. Jesus (Gen. 3). His judgment was predicted in
was brought before the Sanhedrin (Matt.
26: 59), and the apostles were examined by it :,d::e`.%:.(3,:o`h5n'.agf3f!S3,TaA;accc.o.T,:'di:hhei:
(Acts 4: 15-18; 22:30; 23: 1 ff.). It made final power was second only to God (Ezek. 28: 11-
16). He is nevertheless only a creature, lim-
g;ctifieoT:;racnadse:c,:ia:1in!r::itEae,?at:?rse#eocn, ited, and his might permitted by divine om-
to the approval of the Roman governor. It nipotence and omniscience.
served as his advisory council on Jewish
ingT:;B:b::afordtun;Ti:mofassa£=:sfl:rsco:Z:
afuf:££nrs;tinedyeparr°sV££ehdenathceenntra:!on8°::dinE:een: soundly allege. Although Satan, even after his
largely stripped of any real independence. judgment in the cross (Col. 2: 15), continues
BIBIJOGRAPHY to reign as a usurper (11 Cor. 4:4), and works
in tempting and accusing men (Rev.12: 10),
schowE*etas„:I;e;r'z?T££t!e¥5a?:?.?,e§ap:Hfprig?einThT;i:8Er::a! he is to be ousted from the heavenlies (Rev.
MERRILL C. TENNEY 12:7-12) as well as the earth (Rev. 5:I-
]9:16), and is to be confined to the abyss
SATAN. Satan (Hebrew 'sa.td73, "an ad- for a thousand years (Rev. 20: I-3).
versary") is a high angelic creature who, be- When released from the abyss at the end
fore the creation of the human race, rebelled of the thousand years, he will make one last
against the Creator and became the chief mad attempt to lead his armies against God
antagonist of God and man. Theologians to a (Rev. 20:8-9). This will eventuate in his
large extent have refused to apply the far- final doom when he is cast into the lake Of
reaching prophecies o£ Isa.14: 12-14 and Ezek.
28: 12-15 to Satan under the contention that ;::lea:::i:;i,n:ao::I::skaliefhil::b;ge:e::iei:c:c:e!plfl.:i:
they are addressed solely to the king of Baby-
Ion in the f irst instance and to the king of Tyre
in the second. Others contend that this in- kept and quarantined so that the rest of God's
terpretation is unwarranted for two reasons. sinless universe will not be corrupted in the
First, it fails to take into account the fact that eternal state.
these prophecies far transcend any earthly Satan's present work is widespread and de-
ruler and, second, it ignores the close connec- structive. God permits his evil activity for the
473 SATIS FACTION

time being. Demons must do Satan's bidding. estant theology, the term Satisfaction fell un-

EP.:ityu,nsaanvfdhearem|leasrgi:munthd::.gshat:::seavii :ier:I::yeraescri:itcisfi::d:ssbtii|`,i::ipe,::m=soH:
world system over which he is head and of fundamental issue, however, is not whether
the term as such occurs in Scripture, but
Hh;%s:rf:I:;sF4r:ehgj;sfa:vaet2:2;:e&c:anrje(±3Se;a,1:a:a7:

clashes in conflict with them (Eph. 6: 11-18), ?::eils?av?:re;:::toh:lfi:I:iieTih:i:c:hej:uEp:eafEis.bit

t£:i:tstets::mmona;da;edek:v:One:h=rptpahny:£cda:St]r£°£: strued in a way that militates against his
justice, then there is no divine wrath which
(I Cor. 5:5; I John 5:16). Satanic and needs propitiation (q.v.) and there is no guilt
demonic fury were unleashed against the in- in the objective sense which must be expiated.
camate Christ. The power of a sinless human- Consequently there is no need that a satisfac-
tion be rendered to appease the judicial senti-
igrc£[o]:£{°ri#tt.SP4e:Ci:i]S)a.t?ficet:=]Pt:t,loo:::
light manifested in the earthly life of him Faesntoi;engedd.Wi££:mB:ale?yhho£;gvue£::apn[g£:i;
who was "the light of the world" (John 8: 12) teaches that the death of Christ was a sacri-
exposed the darkness of the powers of evil. fice (q.v.). The interpretation of Christ's work
This is the explanation of the unprecedented as a sacrifice is imbedded in every important
outburst of demonism that is described in the type of NT teaching. To ask the question,
Gospel narratives. It was because God anointed What according to the NT is the nature of
Christ's work? is the same as asking what is
Leis,Espo.fwTr?,z:ieat,hL:w.i.t!e:tea£:I,yd::jgtg::! the nature of sacrifice. The NT conception of
and healing all that were oppressed by the sacrifice, in turn, cannot possibly be under-
devil" (Acts 10:38). stood apart from the OT conception of sacri-
BIBIJOGRAPHY fice, and in the OT it is very clear that the
sacrifice is not simply a gift to God or a mode
ffi:chaefeat,C##;'£;y¥te:¥o#jt##Fi:[d'cg:ri:;?8juL¥
MERRILI. F. UNGER :£];o:;rann£:t:o:n*hf:c]Lo::t::gfe¥£:EeG6SEFt:
is that the sacrifice is propitiatory in character
SATISFACTION. The word satisfaction and appeases the wrath of God by removing
occurs only twice in the AV (Num. 35 : 31-32) the guilt of sin through a substitutionary
as the rendering for the Hebrew ko-.per, lit- bearing of the penalty. The one who offered
erally meaning a price paid as compensation. the sacrifice placed his hands on the head of
Theologically the term has played a significant the animal victim and thus transferred the
part in the theory of the atonement, especially guilt to the animal whose blood was shed to
since the time of Anselm (d. I 109). Prior to\ satisfy the debt to justice which he owed.
his Cwr Det4s Ho7"o the view of Christ's death Animal sacrifice was only ceremonial or typi-
which prevailed most widely was that it was a cal, but it is this ceremonial ritual which is
ransom paid to the devil in order to deliver transferred in the NT to the work of Christ
the souls of men over whom he had a legal and is the basis for the theological teaching
claim. Anselm by contrast stressed the fact that the guilt of our sin is removed by the
that the death o£ Christ was a satisfaction ren- satisfaction which Christ renders to God
dered to God's justice and honor. Since his against whom the sin is committed. Hence
time this view has become one of the essential Christ is called the Lamb (q.vJ of God. When
ingredients in the orthodox theory of the God is propitiated by his blood (q.v.) we are
atonement, both for Roman Catholics and redeemed from the curse of the law and
Protestants. In the subsequent Protestant dis- reconciled to him. The concept of satisfaction,
cussion, a distinction has been made between then, is a theological term which embraces in
Christ's active and passive obedience. In the its connotation all the major categories used
former he satisfied the demands of the law by in the Scriptures to describe the meaning of
rendering a perfect obedience, and in the Christ's atoning work both as it relates to God
latter he satisfied the curse of the law by sub- and to the sinner. The most crucial passage
mitting himself to the ignominious death of is Rom. 3:21-26.
the cross. With the rise of liberalism in Prot- See also ATONEMENT.
SAVIOUR 474

BIBIJOGRAPHY
persecution when some Christians surrendered
B.AB:sew]ma'rffeia,Dse#Sdi¥s°?£?'|g;ot;gByB:C5;£¥6£]=8%FERK'.
PAUL K. JEWETT

SAVIOUR. See SALVATloN.

i.;::::;if;g;s::iji:aiji;igjf;;:'iE;iipie;igN;£:S;:;P;t;a::E:
SCHISM. The Greek word for "schism" intolerant, the Donatists were nevertheless
recognized as connected with the true church,
but were regarded as schismatic or sinning
against charity.
;a:c:gc,§j;jj:n::c::e;e££e%:]§;:i;::I::;es:::£¥a¥a::t;\S_ The second schism relates to the Eastern
(q.vJ are two different terms and cannot be and Western Churches. This occurred by rea-
used interchangeably, yet they are often so
used. Heresy is not schism, for heresy is, at :a:tofotfhegroon:::gt::oeF[::hosfegeor:[eacse:g££:::
its base, doctrinal, and is opposed to the Chris- passed before the church was rent. At last in
tian faith itself . Schism is opposed to charity
and is not doctrinal at heart.

inoLf:e.Eetrh:n#tnu[6a:;i:ehf::i::snli:fegTtaera !i:5::e:i::¥|:I;:riii:i:a¥a:ciE::::a::is:1:;ofa:E
to the area of schism. This is far from the a sentence of anathema..
truth. To the Roman Church this was not The third schism or the Great Schism oc-
schism but heresy. To the Reformers it was curred in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-

*gfcEe:::t,ebftemhe;reos£::stefrot:i:efie:ZeR]:a: =;]s:sfi€¥cahs]scfmtE]o]£atpe[€ctyssht:::I;ea¥:e=eethd:
Calvin in his J73stitt4tes of the Christia7i Re[j- death of Gregory XI in 1378. There was one
g;o# argued that the Roman Church was not
a true church since it was defective in the
gop:ns:a,:a!:v:gp::a:h:a::dl.i:;e|aEc:#en¥,s:::g:;
:=te;oEre:£Cht£:g::cr¥:egn°tss?e]iane:e;:reeah¥£:;a two popes the church now had three. At the
Council o£ Constance the legitimate pope,

::g;u:tediv:]tnrc8hnu:ii,£:::[¥art::e:t[n?o:natc:;:::Ccd¥£
marks of a true church, no one should leave %:8frn:ld¥::o[a'te:e£§§id:#jta:e::I:edc:t§:eaes£:p;e:ltah:a:
its fold. reigned as Martin V (1417-31).
The Roman Church allowed for the dis-
Biblically it appears clear that the rending
tinction between schism and heresy. A schis-
matic bishop of that Church could continue
:£otehxecu¥ed¥o:£scchTsrft;Sh:i:sn€e[taht:tdtthoer]eov£:
and not to doctrine. But when doctrine is in-
::not:::£entgr::i:Sir:tnedt£:hisumciti:£sP.r':Sj:£::e]t¢ volved, it takes on different dimensions and is
ical bishops and priests could not do so
not so much schism as heresy. Heretics are to
be cut off from the church or excommuni-
fer€£at;Ea::]¥;v:::ef:::;oogu:;zsep:rfttta:rscahffsa:t£±osu:
cated, and this distinction is not one of schism.
division, but not doctrinal divergence. Thus it
is that the Roman Church has always lecog-
nized the Greek Orthodox Church as essen- par[tny[spfr:tr.o::aoct::i:sn:ssdei:e]%]€hfrion¥]vt]+de_
tially orthodox, but schismatic. The Greek
ChxLC:ngatsh:I::refgu:gsac`::stm]:Voef.thechristian
ii:s:c:od|ewni#:,St:o:I:|i|Eefaas|:;?:uui¥i;asr:i:
cDh.unr::.,th.rceheis:a,n ,I: s:iTstion:fd Ban:::12: at::

Western Churches, and the Great Schism. In :n:st:;V£Lornesnle:Sastlh8:£ta:s::b]:¥t]r:lan:i;Eel:O::yre::°;::i

gaes Coa:: :: tehc:leg;::t::£asits#!int:einpr:bh]:cE LEv£[necfr£.sd]o2mpwa££]chm£::sesTaeb]¥hfendt£:::otE;

they opposed internal corruption in the between the members of the human body
church. This party arose during the Diocletian points to a similar purpose in the body o£
475 SCRIBES

Christ (see vs. 25). Diversity of gifts should

n°tB;nv;t:yt°ofens:ymbmuatr;°£:°|:;atj:n:aidthat #fts:cE#;#M#:f:#;;ga¥G#?#pe#?#F;
MARTIN ANTON SCHMII)I
division based upon primary considerations of
SCHOOLMASTER. P¢jd¢go-gos occurs
:sse::;anlg?o8tir;:s:.issn;thiscchhisaTea:.d,ii.::rtinpae|; once in I Cor. 4: 15 and twice in Gal. 3:24-25,
however, but which yield to other considera- where it is rendered by the AV "the law was
tions, are reprehensible. They rise from a sin our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ."
against charity and are contrary to the Spirit This translation is unfortunate in that it tends
of Christ. to imply that the function of the OT law
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blunt; CE; HERE,. SHERK.
HAROLD LINDSELL
Poarsi:i:lycT::s:o(:i.u:i;e!,hit::,YilnnArse?;:ation
However, pa;ergo-gos, formed from pajdos
SCHOLASTICISM. As applied particu- and ago-gos, literally means ``boy-guider" and
larly (but not exclusively) to the medieval in hellenistic society referred to a man, usually
Christian schools, this word is used for meth- a slave, whose duty was to escort his charge
ods in which the doctrines of revealed truth
i:scka::.:i,:::thaiodscat:::iaa,:odnsto(ss:#|tae,::
Lysjs 208c). The b.oy was placed in the
;#:h:i?iiehic:|n::s:y:si;:Aa:|gs:tdiao?;iia|:;t:ief charge of his pojdcigo-gos when he was approx-
criticized the authorities of the faith and anti- imately six years of age and he continued
rationalists who defended them by attacking under this protective custody until around six-
teem years of age. P¢jcz¢go-gos appears in the
;hhet[o::;h;;t`;Pea8gaen:'er£Lesd¥vC::!]pymfnisto°ftesfcahno)_ Talmud as a loan word and suggests the possi-
lasticism was in reconciling rather than in bility that wealthy Jews living in gentile cities
opposing faith to reason. Boethius (d. 525) may have adopted the same custom as a pro-
tection for their children (see 8. S. Easton,
:[rgea,dhyehca.:e:::dAfi;i:;:::leiaEdl.og4i;|f,or;Fhlai:: JSBE, IV, p. 2702).
Christian Platonism remained the foremost By describing the law as pfl;d¢go-gas Paul
authority for the medieval thinkers. In his emphasizes the inf eriority of the condition of
spirit Anselm of Canterbury (d.1109) said: those who are compelled to remain under its
``1 believe that I may understand." Peter
authority as analogous to a child submitting to
Abelard's (d. 1142) dialectical method (using an irksome but necessary discipline awaiting
logic in order to harmonize ostensibly contra- the opportunity to express the freedom of full
dictory sayings -"sentences" -of the Bible maturity.
and of the Church Fathers, emphasizing the BIBLIOGRAPHY
limits of natural reason) set the pattern of
Peter Lombard's (d. c¢. 1160) Fowr Books of %#d,a:;£lgfT:p;.Dj¥#?,:p¥ai!a5=3:o::;inAr.Sisj;,.o:;ail:a;
Se7£te7cces, the generally accepted textbook of Edrcatioie in Antfauly, p. \43.
theological instruction. In the system of Thorn- GLENN W. BARKER

;s.r4qu:FasA:i::.,l|:,74;,hi%?:phuisceai?:a,eunrt:;; SCORN. See MocKERy.

theology, as based upon experience, and Chris-
tian theology, as based upon revealed truth, SCRIBES. A class of professional scholars
were clearly distinguished but not separated, leaned in the law. In the NT they are most
since "grace does not abolish nature, but pre- frequently called gr¢"7"atez.s; "learned in the
supposes it and perfects it." The later Scho- Scriptures" (Matt. 2:4; Mark I:22, etc.),
lastics, as John Duns Scotus (d. 1308) and while the corresponding OT word is so-per€7#.
particularly William Ockham (d. 1349/50), Other NT designations are 7tot";ko;, -"legal
questioned and criticized Thomas' ways o£ experts" (Luke 7:30; 14:3, etc.) and %o"odj-
d¢sk¢Zoi, "teachers of the law" (Luke 5:17;
:`hae¥Odn£]az]]enc¥£caih;]|Oas;pohfythae:fs:::O]oofjye;cti::: Acts 5:`34).
made their method even more "scholastic."
Since the law conc.erns itself to a large de-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
8. H. Gilsou, Histor}I of Clwistian Phhosaphy in .he gree with the cultus, the earliest Scribes were
SCRIPTURE 4 76

also priests (e.g., Ezra). However, during the

gfethHvzi::i]epefrnfgmf:t:isha*huet;::Fsaeo°f]°BEfit
lical history (I. P. Free, Arcbeeo!ogy a7®d Bjb-
i::e:I:t:t¥a?]£a;st:;#:I;:dj:g::::log:uc:h:i¥u]C¥i:: Z!.caz History, Van Kampen Press, Wheaton,
function was not only the elaboration of the Illinois, 1950, p. 85). The small seals, often
referred to as stamp seals, are the oldest of the
three varieties. They were used for a wide

i:¥i:sail:S[::'tn:d:::i:t:i):e;i::ie:Lt:€r;ewii:1ri¥n£P:¥. :au:a:not:c;:;¥s;esttse::horascgLVLnagn::ttfnLgn::
tional responsibility of the careful preservation 21 :8; Neh. 9:38; Esth. 8:2). Doors in ancient
of the sacred text. times were frequently closed and sealed in the

helnst.hr:±:ceb::at::rilengz:t;:::ofeFe:l|ee::s:i ::]]c°o¥sgtr=:a::r;c¥sasxtreasdo¥rTr#h:Fe:tr:¥
still soft it was stamped with a seal (Dan.
6:17; Matt. 27:66).
:Led ::#uea:cde inmc::agsi:hg:ypeg.ajFe:dTh¥P:sl,ae:g
with which they were held is reflected in the The figurative use of this word sometimes
word r¢Z7Z7j, ``my master," used to address
them.
Matt. 23 preserves our Lord's powerful de-
;:ii::;,.In:g,n::rss!cP:rg|;,r!t:e:-:gnEs:::i,tga:`:::::
tli2i:tz, (i:t: 136:43,),, 3:#y.forgesencuriencgne`spaEi
nunciation of their hypocrisy, pride and spir-
itual obstinacy.
Cor. 9:2).
BIBLIOGELAPHY
BIBIIOGFLAPFT
Ge9c.h#tcoecorejes Jf„ae#al:. ?gines3,7447i Eel., Sti,ue[pe;:
372.89. 8 5!i8;PinFfe'pof#iaein°toTg%ERng B.b]frol Hfty, pp.
WALTER W. WESSEL HOWARI) Z. CLEVELANI)

SCRIPTURE. See BIBLE, INsplRATloN, SECOND COMING OF CHRIST.

WRITING.

SEAL. The word seal or signet and related ;e:a:r[ancnso:it,:::£g:¥;:s#i£]uns:1::¥h:i:t:::i:a:tgah¥

forms are found in the Bible eighty-two times especially prominent in the parables, and it
(AV). The noun, "seal," is a translation of presupposes the victory of the resurrection
the Hebrew ¢6!67# and the Greek sphragjs. (q.v.). No sooner had our Lord withdrawn
This word is very old, being found among the himself into heaven than he confirmed this
peoples of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and the promise through angelic mediation (Acts 1 : 11;
Hebrews. Its earliest biblical use is recorded cf. Rev. 3:11).
in Gen. 38: 18, 25. This word is used in two It is peculiar that the statements concerning
distinct senses in the Bible, literal and figura- the return should so seldom emphasize that it
tive. is a second coming (Heb. 9:28; John 14:3;

whi:ier::lz.ths:gsnea;.wfisg:r:aidadsuE::anncaeffTxpeod: 3:SS:bfy]a£¥ee:.o£:6a;Fo;:nifr::a|Stanece±n:]fa|
coming is so integral a part of the Christian
:mar:::i`ay|inee:g;:svf:dr,s:3:s,e,w.e:eyxrs.::klycryms:g|: consciousness as not to require special notice
lapis lazuli, hematite and hard limestone while when the return is in view. It is also possible
the poorer type, found in Palestine, were made that the two comings are thought of, after the
on soft limestone or steatite (Edith Porada in fashion of the OT prophets, as aspects of the
TCERK, Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, one great divine intervention in human life
Michigan, 1955). The seal was used to make through the person of the Messiah. But the
an impression on soft substances such as wax contrast in character between the two comings
or clay. Some of these seals were cylindrical is so great that this factor is less probable than
in shape; some were made in the form of a the former. Perhaps the expectation of the
cone; others were made like the Egyptian return was so strong that the future coming
beetle and were called scarabs. These were
very common in Egypt and those used during Peenc:eTeA:h::;hrta,:;iansf::sacgoeT.:iicpharh:;:el:
477 SECULARISM

See also EscHATOLOG¥, KINGDOM oF GOD,

:::1;ntft:sf:r:eacrodn£°::infnngy;::ird£P;i:nne°efditehs: DAY.
(e.g., James 5:8). BIBLIOGRAPHY
The vividness of the Christian hope is seen
in the fact that the ordinary word for a com-
ing (e]e"s;s), used once for the first appearing,
%REifREThonen%RE
is not employed for the return, as though it
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
were inadequate to denote so great an event.
SECT. The word is derived from the Latin
:°a:eosrudrfe:a¥;row"osia':::i:a:£S:gfr:gi;:]t]gru:::'.

::q%ehnrtfspr:tse]%Cedo(upbhti:.ss]:±i:e)idtEttaosipa*eg ;i:t£;s::I:;:aoc;]f:8£:::s±;`£t::]e°WW:I::rh:ahi:;:nei::all;:
somewhat technical force such as it has in the
hellenistic age for denoting the arrival of a
king or a person of prominence (see MM). ;hr::rtfc:y:£*]::£sT:;£yeThde°Ctterfa]±s¥ssj;£i:;'e::
The other terms are picturesque. Of these ployed not of the great denominations, but of
small groups. It is not used by the members
czpok¢Zypsfs (11 Thess.1:7) means an unveil-
of the group themselves, but by their oppo-
ing, and thus takes account of Christ's with-
nents. There is an implied condemnation, the
drawal to heaven before his final denouement inference being that the separation has been
(cf. Col. 3:3-4, where the verb p7?a7!eroo-has on inadequate grounds. In individualistic
much the same force). Similarly, the verb
Western countries the sects have tended to
op7!thGsetcij (he shall appear), used in Heb.
multiply since the Reformation, and there are
9:28, is chosen with the background of the
now many hundreds.
tabernacle and the Day of Atonement ritual LEON MORRIS
in view, when the high priest emerged before
the people after being in the most holy place.
SECULARISM. The term secularism
The word ¢pokczzypsjs connotes more than
(Latin s¢ecwha, "age" or "period") was first
visibility in contrast to invisibility. It suggests
the consummation of God's purpose and the rapt:LfedbytoGa.tFeHo;]yuot:kE:arfta]n8]e;FIE;o£6o,rm]Tn_
sharing of the saints in it. Then shall we which he advocated human betterment with-
know even as we have been known. Finally, out reference to religion or theology. His

:S:Pnb:::i:.(::oTfi%ir|;,ls)aspui8ae.Sitnsg:h|e,:euabd`iiic; :::Fnaasiscere::edsenct.end,I.: :;otisutm::all.sfte tE;

associates with itself the idea of glory (Titus ecclesiastical institutions.
2:13), and is suitable for suggesting an ap-
Today secularism is the integration of life
pearing which is sudden, conspicuous, and around the spirit of a specific age rather than
overwhelming in its effects on hostile powers
around God. It is living as if the material
(11 Thess. 2:8).
order were supreme and as if God did not
As to the purpose of the return, apart from
exist. While secularism may not indicate
a special significance for Israel (Zech.12: 10;
theoretical atheism, it certainly does represent
Ron. 11 :26), this may be viewed broadly in
two aspects. As related to the saints, it will practical atheism.
mean their gathering unto Christ, both the
dead and the living (I Thess. 4:13-18), to- thes:::c]:]r]£:Fs:sic::£e£::yw£:r]ge3±tet:+hferfeor:i
discovered by the modern empirical method
gether with such transformation as will be
necessary to fit the living for glory (Phil. is often accepted as the whole realm of verifi-
3 :21). The Lord will be admired among those able truth. The world of things is viewed as
who believe (11 Thess.I:10), and he will the whole of existence.
reward his servants (I Cor. 4:5; Rev. 22: 12). Secularism places the emphasis on temporal
With respect to the world, Christ's coming social enjoyment rather than on eternal spir-
will bring judgment upon ungodly men and itual values. The achievements of modern
doom upon Satan's kingdom, resulting in the technological development and cultural ad-
establishment of a reign of righteousness and vance are considered essential, while the values
peace (11 Thess. 2:8-10; I Cor. 15:23-26; of religion in general and of the Christian
11 Pet. 3:10-13). faith in particular are ignored or even denied.
SEE 478

Thus secularism is man living his entire life composure are designed for the greater effec-
as if there were no God. tiveness of the Christian as a witness and a
See also PoslTlvlsM. servant for the Saviour. These characteristics
BIBLIOGRAPHY give evidence of consistency between his testi-
mony and his life. It is self-restraint within

#':is:¥:####%°„grffpfia.Z#¢edfon#ife ::]effbr;etdh°em]n°££;?deu§?Sgh]±::a¥StehdatuE:nmi;E:
WARREN C. YOUNG
gain the more to Christ (I Col. 9: 19-23).
SEE. A see is the seat (sedes) or soralled Self-control is best evidenced by sobriety
throne (cot hedrc!) of a bishop, which is usually and vigilance (I Pet. 5:8). Young men were
situated in the main church of the area over taught to be "sound in mind" (s6p7wo7ieo-)
which he presides. Hence the term is often (Titus 2:6); and the young women to be
``prudent" (s6phro#izo-) (Titus 2: 5).
used in practice as an alternative for bishopric
or diocese, appointment to the diocese of e.g., See also TEMPERANCE.
BIBIJOGRAPHY
HDAC, H, pp. 553-56; ISBE, V, p. 2929.
:::teTE:rys.I:iT|:dapfio.i,nytmseenet :: :::ups:eth;;
V. R. EDMAN
Rome, and by extension the papacy.
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY SELF-DENIAL. Selfrdenial, the forbear-
ance from gratifying one's own desires, is
SELF. See PERsoNALIT¥. imperative upon the follower of Christ. The
Saviour himself set the example of self-abnega-
SELF-CONTROL. The tern self{ontrol tion by his ke7io-sis (Phil. 2:7; Heb. 5:8; I
Pet. 2:21-24). He taught his disciples "to
:sS::::h:S:[Pdteigy£V::]tEeth6TSC;£npdturtehs:b#:;: deny themselves utterly" (ap¢r7®eo7#¢j) and to
take up daily their cross (Matt. 16:24-26).
Faet]efarets:=g,'a::]e£.-m[:st£:rya(erfuk;rtat;i")in:s;I;[P[:: The believer is identified with Christ in his
(Gal. 5 :23), and is listed among the Christian death (Rom. 6:6-10; Gal. 2:20). The Sav-
virtues (11 Pet. I:4-8). The governor Felix iour's death on the cross is efficient and
trembled when Paul "reasoned of righteous- sufficient for the salvation of the sinner; and
the cross is likewise the source of his sanctifi-
zAs::t2F:¥5r;:Cheanfotj:ndg:fen:b::et;o:ne: cation (Rom. 6: 11-13; Gal. 6: 14). Therefore,
"they that are Christ's have crucified the flesh
composure is stressed in Titus 1:8 and 2:2.
Egkrflfet4o7";, "to be continent" or "to exer- with the affections and lusts" (Gal. 5:24).
cise self-government," is enjoined in sexual The practical application of identification in
relations (I Cor. 7:9); and required of "every the Saviour's death is the mortification of one's
man that striveth for mastery" (I Cor. 9:25). members (Col. 3:5) by the power of the in-
The exhortation "to abstain," apec7io7"¢i, from dwelling Holy Spirit (Ron. 8: 13). Our Lord
sexual vice is stated as ``the will of God" (I underlined that teaching graphically by de-
Thess. 4:3-4); and is enlarged to include claring that "it is better for thee to enter into
"fleshly lusts" (I Pet. 2: 11), and abstinence
life halt or maimed . . . with one eye . . ." than
"from all appearance of evil" (I Thess. 5 :22).
to be lost (Matt. 18:8-9).
So as not to be a stumbling block to other The apostle Paul stressed self-denial, de-
believers the early gentile Christians were in- claring that we are to "deny /ameo7"¢jJ un-
structed to abstain from immorality and idol- godliness and worldly lusts" (Titus 2: 12). By
atry (Acts 15:2o, 29). disowning such conduct the believer can be
The OT placed particular emphasis on the prepared for the coming o£ Christ (2: 13).
control of the tongue. The true man of God
"backbiteth not with his tongue" (Ps. 15:3).
sizeT:sremwua.rhdsasofi,:elf:::sns:,gya.tifrnea;ioeTe:5:;
"He desires a bridle for his lips" (Ps. 39: I-2),
all for Christ receives "an hundred fold now in
which figure of speech is amplified in James this time...with persecutions; and in the
I:26; 3:2-13. It is the part of wisdom to re- world to come eternal life" (Mark 10:28-31).
frain from speaking (Prov. 17:27-28; James Paul "suffered the loss of all things"; and
3,13-,8). counted deprivation of position, fame, name,
Self-control, self-command, temperance and and material substance to be as nothing in
479 SEMI-PELAGIANISM

Cc°hnrtfrsatstwh¥hhhtehehaimrpe:::€edrf8}t::rtine(Ssh:1: prayerful, self-examination he is to prove him-

self that the Saviour dwells within.
3:7-11). He therefore could testify that all The lukewarm Laodicean Christian is coun-
his glory was in the cross of the Lord Jesus seled to judge himself so as to realize his
Christ (Gal. 6:14). backslidden condition and to prove what values
The Saviour taught explicitly that to love are true and everlasting (Rev. 3:18). The
one's life is to lose it (Matt. 10:39; Mark purpose of self-examination is always positive
8:35; John 12:25); and that ``except a corn - to know oneself , his weaknesses and frailties,
of wheat fall into the ground and die, it so as to appropriate the grace of God in Christ.
abideth alone; but if it die, it bringeth forth Self-examination is a stimulus to faith and
holy living (Heb.12:112; I Pet. 2:21-23). It
i::hf.frrutit:'s(e|;-hd:nila|::f4iieT6Er,!::::eisp::: is not morbid introspection for "if our heart
conformity to the person of his Lord, and his condemn us, God is greater than our heart,
increased effectiveness as a servant of Christ. and knoweth all things" (I John 3:20).
By ridding himself c`f "weights" he runs with
V. R. EDMAN
patience the race of the Christian life (Heb.
12,1-2).
SEMI-ARIANISM. More generally, Semi-
BIBLIOGRAPFT
Arianism is often used to describe all who
sHHfB&K='x,n±. P3P*4.467-68., ISBB, ", pp. 1439.4o., were reluctant to accept the strict definition
V. R. EDMAN of Nicaea (namely, that Christ is of one sub-
stance with the Father) yet wished to avoid
SELF-EXAMINATION. The scrutiny of the obvious excesses of the Arians. This might
one's innei. self to determine his spiritual be on solid grounds of tradition, or for ecclesi-
status, motives, attitudes, is largely a NT astical reasons, but there can be no doubt that
teaching. In the OT the searching of inner- in the early fourth century there was much
most thoughts and intents was primarily the orthodox Semi-Arianism of this kind. More
responsibility of the Almighty (Ex. 20:20; strictly, the term is applied to the mediating
Deut. 8:2,16; 13:3; Ps. 26:2; which thought party which tried to introduce an acceptable
is repeated in I Thess. 2:4). The believer is alternative in the phrase "of like substance."
"to examine himself" (c!okj„!czzo-) to make sure
In spite of the inadequacy of the phrase, the
he is in proper relationship to God and to intentions behind it were still mostly con-
man so that he may partake of the Lord's servative, and it is not surprising that the
Supper (I Cor. 11:28). The same verb is younger generation, e.g., the Cappadocians,
finally re-established the full Nicene position
:,I,:n::;;,e!.`it.o,?ioevs:"s:ecnht;:.e:,f.n.tisgrewnf:,lei:
when they saw that it was theologically neces-
acceptable to the Lord" (Eph. 5: 10); proving sary to fulfil these intentions.
one's work (Gal. 6:4); and proving all things See also ARIANlsM.
(I Thess. 5:21). GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
Likewise the Christian is taught "to judge"
(diakr7.7?o-) himself lest he be judged (I Cor. SEMI-PELAGIANISM. Historically, this
11:31-32). In thus judging himself and ac- term refers to the fifth century reaction against
cepting the correction (chastening) of the the stricter teaching of Augustine in opposition
Almighty he is not under condemnation. Self- to Pelagianism (q.v.). The main points which
judgment leads to confession and forgiveness. were felt to be objectionable were rigid pre-
In borderline practices allowed by some destination, the priority and irresistibility of
Christians and disallowed by others, the be- grace, and infallible perseverance. Against
liever is not ``to judge" (krj7co-) his fellow be- these, it was taught that, although grace is
hever; rather, he is to examine himself lest he essential to salvation, it is added when the
be a stumbling block (Ron. 14: 13). Because first steps are taken by the will of man.
one can "believe in vain" (I Cor.15:2), and Cassian of Marseilles seems to have taken the
thus not have a faith that is ``unfeigned" (I initiative in this movement, and Lerins became
Tim.I:5; 11 Tim.I:5), the Christian is "to its main center, with Vincent of Lerins (the
examine" (pejr¢z6) himself whether he be in author of the famous Vincentian canon of
the faith (11 Cor. 13:5). Thus by careful, catholicity) as one of its leading exponents.
SEPARATION 480

God which is in Christ our Lord (Ron.

Lnge?eAmu°gr;sg:::;:rmdr:i:°±:gd°]ftsei;,¥e]tdda]£ 8:35, 39).
lowance was almost always made for an ele- See also SCHISM.
ment of Semi-Pelagianism, and the teaching EVEREIT F. HARRISoN
has found new champions in the Jesuits and
indeed in many schools of Protestant thought. SERAPH. See ANGEL.

GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥ SEIIVANT. This article deals with the

word servant (more properly, slave) in its
SEPARATION. The Scriptures, notwith-
standing their affimation of the fundamental :piEliisc,a;ioF..tothemeLn..dfaEeedHweibiewaw¥.:ifi:
`eged, rendered in the LXX by pees, theropo-#
unity of the human race, make room for a
lawful and necessary distinction between God's
:nsa:tot:ufo]:.rAcsa;gc::I;e,dtth°em;:rdseT::5tgd(i;

¥Eo:pet:!;:|s:I:t:sopsrts:-:eo::ar:::ois::i;e:braas:e:dea:o:: ;:.bin:sfiioc:.aEi:2.)a,t,t:!:an,:I.eofisbei:::Teoa:I;
holiness. seen in the self-designation in prayer (Moses,
The data may be classified as follows: Num.11:11; Samson, Judg.15:18; Samuel,
I Sam. 3:10; Saul, I Sam.14:41; David,11
{o]v)en[::ate]'peboypite?eahe°rfecbey°£seg:rd:tebe::ommetf]i Sam. 7: 19 f.; Solomon, I Kings 3:7 f.; Nehe-
others (Lev. 20:24; I Kings 8:53). The law miah, Neh.I:6; Elijah, I Kings 18:36) which
of the clean and the unclean was a constant may reflect little more than Semitic etiquette
reminder of this (Lev. 20:25). At the Restora- •E.a;i:::;inigaisso3:aft::u(I:I:ylfrfugesn::2i:-27h':
tion, aliens were excluded from the congrega-
widespread designation o£ Moses and David
as God's servants (Nun.12:7; 11 Kings 21:8;
Mal. 4:4; 11 Sam. 7:5; 11 Kings 19:34; Ps.
:]r:a:erraant]:o:a]:x:e£Na:£an|[;a::::I;s:i:#rfik:c¥!c,:.:n: 89:3). Of special note is the designation, `e9ed
were separated from the rest of Israel for
tabernacle service (Nun. 8: 14; 16:9). (3) An YHVH or `ebed ha'el6h€" applied to Moses
(Deut. 34:5;-I-osh.I:7; I Chron. 6:49; 11
iE:ividauz:`ri::vl;;a,elsecpoaurlad,int;kii:¥|:Ei:.:.I; Chron.I:3; Neh.10:29; Dan. 9:11) and his
unto the Lord and also from wine, the cutting SEuqc::;I;r'sfi°:fi:ant(I:S?ie2s4ji9ia!£::g.of2;8r}
of the hair and from contact with a dead
body (Nun. 6:1-8). (4) The sins of God's phetic activity by the phrase "my [his] servants

Fg£:i):ph:b:e;wtehfe:I:e:;:ecrsi°;rne€LS:ha:::€rtd::§L%;: a:eeEperro:p8::|t;:,;¥.:::::;;:#afia:.3.6n,J:rf-;id;:
mixed marriages or other close ties which message.
could wean them away from devotion to Christ The words with which the LXX renders
`ebed all occur in the NT. David (Luke 1 :69;
(11 Cor. 6:16-17). (6) By the will of God
certain believers are set apart for particular A-cts-4:25) and Jesus (Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27,
service and witness (Acts 13:2; Ron. I:I; 30) are each designated as the p¢is of God,
Gal.I:15). (7) In the apostolic church cer- and Moses as his t7®erapo-7¢ (Heb. 3:5). Else-
tain false teachers brought division by in-

;;:p:e::'fnt8::r[::::!le:y£;:edthtr:e::::,;¥;dw(::uc:::i3m;: |:i.ihrE:,eyt,s:;;§:e:;:,£'a:vt::s:jes|g:,:;..jse;;£ge||;i:aiii:u:En::
(8) The world effects its own separation from
those who follow Christ, determined not to be
made uncomfortable by the holy life and :ijc:;.as.s::`;,:?ai#:o-oivee:r?::e^::;tgrd:,?dFo`psg::':
example of believers (Luke 6:22). (9) There o£ Christ'': Paul (Ron.I:I; Gal.I:10; Phil.
is a separation incident to future judgment, I : I), James (James I : 1), Peter (11 Pet.1 : I),
when the righteous are set apart from the un- Jude (Jude 1) and Epaphras (Col. 4:12). In
righteous (Matt. 25:32). (10) No person or
power can sunder the saints from the love Of
:he:igcna::i.:fs.age:::,.:fpa(p!wsivih,estoi.tell:elj:
481 SERVANT OF JEHOVAH

276) affims that one cannot be certain

whether this is a conscious application of the i2: i; e6|Trefeudkeby4 9|)',S ¥£°t[hy :P£:otn.(:r£:
assertive ministry (Isa. 42:2-3; Matt.12: 18-
icesig.n::iocn.!rpo,:Feets:;:i=.¥n.a.Ia&n.o¥laef,g: 21). (2) He suffers vicariously, bearing the
consciousness of being apprehended by Christ cares of others (Isa. 53:4; cf. Christ's healings,
Matt. 8:17). (3) Meeting disbelief (Isa.

;af:t?EL;::3Sse£Z:I:SS?S#::tll¥:;t::t5euf=+e°#r?k:S;£l:t¥:i ;3:;)'Mh:ttpe2:i;;;SZ3j:e2C;)t.°(I;;r°&Cfd:i9n:e7a
Luke 17:7 f.) favors the latter alternative.
However, ``servant of the Lord" in 11 Tim. ::ra,i:imsii::1,.Ee.gi:::u(Esa?is5'3i:;,-8?uFis5:,i
2:24 is a technical term reminiscent of the
title given to Moses. ?;2#:.:Lilf:gferTnag,inilsah.is!3S:oluol,.aH:riae.S.tit
CHARLES A. HODGMAN ingly "sprinkles many nations" (52: 15; Heb.

SERVANT OF JEHOVAH. The expres-

sion, `e!ed Yahweh, ``servant of Jehovah," ;::;2m4;i:s±PeestthG:ed2:)]cE(1:?(slug,ei;:brv;::e:Th#a::i
€iss£.gn]a6:S:6;,ev::edoth::srshjE:rs'fu]a£S£[[efbrai? 3:::3,,,]2a,:dt6£;fie£Ssurdrjevc;tneedsa£:r££gc[:r7usttj:::;
many (vs. I I), and avails for Gentiles as well
?hue¥r¥_S:ma]§nrnetbxscehfg:et¥](eJhe:;a2h:,:9a}.peBa:: (42:6; Luke 2:32). (7) He establishes ulti-
mate justice in the earth itself (Isa. 42:4;
Ron.15:21). (8) The Servant thus becomes
:.s;f¥r];b:n7;o]mt:om:::€r]s:3rj;[[]r4a;fa593;:tph:ey],;je3;
yah,weh is prophesied, even as vividly prese-nt-, :tetefsnt:a::::£otn[s::4¥€,;S;;€3;p:;¥:c::::i::n::
spoken to or speaking. by his death and constituting in his own resur-
rected life its inheritance for the saints (c£.
timTei,id.ee::i.tsy,:I,ihee;eh:|aentnav,::i:,s.":so.:e:: Col.I:27).
my servant" (41 :8), though sinfully deaf and The servant-songs imply the equation of the
blind (42:19). In lsaiah's "servant-songs" Davidic Messiah and the suffering Servant
(42:1-7; 49:I-9; 50:4-9; 52:13-53; and (cf. Gen. 3: 15: the messianic seed victorious,
probably 61:I-3), however, this national but "bruised in the heel"). Both are divinely
chosen and uniquely righteous (Isa. 42: I, 6;
9:7; cf. Ps. 89:3-4). The humiliation of the
¥:%:::s:m8Wh%Sa::c¥::I:S:'n:Tie;%:a::;t:ob:y?da:i:£[h:£::I:I:i Messiah at his first coming (Isa. 7:15; Dan.
ic authenticity of the songs. But Isaiah recog- 9:25-26; Zech. 9:9) parallels that of the
nized a pious remnant (10:20-22), which Servant. Isaiah, in contextual proximity, de-
included his prophetic circle (44:26; 8: 16). scribes both as witnessing to the Gentiles
In the songs, however (except for 49:3), the
(49:6; 55:4); and the same Holy Spirit of
servant cannot be the collective remnant but equity who fills the Davidic "Branch" (11 : 1-
only an individual, By his objective descrip- 4) rests upon the Servant for an identical
tion, moreover (42:I), he cannot be Isaiah eschatological function (42: I). The ultimate
himself. The future reference (52: 13) dem- exaltation of the Servant (49:5, 7; 52:15)
onstrates that he cannot be Moses, the dying- requires their equation. Thus Zechariah asso-
ciates the messianic Branch with the priestly
gi:dseT£:eTu.z.(:;,mtehe.,iien.gp¥s:f:::die¥Eiitnuaaii;: removal of iniquity and combines the two
his sinless character (53:9) and the magni- terms: ``my Servant, the Branch" (3:8-9; cf.
tude of his work (42:4) forbid his equation 10:12 with 14:4). Did the prophets under-
with any merely human leader in the future, stand their own words? Scripture declares,
such as Jehoiachin or Zerubbabel. The NT "These things said Isaiah, because he saw his
(John 12:38, 41; Acts 8:32-35) specifies
glory and spake of him" (John 12:41),
Jesus Christ as the only embodiment of ideal though certain details of Calvary he doubtless
Israel, the final accomplishment of the rem- described better than he himself knew. John
nant (Isa. 49:6). the Baptist identified the Messiah with the
The mission of the Servant is, (I) that of sacrificial Lamb of God (I:29-30), but the
a humanly-born prophet (49:1-2; cf. Jer. multitudes failed to grasp this equation
SERVICE 482

( 12 : 34). Christ conclusively revealed his iden- where all of the talent and strength and time
tity, both as Messiah (4:25-26) and as suffer- is used for him.
ing Servant (Luke 22:37). ROBERT F. Bo¥D
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SESSION. A sitting (Latin sessjo). The
OT portrays God as seated on the throne of
i;f$2f;¥¥#g:nhi##:CPs¥e:i:.t#m¥€¥E
Isajch,. H
t(h[eKrnngfsve2r2=']9:,h;::?Z:;;8:jiy]£;,gh:i°i::rs:£Fp¥
Other Essays,
dtt Serdtettr
13, 19-33.
FEE,±#i.Sy%unan*g`:p#vlce#,e,# 47:8) and majesty (Isa. 6: 1-4). In Ps.Ilo: I
the Messiah is invited to occupy the position
J. BARTON PA¥NE
of honor at his right hand (Mark 12:36; Acts
2:34; Heb.1 : 13). His throne is to be one of
SERVICE. This word in the OT is usually sovereignty and priesthood (Ps. Ilo:1, 4;
the rendering of the Hebrew word 'e96dd and Zech. 6: 12-13) and of judgment (Mal. 3:3).
bears several connotations. The basic meaning The Hebrew root throughout is ydsvaE7.
To this position God exalted Christ at his
i;Stfhmep]oy£££`:te°,:r°rfi'"thweh:t:rekro¥t¥eei£]e£:st; ascension (Phil. 2:9-11; Eph.1:20-23, which
and service o£ God (e.g., Lev. 35 :39; I Chlon. latter passage alone employs kethi.zo-, else-
9 : 19).
where intransitive, transitively). I Pet. 3:22,
In the NT several words are usually ren- repeating porewtheis, i!r`plies a deliberate prog-
dered "to serve" or "to minister." Di¢kot!os,
whence the word deacon, is a servant or a ::SSsobv¥reig:ftsyt;££::hh££ediaatdhft:rett::dp:`rit';°rE
minister; one who waits on another; one who 14:62; Matt. 26:64; Luke 22:69, and see
runs an errand. The AV regularly renders this Mark 16:19). Heb.I:3; 10:12; 12:2 describe
word either as minister or as servant, except
in Phil.I:I and I Tim. 3:8,12 where it is :t:risf:::io.nnaesa|t,i:fie:uS:,lstaosh|siginir::sT:`f:::
rendered ``deacon." The RSV ordinarily ren- the order of Melchizedek (Heb. 8: I; 10: 12),
exercising his priesthood of sympathetic assist-
ance to men and intercession for them (Heb.
%S]:::;:s:::d]ears2gs:i¥i:nnt;Can::::ue%hh:<1in]]:]¥e;rt£„ 4: 14-16; 2: 17-18; 7: 17-27) until all is finally
Where the word occurs in I Tim. it is ren- subjected to him (Heb.10:13). His session
dered deacon. Dot4los is the bond slave and is also points towards his future judgment (11
used to indicate both servile labor and, in a Cor. 5:10; Matt.19:28).
doctrinal sense, to indicate the "bond slave" of Thrice the ascended Christ is depicted as
Jesus Christ. This word occurs well over a standing: once to succor (Acts 7:55-56); and
hundred times in the NT; and its significance
is particularly rich in the whtings o£ Paul.
L¢trej¢ is another word rendered service.
:wr'je:{]t;by::efv::e(#s¥3£oR£:e:Tr;]£'i]:4::i,e]:
found in Cyril) mention the Session.
This was the old Attic Greek to indicate serv-
BIBIJOGFLAPHY

i:ea°etEeT,g:dhs:r::feh];Pe.rbTo£:mas,r::eisab£Sict
twenty-three times (e.g., Mark 4:10; Luke
g#¥:?f#;B±F#%#;#Leffar?*##':#£iy:
Session Of Our Lord.
I:74; Acts 7:42; Ron.1:9, 25; 11 Tim.1:3; DAVID H. WHEATON
Rev. 7:15); and the noun appears about five
times (e.g., John 16:2; Ron. 9:4; 12:1; Heb. SI]VEN CARDINAL VIRTUES. The
seven cardinal virtues as enunciated by the
medieval church are faith, hope, love, justice,

Pc=rdde£:::,', tfenmT£::n:;]' :#e:°%££:£€:i.anThve;¥=::

;:,:c:eh:;£::F::b:a:iizmfopgii;Gr.#iI;;:i:;i:;t::;e;.i;:i; "hinge" (c¢rc!o) upon one or another of them.
indicate that the "spiritual worship" is ``service
These virtues are of two kinds. The first
three are named "theological" and represent
¥oeLv::uL:oersle:±t:i;Lr:£rdL:£;::e¥£e::s:rt:imehpit:eo:rr=b:y: the Pauline triad in I Cor. 13 : 13 (cf. I Thess.
I:3; Gal. 5:5-6; Col.1:4-5). The other four
yh°ershipenht;rfrou°rf£::rdaayTa°ym::£;ctuttora&eE are "natural" (or "moral") virtues and find
483 SHAME

sinful acts" (CE, st4b "Sin"). The list repre-

:i:iiren:r'g`i:eci:. fieis pf:::_sfo.Ei:::ss:Ei::,gi:; :: sents an attempt to enumerate the primary
instincts which are most likely to give rise to
:£artt::a]Wcaosn:t:::tftz:ia:ietosocu°,:risrdnedncte°ct:re_ sin (Kirk, op. cj£., p. 266).
Even though the original classification may
::;?°annd:dfotr°tft::e£::e]|e£:i';::Pceera;:::°s::::i have been monastic in origin (cf. Cassian,
virtue and regulated the others. Cozhat!.o7ies P¢tr74ro, v. 10), under the in flu-
It is understandable that pagan morality ence of Gregory the Great (who has given us
could not find a place within Christianity the classical exposition on the subject: Mor¢!;a
without first undergoing a radical transforma- on Job, esp., xxxi. 45) the scope was widened
tion. This process begins in earnest with and along with the seven cardinal virtues they
Augustine who reinterprets the virtues from a came to constitute the moral standards and
tests of the early Catholic Church. In medieval
£*rrft£:nn:;rs::;:£cvte_a:edvo::odfretcotsc;h;.mTi°e- scholasticism they were the subject of consid-
erable attention. C£. esp. Aquinas, St4""ca
Theologica, 11. ±±.
:::::epxrtt!esefn]a:]1iL;tar:tL:e)s:tn:n:esvreadr:e=¥:::tc£:I:;:#§ BIBLIOGRAPHY
while the moral ideas of the past are gradually
baptized into Christianity they become new Th3a9eev[e„C°D¥#z'; S!% i:1"i#¥{ &::Cahn€% i SriaE)EeEr.'
creations in the proce33. Even though the ROBERT H. MouNCE
Schoolmen return to Aristotle as a source of
moral speculaf:in the end product is always SHAME. Scripture employs more than
Aristotle read in the light of Augustine twelve Hebrew and a half-dozen Greek words
(HERE, Vol.11, p. 431). for this idea, found more than one hundred
As the natural virtues can be referred to a times: a painful emotion of misery, reproach,
embarrassment, arising from guilt for sin, un-
psychological basis, so also can the theological.
Faith relates to intellect, hope to desire, and worthy act, impropriety. The subject is first
love to the will. Thus virtue is that moral mentioned (Gen. 2:25), antecedent to sin, its
excellence in which the whole man (both in absence being tacitly approved; there was no
inner disposition and external act) is rightly cause for shame. Similarly, where sin is for-
oriented to his Creator. given there need be no cause for shame (Isa.
BIBHOGrmH¥ 54:4). A number of significant passages fall
into line here, expressing the inverse of shame,
ggHgRo:f;,%3i]+#?±;3,0-33:¥3.Z3;RE;:k'stsalowkowere,P#% such as the Apostle Paul's: . . . "not ashamed
ROBERT H. MouNCE of the gospel . . ." (11 Tim.I: 12); the ideally
diligent student of the word, with ``no need
SEVEN DEADLY SINS. At an early to be ashamed" (11 Tim. 2: 15); and similarly
stage in the life of the church, the influence in connection with God and his own (Heb.
of Greek thought (with its tendency to view I I : 16), with the second coming of the Lord
sin as a necessary flaw in human nature) (I John 2:28), and with the Christian as a
made it necessary for the church to determine sufferer (I Pet. 4:16). In contrast, heathen
the relative seriousness of various moral faults. nakedness is shame (Isa. 4J7:3). Idolatry is a
This ultimately gave rise to what is commonly special shame (Isa. 42:17; Jer. 2:26; Hos.
referred to as the seven deadly sins - a con- 9:10). Wilful sinners of the carnal variety
cept which occupies an important place in the are strongly stigmatized (Phil. 3: 19).
order and discipline of the Roman Catholic Oppositely to Gen. 2:25, the lack of shame,
Church. in sinners, is condemned (see especially Jer.
These sins are: pride, covetousness, lust, 6: ]5). For shame is the appropriate evidence
envy, gluttony, anger, sloth. K. E. Kirk (Sot"e of conviction touching anything wrong in
Principles_ of Moral Theology, pp. 265-67) God's sight, a reaction against sin, which God
stresses that they are to be understood as himself gives (Isa. 61 :7; Rom. 6:21). In such
"capital" or "root" sins rather than "deadly" or
connection it is a praiseworthy passion because
"mortal" (viz., sins which cut one off from
those who experience it show thereby hope of
his true last end). They are the "sinful pro- salvation from sin. It points to real repentance
pensities which reveal themselves in particular (Ezra 9:6; Ezek. 16:61). Minor uses are:
SHEEP 484

9:24). The cloud filled the tabemacle (Ex.

40:34-35; cf. Ron. 9:4); and post-biblical
:se8i:;;ta:O:]d:::3;::a±yini;:si:]8[1::(:[C:£:i:tve;:]ti:;;
Also shame comes to the Lord's people through :.ssaf8:eac:Oarf£££ne§:zt;::sf8s:#,th,iiwpee];]=;neroti
taunts of the heathen (Ezek. 36:6).
ROBERT F. GRIBBLE ¥gd,;£r:lets;:ccee]:::a:heor;:¥thch::::fte5efcoor:sutT:
SHEEP. The Hebrew $6'# and the Greek LORD" (Lev. 9:23; 10:2). Specifically, God
appeared "in the cloud upon the mercy-seat,
proz7¢So7® are the principal words designating
which is upon the ark" (Lev.16:2; Ex. 25 :22;
:i::5.£=hbeotchhi£:eno]°dfa¥ddrf:ewdisecsr:b::nat: cf. Heb. 9:5).
(Pss. 79:13; 95:7; loo:3; Matt. 10:16;
The shekinah guided Israel through the
26:31; John 10:2, 7, 27). Christ is their wildemess (Ex. 40:36-38); and, though the
Shepherd (Ps. 23:1; Ezek. 34:23; John ark's loss meant "Ichabod [no glory]" (I Sam.
10:10, 14; Heb. 13:20; I Pet. 5:4; Rev.
7: 17). :ie2](i'kFnegsc]80r]d];agf:;T[£8Lerdon:O;?I)O.nfsz:;:;
visualized its departure because of sin (Ezek.

;:a:£8sLt:fnofreess:E£;tsteaTspe,::set::Lm#£eo::c::a
temple. The shekinah reappeared with Christ
§i:::ei;eeij:i;;:,d:S2(t7i!eiy;e;Pii;i::e:%£:}i:ji;:i:ein=: (Matt. 17:5; Luke 2.9), true God localized
27; Rev. 7:17). (John I:14: skG"e-, "tabernacle"; cf. Rev.
21:3, = 5e&€%6?), the glory of the latter tem-

Ei:g:;.ci::iz#t.s2i::59)):nhdr£S;fla]Scfnmd:dd:;
ih;e:eg!;:h¥f,ill;]§eei:;¥dii!e;:Ts:);€C:°tijiri¥::Cae;;; so rctum (Mark 14:62; Rev.14:14; cf. Isa.
them (John 10:9 f.); (3) satisfaction-he 24:3; 60:I).
See also GLORY, TRANSFIGURATloN.
BIBHcroRAVHy
HDB,. R. E. Hough, The M;nis.r}/ of the Glor}i aord.
J. BARTON PAYNE
{ii:i;;t::r!:i;:t:his:;,i:1:oa;:t±;h;:(u:I;;jgi]gti;esEgR;i;s SHEOL. The word Sheol is used through-
them eternal life and "the'y shall never perish"
out the OT in two senses: (1) literally, of a
(John 10:28).
WICK BRcoMALL
at:Cede::e:b£::d€betuht:3e2a:2h2';I:::fi::9T;;:
SHEKINAH. While Scripture denies any
::r€n§2!p::gTr]a6t:.V3:]y,'o::hgr2ayff£:;:ein°er#
g:mT[at::::u]:]cya[;zwaftt;£n£:sG:r€£:c€:edse£:e*; h4dG; (q.tJ.), "underworld," carries the
"glory," or apprehensible presence. Glory may idea (LLke 10:15; Acts 2:27; cf.
be expressed in God's "face," "name" (Ex. 16: 13). Parallel expressions are
(Isa. 14:15; Ps. 88:4), 5c}ha£, "
::;e]s8 -:9 ) 'ch`:££e]:'r -«:iroeL£:t:aTE;: ]a4P:rga;: fd°gTd:d£:i:,n','.[p(I::;o]£i:i:;mEczte£5i„2&:o8b)
Shekinah concerns the cloud, which surround-
ed the glory (40:34), like thunderheads ?.8:22).
through which lightning flashes (19:9, 16).
thesheet:]m£:I,u:#:rr:]]yafedpe£Ctoefdi;nthth:££t:o::
|sr:etef:?:kfE3hyp:;I:::Pp¥oatreecdte¥hinemG°bdy]?t€
pillar of cloud and fire" (13:21; 14: 19). The
:snhdm:nntrfg::e°r::aar]ak:;Teer;£t£.SB:£atthherfsp:hn:
cloud vindicated Moses against "murmurers" entrance into an eternal land of forgetfulness
(16: 10; Num.16:42) and covered Sinai (Ex. (Ps. 88:13; Job 10:21), darkness (Job
24: 16) as he communed there with God (vs.
18; cf. 33:9). God "dwelt," 5dBa% (25:8), i3::Z);dwuhs:I::a:;e]:s:2t)n'oa:dorsk]e::]¥oS!Oht
among Israel in the tabernacle, in;5kd7c, "place or knowledge or wisdom" (Eccl. 9:10; Isa.
of dwelling" (vs. 9; c£. I Kings 8:13), a type
of his dwelling in heaven (I Kings 8 :30; Heb. :h8e:]d°e-:£);aT£;Srd;=:e:::n£]=epaybeyxti:set;0::£°:
48 5 SIMILITUDE

(Ezek. 32:27), the trappings and thrones of transcendent life (7:17). (2) The figure is
kings are there (Isa. 14:9-11), Samuel retains apphed to church leaders. The Ephesian pres-
his robe (I Sam. 28:14), and the dead wel- byters "shepherd" the church (Acts 20:28;
come new arrivals (Isa. 14:9). Men still exist cf. Eph. 4: 11; I Pet. 5: 1 f.), but in exercising
in Sheol, only it is in a form that cannot pastoral functions church leaders are not to
really be called life. They are repji'£"1, "sunk- lord it over the flock; and their motives are to
en, powerless beings," from who-in life's vital be pure (I Pet. 5 :2 f.). Alas, the NT churches
power (the 7ce.peg) is gone (Isa. 14:9-10). did not always have such self-dedicated shep-
They are only shadowy replicas of their for- herds (Acts 20:29 f.; Jude 12, RSV). (3)
mer selves. The figure is applied to the leaders of the
A development in concept is found in Jews in NT times. The Jews were "lost
Daniel 12:2, where Sheol is the intermediate sheep" (Matt.15:24) and shepherdless (9:36;
dwelling place of certain wicked and righteous Mark 6:34), because their "shepherds" were
(the "many"), while remaining the eternal faithless hirelings (John 10:10-13), unspir-
abode for all the rest. The special class of itual authoritarians (9:22, 34). Only the
righteous are given "everlasting life," while the Good Shepherd admits to, or excludes from,
wicked are condemned to "shame and ever- the true fold.
lasting contempt" (cf. also Isa. 26: 19).
JAMES G. S. S. THOMSoN
BIBIJOGRAPHY

SHILOH. As a proper noun Shiloh (Heb.

8£t::„:yFfttg#T;es:to££e¥::n,a;::p#.£8ogr;raa,¥;.R§3y_eg[f; 5€16, Sjz6 or 5£!ol.) refers to the biblical settle-
ROBERT 8. LAURIN ment NNE of Bethel, modem Seiltin. The
5fzo-h o£ Gen. 49: 10 cannot refer to this. Un-
SHEPHERD. I. OLD TESTAMENT. Israel
less this occurrence be the exception it no-
was a predominantly pastoral people; its reli-
where refers to an individual. Some take it
gious concepts were, therefore, colored by the here as a title of Messiah. Three witnesses to
vocabulary and vocational habits current
the pre-vocalized Hebrew text, the Septuagint,
among a pastoral community. This is partic-
Syriac and Targum versions, read it 5!7? and
ularly prominent in the OT use of "shepherd";
\'ocalized it 5e!!o-h, meaning "who to him." The
but it is the shepherd as I.ti]er that is empha-
relative pronoun 5, vocalized with the a vowel
sized. (I) The figure is ap|tlied to Yahweh
just like the Hebrew article, is used with
(Isa. 40:10). Israel's Shepherd pastors his
greater frequency in later books of the OT
people from his kingly throne (Pss. 80:1 f.; but is also found in the earlier. It is used
95:6 f.). Ps. 23 is an exception. (2) The
with preposition I (``to, for") and followed by
figure is applied to Israel's national leaders.
a pronoun. See 11 Kings 6:11, Jonah I:12,
David is the outstanding example here (11
and (without preposition) Judg. 6: 17. There
Sam. 5:2; Ps. 78:70 ff.); but Joshua (Num.
is a strong likelihood that in Gen. 49: 10 we
27:16 ff.), the Judges (I Chron.17:6), and
should read "until he come whose it is (who
the nobility in general (Jer. 2:8; 25:34~36)
to him)." For the sense of the passage thus
are also mentioned. Ezekiel condemns the lat-
rendered cf. Ezek. 21 :27.
ter for remissness in their pastoral responsibili-
ties (34:2-10). (3) The figure is applied to G. DoUGLAs YouNG
Messiah. Micah was the first to use the meta-
phor in this way (5:2-4), but it is prominent SIGN. See MmACLE.
in Ezekiel (34:22-24; 37:24 f.).
11. NEw TESTAMENT. The metaphor attains SIMILITUDE. The words "similitude" or
"likeness" are used in the AV to translate
prominence here also. (1) It is applied to
Christ (Matt. 2:6, RSV). John 10 explains three Greek NT words: (I) 7}o"o!.o-`sis (used
what this meant. The Good Shepherd leads in the LXX often for Hebrew de„itl±). This is
his sheep (q.v.) out (vs. 3), delivers, and pro- used in Gen.1:26 and James 3:9. It implies
vides for, them (vs. 9), gives them "eternal abstract hkeness as distinct from a figure, pic-
life" (vss. 10, 28) through a voluntary and ture or copy. (2) 7?o"o/.otgs. This is used in
vicarious self-sacrifice (vss. 11, 15, 18). In Heb. 4: 15 and 7: 15. It implies likeness of the
Revelation this "great shepherd of the sheep" same order, or equality. (3) 7307#oj67„¢ (used
(Heb. 13:20) continues his ministry in his lnost frequently in the LXX for Hebrew c!Ct7"^4!,
SIMONY 486

SIMPLICITY. In the wisdom literature Of

;£e:":%e]atr]!:;ce":¢::1:?;,FgiFeTiifa;,f=::nd;sE:k±;;:,
(Deut. 4:12; Rev. 9:7). As used in its NT
ln:d-;;ill;the:¥:::e:::;p!:ie::£lc:jl:ict'j#gfa:r:
;:nft:rxis±y,wpeaeunl::;in,a:ie:snbo:,os:!i|lirietyneis: The most commonly used NT word (hop-
concrete circumstances (Ron. 5: 14). In Ron. fo„s, hapfotGs) mealis "without folds." It there-
8:3 and Phil. 2:7 Christ's assuming the
7io7"o;o-t#a of our sinful flesh or humanity im- ;:::a:,po¥:;tsmpo:#epuus¥a,k::3c:h:£s,:nogT:
plies not only likeness of status and `fom be- eye in contrast to that which is evil (Matt.
tween Christ and ourselves but also his con- 6:22-23). The man who tries to serve God
crete self-identification with us in the flesh and mammon lacks singleness of purpose.
in his incarnation. Similarly Ron. 6: 5 affirms
thhoa;o%:¢aroeff8hpr]£:::e€e;:hbaanpjfsr:su£::°cti:hn: ch:,?s:.]t{#a%sor:£|i`:3;.s#E:£csfhtyoui5abefsrein.

i::er€ed;.i:%gvafra€]nghdn:svt:tfotnR¥o,.chTs:oofpeb::
I:h:h%uhgrTstt]£asnn[of:esft:p*]::hatj:ea:e¥]re;:g:: 1ievers is quite opposed to the deviousness, the
through baptism is of the same pattern as craftiness of the serpent.
Christ's in his dying and rising, but that in The same word, on occasion, means liberal-
baptism there is a "concrete re-presentation" ity (Ron. 12:8). In giving, one should not
(W. Manson) of the death and resurrection hold back by allowing his generous impulse
of Christ so that through it we are actually to be thwarted by selfishness or by doubt as
made to grow in living union (s,vtwph}Jtoj) to the worthiness of the recipient. Our exem-
with Christ himself .
plar here is God (James I :5), who gives with
BIBLIOGRAPHY no subtle intent underneath his ostensible
sc!iha:#%efe;isfsnjonIVonNBTapx'„?Pria;:61-335,grpr'Sg.48{ purpose to bless, nor with any pangs of regret
RONALD S. WALLACE at his generosity once it is extended.

SIMONY. Simony takes its name from the

;t::cmhE:eo:ros:in:=te¥atg:s±nwfrct:f8L]e8d]:tints
i:n:i;:p:a:§j:;;;:o§ja::i:co;i°rriia::;:i¥¥a;dn::dfi;:iiii:i
;:;,nr:c:Et':£nhoafndie|:]3tzssrpe`;::sttorotuhgehpt:I: ment.
chase of spiritual office, or to financial agree- BIBLIOGRAPHY
0. Bauerrfeind iD TWNT,. I. H. Famel in HDCG,.
ments with a view to the appointment to a H. Bulcock in HDAC.
EVERETT F. HARRISoN

:o:rt;:c:ue:irea:sg:,:i:::oh;e,e:elf:'itEy:E|:i:ta?tki::tfinw:: SIN. No single Hebrew word is able to ex-

and sacrament. The evil seems first to have
::b±tm:hnew°o:;C£::Cse£Et£:£hs¢ft:6,£4u[t[g;„#,esTg:S£:
Ar]Sreun]e°:o:B]yd£:::e:rudr££nnagt£:te££o°ruriho::;fuwrz;
passed at Chalcedon (A.D. 451), and after this :¥iT,:;`earb:|lsfs::i,i:i:,aj'si,:g:e:iT;'',::;TIS;:I::
the persistent condemnation of every form of where it is stated that the tribe of Benjamin
had a corps of left-handed warriors who "could
sling stones at a hair-breadth and not miss."
§L;=t:I::I:I:|i:]tt:yntioe;rtsof¥[i!ai::e::n::let;is:t::!e:'tL?::::I Other words often used for sin in the OT
are re5fl`, ``wickedness, confusion''; `dwo-71,
``iniquity, perversion, guilt"; pes¢`, "transgres-
sion, rebellion"; 'dwe7i, ``wrongness, trouble,
¥:ei:;fep:p::e::::gv:e:]::f:2¥o;ne)s*t:]h;:I::e§t#:i:ifoi§ vanity"; 5eqer, "lying, deceit"; ro`, "evil"
well that there should be careful and force- (usually of injurious judicial or natural effects
of sin); „ra`¢!, ``trespass, breach of trust";
'dsd", ``error, negligence, guilt"; `6wel, "in-
:::]yv:P£:]u£:d£::iesguoafrdti:ne:lil.Churchesagainst
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY justice"; and the verbs sdrai., "to disobey," and
48 7 SIN
'69¢r, ``to transgress." It is important to note
that many of these words are used (in various :£t?£±spr::a£Sei:fdi:ti°cvt:::ntoff§:acoem(q;Vri)i
forms) to denote not only sin but also guilt Gomorrah serves to remind future generations
and even the means by which guilt is re- of the doom which awaits those who live in
Inoved. Sin, its consequences, and the means unbridled sin and corruption (Gen. 13:13;
for its removal were thus vividly united in the 18:20; 19:I-29). The record of the lives of
consciousness of Israel. Jacob and his sons frankly discloses the sins
Tt\e LXX usually uses haiinertia for battd'&, of these men and makes clear to Israel that
adidha Eon `dw6n Csome 53 tines), anoinid tor its national existence as the bearer of the
`dwo-# (about 63 times), porapt6t.¢¢ for t„¢`¢Z,
covenant life does not rest on its own good-
peha`, 'dwel, and parabainein for various ness but on the sovereign grace of God (Gen.
words meaning "to transgress," especially when 34, 37, 38, 49, et a[.). Deliverance from
applied to transgression of the covenant. The Egyptian bondage symbolizes deliverance from
LXX also translates s6rer£7# with ¢pejt7®owsjt2,
``disobedient," in Isa.I :23.
:he:£v¥awnecre::ras:I.isBftin:::ry];:mt]Pnede%£8ottt£:
The main NT words for sin are 7®¢i't¢¢rtha, fact that substitutionary death alone saves
"a missing of the mark, sin"; ¢d;kja, "unright-
Israel from Egypt's fate (Ex. 12). Even after
eousness"; ¢"ot„;¢, "lawlessness"; ¢sez7ej¢, ``im- the manifestation of God's saving power at
piety"., the Red Sea the people rebel (Ex.17:1-7)
``a fall," parabasis,
indicating "transgression"., parapt6ma,
disruption of the right rela-
tionship to God; po7cGrie, ``depravity''; epjt7iy- ::I?inaga;Fs,th:h;e:;;:g,I.oubnendh:sfpef:#a.grpa:;opt:
t»ha, "desire, lust"; ape;f7ie;a, "disobedience." and the giving of the law at Sinai, Israel's
The biblical revelation concerning the na- sinfulness comes to ugly manifestation in the
ture of sin lies embedded in sacred history. worship of the golden calf (Ex. 32). After
In Gen. 3 the origin of sin in the human race the people have disobediently tried to force
is attributed to the fall of Adam and Eve in entrance into Canaan in spite of God's pun-
Eden. From the record the following truths ishment of their unbelief a distinction is
are established: ( I) that God is not the author impressed upon Israel between unwitting sins
of sin, but that sin is suggestively, then overtly (in "error") and presumptuous sins, sins ``with
proposed by the serpent and freely embraced a high hand" (Nun. 14; 15:27-31).
by Eve (cf. James 1: 13-15); (2) that the sin Laws concerning ceremonial uncleanness
of Eve begins with doubt concerning the and unclean diseases and meats are designed
rightness of God's command not to eat of the to teach Israel vividly the absoluteness of the
fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good holiness which is required in,,' those who are
and evil; (3) that the sinful act resulting from called the people of Jehovah (Lev. 11-15;
rationalized desire was one of direct and will- Deut. 14:21). While a distinction is made
ful disobedience to the expressed command of between sins done wittingly and unwittingly
God; (4) that the first sinful act by both (in "error"), unwitting sin is.culpable and in
Adam and Eve resulted in an immediate sense need of expiation (Lev. 5:I-10,17-19).
of the shamefulness of nakedness and a con- From the entrance into Canaan until the
sequent attempt to hide from God; and (5) time of the Babylonian captivity sin is ex-
that the sin is followed by the divine curse plicitly described as apostasy from the calling
on the serpent, woman, and man, and by
expulsion from fellowship with God in the :fs::?i:r]2h;f.:°evte:i.n)t.¥v°ep:eD(!*g;n2a]i:;
garden. The penalty of death is inflicted on best successors fall from their typical office
the human race which descends from Adani and show rebelliousness against the God of
and Eve (Gen. 4-6). the covenant (11 Sam.11; 24; I Kings 11:9;
Mankind corrupts its way upon the earth ef ¢Z.). Covenant-breaking increases with but
and its extreme wickedness evokes the judg- few pauses in the northern and southern king-
ment of the flood (Gen. 6). After the flood dons and manifests itself in social oppression
the power of the sword is ordained (Gen. (Amos p#ss;"; I Kings 21) and idolatry,
9:5 ££.) for the restraint of sin in human which is described consistently as spiritual
society. God frustrates racial rebellion at Babel adultery (Hosea; Isa.1:4,19-21; Jer. 3:1;
and divine special revelation begins to focus Ezek.16:15, 23). Although Israel is cured
on Abraham and his descendants as bearers of idolatry through the exile the stubbornness
SIN 488

of sin comes to expression even after the re-

turn (Mal.1:6-2:17; 3:7-15). £:e:a:]fo:£nofissfanYsa¥::cet:o:ytothi:;areaad:dp:uei
Within this framework a keen sense of sin to confess, "I am canal, sold under sin"
(Ron. 7: 14). Sin consists not simply in deeds
fnev&1:p3sl;Em!e(3:sil!2:nf38o,Tewi:,:Ereestsj:an, but in a condition, a condition common to all
depravity of the ungodly is forcefully pro-
Ciaefmheedar{P:.f5t3h)e'£:£esvuebrt]:sP:ownefres°is£?pfs=

Es;I:!::oa::eeu?b:1:¥i::#l:ii:::;E;;!i?::I-:i:i:
:;e9:2a3t-::2;#£o:S£.s:cLknt:#dr;::n€:s.°;):£n
The consciousness that sin roots in the £gta];I::s]e9-ai.;¥ean£'s¥nfnsgnf,nh¥efsflens?t'::::
formed to the will of God (Ron. 8 : 5-8). Only
divine deliverance can free man from this
i::s:s:sit:K¥n:gus%£h]oTu:9n,;i;T;;Tg,£t,h:e;,h]ej::I,]S¥e;: bondage (Ron. 3:21-26) and, for the saved,
the presence or absence of the motive of faith
:I:s:)beTeretrairbduet:i:gac°tfotfhed]::na:tjinst]5c£:(mEaxT becomes the test of whether or not one is act-
7:3; 9:12; Isa. 6:10). £ngwi£]°ebetg':endc:tat£:s%dth(eR:::gels::2;I).Ron.

defTnheedN.I::snctr:inesdpianssabgre.saint:¥:Tfinef
"definitions" are found especially in the Gospel 5:[u3_:e]gaarrdesgj]ap::end,astts]::=rsa:ncArdt:Ln.£::
and First Epistle of John. Jesus says, "Every- only did Adam introduce sin into the world.
one that committeth sin is the bond-servant The fact is that death exists even where
of sin" (John 8:34; cf. Ron. 6:16, 20, 23).
John writes in I John 3:4, "Everyone that fner:nisc::nTc:i:iclaiYhan,hda,nolaiwTpu#::en£.::
doeth sin /7ia7#¢rti¢"J doeth also lawlessness death must stem from the fact 'that ``through
/a"o"i¢"J; and sin /ha"¢¢rlj¢J is lawlessness
[anomia].„
The Gospels presuppose and hardly define
;o;:;::{eE:e;:hs§:top:enfujE¥s::n:,ej:L*:e:±u:§ty;:a[::hm:::S:
many sinners (vs. 19). The parallel between
;±nesl:;:su]r:eoeitl:i;::?:alncBso:=c:ts:::??Ttioa:c;;1?atr#:e:
righteous, but sinners to repentance (Matt. ::t:::rna:atti£:amnfius:;f£C;i£:cnhF:i:isto°£]:h::
9:13). The Pharisees, who attribute the judicial sentences is directed to men and to
beii:v:E: Lei:#voef`yt.he church fie[ce contro-

F#:::anci#h::n:u|szg::itaetaT2o:i:!7?|T`feust:s:, versy has raged about the doctrine of original

sharpest words are reserved for those who
``trusted in themselves that they were right- :inat(qa:;)t.hp:s]a:fauiraaT,dnho£:f£]|°aTertshaatssegrfg
eous and set all others at nought . . ." (Luke
18:9; cf. Matt. 23:13-29). The rejection o£ rbai:I:h::eat::in?sys:ng:£diugcdes]Sthne°tracc°e=npit;
Jesus as the Messiah is the fearful sin of
Israel (Matt.11:20 £f.; John 9:35-41) and it
involves rejection of him as the Son o£ God :I::taenb.?dfeo:rianT::e::;a;!hi;len;!ln:::;I:a;:a:a:n|:As:gar,:c;;
(John 10:22-39). The wrath o£ God abides teaching Augustine asserted that all men in-
on those who do not obey the Son (John
3:36). The self-righteous are most sinful be- ::iri::¥¥:a:sact:hi#::ts:=n:is£::y:n:::d:aad:ga=i|:]]::na:
Cma:{:£tth;:£dn%ty°t:]e¥rttrraandsfifroe::{hrda:t:Wi5?i:

20). Not ceremonial uncleanness, but the evil

i;a:ii;£foii:t::£:;::t:h:ei°:sfi:°e:yga:s:d:a:ti::::::,dns:ii
::Lcthh 5:::]eeesdsm:;o¥Mt:tet. h]e5a:I: 8:293Tgh the
The doctrine of sin is most systematically :nodrtaTask;ingsu:tadb£;:i::t]t°hnet:::ae=:n?ae]n]:ay[st:=i
Calvin protested that evil motions and de-
sires in the heart were really accounted as sins
i:n:d;ee:Sn:iv€):be¥V)i:d;g]±:¥tRa:n:€au±Ln8:i:s)in?ikpia:i by God. While Rome claimed that the rein-
489 SLAVE, SLAVERY

SLANDER. See BLAspHEMT.

FnantLseorfegoen;gefrna::d:£nth:eEee£::e<£rom¥£r:y:,;ns::
SLAVE, SLAVERY. Slavery does not oc-
ihe:trt t*:s :::aden;:rge ail disposition of the
The Synod of Dordt (1618-19) fimly
i;e:vrln?8tFi3f;Yas.at:,imf;I:at?ice=c::.res,eTOFl:.#¢?;n;i
"bodies"). The RSV has slave, slaves, and
rq:#ai:idtottha:i:g£;i;esag°affn::t:led;Peraakve£#
ing of these doctrines by the Arminians. The slavery a total of 157 times. This is largely
Form"ha Co72se7£st4s (1675) of the Swiss Re- due to the f act that the Hebrew `ebed and
formed Churches asserted that Adam's sin
was immediately imputed to his descendants :Faens]€:::ksefoa„n[:,s,mryhfac]:o=ayre:::=;]¥[a3:
in virtue of his representative status in the (Gen. 9:25-27). The basic idea in these words
covenant of works. This teaching was directed is service and may have reference to service
which is freely rendered or to that which is
:g::nAtd:hme,scod::::;i::n:sfaLr:::aif,eyoiesdai:,:|uy: obligatory in the sense of bondage. Among the
i.e., in virtue of their inherited corruption. Hebrews a maidservant or a manservant was
the property of his master. He was, in a sense,
The modem period of church history has
a slave or chattel. A master could acquire a
also seen the revival of ancient Greek concep-
slave: (1) by purchase (Gen.17:12; 37:28),
tions of sin as ignorance and of sin as the
tragic implication of man's finitude. The for-
mer is congenial to evolutionism and the latter
to existentialism.
%,::(|3Cip,i;::4.;a?nwf:p:|T`.?I:v:e':3a:I:ig:'d!;oe¥Egj
the one enslaved, the debtor thus selling him-
BBHOGRAPFT
self into slavery (Lev. 25:39, 47), (5) as a
gift (Gen. 29:24).
But the position of the Hebrew slave must
not be confused with the lot of a slave in the
cruel societies of other nations. Among the
Israelites there was no profound difference
between the relation of the slave to the master
CARL G. KROMMINGA and that of the members of the master's fam-
ily. The wives and children were just as
SINCERE. The principal Greek words much under the power of the master as were
used are a7eypokritos (literally, "without hy- the slaves. The slaves were not thought of as
pocrisy" -originally the hypocrite was one being inferior, and though they had no civil
who played a part on the stage) and e;Zjkr;7!ej¢ rights, they were regarded as true members of
("sincerity, purity"). Neither of these terms the family (Gen. 17:23; Ex. 12:44). The
is used in the canonical books of the LXX. Hebrew master was bound by the regulations
A#ypokritos occurs in Ron.12:9; 11 Cor. 6:6; of the Mosaic law and his responsibility to
I Tim.1:5; 11 Tim.I:5; James 3:17; I Pet. them was emphasized by such injunctions as
I:22. E!.]77€r;7te;" appears in I Cor. 5:8; 11 those in Deut.15 : 15, which reminded him of
Cot. I:12; 2:17; Phil.I:10; 11 Pet. 3:1. his own bondage in Egypt. Slaves were pro-
Another word, c!cZoJos, occurs once (I Pet. tected also tty the sabbatical and jubilee regu-
2:2) and is used in the old sense of "sincere," lations (Ex. 21:2-27; Lev. 25:25-55). The
meaning unadulterated. There are three other disregard of the regulations led to numerous
words used which might on occasion be ren- abuses according to ]er. 34:8-22, where the
dered sincere: g"Gsz.6s in Phil. 2:20; 7i¢p!ote-s people o£ Judah are warned against disobeying
in Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22; and 7idg7?6s in Phil. the Mosaic slave regulations. There are some
I : 17. resemblances but also important differences
BIBLIOGFLAPHY between the Hebrew slave regulations and
RTWB; Trench, pp. 199-ZOO, 304-6. those of the Code of Hammurabi. In the NT,
RALPH A. GWINN the gospel, with its message of love, laid the
foundation for the elimination of human
SINLESSNESS OF CHRIST. See CHRls- slavery (Philem.; Gal. 3:28; Eph. 6:5-9).
TOLOGY. see also sERVAr`TT.
SLEEP 490

Bml.IOGRAPHT the verb form (#Gp7i6) is used in the NT only

K. Fullerton in HDB; I. Benringer in EB, col. 4653. in the figurative sense, to be well-balanced,
ARNOI.D C. SCHULTZ self-controlled, thus almost equivalent to
egkrofe;a (self-control, used in Acts 24:25;
SLEEP. (1) Often in both the OT and Gal. 5:23; 11 Pet.I:6; I Col. 7:9; 9:25; Titus
NT the word is used literally to denote phys-
ical sleep (I Sam. 26:7; Judg.16:14; Matt.
28: 13; John 11 : 12). Peaceful sleep is a good ::fr,An;fe:I:g:h`,n;.`o:rd::g::ne:tf:¥:hfh::tFchs:;
gift of God to his people (Ps. 4:8; cf. 127:2). occur: I Thess. 5:6, 8; I Tim. 3:2,11; Titus
That too much sleep prevents one from assum- 2:2; I Pet. I : 13; 4:7; 5 :8. The orie exception
is 11 Tim. 4:5.
::%nn:rmmpafars::¥encsj?££:it ft:Sti:dB]:a£Soi°p¥;::;¥ The other Greek words (so-phro#e6 and
(Prov. 6:9-10; 20:13; 24:33). derivatives) occur sixteen times, translated
sober twice in the RSV and twelve times in
SiesfepnL::t;o::nepaLioru:jLdya]Lj#:CLi££to¥:a:j::;heyss§e:e:: the AV. These words are broader in scope

in the OT is often associated with receiving :i:n]£t:ees£:;in:rLnTdhem:::nfrne::o:aaEg:,a:ofg

judgment, moderation, prudence, chastity. The
{]5[;nn: :#;at;loon: 9t,TroAubgrth:££ofge:: ]d;::¥; references are: Mark 5:15; Luke 8:35; Ron.
and Jacob (Gen. 28:12) seem to have had 12:3; 11 Cor. 5:13; Titus 2:6; I Pet. 4:7;
experiences of this type. Titus 2:4; 11 Tim. I:7; Titus 2:12; Acts
26:25; I Tim. 2:9,15; I Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:8;
2:2, 5.
cNoi:1:I::eLtea:=PL;i:cailt¥sLae:a:Sie£(nEe;ohpascae::s)p))nn#th:i BIBHcroRAPHy
Amdt; HDB.
RAI,pH A. GWEN
:;sfa:r!!w£:h::a|hit,I,fn:¥[;eir:;:d:e]::artl£:n:to:i'e:t:Sl:£:rfi=:
ence to the unconverted. SOCINIANISM. A deviation from orthcr
doxy within Protestantism named after Fausto
Sozzini (or Socinus, 1539-1604), a product

;;i:3:)S:ri::i::uC:i:::`:;peaaihij]te:sfe;i{ktu:;:tg:i:in¥e{ei#:C!a!;
25:I-13; c£. Mark 13:36). Paul exhorts the ;:e:t::e:ago::;ae::;:;:£ce;s]f::]{;dt:[tey]n[o:f;]]€T;,.¥t:tn:a:I::
Roman Christians to awaken from their sleep
in view of the closeness of the pc!ro„si¢ (Ron. Fyentfaptz,pethn:]t:suaE::]t:i;?nhaendrei:[s:]eficat;Oans
gained by works. The rational theistic morality
he asserted bore aff inities with Arianism,
i:oS;):;::s::hd:hL:h¥:Teal;;tatt:s:St?:i:ee:s:;)nr:£ica:I:; Pelagianism and the "simple Christianity" o£
watchful by reminding them that they are not Erasmus. His movement found early support
of the night (thus not asleep) but of the day in Poland (where Sozzini ended his days), in
(I Thess. 5:1-9). the Low Countries and especially in England,
where, with the advent of deism in the eight-
dea(i)a§]e£:Pe;Sid:|S:edus£;::tagfht°ri::i]rrfn°: eenth century, Socinian thought became pre-
dominant in many circles, both General Bap-
*:fiseh;:;:tehe:STZ:sft.orfac]::b]:bks,I;t2;s],eepr:
51 :39). In this connection sleep is used more :i;is,aamni:a,Ee¥lii:P|r7e;Eyt:Eiean:ir3:inEn:;::a`Z
(= Socinian) church as such was formed in
gg:dc;fi::11,yheinbeiFeeverNFet:feeihedesattahtea:i:I: London; many -particularly Nonconforlnists
- seceded to join it and the denomination still
resurrection (I Thess. 4:14; I Cor.15:51).
WALTER W. WESSEL persists, but is not influential.
See also UNITARIANlsM.

SOBER, SOBRIETY. Two groups of 0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON

Greek words are involved. The adjective
7ce-p7!¢ljos means sober with reference to drink; SOLIDARITY. See IMpuTATloN.
491 SOUL

SON. The sonship Of believers is expressed ter and final doom. The application of the
by three Greek words: fek"o7£ ("child"); 7®t4jos term to Judas in John 17:12 suggests a con-
("a:"t)o; thh"ej°:::':% :`;a:h°]5t£:n:'s)h.ip, ( I ) it is
X:C:.;c°tn:I:1:::s?s;:a:::a)¥r]::t::::sft:oh:e::r¥);es:Seab8:i
restrictive - limited to believer.s only (I John
3:10-12). Others are children of the devil neither circumstance discredits Jesus' saving
(John 8:44). (2) It is regenerative-sons role.
have been born by the Spirit (John 3:6-8). FREDERICK WILLIAM DANKER
The first birth will not suffice (Matt. 3:9; SORROW. The Bible realistically views sor-
Ron. 2:28 f.). (3) It is restorative-God's row as well as joy as intrinsic to present
image is gradually (Col. 3:10) and, at the human experience. As joy is the gift of God,
Parousia, completely (Ron. 8:29; Phil. 3:20 so sorrow is immediately or ultimately the
f.) restored. (4) It js regulative-the norm effect of sin (Gen. 3: 16; Ps. 32: 10); although
of the life of sons is determined by divine in the mixed moral state of this present life,
standards (Matt. 5:44 f.; Phil. 3: 14 f.). paradoxically sorrow and joy may characterize
the behever's experience at the same time (cf.
arep:i:£f::inotw]?nmg?nil;hAd¥tsisj:g{R°ofm*[;; Ron. 5:2 and 9:2; I Pet.I:6, 8).
A total 6£ twenty-six Hebrew terms convey
cGoan];tft4u:t:iE£:ib]e;;).of Bed;e:,:rsfaa:e£]y].e8:i]} the idea of sorrow, including words whose
Chastisement (Heb.12:5-8; cf. Ron. 5 :3-11). associated meanings are affliction, blinding,
The Father disciplines his children. (3) In- fear, grief, labor, lamentation, pain, pang, sad-
heritance (Ron. 8: 17; Gal. 3:26, 29; 4:7, 30; ness, vanity, and woe. Lypco- ("to grieve" or
"to make said") and ody#co7#oi (``to be
I Pet.I:4). God's sons inherit eternal glory.
pained") and their derivatives are the NT
sops::psohnesrheiprei::e:e:i#::`t:s=hcets;t::2a|pads:: terms. Pe71f bos, translated "sorrow" in the AV
cree (Eph.1 :5) or to the regenerative act in of Rev. 18:7 and 21:4, is better rendered
"mourning" as by the ASV and RSV.
time (James I:18; I Pet.I:3, 23). (2) Pres-
Familiar causes of sorrow are bereavement
s;t.t£:nschh£:n;Sedref]]]::te{rinat:te5?;e5S;en]t[W€:lri (Gen. 42:38; Phil. 2:27; I Thess. 4:13);
persecution (Esth. 9:22; Ps.13:2); the calam-
t5Le'73;i#se::gtei:e.I:tye`(`R:i.th8e:ir|4So:.S,h.ip(?; ities of life (Ps.116:3); the rebellion of loved
Future. Glorification is the final display of the ones (Ron. 9:2); and the judgments of God
believer's sonship (Luke 20:36; Ron. 8:19, (Lam.1: 12; 11 Cor. 2:7). An important con-
23; Heb. 2:10; I John 3:2). trast is made between the "sorrow of the
See also AI)opTloN.
WICK BROOMALL
:o:;:sd;':,.w::f|i.;`:pr:aodfu:ci|:a:::tn;.ena.t:a:.ce:,`,:::;:
SON OF GOD. See CHRlsTol.oG¥. Cor. 7:10, RSV).
WESTI.AXE T. PURKISER
SON 0F MAN. See CHRlsTOLOG¥.
SOTERIOLOGY. See SALVATloN, RE-
SON OF PERDITION. This expression DEMPTION.
(7ltljos fe-s flpolej¢s) appears in John 17: 12 and
11 Thess. 2:3. The word ¢polei.¢s is used in SOUL. There is a disparity of concept be-
tween the OT 7ce_peg and the NT psycJig. The
::eMNaTkt°i;¥e(S2:,(:h)er:.nnieli:::,e:,:¥i:it:a:: basic difference lies in the fact that the 7tepe5,
destruction (Ron. 9:22). In the phrase son unlike the psyc77G, is not a spiritual en-tity
of perdition (after the analogy of such forma- which exists apart from the body.
tions as ``sons of this aeon" [Luke 16:8]; "sons The word 7te_peg is used generally to desig-
of disobedience" [Eph. 2:2]), perdition quali- nate individual men or animals in their total
fies the subject involved. That is, his life and essence (Gen.I:20; Ex.I:5). This is made
character are controlled by the forces of de- clear in Gen. 2:7 where the divine breath is
struction and headed towards eternal ruin. blown into the body, and so creates ``a living
The phrase appropriately describes Antichrist, 7ce_peg," that is, man. "It is not the object of
11 Thess. 2:3, indicating his demonic charac- the narrator to analyse the elements of man,
SOUL SLEEP 492

but to represent his essential character" (J. for death is alleged to point to the cessation
Pedersen, Israel, Its Life and Cultui.e 1-11, of consciousness. (3) A state of consciousness
Oxford University Press, London, 1926, p. between death and resurrection, characterized
99). Thus to the Hebrew, man was not a
"body" and a "soul," but rather a "body-soul,"
:uyd:ksesn:for:a,eu]:sTa:raay:tawb£:nant#:£pbaatsefsstft:
a unit of vital power. The "soul" is at the same these experiences is provided.
time something visible that can hunger and On the contrary view, while the normal
thirst (Ps. 107:5), and also something in- state of man is admittedly a union of soul and
visible that can be distressed (Gen. 42:21), body, the possibility of disembodied conscious
and thus of ten comes to be used for the ego existence is firmly held, both on the analogy
itself (Job 16:4; Ps.124:7). It may be used
at one extreme to denote the principle of life :fadGe°:ishe£Xs£Sftina:ee)asanpduroensiireftb{:sa:£¥::g
in man or animal (Gen. 37:21), and at the passages as Heb.12:23 and Rev. 6:9-11. As
other to speak of a dead body (Num.19: 11).
The #epe5 is then simply the individual in his ::ethbeodwy:r:v:;[etehp;':g;i£:hfentienndf:]qd;:|aapsp]syuctf
totality.-After death the "epe5 ceases to exist, may be said to sleep in death. This is Clear
lingering only as long as tile body is a body from Matt. 27:52; John 11:11; Acts 13:36,
(Job 14:22; c£.11 Kings 23:16-18; Amos etc. See Hogg and Vine, The EpjstJes to the
2:1). The inhabitants of Sheol are never
called "souls."
The NT, although it continues the idea of ;:[{;Sba::I:;all:s:sao?rha|2:!ef::n::ttlioenth:`n;:::¥£::St]l:
the soul (psyche) as the life-principle (Acts Si;:::}i:p:i::;;I:ui;gs;;j§ij:1;t:iiit{:§i;:i':iv::I;n;i::;i:a§¥:g:lit
20: 10; Rev. 8:9) which becomes personified
(Acts 2:43), yet also views it as a spiritual
entity which continues to exist after death.
Thus John says that he saw in his vision "the
souls of those who had been slain," not "those
who had been slain" (Rev. 6:9; cf. 20:4; Continuing consciousness after death seems
Matt.10:28; Luke 21:19; James 1:21; 5:20). to be a necessary (rather than an accidental)
BIBLIOGRAPHY element in Jesus' account of the rich man and
nd¥j,#.£:;#ouRriJt°%7Sin„'cieT#tez¥;£!;typp?7t.Ze6.I"a+ Lazarus, and also in our Lord's promise to the
ROBERT 8. LAURIN

;ay;2:3s;|i|hol:f::ere:r,ec':;r:itabuealr::::I:ir::ge85esit.npp:ii:
SOUL SLEEP. Psychopannychy, the dan-
trine that the soul sleeps between death and
:a:es:iit?::;fre::raiT;Ssearg:esthtahtet?=tesie:ipb::
:isuurrcrfft£[°tn'jshanso?e:nhhe:]e€ys¥nra€icea]]nya::o:he:
sense, due to the paucity of Scripture teaching
on the intermediate state (q.v.), but it may be
io:on:i:1:::i:ai;yit:h:c:o:itiiL:::::s::ivi:;e::h;i:!t:h:ea:E:C;ic::i§j
:£as]t]sedenado:s°ecjr££:.a][nabtehr:ati°o::y.:::earfcn]::ag;
Edward VI, which preceded the Thirty-nine

i::Lc]eAS:tftcE:,f£]a]:T;:fu::adt:Tfit;yasw#t:hFsoar;
that the souls of those who depart hence do
;:ia;::;:I:::::::!ij:;il;yt:;i;i::;::::E:::i::i:iih:a;;:!::rn4i;;:o.lie:
BIBLIOGRAPHY

:'eei:Tnge:f|Ft#E:tya.`!;e.ndsgeL:::lindg.our,,¥lr; o#,:#fRE:%css#nmDRE
dissent from the right belief disclosed to us in
Holy Scripture." pp. 27-83.
EVERETT F. HARRISoN
The case for soul sleep rests principally on
these considerations: (1) Human existence SOVEREIGNTY. See GOD.
demands the unity of soul and body. If the
body ceases to function, so must the soul. SPEAKING IN TONGUES. See SplRIT-
(2) The use of the term "sleep" in Scripture UAL GIFTS.
493 SPIRIT, HOLY

SPIRIT. There is but one Hebrew word, Job 20:3), remembers (Ps. 77:6). Since the
r4¢¢, and one Greek word, p#ewt.¢¢, for spirit NT has a word for mind, which the Hebrew
did not have, there are cognitive functions
::p:cntd:;SL°u°£a£:n¥teursee.naeti:;.:sh:]incfr?or:;; ascribed to the spirit in the OT which are not
Hebrew word used in the OT for wind. The in the New. In both Testaments it is man's
spirit which is the spring of his inmost
aN„?;o:nforth;£n°dt,hepr„e£:n„d'hauv;:;[]?ha:mmp::Z: thoughts and intents, and the child of God
ing only in John 3:8. must be renewed in spirit if he is to serve God
acceptably (Ps. 51:10 ff.; Gal. 5:22; I John
4: 13).
=e!n:;::i::!gh:ecthaof`;tsof:tell,;;leasng?no;#s?alil:t Sometimes the word spirit passes over into
t£:giblets:h::I:r:enudseur:[£yasdftifgi:i:he;dh.es]h: a usage which is common in English, where
it is the synonym for an attitude or a talent.
One may have a jealous spirit (Nun. 5: 14),
:rhficnhd{::iu¥i:t:S£;:aTeea]:i::Sfor]££teh:tr]::;Pie; a haughty spirit (Prov. 16:18), a contrite
spirit (Ps. 34: 18). The builders of the taber-
:ee]¥.he#anm[asyaa]ssoou]pe]ntr8n+[attfgu:£tpeE:oEo:: nacle were given a spirit of wisdom for their
not have a soul. On the other hand, man task (Ex. 28:3). Ludwig Koehler has very
HAS a spirit but it is never said that he is a plausibly explained this mode of expression
spirit. In the NT, however, one may be said from what he calls the meteorological origin
to have a soul (Luke 21 : 19), though in gen- of the word spirit, which referred to the
eral the two Greek equivalents, p7?et#}i¢ and breath or wind, and therefore to the vital force
psyc7®g, are used in a way very similar to that or spirit which enabled men to think and act
of the OT. Psyche- refers to the natural life of Cold Testament Theology, p. 140).
man (Matt. 6:25), the human life which There are times when it is difficult to tell
Christ laid down (Jphn 10:11,15) and even
the life of beasts (Rev. 8:9). irsoeTitnhea:::et:x;a?sE;:h::fet.hse,.w:I:s3ii:ii::;
Where the Bible speaks of the origin o God or to a spirit given man by God, e.g., Ps.
51:11; Rom.1:4.
iuhTarss,Eieritiaith::v:fria,Eleysa;:.rii,tesofitat|i BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Nun. 16:22; Heb. 12:9). Man has no
power to retain his spirit (Eccl. 8:8; Ps.
104:29) and when a man dies his spirit re- ileffF.RT:%ij!fijie.:3ira.t;##f=t:'i#£.I,off?e:ge:!
turns to God who gave it (Eccl.12:7). These DAVID W. KERR
and similar statements have led some theolo-
SPIRIT, HOLY. There are five main areas
§s£:niq::.,P:S££tthsrt::;gc`tyt:t£:C:rpfrr:t.°ihcfrse:st£:hn: in Scripture that yield the material for a sum-
mary of the biblical teaching on the Spirit:
8:hwersthatav:acEe]Sdp]rsfttroisg]; St:ec:::a::::ii£:: the OT, the Synoptics, the Fourth Gospel,
(q.v.), the. view that the spirit as well as the Acts, the Pauline Epistles.
I. THE OLI) TESTAMENT. The OT word for
*:uygferdisir::;::peprr|oycr::tisoa:do:.p3:e:is: Spirit is r#¢¢ which is usually rendered
Creator of both. p"ettt"¢ in the LXX, though other terms are
In the OT the functions of soul and spirit also used. It is the ¢cfjt7;ty, not the nature of
sometimes coincide, especially where mental the Spirit, that is emphasized in the OT; and
or emotional activities are concerned. This is it is the Spirit's activity ;" 7"cl7¢ that is stressed,
although the Spirit is described as an agent
*hciac|sespti||:t=Jlreisesthietsev,i:ibke`ifseout,[ri:;h- in creation (Gen.1 :2; Job 26: 13; Isa. 32: 15),
ever, may hunger or thirst in a physical sense, who sustains what has been created (Ps.
104:30; Job 34:14). This creative agent
which animates the universe also vitalizes the
human organism (Gen. 2:7; Job 33:4). Since
this vitalizing rftafe in man may legitimately
;}±e*PS;i:;gj::6::;§5I;;]is§iio°i:i§i;I(i::e;i§P;;r€i:;:;i be called the spirit of man, the OT feels free
troubled (John 13:21), thinks (Isa. 27:24; to designate the animating principle in human
SPIRIT, HOLY 494

ff.). When Messiah came, all in Israel (Zech.

E::uir84t2)2tghf:;,tahneds£]:r£§p°£:£tmoafndJd°.b27:3; 12:10), and then "all flesh" (Joel 2:28 f.),
would have the Spirit poured out upon it, as
actFeeTa:eTth[r:e:een,CL:;:e£,;hfae;:a:?:s=pP:I:r%C;I:;;.db`: Pentecost proved.

Spirit of wisdom, understanding and. knowl- sp:mi.,schaec,,¥i;;tF.es::hp::i:x.:n:g:in,.oi:s,tit;

edge (Ex. 28:3; 35:3, 31, LXX; Deut. 34:9), James Denney's remark, "To the men who
and gives men rationality (Job 32:8). Un- wrote the NT, and to those for whom they
usual examples of this are Joseph (Gen. wrote, the Spirit was not a doctrine but an
41:38 £.), Moses (Nun.11:17; Ex.18:22 experience. Their watchword was not, believe
£.), the seventy elders (Nun.11:16 f.), and in the Holy Ghost, but receive ye the Holy
Bezaleel (Ex. 31:2 ££.; cf. Ex. 35:3-36:2). Ghost.„
8. The Morol Level. The rdeh of wisdom 11. THE S¥NopTlcs. (I) In our Lord's
is also the Spirit of holiness (Ps.. 51:11; Isa. teaching, only one significant truth concem-
]E8[;hes§]Pri:}t(£inua:£er:i:n2e2d_'3;h):Sfi:gaffancsttstho:
:i:.Iaoc,ef..':£wdi"b(ecg£:tspsi.n|4m3:To,"Fs:.%:I::
Neh. 9:20). Hence, human morality becomes Jesus' ministry signified one thing: he w
a necessity. Naturally, then, the divine rfroh effecting his -miracles through the Spirit
in man is the "lamp" that ``searches" man's
"innermost parts" (Prov. 20:27), thus keep- gi;n:ntdhr::gfa¥o]t[|::onhew]yhasth:as:iFngce
`£gd|,;;tn:ia.::s:%;,:f.f;'r',:e;:,a.Tb;th:.E':.I;Ins::
EeoT;nsp{r¥a:tis.123:]24£)).w#etombuL::,p?i:n:

(Neh. 9:30). In Saul's case this "divine moral

witness against sin" is described as "an evil f::i;::;peE:errfh:e:.::8::et#n:oi:,:i:esi:h:s:tlls::`v::uai
Sip9£:;t),°£be¥aeust°ri?"to(r[:e::eT.h}i::::is:i8e;]c:: important matters call for notice. (2) The
virgin birth (q.v.). The Holy Spirit was the
This is the Spirit that "rules" or "judges" active agent in the miraculous conception o£
within man (Gen. 6:3; Heb.). In the OT a Jesus (Luke I:34 I.; Matt.I:18). "He was
conceived by the Holy Ghost," whereas John
the Baptist had be?n merely ``filled with the
Holy Ghost from his mother's womb" (Luke
1 : 15). The Spirit replaced ``human paternity"
i|§j[:;[c:ti:;::;g{,t:e:i:::,:]E?:}ii}:ii:£]§jec£{(;i|tc:ci;1:7:h:8i;
C. The Rezjgjo"s Level. This is shown most ££tfes8i'rj:I?snci::'i°cnu]o(u¥act:.nc:;]t]Po-£]t)iat[thi:
clearly in the experience of the prophets. The sinlessness is connected (Luke I :35). In Jesus
prophet was "the man that hath the Spirit" Christ one had been born in whom "the sinful
entail" had been broken. (3) In Jesus' bap-
#S.t£:7ircof;h::eF:c:i:v2:'d3&4d),;Torr°du{hzet:i: tism the Spirit was also active (Matt. 3:13-
7: 12; cf. Amos 3:7), and declared God's word 17). Under the symbol of a descending dove
the Spirit came and abode upon Christ (vs.
(#::.i:i:ic:i:I£:r=,.,)2.3ii;::hde:h#3ret|t: 16). The divine Prophet, Priest and King had
been anointed on assuming his office and
:£Pfr:;ei:t£::°*eocymrdaeske:ose#£at'o[ythtehepr8gir:: ministry. This was a permanent abiding of the
the will o£ God. But only to this limited ex-
tent was God present with his chosen people :.p::I:t.rian,incgh`i:iseTfhr:.ug,hhethfati:'f;t::ss:::
bpeyr£:isces:;£rftineN8;i?i:tsraarsedth:ypari°ipFnet']Ssr::i
Ft: Tcacso:e£;E]svh,=genatT ::€ueh:enjo::dpo]:t:: ££:
(Num.11:29). Not yet was the age of the able to do for his church what the Father was
doing for him now (John 1:32 f.). (4) In
::`sr;ta;n?i::p*:t#:eE:aphpe?3r:h3e2nf£.t),Caa::
Ezekiel (11:19 I.; 39:29; c£. 36:26 f.), and i:;:s:st:=3Laat::znea:;:nt:eei?oti:se:sh:`stphi:its#i:
illustrated by the pleroma of the Spirit's gifts ilnpelled him to enter into conflict with un-
received by Messiah (Isa. 11:2), i.e., the clean spirit forces of evil (Mark 1:12). The
Servant of the Lord (Isa. 42:I; 48:16; 61:I second Adam went forth to encounter sin, and
495 SPIRIT, HOLY

by triumphing as Man for men undid the closely connected with Christ's sinlessness.
tragedy involved in the first Adam's defeat. (4) The Holy Spirit has certain functions
(5) The Spirit is seen to be the dynamic by to fulfil in his relations with men, but these
which Christ fulfilled the Father's vocation depend on whether a man is a Christian or a
(Acts 10:38). His own testimony was, "The non-Christian. (a) As to the former the
Spirit's ministry is to teach (16:12-15). He
§T;I.£tT°hffschweasLe°vrfdde£:tuf%:tT:"aftLh::£ety4;it8L guides the believer into spiritual truth as re-
which he taught and preached (Matt. 7:29), vealed in Christ, takes the things of Christ
and cast out demons (12:28). God was visit- and reveals them. Examples of this ministry
ing and redeeming his people. are found in 2:2; 12:16; cf.14:26; I.uke
Ill. JOHN's GospEL. In contrast to the 24:8. The Spirit also fosters the Christian's
Synoptics, the Fourth Gospel confines itself devotional life (c£. John 14:16). He also
principally to the teaching of Christ when re- glorif ies Christ by unfolding step by step the
ferring to the Holy Spirit (I:32 f£. is an ex- significance of Jesus' incarnation, ministry,
ception). (I) The Spirit is the agent who death, resurrection, ascension and present
effects the birth from above by which a man priestly ministry. (b) The Spirit's function in
enters the kingdom of heaven (3:2 ff.). A the non-Christian is described in 16:8-11. He
man cannot regenerate himself, nor can his convicts the unbeliever of the sinfulness of
parents effect this for him (I : 13; 3:6); such not believing on Christ; of righteousness by
is the power of sin. The important factor in reminding him of Jesus' triumph over sin,
the baptismal formula in verse 5 (cf. Matt. through which God now declares sinners right-
28:19) is not water but Spirit (John 3:8), eous, and enables them to be righteous in
since only Spirit can communicate spiritual reality; and of judgment by showing the rela-
life (vs. 6 f.). (2) In 4:14; 7:37-39, Jesus tion between Christ's death and resurrection
teaches that the man regenerated by the Spirit and the judgment of the world. The principal
means by which the Spirit effects this is
:jfifsvft::t:ha:e:pir:t]]i:ganu];ne;Ttahi;t;bh]:ms,pra[:8 through the Christian's witness to the Lord
flowing out from him like a river. As in (15:26 f.; c`f. Acts 2:37; 5:33; 7:54). The
chap. 3, the underlying conviction here is that Spirit witnesses to Christ but media arc re-
this life is not native to man but is "from quired to enable the Spirit to fulfil this mis-
above." The effects of the new birth are the sion, and these are the witness of individual
important matters here. The entrance of the Christians, and the church. To this cnd Christ
life of God into the soul through the Spirit communicates the Spirit still (John 20:21 f.).
transforms and satisfies, and expresses itself IV. ACTs. Naturally the emphasis in Acts
in worship that is sincere and spiritual (4:23). concerning the Spirit is on Christian experi-
This, of course, was not yet possible (7:39). ence, not on Christian doctrine. (1) It is the
Christ had to ascend to the Father before the risen Christ who baptizes the church with the
Spirit could be given. Indications of what the Spirit (1:4, 5, 8; 2:I ff.). Pentecost was the
Spirit's coming would mean in Christian ex- result of what happened on Good Friday and
perience are given in ]esus' farewell discourse Easter, and at the ascension (2:33). (2) And
in chaps. 13-16. (3) The three names used what this could mean to the individual appears
of the Spirit reveal further the Spirit's nature: from the change Pentecost effected in the
Paraclete (14: 16) who would protect, sustain apostles. Personalities were transformed. Bold-
and comfort the disciples in difficulty; Spirit ness (3:11-15), forbearance (2:37-40) and
of truth (14:17; 15:26; 16:13), a name sig- unity (4:32-35), accompanied by new spir-
nificant for the Spirit's nature and for Chris- itual insight (2:22-36), and signal success in
tian ethics; as is also the name, the Holy their witness (2:37-47), showed that "the
Spirit (14:26), holiness being the other fun-
promise of the Father" had been fulfilled.
damental element in the Spirit's nature. This (3) In accordance with the Lord's teaching
recalls the significance of Jesus' temptation for on the Spirit in the Fourth Gospel, the Book
the nature of the Spirit who laid the compul- of Acts shows the Spirit fulfilling his dual
sion upon Christ to engage in conflict with mission among Christians and non-Christians.
the evil one: it signified that the Spirit with (a) As to his ministry among Christians he
whom Christ had been baptized was the Holy was the Paraclete who sustained the church
Spirit. Cf. also the virgin birth which is so in persecution (4:8 ff.), strengthened it for
SPIRIT, HOLY 496

i|(:4a:ai'3y5£,:Fe;:;:,i!;:'(:p:f,:i!*fF:f.I:? 6:17; Gal. 4:6; Ron. 8:14 ff.). That is why

:±aEa:gr=,da6E=::Eauk,£cochues.;pift&nri
S3£?.o£Ta:=yt i= Poet E°p]iyy Sdpe¥ali£:a¥:
;,i¥(86i62;T:!eus,idfi`!,:s,Eg!es::£:fi¥.b:or:

ie;s:;*ir::i;eo:y§:p:¥+¥£:e::§y¥ng=Se:i;g'e¥a;r§et:::
;:i:a.Ii:::iiin::i:¥gr¥.igjc:hli`il:ii!£:
one of the persons in the Godhead (11 Cor.
13:14; cf. Matt. 28:19). And the personal
::::f?:::iigm!i:n;.:!f:T¥nr::jp:¥;.:a:9o?5.r;:¥i
(6: 1-6). Alas, reality tends to become symbol

g::rt;,:2;:Eei!?rsai¥:infiiygg:,;3,;:gi£,lie:;i.
ner in which he reveals the Father's will (I
Eh,ins,:i:,rslto¥:e:I;tg:|#:,or¥¥u::i?:(::;.:hi: Cor. 2: 10-12), teaches the Christian (vs. 13),
and blesses the Christian's witness (vs. 4; I
Thess.I:5). (4) The nature of the Spirit is
:%`eoan#ednie:nrt:;iefa#?s:;fi:si=:g:?En::::
was formed in Antioch, and through it the
if:negop!;::T::f;?'asgf:I:i,:nnifwn':I.=T:t;:vi:i
which enables sin to gain a foothold within
;I:,;rz',tn#she:aeb;:I.eteokthTnpd:F¥aan:I::nosrf!;:e,v3:n!
£:£e::rristtja:;I:o£Sdtehaeths€i:t£Yet:.eF:?i]::etht:

i°o¥m:I:iyfy"#eev::e::eo£S:itt#.th4r:o3u°g)i
the Spirit (Ron. 8: 13) brings the tyrannical
i:;ii,:e:a;:soil.iii:lE#h:(:?::gT;c'::,i:;:,:i¥iicfjj,ti
wind and fire truly proclaimed God's presence aeufgs°iisfet°c£:s::£{f:]e2f-£]e%:Fdcierfsrt?:
death and resurrection (cf. 6:9 f. with 6: 1-8,
;Taft£:dchfracth;ht;:esdj;r¥b:t;:nw°,ft£°:n¥:vsfdp::i 11; Phil. 3 : 10 £.). Then it is that "the harvest
Christians and the whole church. The Spirit's of the Spirit" (Gal. 5:22) begins to appear,
and the Spirit's guidance and witness become
#t]Scha;derep::;rs fn(She:in:np:=Ufi:ncg[:Test: clear (Ron. 8: 14-17). A moral transformation
is effected (11 Cor. 3:18), and through the

:§¥::i:1;'ft:e:tins::?t;eT{Si*V:e2S:;;);t:hT;r:£[3iE Shpefrfft]e¥h]£:::rsa£::::Etef§epefr:t3,T#:in:°t8:„5a_f8t;:
V. PAul.'s EplsTI.Es. So rich is Paul's teach- and to become "servants of righteousness"

S!ii):££;:;ti(e:)£nAcSo£=i:acrt}::P*tatsh]Sti:P§;[£Sr£:%
gg,a:i?.erthp6a:i|;I:a::e::uaat|,n:.:,lee:::`fhoEfsi::in:es::,::
i:e::t:y?,I?.tit;;:eEgtF:e:sceto:Te¥iit:,ofohf:rht;s`::tvs;is;
guh;r;::fs:::pn|g:t::,I:s.1:o:`¥i:`n:gsal::£:C:h'r|::eo(Eoa.:;
Ghost (Gal. 5: 16), and its characteristics are i?3h;£]bh3;:I:;2|]Sfr;£f:s4:([[5.)do::][]°2TS#])(Eapnha
her very origin (I Cor. 12: 13), are due to the
thfr£::]Saun]t(°€ai?e5:2Pir)i:'Svichti:i?hew;;|*n£:: awn£::t;airfsptreasf,Pdcees£:£thtehech:rpc;::t(;3r°puaguhi
never been able to do the Spirit now accom-
also connects the Spirit and baptism. Baptism
1;=3]`;:r£Ferifsst:Sh:e::r£'evbeur?sfa:;:ddreeastuhn::tis::;
!;'esoh:ee;rl:I:t:7£6¥]t¢i:)is(t#n:th£8o|,:;n4g:;:%dne];€'„it:ii
Spirit of Christ" (8:9; c£.11 Col. 3: 17; I Cor. and resurrection to newness of life which the
497 SPIRITUAL GIFT`S

Eapeds:te°f±£P:ritef¥;V:I:oesus(Rfm:u:)-i);
;ig:!i![i;f:rs,2¥af?;#ir:nfa:::!:,Fg:
gET=Tvne-Ea:iva¥g:;:,-Ttfr±pf::atl?a:tisca:n:
Spirit acts and auks.
-CORAPHY
TE#EREgrffgrRE#rfurmsgivFTg#gRE
JAMES G. S. S. THOMsON
;Efj:£':;£Eii!;j¥io,h:;:n:iiral¥:#ii[,:
SPIRITS IN PRISON. The phrase occurs

Ei:::.n::s`o9ieanhdavheash:]rd°Vika:dthc:nrs;feerrea:i: ;::n:e¥mTh¥x;§j;,I::ch:;#Eth:;i;;¥#¥a;;fofi¥±¥

;iEisi;:id::;h:a:iiji!io:d::tsiidti!jo:fii:n:!¥n;;
exeii':]nitpe?Ctc£]:[Tinc£]Su¥:sS°frveth:ff°tster(I)

iiin;i:d#i;i:d;O;:.'ig:;ji:¥¥:iii;:ji:¥¥i:tr;i; "Working of miracles" (I Cbr. 12: 10, 28-29).

£:ri:i|':t:lloLsedofo:,aTeem:=tf,especiallyin :#a:Les'A;ststhdeyfnJiej?n.gef:frsdz."#e`s.:%=j
ch¥sTeto=heind::: 3:=£en ahi:re;=h,Eg anbz :#L::tsev(£!:S6PEfr.i,ts];;nig:ie]P.e):]£#£s°fm#:i¥
:i::.n;c:;on6Twkeitnh:r.:iT.plzvteofin#.n.cop:i: :#i.nn#::ksin;i,oh`¥iT;rs;:'E::lit:;:"g'::.i:a::;

i¥#ye:.pg?.¥±?i:ot.::idcebe:rn:i;T::,::-n.i:It:acn: ge:dlfa°(¥::trsa¥da:TTfy::hha2vo::srl%f;Sl)¥eci::u:Its:h:,gmth:£]:

:anc££8trya:foc::rat;;::euda8be;set:#::L£?sots:rijtfur£:
(e.g., Heb. 9:27). :iircdse:ds]t£:o]rs)2ii::an:dfr#::i]t¥:st:;ape:tEe:r:i
There is much to commend the view that good news he preached and his right to pro-
the spirits are the angels who sinned in the claim it (Ron.15:18 f£.).
time of Noah (Gen. 6:I-5). Not only are (2) "Gifts of healing" (I Cbr. 12:9, 28,
30), as already suggested, resembled "working
good angels called spirits (Heb. I:14), but of miracles" (powers). Witness the ministry
demons also (Luke 10:20). Vvhereas the word
of our Lord (Matt. 4:23 f.), of the Twelve
?t:t:n.js,i:rdh`zmaa:aTeraad,t:,Tst:pappr::y.i::eti: (Matt. 10:I), and of the Seventy (Luke
evil spirits (11 Pet. 2:4; Jude 6). To these
Christ proclaimed his triumph. The context i`noe:n8, fi2. :`hGeift:h::cEeaali?eg." Fee::e.a:s? ZrAocm;
5:15 f.; c£. also James 5:14 I.). "Gifts"
appears to support this (I Pet. 3:22).
mBLlcoRAPHy (plural) indicates the great variety both of the
sicknesses healed and the means used in the
#F€£.pg„F#[¥:#2F##edfroof,P#esppal96£oki
EVEREIT F. HARRISoN
:n!';¥a;.inft:e=!!f=?a!ieii:r!#:i;o:;:i
SPIRITUAL GIFTS. The term charjsouto ings of the Church Fathers prove that "the

::`n:uonfeFeaa,:ien,g,si'ewae±es,e.i:crc±se,f*FS?nee:h.::cn?
;£:::n:::`nbgy;f.tps;a2ivae:fp"tass£;:Is,;,i:,.:f,g'if:;:
grace (Ron. 5: 15; 6:23); a gift enabling the
Christian to perform his service in the church ;!'::£h';;E:I:,Slob:;tng;*et:yo]£:hti:eE:;t[::Ptfacvo:gnn±h:
SPIRITUAL GIFTS 498

had liberty to exercise it. In addition to admin-

istration, practical matters in the conduct of
±ri:£;is:?:£h::o:r±£asepe:a:::Uh¥::I;¥£e:aite:]tyhtha¥:
#:£Vke£:dthoefga££f]tmt:Stsb:a:tgh;efrte£:te°a]:gripude; !o:I:I:£g3]t;0:I::de)]P:eedye::;da;I::%i°L=iL¥¥dwfo:ud]d::=
NT the nature and place of faith, the expected to legislate.
sign i8::n¥: of suffering in God's economy, (5) Probably "the gift of faith" (I Cor.
the importance of the sub{onscious and the
nature of its influence upon the body, the i2h:i:is*:rue]dc]:]seso]yp:ei:tce]:dt:dt£:1;:gc:Fc:|8#ft:
relations between ``gifts of healings" and med-
ical science (a doctor was numbered among ::da[deg:;t]s°P::::d°fn:hfuerac]Fyurcs?:en¥£:enspa=
Paul's traveling companions!), have not re- believers in their faith, and convince the un-
believers of the authenticity of the church's
message. The Spirit's gift of faith could effect

i§yL:h:i:ae]nfis;#:i)t:itL¥:e;niq!::;f:eh;i:±a}£t;5:Pa)::1:i g:£|g:;grsthsf8ifa(s¥::t.pe]r7=::ti:i)..'rfune€ekfe;::
faith. spiritual gifts, then, had special reference to
(3) The gift of "helps" (I Cor. 12:28).
;hheysTcr:]ct]£:,I,_affncgtso:£±h[:e;Er:,rc£Lsd]£::aetrtfe_
ness of their worship and conduct.

geef:p::h:fls:,oaiopnx;ii:ai;;;:t:|eai!f:1:,:;:datu:::apE:tis con¥:rteh:a££dne;:t;fo:h:heg£;tsord°fofth6o€.P¥;:
own words, "It is more blessed to give than to
receive." Paul supports this exhortation from i::etg::eg?ttt:y£:re]a:::ei:[Pe:rt::;etrhti:I::s:
spiritual gifts. In origin and nature they were

:h:evoe:.Ea:::e:n:,:!i:a:.:fsia:r:I:h::fe::rihaoieh:i;ji ::ae{[;;s¥:oa:n:[e:m¥;ig];;:d;#Tet::w:i::i£]n£:eel:s£::t¥t=
word, Paul gives pride of place to the grace
:::°iwmeis:?bitehethsa:ir:ie`°:f;Fcies:fin:;d?I.::i;:
]£:tess::::£e£££tth:fo8f°£::I::ednutty°rofma:;c:Z
;i:1:gc¥:stt]]:e|:r:t].:aai;sg:;"(:(a;t:c;:etga:n2i:8)=#p:
may have originated in this gift of `thelps." plied to NT personalities other than the
The deacon was one who ministered to the
needy (Acts 6:1). =aTue:v:LeesgTf:£ao]£,yafstT:suh];ps:hh£:ghh]tyhedffioE;
Spirit had conferred upon him that on occa-
i2{£3),Tho: gift „:£]e::8°Zfr:mien:S2': 8;: Crir:
church's organization was still fluid. Official
offices had not been established, nor were duly
appointed officials yet ruling the churches. It :eo::een:;eE:¥ts:h:±pr;;::::;f]e::;t:h:eEth::;nas§a:1::jtLL:t;:£LC;:;:
was necessary, therefore, that certain members
should receive and exercise the gif t of ruling or
ri::;ret§;tt:;::1:e;:?(]z§:eslrt6h:2:j!s*ig:::iua:t:t£?el:
i:fvte:i:gdt?aeki=a'ea£S:::bo'rs°ofu:ed]£:|ev:c.eTnfa
wise judgment in directing church affairs.

Furl:£ga:]ny'c°hfu::[rsaeffat]P:S£;:tu]:fgid:n¥oa:: ii;eeox:e|:.!|:S|:;9h;;:£e:||e;t!£|:I:;:a:;Er¥ea:I::i:|¥y:e:I;s:
identified so closely with certain individuals Paul's apostleship was.to be fulfilled among
Gentiles; Peter's ministry of the word was to

ii:]t:°jhee:::q]cii:e:Lfi:¥dogf'::i:tiei:na:]i::ih:e¥¥c]¥]L:b±:_
;;fj:x:ej§]L:St::::::js;t¥#f::%a€:t:::e::Ef.p,¥:a::;j[
;£fnng,°fh:hweese:,ri:tt£;nasc°a:k::#]?ag€itt|eatb:Sin:
Christians had received the gift of ruling, and ipf:;:`f:::::on°fwaasdiEfunbetiegsrsacceon°clei::ih:orftby:
499 SPIRITUAL GIFTS

the most important so far as the ministry of

the word was concerned, but we shall see

E|:.::onfut:un:i::s.p;i::et`:ssala:;£:I:lEo:n:csiiers:h(nE?!: i:;;:±ch:nc:gi:i;a::;:;c#]:;p;:£e;i:I:t!ahg;;;°;i;§i§r;ij
2:20), the first ministering in the word to to recognize the truth or falsity of their utter-
the church, the latter preaching the word ances. This was not natural insight or shrewd
to non-Christians. Since, then, the gift of judgment but a supernatural gift. Paul de-
apostleship was spiritual, so also was the au- scribes this spiritual gift as a "discerning Of

::::jt:¥e°:ftthheeaH#es;i::traenmda;nneevderthfc£:e: g|yersepv£:i;St.£';nThmea£:Ctth¥atapt±ear:rn°cpeheotfs%i::
official in the sense that one could communi- prophets almost inevitable; while, therefore,
cate it to others of his own volition. The au-
thority exercised by the apostles was exercised spya£:]gsurt8heedyhfe:::V:::e:£te]te°ss:est:£sepr:::Pha:;
democratically, not autocratically (Acts 15 :6, things (I Thess. 5:20 f.). The gift of discern-
22). They were careful to include "the elders"
and "brethren" when substantiating the valid- .in.:ii3:|isepvieri:sd:::::nae,:se5:t.i:I;enoniyei:i:
ity of the directives they were issuing to the
church. Even when Paul was asked to legislate :ra?in:Eetot=e,inswp?reendtaonsj;t;ierbayntreJ:loa:Foent
for the churches he had founded his authority (I Cbr. 14:29).
(9) Clearly related to, but carefully dis-
I::dn€i 8;Sr.a¥S]t;e)S.hip but a word from the tinguished from the gif t of prophecy is the
`]`tauf;s:I;:I?:::(:5ta£:s.ca:]n:u¥eexrft%t]|):n]=ore:%e:fc:ep.:I: gift of teaching (I Cor.12:28 f.; Ron.12:7).
The prophet was a preacher of the word; the
teacher explained what the prophet pro-
prophecy has already been differentiated from claimed, reduced it to statements of doctrine,
and applied-it to the situation in which the
::ieg:a;::fhfac¥Set::ih*a::xtehr:£sgcrd°.u|nnda°:e;hs: church lived and witnessed. The teacher
Moses' desire (Nun. I I :29) had been realized would offer systematic instruction (11 Tim.
in the experience of the church as a wJcoze 2:2) to the local churches.
(Acts 2:17 f.; 19:6; I Cor.11:4 f.), but (10) Next comes the gift of exhortation
some individuals seem to have been specially (Rom.12:8). The possessor of this gift would
endowed with this grace (Acts 11:28; 15:32; fulfil a ministry closely allied with that of the
21:9 f.). These prophets in the NT church Christian prophet and teacher. The difference
seem often to have been itinc.rant preachers. between them would be found in the more
Moving from church to church they built up personal approach of the former. If his exhor-
believers in the faith by teaching the word. tations were to succeed they would have to
Their ministry would probably be character- be given in the persuasive power of love,
ized by spontaneity and power, since it seems understanding and syinpathy. His aim would
be to win Christians to a higher way of life
go.ta.v;:6i,n2'*gfs.3:a|kin,ghe:eyp:es:::aetsi,oE.# and to a deeper self-dedication to Christ. The
ever, the prophet's utterances were clearly Spirit, therefore, who bestowed the gift of
understood compared with the utterances in exhortation (q.vJ would with the gift com-
tongues. On occasion God would make his will municate spiritual persuasiveness and win-
known through the prophet (Acts 13:I ff.), someness.
or a future event would be foretold (Acts (11) The gift of speaking the word of
11:28; 21:10 f.); but the prophet's special wisdom (I Cor. 12:8) was also an important
gift was the edification, exhortation, consola- part of the Spirit's endowment so far as the
tion and instruction of the local churches Christian community was concerned. This gift
(I Cor. 14). In the sub-apostolic period the would communicate ability to receive and ex-
plain "the deep things of God" (Ron. 11 : 33).
Forc°ap]he:i::s::i, Sj:: :ate dparyecewdaesncneot°Vfearr tohf: In God's dealings with men much is myste-
rious, and the ordinary Christian is often in

::ni:±et:)S#!i;:::£r§)!t::ihyef:#:Sfd:htt::etfiefy]?ha: :£e::t£°ofn:awn°drdt£:ai¥£]nt}]rt°t:d]£bgyhtt:ep°snp]+ri:
SPIRITUALISM, SPIRITISM 500

chards.i®ato for the edification of the church,

the formation of Christian character, and the
::v::]£,£t]thteh£;o:infosftrywfised;`£.?,°uBgehcatuh£:Flit:
strong sense o£ revelation or insight implied in service of the community. The reception of a

eEae!.#e;:gsei¥:i:f#':sf##;is,t?:oo;pd:i:t: :i¥n[i:S;::]o.:?]':;]i:g:eve,¥:°W¥so¥:¥iy=a;°.:;ii:
others.

::hdercahr::ii :n¥,%:[agnienTh°£:]yw::::I long .ngTem:::,eess,pe::cc£::at:iftsso(ioen¥:;,re:eao`i

word that the Christian teacher would ordi- order that would prevent their indiscriminate
narily speak. Of course, this mental activity

re::|€dn°;h¥neEt:re!yp£::a]£::idagrpv.:ntk¥o'£ig.
!n¥:i?¥yi=i::S::t?h:ah¥::ii;£dia:i:i:V§:ri::
idfe:£buc:a:srstfan::i:£3'n.inBsigth:'£n::atpa:igh;;n¥
out that both "the word of wisdom" and "the
word of knowledge" are given "through" or
"according to" the Spirit, the emphasis is on
the rece|)tion of the word, not on its interpre-
tation.
:;;;i,F;:¥rs¥|::iiad¥,i;::;;:±:ji:I;n:¥i:i
Cor. 13), and practical (I Cor. 14).
tr`:!i#:i:,:nr,ts3#e::;£`fe's:£::fi:i:gfg: The problem was where to strike the bal-

::;einFg:ftsgrewa£::L¥:£e]3ytofnexoav[:I:;:potf¥c;::
which grew out of them. That led inevitably
Inf!i;;:(:,sfnf::?::,±k;egftis?n:eintegni,]Efe; to institutional ecclesiasticism, and the in-
evitable corresponding loss of the church's
awareness of the Spirit's presence and experi-
ence of the Spirit's power.
BIBIIcormH¥
;ij;::I;Ct:£:r!:i¥gg::o;::=a::e£]e(jv;:#ii{Ve;;£ftii
±Lnh:;*¥¥]ar#sfpL„fcoorxp„ryth#sztfc*5r:n„"¥gE:
:::uTt:::Tv:se.Ill:::5Setf:nt::uoe£Ln;t::I;,%# JAMES G. S. S. THOMsoN

SPIRITUALISM, SPIRITISM. The dac-

i?I::ic;fajt:;nnt:e;:i:,:,:::t;:tkieh:ei;gn¥:;fng::
intermittently by the church. =1:ea:fd:p::ilig;:ui=::c:hf':c.hm:::i£:=l:;
(14) Obviously, then, the gift o£ "interpre- ccoE:::theddetnhi::u.ghhe#i,T=s:,.¥ie::i:'L=a:is:
tation of tongues" (I Cor.12:10, 30) was a

:is}ue::e;Cfti#geanrnos:t£¥£euptr:¥e:att`'o:I:F°t{°S:::]§%:i
Moses). Christian Spiritualists hold that bib-
lical prophets were mediums, Jesus the great-
est. But (1) mediums are controlled by spirits;
iii;ii!tli¥%ar:¥,:t;::i;;::nit:;t;;::;ioi;I:y;¥i;:
would imply giving meaning to unmeaning-
ful ecstatic ejaculations as an art critic inter- ;i:r]#a;[P:i|!,2;;r(efid`:n:I:::ii[[;:£=etiE:;:gfa;i
Spiritualism offers no evidence of immortality,
prets a play, a symphony, or a canvas to the
though it might be possible to draw the con-
:::nite£#enda::°:8|rtah]ekL°on£]ueed-;:te(I::t]e3r)?'d clusion that there is a temporary continuance
In instructing Christians on the exercise of after death followed by a slow disintegration
these gifts Paul is concerned to stress their of personality.
Most "messages" from spirits arise, prob-
practical nature. The Spirit bestows his
501 STATE

ably, from the depths of the unconscious: that Christ's death was a sacrifice, and that it
extra-sensory powers of the mind seem also to cleanses men from sin.
be involved. Sometimes the presence of the LEON MORRIS
dead seems convincing but the evidence is
valueless; all Spiritualists admit widespread STATE. Modern interest in democratic
impersonation and heartless fraud (e.g., Lord forms of government, the rise of new totali-
Dowding, Lychgate, Rider, London, 1945). tarian powers, and recent infatuation with
The medium Mrs. Blanche Cooler communi- programs for world government are provoking
cated with Cordon Davies, supposedly killed new inquiries into the biblical view of the
in battle. His voice was imitated, unusual fea- state.
tures of a house were described, the future
was foreseen, statements, unknown to sitters, Ed?::aa:'Smci::tis;'&ifsmcT:n:a¥ass.SPB£:;tiTca:i
were verified. But it transpired that Davies theology recognizes the state as a divine order
was alive and had no interest in Spiritualism of preservation whereby the outward organiza-
(Sac. Psychical Res., Proc., 1925, 35, 560). tion of fallen life is maintained. The state is
The danger of impersonation, even in proph- an authority divinely ordained (Ron.13: I)
ets, is recognized in the NT and a test pre- to promote justice and to preclude fallen man's
scribed (I Tim. 4: I). All Spiritualist writers decline to social chaos. Civil government is
consulted misunderstand the test, ignore it, or therefore not autonomous nor devoid of divine
advance reasons for not applying it. responsibility; all powers are accountable to
Spiritualism Cos necromancy ol witchcr.ftft) God revealed in Christ (John 19:20 f.; Matt.
is uniformly condemned in the Bible. Saul's 28:18; Col.I:16). The state is to approve
crowning sin was the consultation of a witch what is good, to rel)uke and punish what is
(I Sam. 28); only those who'desert God need evil.
solace from the dead (Isa. 8: 19); necromancy The Middle Ages based the state on the
is a lust Of the flesh (Gal. 5:20) and is de- church, thereby giving perverse and sinful
serving of hell (Rev. 22:15). empires a divine )status. The Reformation,
ROBERT E. D. CLARK attempting a broad return to the NT, insisted
that church and state are distinct spheres. But
SPRINKLE, SPRINKLING. The idea of its doctrine of the state church halted short of
sprinkling is conveyed in the OT by the verbs separation of church and state championed by
z6raq ("to hurl in a body" as dust in handfuls, founding fathers of the United States, Twen-
Job 2:12 or blood from a bowl, Ex. 24:8), tieth century Fascism, Nazism and Commu-
and 7®6z¢ ("sprinkle .with the finger" Lev. nism, extending the Renaissance doctrine of
4:17), and in the NT by rha7®t;z6 (once the autonomy of the state, divorced the state
groschysjs). The blood in sacrifice was care- entirely from divine responsibility.
fully collected when the animal was slain and While the Bible affirms that the state is a
was poured or dashed against the base of the power divinely established because of sin to
altar (Lev. I :5; 3:2, etc.). On other occasions promote external justice by outer constraints,
it was sprinkled with the finger, e.g., on it recognizes also that the state, vulnerable to
Aaron's garments (Ex. 29:21); before the veil sin, may itself gravitate to the borderline of
(Lev. 4:6); on the man being cleansed from the demonic. The state moves between the
his leprosy (Lev.14:7). Sometimes sprinkling poles of the God-state (Ron. 13) and the
with water is mentioned, as in the cleansing Beast-state (Rev. 13). Christ's promised judg-
of the Levites (Nun. 8:7), or the use of "the ment of the nations is a reminder that the
difference between states, however great, is
i:::rk]fe°dr£.m#%i:y",e(h¥:amh.»]]?n:]t3he2°p)u.r]3;:n£; nonetheless relative; all governments are prone
of the leper (Lev.14:16). From such rites to ordain sinful laws and to interfere with
the idea of sprinkling came to be used meta- legitimate freedoms.
phorically in the sense of ``cleansing," as in Scripture affirms that both the state and its
Ezek. 36:25, "I will sprinkle clean water upon
you, and ye shall be clean." In the NT there :1:I,:::Swahrie.hu::eerng,of;Eo;ot,hh:::,eedr.ifiseaFdq
are references to the sprinkling in the sacri- liever is to be subject to the state not merely
fices. In I Pet. 1:2 the "sprinkling of the by way of resignation, but is bound by con-
blood of Jesus Christ" is at once a reminder science to support it (Rom.13:5 f£.). But the
STATUTH 5 02

doctrine of the omnipotent state is excluded; 24:9). It may concern all the people (Deut.
the state must not frustrate the obedience 4:I) or only a special group such as the
priests (Lev. 6:18; 7:36).oswALD T. ALLIS
E::os:i::n:oth¥d;ri¥t::r?pep:toyhi:fit:!ek5:g:
;I:.(:.#gs,.2:2beTethaepops:;ecs|a`:sai,sit.ef.T'ir: STEWARDSHIP. Stewardship (o3konot";a)
is a compound word in the Greek, meaning
gospel (Acts 4:19; 5:29).
Oscar Cullmann's attempt to justify the
existence and authority of the state exclusively
|hf.maa::i::,een: o,rhea i::±:i!. F:aH:r:
steward (ojko"o"os, ``law of the house") or
an overseer (epitropos). The idea has its roots
:endetieptgvr:unt:£u°£pfispoavr:ic£Pdaet£:ni:C££Set:: in the institution of slavery. The master ap-
pointed a slave to administer his household
which might include the teaching and disci-
;::e{;::::cC:jr:I;)![§::Ltg:ofra:ite:r:f§:£p:ra§s::en;n;;rs:o¥yfi:e)i plining of the members of the house, especially
other slaves and the children. A classic exam-
theory seems to allow to the state only an
unspiritual role previous to Christ's resurrec-
E]oeus:S(t*nr;£9t£:°4:6)°.f#:epohrd££:aryp°£tiE:ar::
tion. Jesus' admonition to "render unto Cae-
stewardship is found in several passages in the
sar" (Luke 20:25), however, was not predi-
NT, notably the story of the unjust steward
cated on an assumption that such obligation
(Luke 16:I-8; c£. Matt. 20:8;,Luke 12:42).
is mandatory only on the basis of the state's
The guardian of a minor child could also 'be
called a steward (Ofko"omos) (Gal. 4:3). This
is a most common use in the papyri (MM).
:::;::LIpgaet::a:s:::#h!ShLt:te:¥P£;1:t:cta¥b=mp:T::dcwa:i A public official could be called a steward
(ojkocot"os) (Ron. 16:23) or an overseer
(epitropos) (Luke 8:3).
i:::O±r:is]::d:ttr:::v;:h:?i¥:tn::I:f:O;I;:isec¥t:s::o:ri¥: The idea that man is a steward of God in
his relation to the world and his own life is
inherent in the creation story (Gen. I-3) in
which he is appointed lord of all things except
:en::;e::I:t;h:::¥)t:Fe:ein;:O)¥:eti:i:fe::¥d::;s.)nfo;:Ira:::::i:: himself . In the NT, the word, when not used
Paul's classic passage on civil obedience was in its ordinary sense, refers to the administra-
addressed to believers at the heart of the
pagan world empire of his day. :i°en;;s=h]e.g££yts££etsfiye,S¥tce£;I:¥dphr:;Ch::;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
refer to God's provision for the Christian age
ChK£;) a:gthT'froA,ga.#e 8%S?nco?%.e RE fesi#e#; (Eph.1:10; 3:9), the context implying that
an--Heing, A 'Good and a Bad Goi7emment; Adol£
el)er, CThw-r'c7. a%d State a.1 t7.e E4woz}ean Cowtfroe%t. this plan includes the entnistment of the
CARL F. H. HENRY
g:Spet;=.es;:¥e7;t°Ep¥:n3:2T8oi:e]a:2£;;e]Xpt]:i:
4: 1-2; Titus 1 :7. Stewardship is broadened to
STATUTE. The word a|)plies to that
which is enacted or established and ordained, include all Christians and all the gracious gifts
e.g., statute law. It occurs only in the OT of God in I Pet. 4: 10. An unusual use of the
where it usually represents two words derived word is found in I Tim. 1 :4, where it seems

:rn°a:t.,?::°:s=:::info:`ttofrce:tue£:iiyfn]5:riBeu°t: t°h::sft::nt°£nthtehedfrsec:E¥n:fafna€tht.ra#:gre°qfu:rhe:
ment of stewards of God, as well as of stew-
(29 times) and in Ps.119 (22 times). It is
ards of men, is faithfulness, i.e., administration
frequently used in connection with other
of trust according to directions (I Cor. 4:2).
words: "commandments . . . statutes . . . laws"
The modem emphasis on the stewardship
(Gen. 26:5); "statute...ordinance" (Ex.
15:25); "statutes . . . judgments" (Deut. 5: 1);
"commandments . . . testimonies . . . statutes" (I #:::Sstfh°:ts'trehfteh::t:;nTsayprtfe=£j°s:eb;Ca:ie.
Chron. 29 : 19). The permanence of the statute
is sometimes emphasized as "a statute forever"
:E£Ef;sthhaot]eof]£t£:eago¥]][aa:dh££:cLuod::yt.heuse
FREI) L. FISHER
(Ex. 30:21), "a perpetual statute" (Lev.
5 03 STOICS

STIGMATA. Stigmata, as a phenomenon such resignation and, therefore, are to be sup-

of mysticism, are reputed to be the reproduc- pressed.
tion in the body of the wounds of Christ's Many parallels to Stoic thought have been
passion. They occur with varying intensity observed in the Apocrypha (Sirach, IV Macca-
from actual wounds which bleed to faint red bees, Wisdom o£ Solomon, etc.), the Wisdom
marks beneath the skin. The first well known
case is that o£ St. Francis o£ Assisi in 1226.
It is claimed that many witnesses saw the :,:ae:I;pt;;:aeu::.art:h:e,g|!:e!iig:u:cF:f,::i;e5::!:
wounds both before and after his death, and`
that the likeness of nails, formed of his flesh, :i:'nyfelcdombFo:a:;bi:doifvitdhj:15:ngandexpres-
protmded from them. Pope Benedict XII in- Major doctrinal likenesses suggested be-
stituted a feast (Sept. 17) in honor of the tween Paul and the Stoics are the Logos as a
stigmata. Since the time o£ Francis there have principle of reason pervading all, a universal
been many examples of the phenomenon. gospel, submission or faith as the criterion for
Sometimes the appearance has lasted through right religious adjustment, and the divine pre-
many years to the end of life. Sometimes it destination of all things.
has occurred periodically on definite days of The differences between Stoicism and the
the week or year. The subjects, who have not NT are, however, far more significant than
all belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, the likenesses. Stoicism is pantheistic, whereas
have with two exceptions been women and the whole of the NT is based on the essential
othemess of God and man. Stoic fatalism, in
E:svoerdue::.a]]¥ah£:rap#:£ros:osnh]stt+r%eofpnfy:,9:;
Phe7®ot#e"¢ of Mystjcjsm, London,1951) sug-
gests that the signs, which vary according to ¥h::::b#j]egen::::rrle%od;f]:di::;;igLrsoFv:!he:I::dri:
the suggestibility of the subject, are the result Stoics were optimistic about man's capacity in
of a patholngical condition, and need not and of himself to attain the good life; basic tb
have any supernatural character. This does not Paul's thought was his radical view of man's
imply fraud nor cast doubt upon the religious
uprightness of the subjects.
RICHARD J. COATES i?orc¥:dgku:#£;a;set::i+eES:::ei:v:inL¥:tg:rsac::pCL|Ee:
STOICS. The word is derived from stofl,
meaning colonnade or colonnaded porch, from ::f:pt:O:Itch:e¥:ai:#:::|Fetl:y=:ath]v;[vn:dfe:£O:¥,::)£{
which the Stoic philosophers taught in ancient passionless existence of the ideal Stoic aimed
Athens. Stoicism was founded by Zeno, to crush down all emotional reaction. For Paul
around 308 B.a. and was first systematized and the whole of the NT, however, God
into a total world view by Chrysippus (d. created the whole man. The whole man as

a::tii:ngcoa:,diE:`s:'q.i:s:tiser:Fo::i,ona:`ennaotturte;
:t::SS::Cc.:)hmee];;a],:::c]];alteid::;a:r][°::i::¥npsri°j:i+=s be annihilated, but are to be brought into
times the most famous of its leaders were
proper focus.
Seneca (b. 4 B.c., d. A.D. 65 -an almost exact The only direct NT reference to Stoics
contemporary of Paul), Epictetus (d. A.I). occurs in Acts 17:18, which notes that on
Ilo) and Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Mars Hill Paul addressed himself to Epicure-
ans and Stoic philosophers, some of whom
maln:paan:ih:,iss,ticp,faansFs;onant3eif::iic:a?eeldobgcdis (the Epicureans?) mocked him, and others
to be "fragments of the divine force." A
(the Stoic?) did not. Heb. 4:121ikewise re-
world-reason or "logos" pervades this universal calls a hymn of Cleanthes and the wording o£
being, in which all that happens works itself Heb. 2: 10 is similar to that prevalent in Stoic
out according to intemal necessity, It is futile, writings. An unsubstantiated tradition in the
therefore, to resist the inevitable. By "right
reason" the wise man can discover his proper
%hhr:Sr:£a%e:t:::husnta:ers :i:t ::aech:;°:C opfh£}is:
place in the universe and make such adjust- apostle Paul, became a Christian.
ments as are necessary in submitting to this BIBLIOGRAPHY
all-determining world order. Passions hinder F. Jackson and K. I.ake, Beg;%n;~gs of C7erisfhanjty,
STONE 504

;:PB:.£3££8*t,E.„yt..trELdaL¥ERseEn'ec¥a¥,',PF#i„8#6„4s; :?adrritehsatthteriE:e::;aE.e|.F=:ftemeent:iE::i:atllty6
pp. 270-331.
KENNETH S. KANTZER S(inwiaF£]SBT7ea=£|gu£::1;::;£RoS=re:%]:]P7?Sfi:::

STONE. See RocK.

:;;i).folrnpro:t::"p=s,ai:tse,rai,I,yp::o:;ssta:|esTn-
STRANGER. The Hebrew word gGr (syn-
onym of f654g) designated a non-Israelite who :ori:fi::aadts::ts{:F.crfe:tst'.t]h6e:i3:apoeftefrn£:i
to be a hindrance to Christ).
:I::e:hehr`£;e`h`adu:::,raiEsr::I;sts,p:::::,t:::s::g A common use of both words is to indicate
the antagonism of the Jews to Jesus (Ron.
:ensg°#£rLft(i::I)qeen?,i;.d t° the Z6r ("foreigner'') 9:32-33 = I Pet. 2:8). Jesus' cross is identi-
fied as the particular cause of stumbling in
|5f|G3r,iix:PZ!i:2d|,t,ot:SrAe!raiEamEg.¥tc:gani I Cor.1:23 and Gal. 5:11. The Jews' own
(Gen. 23:4), to Moses in Midian (Ex. 2:22), religion is said to be a trap and stumbling
to Israel as a chosen people (Lev. 25:23; I block (Ron.11:9).
Chron. 29:15), to David (Pss. 39:12;
119:19) and to Jehovah (Jer.14:8). stu:hbris::anbs]acaEejnwi:e:a;g:in:tthep:tt:¥om:
The ggr is classified with the widows, fa- 14: 13, 20; I Cor. 8:9). Christian love guards
therless and needy (Deut. 14:29; Ps. 146:9; one against this sin (I John 2:10; 11 Cor.
Ezek. 22:29). He shared in covenant obliga- 6:3).
tions (Dent. 29:11 f.; 31:12 f.; Josh. 8:33, Those who entice to sin, waned (Matt.
35). He could eat the Passover if circumcised 18:7), are to be watched (Ron.16:17) and
will be expelled from God's kingdom at the
£Et:;e,I::a4e8]£,t;sTnerfpeasrta£:£dpacteerdemeoqn:::]ZN:££ judgment (Matt.13:41).
15:14 f.; Deut. 26: 11; Josh. 20:9; 11 Chron. FRED L. FISHER
30:25; Ezek.14:7; 47:22 f.). He must share
SUBDEACON. See OFFlcEs, EccLESIAs-
?i::£S{LmeevTt]£7°:8i£*8£:e2n6Ce££t.O).divinelegisla- TICAL.
The gGr should be loved (Lev. 19:34) and
SUBSTANCE. The Hebrew words h67®,

;:;ge:;o:i|:;,:F:yi::2;5i|;::|2;!:;:(,;:::S:ti;i:it:o;;t!:re:e iiss;;oi;i;£c;i;;Piii;Sij;„g;;i;je§y#'#g;¥si
12:38); (2) the unexterminated Canaanites
hypostosjs, "substance."
(Josh. 9:3-27); (3) captives in war (Nun.
31 : 12). In Solomon's time their number was With the exception of hypostasjs, these
153,600 (11 Chron. 2:17). tteer.g.:ds:.a]]]¥:]d4e;Sfp¥oavt.e28T3:e±:keT5=]=£:.n>:

fro[::i:¥o:£eo:t*:a#eovfe:S'ra°ei,Cea:all::::egd.
ers from the covenants of the promise," are
now "fellow-citizens with the saints, and o£ :eyn;d::c:f|.s,sea:a:i.:lit;sdseE:e:3:,I:a.?I::a,,o:;gf`:C:Ani3
the household of God" (E 2: 12, 19, ASV). Heb. 3:14), "substance" (Heb. 1:3) and
"assurance" (Heb. 11:I). Etymologically,
While in this world, bel .!t;
rs are so]ourners
(I Pet.I:1,17; 2:10 f.). Their real citizen- 7ty27ostasjs, like the Latin `soubsta7®tin and the
S]h3£P]is):nheaven(Phil.3:20;Heb.11:13-16;
:hnag]£]::s::bdset:ns:e;etdhe£::T£::e,Ss,Thee£,;tthe£:ga,:
BIBLIOGRAPFT and invisible substratum that gives form and
W. H. Bennett in EB,. H. M. Wiener in ISBE,. expression to the extemal and visible manifes-
James Donald in HDAC.
WICK BROOMALL tation.
In Heb. 1:3 Christ is described as ``the
STUMBLING BLOCK. Greek words so very image of his [God's] substance" (ASV).
translated in the NT are: proskot"ova and
sha#dr!o". Ska"drfo" is properly the piece of FResev)hryap£::Sfan£S„p::uo£:,?I:itv)t:s:`::i:£r::
505 SUFFER, SUFFERING

in the "form" (7"orphG) of God, Christ became then he is impotent; if he could, but will not,
visible in his incarnation so that man might
"see" God (John I:14, 18; 14:9-11; Phil.
FheeiswT|:`ewvf:ennct::iehnei?a:v#,!P(tE;epoEwkee;ea:,!
2:6). "Cbd was in Christ" (11 Cbr. 5: 19). of Pain and Conflict in Huri'un Life, by
W. R. Sorley and others, p. 48. HERE Vol.
thelnsuTset:it!:I:t4yg?pfsef"6;irps::abnabflayi,fTnre.s::: XII : , ).
trast to the "shadows" of the old covenant
(Heb. 8:5; 10:1). ofs:u|;e:£fn:hea:eu:est];s°n=roar;:]edgbo€dt::sgr°bbe]fen:
In Heb. I I : 1 faith is defined as "hypostasjs wrought out by means of suffering as is found
in the whole of human life? If so, is there a
3iethui:g:e:o=ad,i;or;'iaTe.r.ents?iefuyeosrd,hr:persesseennct: remaining margin of suffering which bears no
of faith (I Cot. 2:9-16; 11 Col. 4:18). Even relation at all to character and cannot be re-
lated to the chief purpose of creation?
i:i,iheth:rseu¥anl:fee(:i:ebs::i:yiear|e¥:::::::.:3 The philosophical answers to the problem
of that which will be fully revealed in his have centered in hedonism, with resultant dis-
glorification (I Cor.13:12; I John 3:I f.). appointment and pessimism; stoical defiance
See also HTposTAsls.
without victory over pain; meliorism proclaim-
BIBHcORAPHY
ing progress with suffering being eliminated
and its ultimate banishment as a reasonable
goEF¥:I;cvi7Tfi£.gr:est§chfrda?fof|##¥;I::E#i:6ypfi;
?E
±5¥°'F2Z°;°ch£*f.3:5;.¥£,ttg4in3."AmiciGaecoroua
WICK BROOMALI.
::I.t:I::yin.orEi'g:s.Ewp::cciai.:ingetE,e,aiE:gdhebs;
man only through a process of discipline
which includes work, suffering, and tempta-
SUFFER, SUFFERING. The fact of suf-
tion.
fering is conveyed by a number of words in
the Hebrew language. Some of the most sig- The philosophical solutions of suffering are
no more than speculations, however attractive
:££j:a#s:refnthseuf££°e]:[Pnwg;,ng;in(:I)y,y:a::J£Stug?;S:: they may be.
``to discipline" (Hos. 10:10), "to instruct"
Jesus presented no formula relative to the
(Ps. 2:10), and "to chasten" (Jer. 6:8); why and the origin of suffering. He presented
(b) 'd"d denotes "doing violence to another" a way of victory in the face of suffering. He
(Gen.15:13), "to humiliate" (Nun. 24:24), lived in triumph in the midst of it. The secret
and "to be afflicted" (Ps.107:17); (c) $6r¢r of his triumph was his identification with the
primarily means ``to bind" or "to press hard" will of the Father in suffering. His submissive
and then moves on to the meaning "to be in identification with the will of the Father en-
straits, to distress" (Jer.10: 18). ables him to handle the thorn of life in tri-
In the AV, "suffer" frequently appears with
:rTupmhpiatfieLat:aFfnegxttrha:ttit;r!eso¥S]±£f:Pt:rttsh:s£:
{{::du::3r£Ftgfsofth:pecrum::,;,t<£:::£n¥£t::„tf: who identify themselves with him in sub-
word, however, viz., to undergo an unpleasant mission to the will of the Father.
experience or affliction, which will be dealt The problem of pain cannot be divorced
with here. from the wider and deeper problem of moral
The common verb meaning ``to suffer" in evil (q.t7.). The fact of physical evil in the
the NT is pcisch6, which occurs forty-two world, as appalling as it is, is incidental and
times in the NT and c¢. twenty times in the secondary to the graver problem of sin (q.t7.).
LXX including Apocrypha. Its basic meaning If the breach with God can be healed, no other
is to experience, but in Greek literature it has discord can remain finally unresolved. The
come to be used almost exclusivelv of un- final solution of a mystery of pain (q.t7.)
which reverberates along every rim of the uni-
pleasant experiences and afflictions.
The problem of pain and suffering in all verse, is reconciliation (q.v.) with God. The
ages, has stood as a paramount challenge in triumph of this reconciliation brings the reali-
the thinking of men. The challenge which the zation: "All things work together for good to
them that love God."
goer-#,Piibe]edT]ep:e=:n:;Esp:cXupie:S:sdsir]]t*::£ In the Christian message we find the un-
us: i£ God wishes to prevent evil but cannot, veiling of a suffering God. The cross is the
SUFFRAGAN 506

Christian apologetic, the sublime and majestic SUNDAY. Sunday, the first day of the
vision (Heb. 12:2). week, is observed as the Christian day of wor-
In reconciliation men become identified ship in remembrance of Christ's resurrection.
with a suffering God, whereby there is a Sunday worship became the custom early in
transmutation of their own sufferings (Ron. the life of the church (Acts 20:7), although
8: 15-17 RSV), from pessimism to optimism, it was not the only day on which services
from confusion and uncertainty to immortal were held at the very first (Acts 2:46). Since
hope for the banishment of suffering (Rev. the Jewish day began with sundown, early
21,4). Christian worship apparently began Saturday
BIBIJOGRAPIIY

%##evkeRE :rfemn::Eganfnco£:£n:::;hal::egh:Ftfhee:;grE:;
Supper (Acts 20:7,11). This practice may
have been related to the early believers' desire
to be worshiping when their Lord returned,
JULEN C. MCPHEETERS on the basis of a warning recorded in Luke
12:35-40. Again, there may have been the
SUFFRAGAN. See OFFlcEs, Eccl.EslAs-
TICAL. -S#oerdsmweo#rsThce°_u\#tnk=trypr%{en8r£±._£nhg
practical necessity of meeting at a time when

SUICIDE. Widely varying and sharply con-

mans, Green and Co., I.ondon, 1903, pp.
££acrti:gfeaft£:ued::£hnav:£ff¥r::t::teersta;:eddc:T. 312-18). The collection and the Eucharist
tures (c£. j7® loco HERE). While there is no regularly characterized these early services
from the first (Acts 20:7; I Col. 16:2).

Sunday was also called the Lord's Day or

iE:::s;u::io;El::a.a:;:o:i;oefr;:i,coi::inde::e£;;;rii?:: the eighth day in honor of the resurrection
ever, from Ron.14:7-9; I Cor. 6:19; Eph. (Ignatius Ad. Mag. ix. I; Bamabas 15:9;
Justin F;rst Apol., ch. 67; Rev.1:10). ``Op-
S:rh:u%;hy:°i[h¥J::€::;oEweeadnp:r£:i:ksLnn¥::;:r!,i posed to the claim that the Christians in cele-
brating Sunday had indirectly appropriated a
own life under very stringent circumstances, day already observed in honor of a heathen
deity, it is to be considered that in addition
?eurt#agtus,ti:esf=:it::n,itsarlgeugiifgmatiyatn:t:::: to the motive for observing that day assigned
by Justin Martyr and Bamabas, the great
::u:essih.eieg?.sefibii:?d:r`, lie,pev::fan,:: :E: :FxatE aversion of the early Christians to idolatry

;I::t`i:np,re(ci:fpehtE:p¥:ieiili5yuno!a;:,f!fiEPRrok
XI, p. 145). Roman Catholics claim that they
#Fici;v:eFju:ja:;:is,:rF::.'oiio:i:;::ts;t:tei;::::!d;I,:t! were responsible for changing the sabbath to
offense agains.t the community; (3) an usurpa- Sunday; and Seventh-day Adventists, assum-
ing that this claim is true, assert that all who
f::d,pt:onf££;;get::ort:,kE]:maanndcmaa£:]£ac]£::.: worship on Sunday are followers of Rome and
have thereby received the mark of the Beast.
:::t::ftiax:tdtEieso`:giann.snh,:::nsa,gr:elf-s'tahua:# The apostolic church failed to name a par-

i,°=g:a::;t;d;icot§e:::o:I::P::S:]Sj:]tsaprs;;:£e°u;tar::ya::a: :£fcuA:rtsd:¥::£8_r£;:::;ncie:t]eynt::egs£:r¥h:t£:hg:
fact that worship was held on Sunday did not
sanctify the day any more than any other day
(Rom. 14:5-6). Alcuin (733?-804) was the
first to claim that the Roman Church had
i:ri:s:rs;si:;is:I::i`:sett:hki:g;::::,:ii::c;:edd:;if,lgnfel#¥:; transferred the rules for the sabbath to Sun-
Pract;ce. A vigorous defense of voluntary day. The Reformers stoutly rejected this claim,
euthanasia is made by Joseph Fletcher, Mor¢[s Calvin even proposing to observe Thursday
and Medicine. instead of Sunday. The strict sabl)ath laws o£
VERNON C. GROUNI)S English Puritanism and Scottish Presbyterian-
507 SURE, SURETY

ism are to be explained as a reaction to the rather than natural theology. God cannot be
extreme laxity of the times. grasped by human reason alone, but he must
See also LORD's DAY. 1.eveal his nature and purpose to man in a
CHARLES C. RYRIE special manner.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SUPEREROGATION. Works of superero-
CHJ§\rd£#€%OfeMgo##d#oefo#:Or#.
#:i.o|:;,:c:::di:g|utno,a3omwa.nrksca.t:s:ii:s,in.ovr:: WARREN C. YOUNG
and above those which God commands. St4-
pererogare means "to pay out more than is SUPERSTITION. From the Latin st4per,
necessary." In ecclesiastical m`atters St4perero- meaning "over," "above," and stare, meaning
"to stand." A superstition is thus a belief,
grtjo means doing more than God requires.
practice or attitude which is judged to "stand
Toh:e3'te;qm„.gd=„S"bea"C5st;p;Fee,.?auvlg,a;:;,obfu,L:ka: above" or go beyond an acceptable norm, and
not used in its present technical sense until thus to be unworthy of acceptance. Com-
monly, a superstition lies in the area of reli-
:hiMafd€£]set;n€t8£:S;bTe?£e::n;eoprti:nwisfcfa;ere
necessary and those which are voluntary. In #ch(q.i:.);th£:ufgsh:::I;8£:u:rr*i]:enfai?rBPur:Cttff:

:;ne¥tyt,h:e]]Pbt::ry£Snudchobaesd£::Cceep)t,£nfev:awns£: ;eimnc:srs;:.::in.I:s:u;:fit;:a?I:u3:::t::,:n,T:nu:
more than God requires. Such works of in contemporary usage anything that is not
supererogation are meritorious and can avail scje"tjfjcally acceptable is likely to be classi-
for the benefit of others. Hence the so-called fied as superstition. Any such judgment in-
treasury of merit and the possibility of in-
dulgences. ::::;s.a::ee::`us:tioen,,I::Ee::inng.inat:?:.pfio:
RICHARD J. COATES

SUPERNATURAL, SUPERNATU-
RALISM. The supematural (Latin swper 7®¢- ic:a;=j}:r:e.I;:n¥o:ri:;;;:1:a]ic:i§::i:£;e::ts[::i|::i;io::]i;
tt4r&, "supemature") refers to the realm exist- as understood in some one theological tradi-
ing above and beyond the realm of sense
experience; the belief that behind the world :ioens:obrr.i:d:ra:rebaes.aF::e:xa¥E:?;:gno::i:
of ordinary, everyday experience is the world
More, a laboratory physicist, characterizes the
of the spiritual or divine. It is often that which
transcends the powers of nature or what nat- picture of reality derived from relativity and
ural causes cannot produce.
:::teaqdua:ftuamwgrhiz:i,Csheasfs"raea]i;a::i[S£:gag]?tr[:
In dealing with primitive religions the term
superstition, or when a liberal theologian con-
is used to mean the realm of spirits, both good
fronts some of the beliefs of a conservative or
and evil, who animate both objects and per-
a fundamentalist he is apt to call them super-
sons (animism). Such spirits are believed to
stitions.
control both human activities and natural
In Acts 25 : 19 the Greek term de;s7.czcii.7"07c;c}
forces.
(from dejcio-, "to fear," and dfl;"o-") is prob-
In philosophy the term refers to the realm ably to be translated "superstition." Whether
or being which transcends the realm of nature. the comparative of that term in Acts 17:22
It is denoted by philosophers as Being, God, also bears that connotation may be doubted
Spirit, etc. The distinction between natural (coinpare the AV with more modern transla-
and supernatural should not be confused with tions).
tBhee]£edf£Sftincifa°:absets¥:I::uan]a:rajeiingssi£::te::a]i ANDRF.W KERR RULE

does not necessarily require the affirmation of SUPRALAPSARIANISM. See PREI)Es-

the supernatural. TINATION.
In Christian theology the supernatural is the
realm of the infinite, eternal Spirit, God. Tra- SURE, SURETY. Faith is justified be-
cause the truth of Christianity is sure, guaran-
gt£:;°nng:}]yac?:i::iacnet::u8r:;eah]:Sdekmnpohwaise£:;€ teed. It is the realization of the "sure"
SWEAR 508

(pistos) mercies of David (Acts 13 :34), God's 1757, after which Swedenborg's teachings
were adopted by the New Church.
J. STAFFORD WRIGHT
:::i:I::,.,ct:,Ao.?::(:.Eaie:e.b::lug;,;-,:[i,na::e?v.g:
SYMBOLISM, SYMBOLICS. The words
;.?;hei (ilsl ?f:. 1ciilf :; Cpfmi8:df,:o=edf:#v:
movement in history (c£. Heb. 2:2-3; Ron.
15:8; I Cor.1:6).
%yr?ebk°'j;,mm#le;%rbm°:';C:i;etdoen=:£efr:mcoEi:
Further assurance is based on the resurrec-
tion of Jesus (Acts 13:34), eyewitness testi-
mony to his majesty (11 Pet.1:19) and the
knowledge of God (11 Tim. 2:19). Because
i;a:]t:::ns?t]i°#a:?:aett:¥::::g;;*h?eiJ;i;e:§j;:::sae§ja#
his piece. In ecclesiastical usage the word
faith is the way of salvation, God's promises easily adapted itself to denominate an identi-
are made sure (bez7¢jos) to all men (Ron.
4:16). Thus, in Christ we have a "sure" :Zj:g]Cf:]%;S£°n;urdhfeba¥cearta¥n=r'hcu°sn:ise-
(¢sp7}czles) and "steadfast" (bebaja) anchor for Apostles' Cre-ed was called a symbol from the
our soul (Heb. 6:19). Faith is not a blind fourth century onward. The scientific study
leap but an intelligent choice, the commit- of the distinctive doctrinal characteristics of
ment of self to a guaranteed way of salvation. church bodies is called symbolics.
More generally the word is applied to a
e|e#.eni?.f#,u:'beEaaj:s,Tait:.,hises:::'i¥masen|! familiar object which serves as a mark of
of the reality of his salvation, by supplement- identification. Symbols, like the barber's
ing his faith in Christ with the characteristics
of Christlikeness (11 Pet.I :5-10). ;t:i#ofleaas?gdni:?cean:ae¥Ereonk,e::et:e;cgji:
"Surety" (eggyos) was commonly used in
legal and business documents to indicate the
guarantee of a contract (MM). In the OT,
Judah made himself a surety for Benjamin :;1::£sis:dn:f:c:;E|:;;:¥T|in:::;a;I::i¥s|,oF:T:t;o::,I:::::
(Gen. 43:9; 44:32). In the NT, eggyos is
found only in Heb. 7:22. Jesus, as our etemal gee:::dw::hth°eurGOL:Ed;h¥p°£ter:ftoernasheth£:Leap:ej
high priest, is surety that the new covenant of God. The names of our Lord also sug-
will not be superseded as was the old. We gested symbols, such as the well-known chjrho
for C7}n.stos and IHC (not IHS), for Je-so"s.
:;rv.)?eoLiervebei]Pefti?ebafsfenda]];txtif6sgi±Str±eaaii¥ The function of symbols is to communicate
o£ Christ's unchanging position as the media- ineaning, but they may also be used to con-
tor between God and man. ceal the truth. Thus the sign of the fish was
FRED L. FISHER
:f:!::rLo::irlleyetloemc:=,:uEtceantefuiFlythae.:;eus:
SWEAR. See OATH.
fwoairn:deth°eftsi:teGn:::i:W,°ersdu:°rcfh£:Pst(jcsb:Zyso)i
SWEDENBORGIANISM. Emanuel Swe- God, Saviour.
denborg (1688-1772) had clairvoyant facul-
ties. His main theological teachings were: wi:f::f.ITsi,?.d`;.v4eg:;rsyaE:go:isyT6rneew.:p;f:
(I) God is not three persons, but in Jesus most articulate symbolists, Durandus, even
Christ is the divine (Father), the divine found a spiritual significance in the cement
human (Son), the divine power (Spirit); used in the churches. Many e# post facfo
(2) Jesus Christ had a human state and a explanations were made. Thus the amice was
divine state; (3) by victories over temptations used to protect the celebrant's costly raiments
Christ overcame the hells, and so men can from touching the skin. This collar-like piece
forsake evil; (4) only parts of the Bible are was then later regarded as a "helmet of salva-
accepted (e.g., in NT the Gospels and Reve- tion, to meet the assaults of the wicked one."
Iation), interpretation being by correspo7ccZ- In general, however, medieval art gave pur-
e7tces, a form of allegory; and (5) the Last poseful profound expression to spiritual truths,
Judgment on the Christian church was in as a cathedral like that of Chartres testifies,
509 SYNAGOGUE

and continues to inspire modem church art

and architecture.
Since the symbol, to serve its purpose must :h:::!f::t:h`:p:£a.;c:aTf:n`,t5h8::s::c:i:ho';.c.%r:ist:ufi
be recognizable, bizarre inventions and clever gatherings doubtless first took place in private
originality in geometric design are to be homes (cf. E7.ek. 8: 1; 20: 1-3).
avoided.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

sHF£R£,. Ee¥#o¥L"2r;chcE:yfab#Fp,. 3?g.7;?V. ed.;

ief:u-:;i:t:o:!ij:.a.I:hi:dn:jrr:e:b#t:nh:I:t,:;1;i::
Palestinian Judaism, however, and synagogues
FREDERICK W. DANKER
were built wherever groups of Jews settled.
The earliest synagogue worship included
SYMPATHY. The English term represents
(Latin, sy7"p¢t7®j¢) the Greek symp¢t7ieia
g:::,ie.rna:!tgceri;e,:E;:gBayndtheexp'.:=aetio:fo:h:
Mishna (2nd and 3rd centuries after Christ),
::ogT,,:ysroufFe::r';nygm;#",haen,:fopr:s:sh3asTceaa,;; a more elaborate pattern of service had de-
a suffering in unison, or specifically the suffer-
veloped. This included five parts. (I) The
ing incurred by a person because of the suffer-
5e7"¢` consisted of the reading of Deut. 6:4-9;
ing of another with whom he feels an affinity.
The word does not occur in the AV but is
irla:cle3d-2"ltieNeTg=.teeln5,(3Z::dic`t?o'ns?.ifyFe:retTe-
found twice in the RSV. The Greek syt"pcr text of these, see E. Schuerer, The /ewish
People in the Tiine of Jesus Christ, Piv. ±1,
Lhie,a „ ?fi:Ls. 4tT;c;,: "fraadns::::as:;soyn#p:Lh:i:
10: 34). The form syt#p¢thejs ("sympathetic")
ye:]ain[:':£P.t%-81:;({[?.e.TTtehr:¥:;t::::cih):
occurs in I Pet. 3:8.
Various reading cycles were used. In Palestine

af£¥tt`£ebsyy=:::E¥r.:sa:Eeecti:::I;:?;is¥irgg :::erdeabd;ngnoAr:hmeaiF:Par:;a.¥::io.:i:rsgu`fi:
i:iai]o[%!:t:£n!;t££tfntdhec:omnpoa;Ss£°on£'o:age:::yi:i ;4e}e[:hto::nre£Tt££ga°;i:hwetpor°tphheet:;e][aenc:;:on=
now it is used to denote our fellow feeling and illustration of the law. (5) The sermon
developed from the translation and explanation
:£=howa:¥s::;:£r::gTsh::e:;:.ss£%F#tEyjo;£tohr of the Scripture lesson. In earliest times it
prosperity is congratulation. seems to have been connected with the reading
The meaning of sympathy goes beyond the from the prophets. It formed a part of the
"feeling with" stage at times as two persons

(::b;:::4:,ft:t#ooins;:.¥meo£Tn:t!:ai:ht:er:if:;:
:;:I;i::Li¥::sd:te::::frec¥l::;ti:t¥::ISLE:SP:i::tt:1: be asked to speak (cf. Acts 13:15).
other. Fern calls it the emotional and imagina- The supervis'ion of synagogue services was

:ivee::n¥:£epna::£c:[are];tetrj:gth£::%h:nadnjhsaeri:fg ;anrtcr£,:stye*o8gots7.e ,fiue]er „omffnt£¥tee r,9 yntaftyg¢ozgz:.:,,,

ment, of someone else. As a "feeling with" brought the Scriptures to the reader and re-
others it is experienced at non-reflective levels
placed them after the lesson was read.
and makes for social solidarity. At higher Associated with the synagogue was a court
levels it involves mental assimilation, com- known as the Sanhedrin (q.v.). In large com-
munion, and personal insight. It is the main munities the Sanhedrin consisted of twenty-
root of altruism. three "elders" (presbyteroi), in smaller locali-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ties, seven. One of these elders was the "chief
inAHnfffETKri::1.ei£}2T&?RW:.#rgkxinp.E7R°,;pS..785¥:nt ruler" (gerot4siarchGs). In Palestine the Sam-
LEWIS T. CoRLETT hedrin represented the civil as well as the reli-
gious government. Punishment by scourging,
SYNAGOGUE. The term sy"ago-gG desig- excommunication, and, in extreme cases, death
mates a Jewish house of worship. Tradition might be decreed. The Jerusalem Sanhedrin
was associated with the temple and served as
the highest court among the Jews (cf. Acts
:1:ss££ips:]Sgi:ia*£tL:tie££Lor§]t:b;yet:ang:£ue:S::¥eirce:Litta:: 9:2).
SYNCRETISM 510

in Gemany have 'been called the "Syncretistic

foinot:ewchej:iera::ctt:Sw¥p°ig:drfiea«:]raktt; Controversies."
It is a term currently used to describe both
::,::;:n;:gfuiei,ub.ieb.Ii#l..s;::llsseaTsassutE:u:tieef efforts to unite branches o£ Christianity, and
the platform. The chief seats were those near- attempts to harmonize Christianity with non-
est the ark. Christian thought.
A white limestone synagogue, dated in the MORTON H. SMITH
third century A.D., has been discovered at the
SYNERGISM. The term synergism means
literally "working together" and is associated
:itaebo°rfataencieunr;1:iE:p¥ta£:g.oATSs¥e:ge:8wueaswd£[¥
covered at Dura Europus in Syria. Ancient with the view that in the work of individual
sp¥o¥bo|gu,ehseyge£:rr:lLyui:,ac.end,i:mhsi:lie::s¥?e.:
the city and close to water, which was used
for ceremonial ablutions.
The synagogue proved to be a fruitful field ii::i:§an;:A:ifD;s:s::i:9:;;n§irga:i;I:hto|:;§eidi;%t]:i:
apart from the grace o£ God man is powerless
for evangelism by early Christian missionaries,
to contribute anything to his salvation. Augus-
and its service greatly influelrced Chris.tian
tine's doctrine is that of monergism, according
worship.
to which God is the .sole agent in man's salva-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
tion. This doctrine .was reaffirmed by the
Reformers in the sixteenth century. The medi-
;i,',g,i:.gj?,#Ee#E#g'#a:¥Mda?:!y£?giv#; ating view of synergism is found (I) in semi-
CHARLES F. PFEIFFER Pelagianism (q.v.) which teaches that man
must first worthily dispose himself for the re-
SYNCRETISM. This word is derived from
the Greek sy7ikrel;zei7®, "to combine." Plutarch
ieop#:nan:f]odv£:,£n:ndgr;ChefcEyw:sh°p¥::8ieiatftr:
used the term to refer to the uniting of quar-
the Middle Ages and is still so in Roman
reling brothers in the face of a common enemy. Catholic theology; and (2) in Arminianism
Bessarjon revived the term in reference to a
(q.v.), which asserts man's freedom either to
proposed reunion of the Western and Eastern accept or to reject the regenerating grace of
Churches. It was used in the early Reforma- God in Christ, and, in the event of his accept-
tion conc.eming attempts to maintain the unity
of the church. In this connection it was used
with praise, but by the middle of the seven- s:gsef;'er:hnecers#h;:ietyt°hfehj#[inngdo°ufbt£::]a;
teaches that man's salvation is attributable en-
teenth century, when the dogmas of the
tirely to God's grace (cf. Eph. 2:4-10), this
various branches o£ Protestantism became set-
tnith in no way diminishes man's responsibil-
tled, it became a term of censure to describe
ity when confronted with the gospel or the
those who would minimize doctrinal standards
relevance of the church's missionary task (cf.
for the sake of unity.
Rom. 9 with Ron. 10).
The controversies arising in the latter part
PHILIP EDGCUMBE HUGHES
of the seventeenth century concerning the
efforts to unite various parties of Protestants SYNOD. See CouNclL.

TABERNACLE. The tabernacle as a symbolized the divinely appointed means by

whole expressed two facts in Israel's religion. which sinful man could approach God, Of
( I) Standing in the center of the camp it sym- otherwise unapproachable holiness, ineffable
bolized the presence Of God in Israel. (2) It majesty, perfect unity.
EIIJ TALMUD

This structure, referred to chiefly in Ex. covenant. The ark symbolized God's meeting
25-27, 30-31, 35-40; Nun. 3:25 £f.; 4:4 ££.; with his people in grace and on the ground
7: 1 ff., had two main parts. of atonement. The ark contained the Deca-
(1) The outer court (E¥. 27:9), entered logue (Ex. 25:16), meaning that God who
from the east and formed by curtains sus- thus met with his people had revealed his will
pended f ron pillars which stood in bronze and his ethical nature, which represented his
bases. In the court were two objects. (a) The demands upon his people. (b) The mercy seat
altar of burnt offering (Ex. 27:I-8). This or propitiatory (Ex. 25: 17 ff.), a slab Of gold
stood as a perpetual reminder to the worshiper resting upon the ark and overshadowed by
that as he drew near to the Lord sacrifice was the winged cherubim. Blood was sprinkled
essential. (b) The bronze laver (Ex. 30:17- upon it on the Day of Atonement, teaching
21). Here the priests serving the altar washed that salvation is by the blood of sacrifice, the
hands and feet before perf orming priestly func- blood covering or atoning for sin.
tions. It stood between the altar and the holy The tabernacle symbolism f ound its fulf il-
place (Ex. 40:30), and taught the worship- ment in Christ. He was tabernacle, priest, altar
er that to draw near to God one must be pure and sacrifice. He is our High Priest who has
(c£. Titus 3:5). passed into the heavens now to appear for us,
and to give us access to the holiest by his blood,
(2) The tabernacle, standing within the
court (Ex. 26: 1 f£.). It consisted of curtains the blood of the everlasting covenant. God
laid upon a framework. The tabernacle was who tabernacled with Israel, and with men in
divided into two parts, the holy place and the the Word incarnate (John I : 14), does so still
holy Of holies, by a veil (Ex. 26:31 ff.). This
in the body of Christ (Eph. 2:21 f.) and in
veil symbolized the barrier separating sinful the believer (I Cor. 6:19).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
man from a holy God (Heb. 9:8). All three
Synoptics report the rending of the veil when TaE5=iactBe.°#fF_'is#e£;TBa.beFFac#est'c%X±t:SHseab:E#.s,Tphpe.
233 ff., 240 ff
Christ died, signifying that the way into the
JAMES G. S. S. THOMSON
holiest of all was now open (c£. Heb.10:19
ff.). TALMUD. Hebrew tci]7#tid, of ten derived
The holy place, entered only by the priests, from a hypothetical four-consonant root tl7#cZ,
contained three objects. (a) A table on which but probably developed from rfe7"¢¢, "to study,"
was placed the shewbread, the bread of the from which also lj7"7"Gd, "to teach." The word
presence (Ex. 25:23-30; 37:10-16). Placing specifically designates the Mishnah (q.v.) to-
the bread upon the table was an act of thanks- gether with the Halakic and Haggadic discus-
giving for the sustenance of life, the dedica- sions. This second part of the Talmud, namely,
tion of the life so sustained, and the acknowl- the discussions by the Amoraim (literally,
edgment that man does not live by bread "speakers," referring to the Jewish scholars
alone. (b) A golden lampstand (Ex. 25 :31-40; concerned) is known as the Gemara (from
37:17-24) which provided stands for seven Aramaic gc7"c}r, "to complete, to master com-
golden lamps. As it shone in the darkness of pletely by study," whence gf77€di-4 "that whic`h
the holy place so Israel was to shine in the has been learned by thorough study"). The
world. Now the church fulfils that function Amoraim were active from the time of the com
(Matt. 5:14-16; Luke 12:35; Phil. 2:15). clusion of the Mishnah to the end of the fif th
(c) An altar of incense (Ex. 30:I-7; 27:25- century A.D. The Halakah (pl. Halakoth, from
28) which stood before the dividing veil. Upon Heb. 7tj5Z¢„ "to go, walk") is the teaching to
this altar was offered the moming and evening be followed, the categorical law derived from
incense offering (Ex. 30:7 ff.). This sym- the Scriptures and taught by prevailing au-
bolized the worshiper's life Of devotion and as- thority. The Scriptures deal with princii)1es
piration af ter God. The rising incense was a but usually do not govern specific cases. But
symbol of ascending prayer at the beginning life is complex and ever changing, and law
and the close of each day. At the time of in- needs to be specific. The Halakoth deal with
cense the people engaged in prayer (Luke the specific situations and give authoritative
I : 10; and cf. Rev. 5:8; 8:3). regulations. One cannot help but feel that this
The holy of holies where God's glory was, is the "law" to which Jesus and Paul some-
entered only by the high priest once a year, times referred, rather than the principal law of
contained two objects. (a) The ark of the the Scriptures. The Haggada (from Heb.
TARES 512

•¢¢-gee, "to be prominent," Hiphil 77iggfd, "to were free and interspersed with illustrative
dedare, proclaim, publish") is the non-Halakic material.
material derived from searching the Scriptures, By the fifth century A.D. two authorized tar-
usually in the form of proverbs, parables, and gums had been written and circulated, that of
the like. Frequently Haggada conveys an idea Onkelos, a literal rendition of the Pentateuch,
not suggested immediately by Scripture and and that Of Joriathan, a freer version of the
at times becomes fanciful or allegorical. The prophets. Other targums were reduced to writ-
Talmud exists in two forms, the Babylonian ing at an early date. Some have affinities with
Talmud and the Palestinian (or Jerusalem) the Peshitta and the LXX.
Talmud, the principal difference being that CHARLES F. PFEIFFER
the discussions f ollowing the Mishnah are by
Babylonian or Palestinian Amoraim as the case TEACH, TEACHING, TEACHER. The
may be. Bible uses many words to describe teaching or
BIBLIOGRAPHY the role of the teacher. A teacher is presented
H. L. Strack, I#trodllctio.. to the Talmt.d a~d as one having service to render, although it
Midrash.
WILLIAM SANFORD LASOR could be interpreted to indicate an office.
Some important OT words, and a descrip-
TARES. Ziz¢";o7® (Arabic Zwwcl#), a Se- tion of each, are as follows: (I) b€", ``to sep-
mitic word for bearded darnel or cheat, occurs arate." This word often is used to mean "teach."
only in Matt. 13:25-40. It closely resembles It suggests the teacher's ability to distinguish the
wheat, until it heads out to form dark grain necessary from the unimportant, in which the
erect on stalk. Trench regards it as degenerate teacher solves difficult problems, both spiritual
wheat and quotes the Talmud; Thomson de- and otherwise. (Used in Dan. 8:16; Ps.
nies this and says the light grain is carried by 119:34.) (2) zdjiar, "to shine." This word is
wind and f lourishes when autumn rains drown
wheat. The bitter tasting seeds act as a violent :hip:i:inple¥ossee:,e#gdiedns(E!:i;?Z;e,.a¥::
emetic and cause dizziness; hence it is called teacher illuminates for the student. (3) Zdtn¢d,
by Vergil J7®felj# Loljw7". Tares are weeded "to beat." Used many times in the OT, this
out by women at harvest, before men reap word denotes discipline in teaching, as found
wheat. The seeds are sold as chicken food; they in Hos.10:11; Isa. 2:3. Obedience was the
are winnowed out Of wheat before grinding, greatest result expected from this type of in-
being a strong soporific poison. struction, along with consistency with the will
In our Lord's teaching the tares appear to Of God. (4) rd'j3, "to feed a flock." This term
denote the cunning work of the evil one which expresses the sense of responsibility the teacher
at times can so resemble what is of God (cf . should feel for his learners (Prov. 10:21; Eccl.
11 Cor.11:14). 12: 11). (5) ydr4, "to cast." This indicates the
BIBLIOGRAPHY teacher's responsibility to cast out or to present
Arndt; W. M. Thomson, The I.a"d a"d the Book, pp.
420-22; Trench's Patables, pp. 90-91. new ideas to the pupils. From this word came
the usual word for "law" (tor¢Ji) as used in
DENIS H. TONGUE
such passages as Ps.19:8; 11 Kings 14:6. Other
TARGUM. Although, strictly speaking, any OT words are s6Eaz, "to be wise"; y6¢`, "to
translation may be called a targum, the term is see"; (hiphil, ``cause to know''); 7c6Bcz`, "to boil"
used in biblical studies to designate a partiou- (pour forth words).
lar type of translation of the Hebrew Scrip- In the NT, some of the important words are
tures into Aramaic. as follows: (I) didrsko-, "to teach," which con-
When Hebrew ceased to be understood, veys both lecture and discussion teaching. Em-
translations into the colloquial Aramaic became phasis is on the instnictor and implies fitness
a practical necessity. Neh. 8:8 appears to be for the task. The word is used in such pas-
a reference to such translations. After the sages as Matt. 28:19; Eph. 4:11. (2) deer-
Scripture was read in Hebrew, an interpreter owe"et4o-, ``to interpret." The teacher explains
would give its sense in Aramaic. In the read- the lesson, as in Luke 24:27; I Cor. 14:5.
ing of the law this was done verse by verse. (3) p¢r¢tjt7}G7"i, "to place beside." This tech-
Three verses of the prophets might be rendered nique adapts the lesson to the existing situa-
at once. It was required that the rendition be tion. Christ used this method in the parables.
oral. Some targums were quite literal, others (4) ektjthGow;, ``to place out." This implies
513 TEMPLE

responsibility to uncover hidden meanings Of Augustine developed a teleological theory Of

passages or method Of living. Paul's exposition history in his Gty of God. Following Aquinas,
in Acts 11 :4 demonstrates the idea. (5) t.ca7!- Paley's N¢t"rfll Theology and the famous
t7e¢72o-, "to lean," which conveys the important Bridgew¢ter Treetjses use the teleological ar-
principle of causing one to learn. It recognizes gument as a ``theistic proof ." The difficulty
that there will be a I)ersonal relationship, as with the teleological argument for reasoning
in Matt. 28:19. Other NT words used are from the finite to the infinite is that it presents
propJiGte-s, "one who speaks for"; poi7"G", ``a only a possible, or, at best, a, probable God,
shepherd"; and epjskopos, "an overseer." unless it is based on presuppositional reason-
The great responsibilities of the teacher are ing, whereby it becomes a definite finger
clearly evident in the foregoing survey of pointing to the living and true God.
biblical terms for teaching. The teacher can See also GOD.
fulfil this responsibility only when he under- MORTON H. SMITH
stands the basis of true teaching, a basis which
can come only from the word Of God. TEMPERANCE. A NT term, although
With this as a foundation, the teaching the idea of temperance as a prudential virtue
philosophy and method must agree. If either is frequently found in the OT, particularly
of these is inconsistent with the final authority
- the Scriptures - it will not be true teaching. :fro:::,i:.sILeThpeer]:nn}Ceere:::nodfsh££°grhetrheenE:Staenrz
The pragmatic and humanistic tenets of mod- ideals. The Greek term, egkrfltej¢, is derived
ern education develop no criterion for deciding from egkrotet4o7"qj, ``to hold oneself in," "to
what should and what should not be taught. have inward power"; hence, self-controlled.
Therefore, they present a vacuum-like system Temperance was preached by Paul to Felix,
of thought. The Christian educator, on the along with righteousness and judgment to
other hand, starts with, "In the beginning, come (Acts 24:25), a trilogy well calculated
God . . ." and means by this the sovereign to bring conviction of sin.
God Of the Scriptures. This continues as his Temperance is a part of the fruit of the
point of reference all through the educative Spirit (Gal. 5:23). It is the third virtue to
process. be added to faith in the list given in 11 Pet.
Further, the Christian teacher should realize I :5-7, and contributes to fruitfulness, vision,
the purpose of teaching: forming man into an steadfastness, and an abundant entrance into
independent personality serving God according the everlasting kingdom of Christ (vss. 8-11 ).
to his word. This purpose can be achieved only It is one of the essential characteristics of bish-
by fostering obedient submission to the word ops or elders, who in addition are to be lovers
of God by both teacher and learner. of hospitality (q.v.) and goodness, sober, just,
Teaching, according to the Bible, is simply and holy (Titus 1 :7-8).
the meeting Of a divinely ordained need (the Paul lays special stress on temperance as
reforming of fallen and redeemed man into essential to success in Christian service (I Cor.
what God meant him to be), in a divinely or- 9:25-27), using the analogy of those who
dained way (the use of methods consistent strive for athletic proficiency. He gives it clear
with the highest authority, the Scriptures). definition in the statement: ``But I pommel
BIBLIOGRAPHY my body and subdue it, lest after preaching
to others I myself should be disqualified" (vs.
pp:S3g:.44iB;,.Civ¥ifi±£,]'BTa}iec%£"c'e?:s°.f„E8"her:;i?a";
pedagogy, pp. 34-5i 27, RSV).
LEONARD T. VAN HORN It should be clearly seen that temperance
TELEOLOGY. (Greek tezos, "end" and applies only in the area of the legitimate.
logos "word" or "discourse.") In opposition to There is no temperance in that which is in-
mechanism, which explains present and future herently wrong. No one may be temperate in
in terms of the past, teleology explains all in doing evil. Complete abstinence is the Chris-
terms of the future. It is the theory that every- tian rule in acts or practices contrary to the
thing has a final cause. Aristotle used both known will of God (11 Cor. 6: 17).
the mechanistic (first cause) and the teleologic WESTLAKE T. PURKISER
(final cause) arguments to ``prove" the exist-
ence of God. The former was subordinate to TEMPLE. The basic concept of the ten-
the latter. plc in Hebrew thought was that it was the
TEMPTATION 514

house of God, and hence it was usually termed sense of the ten is that which is given to it
"the house Of Yahweh" (Z7Gt7® y¢7®web). This when it is applied to the terrible and wonder-
did not mean that Jehovah's proper home was ful acts Of God against Egypt (Deut. 4:34).
in any structure fashioned with men's hands The same technical term is applied to those
(cf. Solomon's remark in I Kings 8:27), but acts Of men which challenge God to demon-
rather that his divine presence abode there, strate his veracity and justice. It describes the
symbolized by the dazzling ``glory{loud" which iniquitous imaginations and acts by which men
settled down over the holy of holies (both at through doubt, disobedience and unbelief op-
the dedication of the tabernacle in Ex. 40:34- pose God's revealed will, thus putting bis per-
35, and at the dedication Of Solomon's temple fections to the test. The outstanding instance
in I Kings 8:10-11). The most sacred spot in Of this type of sinful tempting Of God occurs
the temple was the inner chamber where rested when Israel murmurs against Jehovah at
the ``ark Of the covenant" with its golden lid Rephidim. One of the names which Moses
or cover known as the "propitiatory" (hap- subsequently applies to the place is ``Massah,"
276ret7®), a term related to kjppGr-"to make a tempting (Ex.17:2, 7; Deut. 6:16; cf. Pss.
atonement or propitiation." Here the Spirit o£ 78:18, 41, 56; 95:9; 106:14).
God rested in the midst of his covenant people The term "iss4 is rarely, if ever, applied in
Israel (cf. Ps. 46:5; Isa.12:6), in anticipation the OT to Satan's act of enticing men to sin.
of that f inal state of blessedness promised in Nevertheless, the essence Of temptation in this
Rev. 21 :3 when God will dwell in the midst sense is clearly revealed in the account Of the
in his redeemed in the heavenly Jerusalem. fall and in the record Of Satan's role in the
Access to the holy of holies was forbidden to a££1iction Of Job (Gen. 3: 1-13; Job I -2: 10).
all but the high priest himself, and even he Eve tells God, "The serpent beguiled me
might enter it only once a year, on the Day of (7}i55j'¢#€), and I did eat" (Gen. 3:13; cf.
Atonement, to sprinkle the blood of the sin e?caprtco-in 11 Cor.11:3; I Tim. 2:14). De-
offering upon the propitiatory (Lev. 16:2, ception plays an important part in satanic
14). temptation. Satan avoids making a frontal at-
Af ter the crucif ixion and resurrection o£ tack immediately on God's probationary com-
Christ the physical temple became obsolete in mand and its threatened penalties. Instead, he
God's economy, for Christ and his church be- sows the seeds of doubt, unbelief , and rebel-
came the antitypical fulfilment (Heb. 9: 11- lion. The temptation Of Eve is typical. She is
14) Of all that which it foreshadowed and sym- made to feel that God has unwisely and un-
bolically presented. ``Know ye not that your fairly withheld a legitimate objective good
body is the temple Of the Holy Ghost which is from man. Thus Satan tempts, i.e., entices
in you, which ye have of God . . .?" (I Cor. Eve to tempt, i.e., to test the veracity, good-
6: 19). Because Christ's Spirit dwells within ness, and justice Of God. In Job's trials the
the genuine believer, therefore his body is a strategy is different but the end sought is the
``house of God" or a true temple. On the other same - the rejection of God's will and way as
hand the whole aggregate of believers con- just and good.
stitute "living stones, built up as a spiritual The NT reflects the translation of 7®jss4
house" (I Pet. 2: 5), and are in Christ "builded with ekpejraz6, etc., in the LXX (Matt. 4:7;
together for an habitation Of God through the Heb. 3:8-9; I Cor. 10:9). In these passages
Spirit" (Eph. 2:22). the sinful tempting of God is referred to by
GLEASON L. ARCHER, JR. way of quotation o£, or reference to, the OT.
However, the same sense is employed by Peter
TEMPTATION. In the OT the specific in connection with the sin o£ Ananias and
verb indicating the act Of tempting is the Sapphira (Acts 5:9) and the prescriptions to
Pi`el form #jssd. In I Sam. 17:39 the word is be given to gentile Christians (Acts 15: 10).
used of proving or testing armor. In Gen. The additional use of pejr¢z6 and related
22: 1 „iss4 characterizes God's command to forms is complex. The words may refer to ex-
Abraham to offer Isaac as a burnt off ering in terior circumstances which try the believer's
the land o£ Moriah. A similar use of the term faith and are designed to strengthen that faith
in application to God's testing of men is found (James 1:2; I Pet.I:6). Although these cir-
in Ex.16:4; 20:20; Deut. 8:2,16; 13:3; Ps. cumstances are held to be under the absolute
26:2; 11 Chron. 32:31; e} al. Related to this control of God, the explicit causal ascription o£
515 TESTAMENT

them to God is not prominent. Perhaps some Son o£ God be really tempted?" Granted that
reasoning by analogy is pemissible here. Paul, appeal could be made to legitimate desires in
for instance, recognizes that his "thorn in the his human nature, what force could temptation
flesh" is under God's sovereign control (11 Cor. have on a divine person who cannot be
12:8-9). But the "thorn" is "a messenger o£ tempted? Efforts to solve the problem run the
Satan" (11 Cor. 12:7). The same phenom- risk either of impairing the "without sin" o£
enon may be viewed from two aspects. The Heb. 4: 15 or of making the temptation unreal.
pejr¢st#o# is a trial of one's faith controlled Our understanding Of the matter is beclouded
and, even in some sense, sent by God. But by the fact that our awareness of being
God is not the author of the prompting to sin tempted immediately involves us in at least a
which such trial seems to bring with it. The momentary inclination to yield to the temp-
believer may rejoice in trial because he de- tation. This was not true o£ Jesus, and yet the
tects God's good purpose in it (James 1:2-4, temptation was real, so that he is able to
"succor them that are tempted" (Heb. 2:18).
)2). But the subjective use of trying situa-
tions, the. internal incitement to sin in connec- M. G. Kyle relates the great temptation by
tion with trials and testings, is not and cannot way of I John 2:15-17 to the temptation of
be the work of God. Here temptation in the Eve in Eden (Art. ``Temptation, Psychology
strict sense of the term comes to manifestation. Of," JSBE). Although the details of this con-
Enticement to sin and to impatient rebellion is nection may be disputed, the necessity Of the
the work of Satan (Rev. 2:9; I Pet. 5:8-9; c£. temptation in view of Adam's fall is evident.
I Thess. 3:5). In this he is immensely aided Jesus frjwowp7ied over Satan with his immediate
by the deceptive power of ep;thy7#ia, lust, in and obedient use of the word of God. He
the old nature (James 1 : 14-15). While Satan's thereby proved that he was qualified to be the
"last Adam." At the beginning of his ministry
role in temptation is usually assumed rather
t_ban stated, in I Cor. 7: 5 Paul explicitly wams he demonstrated the truth of I John 3:8b,
"To this end was the Son of God manifested,
}Coh£Satrfiat:irte°ia:i:SnesTfeps?i,:thcahtarsgaeta:i::mrpetspyeocut that he might destroy the works Of the devil."
not because of your incontinency" (c£. Matt. BIBLIOGRAPHY
4:1; Luke 4:2; Mark 1:13).
Jesus teache.s the disciples to pray, "And F#js%E:ef,ogn-s2e6:;=`:SsngEiusLGEBf;#iny.:I;::ff:taLf
bring us not into temptation, but deliver us CARL G. KROMMINGA
from the evil o"e" (Matt. 6: 13), and the Bible
is replete with warnings to be watchful because TESTAMENT. This biblical term is de-
Of the ever-present danger of falling into temp- rived from the Latin tesfc}"e7ct"m, which was
tation (Luke 22:40; Gal. 6:I; I Pet. 5:8-9). used in Jerome's Vulgate to render the He-
But the Bible assures the believer that God brew Z7er€!, covenant, in a few instances, as in
will make a way of escape from temptation Nun. 14:44, and the Greek diflthe-k8, as in
(I Cor.10:13), and that ``the Lord knoweth 11 Cor. 3:14. Since Tertullian's time it has
how to deliver the godly out of temptation been used to designate the two main divisions-
• . ." (11 Pet. 2:9a). of Holy Scripture-the Old Testament and
Jesus was repeatedly "tempted" by the Jew- the New. This represents the literary use Of
ish leaders (Mark 8:11; e£ ¢Z.). But these the word.
temptations were designed either to force Jesus As used ih biblical theology, the term may
to prove his Messiahship in terms of the pre- denote the era from the arrangement given
conceptions Of his enemies, or to compel him through Moses (Ex.19:5-8; Jer. 31:32; Heb.
to show himself incapable of being a true 8:9) to the death of Christ. This is the old
rabbi (Luke 10:25), or to cause him to make testament or covenant in contrast to the new,
self-incriminating statements (Mark 12: 15; cf. which began legally with the death Of Christ,
Luke 23:2). as may be inferred from Luke 22:20 and I
Very likely Jesus was subject to temptation Cor.11:25.

throughout his ministry (cf. Luke 4:13; The AV uses the term testament as well
as covenant for the Hebrew and Greek orig-
2£2i2t8e)inp?auttfo:he;n8rreeajeieFt?vt:t££rst::yth(eMcarti: inals bpH'! and d/.ftfJ]c-ke-, but the ASV uses the
4: I and parallels). This temptation confronts word covenant regularly, apart from the excep-
one with the question, "How could the sinless tional use of testament in Heb. 9: 16-17. The
TESTIMONY 516

Roman testament, in order to go into effect, election (11 Thess. 2: 13); (7) spiritual bless-
required ``the death of the testator" (Heb. ings (Col.1: 12); (8) liberality in giving (11
9:16), but this was not necessarily so in Cor. 9: 11 f.); (9) joy over converts (I Thess.
Semitic practice, as is illustrated in the parable 3:9).
Of the prodigal son and elsewhere. The Apostle also gave thanks for personal
The old testament or covenant had its taber- benefits such as: (1) deliverance from bond-
nacle or temple and its ceremonial and civil age (Ron. 7:25); (2) the sacrificial labor Of
laws, but when the death of Jesus introduced others (Ron. 16:4); (3) the non{ommission
the new testament or covenant, these provi- of certain acts (I Cor. I:14); (4) gifts be-
sions of the old order became antiquated and stowed upon him (I Cor. 14:18); (5) a
were "nigh unto vanishing away." In fact, in friend's spiritual growth (Philem. 4 f.).
A.D. 70 the temple did vanish away with the As to its characteristics, thanksgiving is ac-
destruction of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the ceptable according to God's will (I Thess.
moral law Of the ten commandments, written 5:18); its neglect is always sinful (Luke
``in tables of stone" (11 Cor. 3:3) but in the
17: 16; Ron.1:21); it will always be a dom-
new testament written "in fleshy tables of the inant feature Of heaven's praise (Re+. 4:9;
heart" (11 Cor. 3:3; cf. vs. 6) still stands and 7: 12; 11 : 17). Christians should render it con-
abides. For the elaboration of the various views tinually (I Cor.I:4; Col. 4:2), under every
on this matter, see especially Berkhof and circumstance (Phil. 4:6), to God through
Chafer in the literature cited below. Christ (Col. 3:17), and as an antidote to sin
See also COVENANT. (Eph. 5:4).
BIBI,IOGRAVHY WICK BROOMAI.I.

#i:e:ieffiic;EeeoF#oe*,gf,.I,##!igpan#£Si;TM=J: THEISM. The ten theism might be de-

MARTIN J. WYNGAARI)EN fined as belief in a god or gods Of any kind.
Deism (a.v.), pantheism, henotheism, monola-`
TESTIMONY. See WITNEss. try, polytheism, animism, and even the per-
sonification of values by some of the anti-
THANKSGIVING. Two Hebrew words supernaturalists, would all be included in
(7tid4 and t6d4) and two Greek words theism under such a definition. For the pur-
(ewcharjstet4o- and e#charistjci) are the princi- poses of the present article, the definition will
be limited to Christian theism, or belief in the
pal terms expressing "thanksgiving." In addi-
tion, e#o7#ologe6 is used in Matt. I I :25. The God of the Judeo-Christian tradition as con-
tained in the Bible. The biblical view of God
presentation here will deal with the NT words
exclusively. is precisely summarized in the words Of the
Our Lord expressed thanks for physical food Westminster Shorter Catechism: "God is a
Spirit, infinite, etemal, and unchangeable in
{Ji:i:)::a]n]a2o3r){hfe°rbrae:Sdw:;efhepr£:::,s(Js°h¥ his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice,
per (Luke 22: 17,19; cf. I Cor. I I :24). goodness, and truth" (Q.4. See also qq. 5 and
Among the physical blessings calling for 6).
thanksgiving, the following are mentioned: Excluded by definition are certain views
(I) healing (Luke 17:16); (2) food (John which would properly be investigated under a
6:11, 23; Acts 27:35; Ron. 14:6; I Cor. more general definition Of theism, such as the
10: 30; I Tim. 4: 3 f.); (3) peace (Acts 24:2 £.); absentee God of deism, the supreme god or
(4) deliverance from dangers (Acts 27:35; the unmoved mover of Aristotle; the unknow-
28 : 15). able, unrelated, indescribable God o£ Barth,
Paul frequently expressed thanks for bless- of certain parts of Thomas' Summae, Of Daniel
ings bestowed on the churches. We note here Lamont, Karl Heim and many devout souls;
the following: (1) proclamation of the faith and the finite (not omnipotent) God of John
Stuart Mill, H. G. Wells, Brightman, and
(Ron.I:8; Col.1:3 £.; I Thess.1:2; c£. Eph.
1:15 f.); (2) grace bestowed (I Cor.1:4; 11 Bertacci.
Cor.1 : 11; 4: 15); (3) acceptance Of the word The attributes of the God of the Judeo-
preached (I Thess. 2: 13); (4) fellowship in Christian tradition, succinctly given in the
definition quoted above, have sometimes been
::eggr:Sc:e]{S[]Prighr:sSsS.(]P:h3£;.;I(:3;5)k;ns;)|egg°ewto} misunderstood. "Spirit" (John 4:24) means
517 THEODICY

selftonscious, serf-detemining non-material The law Of the king (Deut. 17: 14-20) recog-
person. "Infinite" is an adjective modifying nizes the ultimate control Of the Lord God.
the nouns which specify attributes. "Infinite Saul's trend was antitheocratic, but David's was
. . . in his being," in its historical context does theocratic, and to him was given the promise
not imply pantheism, but omnipresence. God Of the great Son of David (11 Sam. 7: 13-16).
is everywhere, not as embodying all things, Although the political sense is essential to
not as a fluid which is partly here and partly the word theocracy, as coined by Josephus, a
there, but as a personal presence. Everything broader meaning is usually implied, to indude
is immediately in his presence. "uncharige- every sphere and relationship of life as gov-
able" indicates a dynamic, not static, immuta- erned in OT times by the contemporaneous
bility, except in certain philosophical back and continuing special revelation Of God. The
eddies (Aristotle Metapbys;cs, Book Lambda, human agencies provided to enable Israel to
as reflected' in Thomas's "fully realized," in carry out Jehovah's will included not only
whom there is no potential). The God Of the kings but also a succession of prophets, cul-
Bible is immutable, not that he cannot do any- minating in the great prophet like Moses
thing in time and space, but that his charac-
ter is perfectly consistent in all his works. ]tn:,euu5;d]:I:s[o:.::,;hpor±esgo3ngavte:Ltgd:t:::
The doctrine Of. creation (Gen. 1 and 2; of presenting the typically redemptive sacrifi-
John I:3; Heb.11:3) does not postulate an cial blood to the Lord, pointing forward to the
infinite Subject, with no object, eternally blood of Christ, and the duty of teaching the
existing before the finite creation (Eddington's people the moral law, the statutes, the judg-
objection). According to the doctrine Of the ments, the sacred history, prophecy, and poetry
Trinity, infinite subjectivity subsists eternally of the OT (Lev.10:8-11; Deut. 31:9-11).
with infinite objectivity in God. BIBLIOGFLAPHY

The theistic arguments (see Buswell's W7®flt

;s God, Zondervan 1937, pp. 109-57; Tho7"as #\¥.GivyKnFg\%\#ne,P#gleFmufteth#Eh%#gdh6:?era.\#
MARTIN J. WYNGAARDEN
a#d the Bible privately printed 1953) answer
the following questions. (I) What is the ex- THEODICY. (Greek t7ieos, "God" and
planation of the casinos? If anything now djkG, ``justice"). A term taken from the title
exists, something must be etemal (ewig, not of a work of Leibnitz entitled: Essais de
7iotwe#djg, Kant), unless something comes Th6odic6e sur ta bont6 de Dieu, ha tiberi6 de
from nothing (emergentism, Fred Hoyle). God Z'77omt»e, et 1' orjg;%e dt4 7.¢¢Z. It is the realm
is the most probable answer (Ron.I: 19-21). of theology or philosophy devoted to the vim-
(2) What is the explanation of purposiveness, dication of God's goodness and justice despite
Zwecki.¢¢essjgke;t? God is the most probable the existence of evil.
answer (Ps.19; Ron.10:18; F. R. Tennant, Leibnitz set forth the optimistic view. It is
PJ®jlosophicol T7ieo!ogy, Cambridge 1937, Vol. assumed that this is the best of all possible
11 Ch. IV). (3) What is the explanation Of worlds. God as good cannot will to bring to
the Judeo-Christian concept of God? The answer being a universe less beneficent than any other
is not Anselm's deductive idealistic ontologi- possible universe. The error Of this view is
cal argument, but Descartes' inductive (Medj- twofold: (I) it assumes, without warrant,
tot;o7is. Reply 2nd Objection, Proposition 11; that the greatest natural good of the creation
see discussion in Buswell's PJij!osopbjes of is God's highest end in creating; (2) it limits
F. R. Te##a7it ¢7!d /oh" Dewey, Philosophical the power of God.
Library,1950, pp.181 ff.). This optimistic view has been abandoned
See also GOD. by philosophers for far more skeptical views,
I. OI.rvER BuswELL, ]R. either that evil is itself good, or that evil comes
from something within God that he is unable
THEOCRACY. The word is derived from to overcome. None of these theodicies is satis-
the Greek t7®eos, ``God," and from krate;", "to factory.
rule." Hence it denotes the rule of God. Jose- The Bible makes no attempt to justify God.
phus apparently coined the word, according to It is clear that he is absolutely sovereign, and
Thackeray, and gave it a political connotation that he has willed the existence of both good
(Agc!j"st Apjo% 11, 165). But the idea goes and evil, and that all of this is for his own
back to the OT (Ex. .19:4-9; Deut. 33:4-5). glory. The sacrifice of Christ gives the hum-
THEOLOGY 518

ble believer not a solution but a satisfying the Cappadocians, Augustine and Jerome) to
reply. There must have been some good rea- these and related debates.
son for allowing evil, but this does not imply Nor were the problems of man neglected,
a defect in God or in his benevolence. If there for in defense against Pelagius there was the
had been any defect in him, he would hardly development of a powerful doctrine of original
have sent his holy Only Begotten Son, who sin and predestination, while the doctrine of
was worth more than all worlds, to save one the church was formulated in answer to the
(R. L. Dabney, Theolog);, Presbyterian Com- Donatist challenge. At the same time a good
mittee o£ Publication, Richmond, Va., 1927). deal Of direct work was done on the Bible it-
self, both in the fom Of textual study and
MORTON H. SMITH
catechetical and homiletic exposition. And it
must not be forgotten that concern for the
THEOLOGY. Strictly, theology atonement was a cardinal issue in what seem
which is thought and said concemin to be the abstruse discussions of the incarna-
True theology is thus given by the tion,
as the revelation of God in human
The |>atristic age is so varied that it is hard
the Bible gives rise to exposition,
to assess it in general terms. In the main, it
and presentation. Hence there is
remains faithful to the Bible, and we are per-
Of the church as well as the Bible,
manently indebted to it for securing a biblical
in addition or opposition to it.
statement of many of the basic themes. Yet it
theology that we must briefly review, assess-
was obviously susceptible to pagan influences
ing it always by its fidelity to the scriptural
militating against a truly biblical understand-
norm. In so doing we follow the four main ing. In particular, it had a constant impulse
historical groupings -patristic, scholastic, re- towards a new legalism on the one side and
£omed and modem. a new rationalism on the other which involved
I. PAmlsT]c. The reference here is to the a serious distortion of biblical teaching and
movement of Christian thought which began practice and underlay many of the later evils
with the post-apostolic writers, culminated in of the church.
the great age Of trinitarian and christological 11. ScHOLASTlc. The |>atristic age was fol-
reflection and declined with the disruption of lowed by a comparatively sterile period when
the Roman Empire. To follow the complicated the East hardened into orthodoxy, the West
course of this movement is hardly possible, but was overshadowed by barbarian incursions, and
some Of the leading features may be indicated. East and West were separated by dissension.
After the first and fragmentary period, the Even in the Dark Ages there were many fine
initial task was that of practical and philo- scholars such as Bede and Alcuin to pass on
sophical apologetics as seen in Justin Martyr. the leaning of the past into the future, and
But reckoning with the pagan world carried many later developments arose out of the
the dangers of Gnosticism and speculative if thinking of this period. Yet it was not until
brilliant theorising such as that of Origen. It the medieval period that there came a new
was in perception of this threat, and resistance outburst of formative theology, stimulated to
to it, that there grew up especially in the west some extent by the rediscovery of the thought
a strong traditional movement represented by of the Greeks.
lrenaeus and Tertullian and associated with The outstanding feature o£ Scholasticism is
the acceptance of the canon and appeal to the its deliberately attempted synthesis of philoso-
historic church and ministry. phy and biblical theology in which the former
This was followed by an age Of preacoupa- provides the basis and the latter the superstruc-
tion with the great problem posed by conf es- ture. If Abelard represents a movement towards
sion Of Jesus as Lord, namely, the understand- greater rationalism and Anselm towards a more
ing of the trinity and the incarnation. Every biblical conception of reason leaning from
conceivable overenphasis or deviation emerged faith, Thomas Aquinas gives us the impressive
during the prolonged theological discussion, norln which dominates all subsequent develop-
but the result was general agreement on such ment and is still a potent influence today.
great confessions as the Nicene Creed and the In the light Of this synthesis it is not un-
Chalcedonian Definition, and we owe some natural that Scholasticism should be semi-
Of the best patristic work (e.g., Of Athanasius, pelagian in its doctrine Of grace, codifying the
519 THHOLOGY

legalistic developments Of an early time within ology, not merely accepting the early christor
an Augustinian framework. It is to this period logical fomulations but making Christ the
that we owe .the detailed outworking of such sum and center of exposition. In the great doc-
distortions as the doctrines Of. baptismal regen- trines of the trinity and incarnation and atone-
eration, purgatory, penance, infused grace, im- ment it has little to add except perhaps in the
plicit faith and transubstantiation, which is restatement of Anselm's doctrine Of satisfac-
only possible or intelligible in terms Of philo- tion. But whether we turn to Luther, Zwingli,
sophical realism. Calvin or any of the great Reformers, we see
There are, of course, many satisfactory fea- always the perception that no man comes to
tures which we must not fail to note. The tra- the Father except by Christ, and therefore
ditional patristic doctrines were carefully main- that Christ is the beginning and center and
tained. Anselm gives us a finely objective doc- end of all true theology.
trine of the atonement in the light Of cunent Again, it is a theology of faith in Christ as
`views Of satisfaction. Biblical material is used
our righteousness no less than our wisdom, the
even though it of ten appears in distorted form. moral synthesis of medieval theology being
There is a good spirit of inquiry and dis- thus opposed as well as the intellectual. Led
putation which allows Of the development of by the Bible, it goes to Christ himself for sal-
a conflicting trend like Nominalism and thus vation. This means that Christianity is really
prepares the way in some sense for the Refor- understood as gospel and not as a new law.
nation. But these virtues cannot offset the It means a new apprehension of justification
fact that Scholasticism was mistaken in its in relation to sanctification, as well brought
general enterprise and achievement, and must out by Calvin. It means a new emphasis on
bear responsibility for the disastrous comip- the place and importance of faith, as so finely
tion which follows. seen by Luther. It means a biblical under-
Ill. REFORMED. By the middle of the fif- standing of grace and the means of grace, It
teenth century Scholasticism had lost its first means a strong doctrine of election, and the
impulse and was degenerating into subde but corresponding impotence of the sinner. It
futile disputation. But new influences were at means a necessary and uncompromising rejec-
work, notably the fresh investigation of the tion of the complicated pseudo-doctrines which
Greek and Hebrew Scriptures, the rediscovery had invaded and corrupted the church. It
Of the Fathers and more straightforward meth- means a total reconstruction of theology, not
ods of exegesis. It was out of this that there in the sense of innovation, but in the sense
arose the new and more biblical theology Of of genuine ref ormation according to the bibli-
the Reformation in opposition to the dominant cal and to some extent patristic norm.
rationalism and legalism. In spite Of the acute The Reformers are not infallible. They do
division into Lutheran on the one side and not escape the influences of their age. They
Reformed in the more technical sense on the differ in points of detail. But they stand for
other (with sectarianism on the outer edge as true biblical theology as opposed to Tridentine
an unorthodox extreme), this is sufficiently dogma on the one side and the well-meaning
unified in its main features to enable us to but not so well-informed teaching of the sects
speak of a Reformation theology. on the other. Of all theological movements,
Primarily, this is a biblical theology in the they come closest to the Bible in method, in
direct sense. It does not take philosophy as a understanding, in content, and in the distinc-
basis, or framework, or ally. Its first business tive combination of intellectual and spiritual
is to know and.expound the Bible. It realizes power. Quite apart from their lasting insights,
that to talk of God it must be taught by God. they teach us what is the proper work of the-
Its positive theological work is preceded, ac- ology, and bring us constantly under the cor-
companied, informed and corrected by biblical recting and purifying scrutiny of the written
study. It does not claim Aristotle and Plato word.
as friends or forerunners. It uses reason, but IV. MODERN. Unfortunately a large I)art
reason informed by the Bible and put to a of the church refused to accept the Reformed
biblical use. The root of scholastic and a good correction. This means that in the modern
deal of patristic distortion is thus exposed and
period we have to reckon with two inde-
cut.
pendent if interacting forces in the West.
But this means that it is a christological the- More recently there has also been renewed
THEOPHANY 520

contact with the East, which has pursued its neither by legalism nor rationalism; and it is
own autonomous course and has much that not impossible that it should be won if we can
is strange but fruitful to offer in biblical un- teach and lean from one another to be more
derstanding. But this belongs more pardcularly genuinely biblical and therefore to think and
to the future. speak of God himself as self-revealed in Jesus
When we consider Roman Catholicism, we Christ.
see a church fettered by the rigid I ormulations See also BIBI.ICAL THEol.OOT.
of Trent but unable to suppress completely GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY
the stirring Of theological life. A possibility Of
renewal was offered by the revived Augus- THEOPHANY. A theophany may be de-
tinianism Of Jansenism (a.v.), but the impos- fined as a visible manifestation of God. Usage
ing of Dominican orthodoxy closed this hope- restricts the term mainly to the theophanic
ful door. Liberalism was firmly resisted, but manifestations during the OT period. Such
Ultramontanism (q.v.) has brought new dog- manifestations may be loosely classified as ( I )
matic definition more pardcularly in relation a direct message (Ex. 19:9-25), (2) a mes-
to the Papacy and the Virgin Mary. Yet in sage in a dream (Gen. 20:3-7; 28: 12-17), (3)
spite of this disastrous trend, the outlook is not a message in a vision (Gen. 15:1-21; Isa.
as gloomy as might appear, for the last decades 6:1-13; Ezek.I:I-3; 8:I-4), (4) a message
have seen a vigorous resurgence of biblical by an angel (Gen.16:7-13; 18:1-33; 22:11-
scholarship in Roman Catholic circles, with all 18; 32:24-30; Ex. 3:2-4:17; Josh. 5:13-15;
the possibilities whicb this involves. Judg. 2:1-5; 6:11-24; 8:2-25), and (5) a
message in a dream by an angel (Gen. 31 : 11-
In the Protestant field we may ignore con-
13).
fessional disputes and concentrate on more
These theophanies may be characterized as
general aspects. In this respect three main de-
velopments demand our attention. The first ( I ) often introducing momentous events (Ex.
3:I-12), (2) further revealing God's plan
was the detailed formulation o£ Protestant or-
thodoxy in answer to the attacks Of Romanists. (Gen.15:1-17; 28:12-17), (3) always mani-
Socinians and Aminians, this being the work festing the supernatural (Ex. 3:2 £.; Josh.
of the seventeenth century. The second was 5: 13-15), (4) designedly supporting the wav-
the ensuing deviation into liberal Proles- ering (Ex. 3:2-4:17; ]udg. 6:11-24), and
tantism, when an attempt was made to restate (5) invaribly restricted to God's people ex-
Christian doctrine, f irst in terms Of the ra- cept where non-Israelites are specifically in-
tionalism already used as well as resisted by volved (Gen. 20:3-7; Nun. 22:20-35).
"The angel of the Lord" (or "Of God" - c£.
the orthodox, then more originally and power-
fully by Schleiermacher in terns Of subjective Judg. 6:20 f.), though occasionally desig-
experience (as required by Kant's critique Of mating an angel (e.g., 11 Sam. 24: 16; I Kings
reason and suggested by Pietism). The third 19:5, 7; Matt. 2:13,19; Luke 1:11), often
is a strong biblical and theological reaction describes a person whose characteristics seem
against every fbm of liberalism, deriving from to fit Christ only.
many sources, combining various strands, in- The deity Of this unique angel is proved
volving the danger of reversion as in Bult- by the facts that he (I) is identified as God
mann, but aiming in Barth and others at a (Gen.16:7 f.,13; 18:2, 10, 13; 22:10-12,
genuine if not uniformly successful reconstruc- 15-18; Ex. 3:2-6,14,18; ]udg. 2:1, 5; 6:11,
tion Of theology on a biblical and Reformation 14, 16), (2) is recognized as God (Gen. 16:9-
basis. 13; Judg. 6:22-24; 13:21-23; c£. Gen. 32:24-
The story thus breaks off at a.critical but 30 with Hos. 12:4 f.), (3) is described in
not unpromising juncture. There are many terlns befitting the Deity alone (Ex. 3 : 5 f., 14;
hostile forces, from entrenched Romanism on Josh. 5:15), (4) calls himself God (Gen.
the one side to persistent liberalism on the 31:11,13; Ex. 3:2, 6,14), (4) receives wor-
other. But there are hopeful factors too, the ship (Josh. 5:14; Judg. 2:4 f.), and (5)
climate of the age, the richer eoumenical dis- speaks with divine authority (]udg. 2: 1-5).
cussion, the desire for real theology and above The identification of this angel with Jesus
all the intensifying and fructifying study Of Christ is confimed by the facts that he (1)
the Bible itself . The bathe has thus been is distinguished personally from God the Fa-
ther (Gen. 21:17-20; 48:16; Ex. 23:20 f.),
joined again for a true theology distorted
521 THINK, THOUGHT

(2) is differentiated from angels in his accept- experiences of salvation are dependent on
ance of worship (Judg. 5 : 14 I.; cf. Rev.19: 10; knowledge attained in a special way from the
22:8 f.), (3) is called by a messianic title world of spirit either directly or through teach-
(Judg.13:18; cf. Isa. 9:6; also cf. Ex. 3:14 ers reincarnated. The incarnation of the su-
with John 8:58), (4) is described as Re- preme teacher is a Christ.
deemer (Gen. 48:15 f.; Isa. 63:9), (5) is BIBIJOGRAPHY
predicted as the angel (messenger) Of the new B®E£.,°fie'ucd#=sF#£eceacnul°tsf.Theosopky;_1.K.Van
covenant (Mal. 3: I [Heb.]; cf. also Ex.14: 19; E. SrvERTSEN
23:20 £f.; 32:34; 33:2, 14 £. with I Col.
10:4), and (6) is equated with Christ's king- THHOTOKOS. See MOTHER oF GOD.
ship (Josh. 5: 13-15; cf. Rev.19: 11-16).
Theologically, the theophanies ( 1 ) corrobo- THERAPEUTAE. A monastic sect which
rate the OT doctrine of the Trinity (Isa. 6: I- maintained an establishment at Lake Mareotis
3, 8), (2) anticipate the NT doctrine Of in Egypt around the beginning of the Chris-
Christ's incarnation (John 1:14; 8:56), and tian era. The name probably denotes worship-
(3) typify the biblical doctrine of God's eter- ers rather than healers. Philo's treatise, TJte
nal dwelling among the redeemed (cf. Ex. Con.emphaive Life, is the one source of in-
25:8; 29:45 £.; Lev. 37:27 £. with Rev. 21:3, formation about them. He describes the com-
22; 22:3-5). munity as containing both men and women
See also AINGEL. who devoted themselves to a studious and pray-
WICK BROOMALL erful life. To this end they gave up their
worldly |>ossessions and lived on a simple diet
THEOPHOROI. From theopJ®oros (God- with fastings. In their studies they made use
bearing or God-bone), this term seems some- of the OT and writings of ancient men. Their
times to have been used Of early Christians as method Of interpretation was allegorical. Not
those who are indwelt by Christ or his Spirit. only did they observe the sabbath, but every
Thus Ignatius of Antioch (martyred c¢. A.I). fifty days they had a night-long convacation
Ilo) bore the title or name Theophoros, al- marked by an edifying discourse followed by
though this was explained by some to be due a meal of leavened bread and water and hys-
to the fact that he was one of the infants car- sop, then singing and a choral dance. This
ried and blessed by Jesus. In the Middle Ages group, highly praised by Philo for having at-
an adjecdval form (theophoric) was sometimes tained the true excellence of life, belongs to
used of those who in processions carried the hellenistic Judaism. No connection with the
monstrance containing the sacred host and Essenes is apparent.
therefore, as it was supposed, the substance Of Eusebius, however, claimed them as early
the body Of the divine Son. Christian converts, prototypes of the strong
GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY monastic movement which flourished in Egypt.
His arguments are entirely inconclusive, but
THEOSOPHY. Simply construed, the his opinion prevailed until modem times. Lu~
term means God-wisdom, but since the the- cius (1879) questioned the authenticity Of
osophist does not lay claim to knowledge that The Contemplative Life, assigning it to a date
is a revelation from God, but knowledge that shortly before Eusebius' time and regarding it
is attained (through astral faculties) the term as a writing intended to exalt asceticism. Mod-
can at best mean divine wisdom. em research, by Conybeare and by Wendland
In a more accurate way the term is con- in particular, has tended to demonstrate its
strued as extra-temporal wisdom because its Philonic character.
attainment depends on the theosophist's experi- BIBIJOGRAPHY
ence of withdrawing into the mental body, xvi:.h];]3: f2dr4e; |f#:Off:t't':ijvfiEEj£:J. Eusebius, HE, 11.
there to find the answers to life's secrets from EVERETT F. HARRISON
spirits or to be taught by re-incamated teach-
ers. THINK, THOUGHT. Only the more im-
Theosophy, then, is a kind Of religion portant terms can be noted here. In the OT
propagated by the American Theosophical Scr pe5a! is the most frequently used and the most
ciety and those of like mind. The term stands varied in meaning-to reckon, impute, sup-
for an autosoteriological religious system. Tlie pose, devise, reflect on, plan (Mal. 3: 16; Jer.
THOMISM 522

29 : 11). Its conesponding noun, n¢azld5e9e!, is order to safeguard the purity Of the truth com-
the most commonly used word for thought. municated through them, this need not mean
Other verbs are '6i.Car, to say (to oneself), as that their mental faculties were dormant dur-
in 11 Kings 5:11, and dr-m4, to liken, to de- ing the process. Rather, it would seem that
vise (Esth. 4: 13). they must have been stimulated. We have
Among the NT verbs are doke6, to suppose, clear testimony, at any rate, that the prophets
to have an opinion (Luke 24:37); e7itJ®y7#eo- gave themselves to ref lection and industrious
maj, to reflect on (Matt. 1:20); JiGgeor#¢;, to research into the meaning of the messages
consider, regard, esteem (11 Pet. I : 13; I Thess. given to them (I Pet. I : 10-11).
5 : 13); fogjzo7riaj, to reckon, estimate, consider See also MIND.
(Ron. 2:3; Phil. 4:8); i¢o7#jz6, to account, EVEREIT F. HARRISoN
suppose (Matt. 5:17; Acts 16:13); "oe6, to
perceive, understand, consider (I Tim. 1:7; THOMISM. The world view of Thomas
11 Tim. 2:7); phro7®e6, to take a viewpoint (I
Aquinas ( 1225-74). Thomistic theology deals
Cor.13: 11), to set the mind upon (Col. 3:2),
with tnith on the authority of reveladon,
to be earnestly disposed (Phil. 2:5), to be
Thomistic philosophy with truth accessible to
concerned (Phil. 4: 10). Somewhat apart from
unaided reason. God is the unifying element in
these is i.¢erit»7¢a6, to have anxious thought
theology and philosophy, for the source of all
(Luke 10:41).
truth must at the same time be the source Of
The principal Greek nouns are diefogismos, all being. Revelation and reason, thus, cannot
reasoning, usually with a bad connotation be in contradiction.
(Matt. 15:19); czja«oja, understanding, By-passing Plato and reviving Aristotle,
thought, attitude (Eph. 4:18; Col. 1:21);
Aquinas denies that man enjoys an innate
e7.thy7ne-sis, reflection, idea (Acts 17:29; Heb.
knowledge of God's existence. Reason must in-
4:12); e#"ojo, insight (I Pet. 4:1); vows,
fer the exis.tence Of God from the ef fects Of
which may indicate the content Of the mind
God in nature. Aquinas defended five proofs
as well as the mind itself (Ron.11:34), and
for God's existence: from motion, efficient
pJ„o7®g"¢¢, way Of thinking, bent of thought cause, potentiality, degrees of being, and tele-
(Ron. 8,6). ology. These arguments reduce to one, namely,
A few observations may be made upon the that the suff icient reason for any existing thing
place given to thought in the Bit>le. There is necessarily implies the being of God. If any-
little emphasis upon pure intellection of the thing exists, something necessarily exists; for
Greek philosophical sort. The reason for this from nothing, nothing can come.
is that in the biblical setting thought moves in
dependence upon God and his revelation. To Since the essence of God exceeds the capaci-
think God's thoughts af ter him is the highest ty of the human mind, reason can only enu-
exercise of the mind. To think in independ- merate the divine attributes. God is known by
ence of God is to think contrary to his will what he is not. He is not in time; he has
and purpose. The thoughts of the wicked are neither matter nor potency. In sum, God is
vain. simple being. This simplicity excludes every-
thing not reducible to being as such. God is
Scripture insists on the connection between
being in itself , whereas everything else derives
thought and deed and between thoucht and
its being from God. Created being is good, for
character. The inner life must be kept with
it resembles God's inherent goodness.
all diligence, for out of it are the issues Of
life. Injunctions to hear the word Of God are Creation can only be dimly grasped by rea-
admonitions to hear it with thoughtfulness, to son. Creation is not logical sequence, for the
heed its teaching. In the area of sanctification, world would then have come of necessity. It
pivotal importance is assigned to the process is not temporal, for thcte was no time till
of reckoning oneself dead unto sin and alive creation. It is not motion, for in motion some-
unto God (Ron. 6: 11). thing changes while something remains un-
The communication of revelation to the changed. The world could never be discovered
writers of the Bible raises problems incident by examining God. Creation is an act, though
to the degree and nature Of human participa- reason imagines it under the form of change.
tion. However much it may be felt necessary God could have created an inf inite number Of
to emphasize the passivity Of the whters in worlds. The actual world is the best there is,
523 TIME

though not necessarily the best there might Symbolically, the throne was emblematic
be. of supreme power and dignity (Gen. 41 :40),
Angels (a.v.) are pure spirits; they enjoy the and hence was attributed to Jehovah both in
highest degree Of created perfection. Angels respect to his heavenly abode (Pss. 11:4;
are demonstrated on the assumption that God 103: 19; Isa. 66: I; Acts 7:49; Rev. 4:2), or to
willed a plenitude Of being. Since God created his earthly abode at Jerusalem (Jer. 3:17),
higher creatures in greater abundance, the and more particularly in the temple (Jer.
number Of -angels is enormous. Angels differ 17:12; Ezek. 43:7). Similarly, "to sit upon
from God because their essence is not identical the throne" implied the exercise Of regal power
with their existence. (Deut.17: 18; I Kings 16: 11; 11 Kings 10:30;
Aquinas followed Aristotle in conceiving the Esth. 1:2), and "to sit upon the throne Of
world as a series of seven concentric planetary another person" means succession to the royal
spheres. These spheres are contained within dignity (I Kings 1 : 13). In Col.1 : 16 "thrones"
an eighth sphere, forming the fixed stars and apparently designates celestial beings rather
having the earth as their physical center. than earthly potentates.
Man is a composite of body and soul. His Of special importance in messianic prophecy
body is not evil, for matter is good in itself . is the right to occupy ``the throne Of David"
The soul is the intellectual principle, the form (11 Sam. 7:13,16; Luke 1:32).
of the body. Matter is the passive agent in in- D. H. WALTERS
dividuation, while form is the active agent.
Thomism marks the highest point in medie- TIME. The definition of time (chro#os) is
val scholasticism. one of the most vexing problems of philosophy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY The Bible presents a distinctive conception of
cE##%£#n=gEL#emG¥ortyTh#e#f#thoalsalap_kys„ofm%. time, reflected especially by its peculiar use
Of the terms hajros and ¢fo-7c. Instead of view-
EDWARD JOHN CARNELL ing time abstractly as a problem, it regards
THRONE. Both literal and symbolic uses time as a created sphere in which God's re-
are found in Scripture. The Hebrew kjssG' demptive plan is actualized.
signifies any elevated seat occupied by a per- In the usual secular sense, ha;ros refers to
son of honor..In a country where people usual- a definite point Of time especially appropriate
ly squatted or reclined, the use of a chair was for a given undertaking (Acts 24:25), ajo-#
already a token of dignity (cf. 11 Kings 4: 10; to an extent of time (stipulated or unstipu-
Prov. 9:14). In order to specify a throne in lated). The NT builds on this usage with a
our sense of the term, it was necessary to add special eye to redemptive history (John 7:6),
to kjssg' the idea of royalty or some office such in which divine determination (Acts I : 7), not
as that of the high priest (I Sam. I :9), a judge human deliberation, constitutes a given mo-
(Ps.122:5), or a military leader (Jer.I:15). ment or age the appropriate time of God's
Royalty is reflected in the phrase "the throne working. ``Because . . . the divine plan of salva-
of the kingdom" (Deut. 17: 18; I Kings I :46; tion is bound to such time points or kczjrof
11 Chron. 7: 18). chosen by God ,... it is . . . redemptive 7}is-
The characteristic feature of the royal throne tory. Not all fragments of ongoing time con-
was its elevation-Solomon's throne was ap- stitute redemptive history in the narrower
sense, but rather . . . these kc}jroi singled out
|)roached by six steps (I Kings 10:19; 11
Chron. 9:18), and Jehovah's throne is de- from time as a whole" (Oscar Cullmann,
scribed as "high and lifted up" (Isa. 6: I ). The Christ a7®d Tiowe, pp. 40 f.).
material and workmanship were costly -that While the NT gives prominent scope to the
Of Solomon is described as a throne Of ivory future kczjroj associated with the eschatological
(i.e., inlaid with ivory) and overlaid with pure drama, its central hajros is the life and death
gold in all parts except the ivory in-lay. The and resurrection of the incarnate Christ, which
king sat on his throne on state occasions, as is decisively significant for the kingdom of
when granting audience (I Kings 2: 19; 22: 10; God. The terms "day (of the Lord)" and
``hour," "now" and "today" likewise gain dra-
Esth. 5:1), receivin.g homage (11 Kings
11 : 19), or administering justice (Prov. 20:8). matic significance in the NT context when-
At such times. he appeared in his royal robes ever the eternal order and redemptive history
(I Kings 22: 10; Jonah 3:6; Acts 12:21). impinges upon the sweep of ordinary events.
TIME 524

The interconnected redemptive hajroj supply the expense of theistic interpretations Of reality,
the threadline of salvation history. Yet the di- appealed to modem evolutionary views as lift-
vine ho;roj at the same time secretly enfold ing time to decisive importance. Its notion that
the entire secular movement of time (Acts time itself actualizes new forms of life was
17:26) for the fulfilment, often unwittingly, more popularly held in the first half century
o£ God's ultimate purposes. after Darwin than today, when speculative in-
As the hairos is a decisive momentary un- terest in emergent evolution is enlarging. Both
veiling of the eternal, so the ¢jo-7® discloses the ap|)roaches usually retain the expectation of a
Lord of ages who divides the long sweep of higher goal to which the temporal process
time according to his own purposes. The hajroi moves, thus reflecting a secret indebtedness of
are decisive turning points within the larger modern theories of progress to the biblical doc-
¢jo-7®a, The Bible brackets history with an eye trine Of the kingdom of God, which specula-
on the age of promise, the age of fulfilment, tive expositions strip of its supernatural fea-
and the age to come. tures.
Man's transition to the etemal order will not Outside the stream Of biblical theology, vir-
involve him in the supersession of temporal tually the whole movement of ancient religion
experience since, although redeemed, he re- and philosophy depreciated the significance Of
mains a creature (Rev. 10:6, ``there will be no the temporal order. Not all religions Of the
more time," teaches not the cessation of time, Orient indeed shared the notion of nirvana,
but the expiration of opportunity. The word peculiar to Buddhism, with its emphasis on
here means "delay"). history and personal existence as evil and its
Modern philosophy characteristically affirms expectation of bliss through annihilation or by
that it takes time more seriously than did an- absorption into the divine rather than through
cient or medieval philosophy. Classic Greek historical redemption, but none of them rose to
thought dissolved the significance of the ten- the biblical emphasis that history displays a
poral world, depicting it as illusory shadow purposive movement to an intelligent, moral
alongside the eternal ideas and forms (cf . goal. The non-biblical religions and specula-
ETERNITY). The influence of Platonic and tions of antiquity did not escape the cycle
Aristotelian thought upon medieval scholars theory of history as a series of recurring ages;
served to divert attention from the unique in fact, this conception was sometimes spiritual-
biblical view of history to the revealed truths ized by designating the process ``God" along
of Judeo-Christian religion, although the im- pantheistic lines. While Zoroastrianism (a.v,)
made more room for ethical teleology through
portance of historical revelation and redemp-
tion remained central in the great creeds. Mod- its insistence on two eternal principles, Good
em idealistic philosophy shunned the historical and Evil, its unrelieved dualism excluded an
and temporal as bearing eternal meaning and abiding significance for history. In fact, while
significance at any point and therefore was shunning the notion of eternal recurrence,
hostile, even if of ten in a conc.ealed manner, Zoroastrianism nonetheless divided the world
to the doctrines of Christ's unique incarnation movement into four ages.
and atonement. Led by Hegel, however, mod- Nowhere does the importance of time come
em idealism placed time and history in the into view as in biblical teaching. While time
very nature of the Absolute. Thus it simul- is not ultimate, it is the divinely created sphere
taneously minimized the uniqueness of biblical of God's preserving and redemptive work, and
history and exaggerated the spirituality of his- the arena of man's decision on his way to an
tory in general by viewing all as divine process. eternal destiny. History moves toward a divine
In two ways this prof oundly unbiblical specu- goal involving the redemption of the elect by
lation retained nonetheless a debt to the biblical the Creator and Lord Of the universe. Within
view. Against the depreciation of the temporal this historical matrix, every thought, word and
by classic ancient philosophy, it stressed God's deed has repercussions in the eternal moral
aggressive interest in history; and against cy- order. Richard Kroner aptly summarizes the
clical views of history as a process of recurring biblical philosophy: "History has a beginning
ages, it emphasized that the time process moves in God, it has its center in Christ and its end
towards a perfect goal. in the final consummation and the Last Judg-
Equally signif icant, evolutionary naturalism, ment" (ER: "Philosophy o£ History," p. 582.
returning to the Greek cosmacent.ric outlook at New York: The Philosophical Library, 1945).
525 TOLERATION

Oscar Cullmann emphasizes that, as against (Mal. 3:7-12). (4) Significantly, the tithe is
the Jewish conception of a linear history still not introduced as a part of the restored temple
awaiting its climax (the Christ-event coin- and priesthood in Ezekiel's vision (Ezek. 40 -
ciding with the Parousia), in the Christian 48).
view the center of history lies in a past event The NT is all but silent on the tithe. Christ
rather than in the eschatological future (the rebuked the Pharisees for their legalistic ob-
death and resurrection Of Jesus of Nazareth servance of it (Luke 18:9-14) and for their
decisively controls the time-line thereafter). placing it above justice and the love of God
Cullmann properly wams against excessive (Matt. 23:23). A final reference in Hebrews
disjunctions of time and eternity by Kierke- 7:2-9 (citing Abraham's tithe to Melchizedek)
gaard, Barth, Brunner and Bultmann. But his concludes what the NT says on the subject.
own alternative impairs the unique eternity of The silence of the NT writers, particularly
God (see ETERNITY). Moreover, Cullmann's Paul, regarding the present validity of the
biblical realism is threatened by concessions to tithe can be explained only on the ground that
the notion of "temporal, non-historical myth" the dispensation of grace has no more place
to which he reduces much in the biblical nar- for a law on tithing than it has for a law on
ratives Of the beginning and the end. If such circumcision. The principles of Christian giv-
myth actually preserves the continuity of the ing are clearly set forth in Paul's letters to
temporal line, why may not all biblical events the Corinthian church (I Cor. 16: 1 f.; 11 Cor.
be reduced to this status, and the second Adam 8-9). These do not exclude the tithe as a con-
be dismissed on the same pattern as the first venient basis for proportionate giving, nor do
Adam? they limit one to the tithe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blunt; HDAC; HDB; HERE; ISBE.

Ea¥inrlfrh:r;l;:,:;###asr'sh:]I:T2me§,fl7;inofiTCwu£]; WICK BRooMALL

CARL F. H. HENRY TOLERATION. From the Latin to]erfli-e,
meaning ``to endure." When the term is used
TITHES. The following words express the strictly, the acceptance of something not re-
concept of a tithe:`6Sc}r (Gen. 28:22 bis; Deut.
garded as ideal is indicated. It may be used to
14:22 bis; 26:12; I Sam. 8:15,17;`Neh.
refer to an allowable inaccuracy in the dimen-
10:37-38); "a`Gs'Gr (Gen.14:20; Lev. 27:30, sions and operation of the parts of a machine,
31, 32; Nun. 18:21, 24, 26 bis, 28; Deut. or to the ability of an organism to function ac-
12:6,11,17; 14:23, 28; 26:12 bis; 11 Chron. ceptably despite the presence in it of poi-
31:5-6 bis, 12; Neh. 10:37-38 bis; 12:44; sions or drugs. More commonly, it indicates
13:5,12; Ezek. 45:11,14; Amos 4:4; Mal. the permission of, or patience in the i]resence
3:8,10); c3ek¢to6 (Heb. 7:6, 9); c}podek¢too- of, opinions or practices that are not regarded
(Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42; Heb. 7:5); as really good or of persons identified with
apoczekete"o-(Luke 18 : 12); and c]ehatG (Heb. such opinions or practices. In this stricter sense
7:2, 4, 8-9). of the term, the superiority of those who ex-
The basic OT facts may be summarized tend toleration is clearly implied or asserted.
thus: (1) The tithe was recognized in patri- Thus the Act o£ William and Mary, 1689, (cf.
archal times (Gen. 14:20; 28:22). (2) In Gee and Hardy, Doc.uments Illusti.alive of tl®e
the Mosaic legislation the tithe, belonging es- mstory of the English Church, pp. 654 ££.)
sentially to the Lord (Lev. 27:30-33), was which legally establishes one church but per-
given to the Levites because of their priestly nits, under specif ic restrictions, the existence
service and because of their non-inheritance of "dissenting" religious bodies, is properly
in Israel (Num. 18:21-32). Modifications- called The Toleration Act. To receive tolera-
but not contradictions -of the law appear in tion in this sense is scarcely flattering, but it
the legislation (Deut. 12:5-19; 14:22-29; may be demanded and accepted as the best
26: 12-15) designed for the settlement in Pal- obtainable.
estine. (3) In subsequent history the tithe is When, however, general appeals for "tolera-
recognized (11 Chron. 3]:5 f., 12; Neh. tion" are issued, as has become common since,
10:37 f.; 12:44; 13:5,12); however, it ap- for example, John Locke's "Letter on Tolera-
pears that this law was either perverted into tion," 1685, the judgment that one opinion, or
legalism (Amos 4:4) or diverted into oblivion one group, is superior, though still implied, is
TONGUES, GIFT OF 526

not emphasized. They are usually contentions means the revelation made by God and deliv-
that other opinions than one's own, and the ered to his faithful people through the mouth
people holding them, ate to be treated with of his prophets and apostles. It does not mean
respect. A typical modem example is Roland something `handed down' but something
`handed over." C0xford Dictionary of the
H. Bainton's, The Travail of Religious Liberty
(obtainable as a Harper Torchbook). Christian Church, Oxford University Press,
ANDREW KERR RULE London,1957, p.1369). HERE (xii, p. 411)
is nearer popular usage when it says, "The
TONGUES, GIFT OF. See SplRITUAI. word `tradition' means, etymologically, `hand-
GIFTS. ing over.' The conception of `tradition,' there-
fore, implies (a) a `deposit' which is handed
TOTAL DEPRAVITY. See DEPRAvlT¥, over, and (b) `depositaries,' i.e., persons who
TOTAI- are in possession of the deposit, and are com-
missioned to preserve it and transmit it to suc-
TRACTARIANISM. A movement launched cessors." Popular usage, even among theolo-
in 1833 through a series of Trczcts for the Tj"¢es gians, stresses, however, the unwlitten aspect
by a group of Anglican clergymen at Oxf ord of tradition, which is therefore normally re-
(hence also called The Oxford Movement). gard`ed as less reliable than written documents.
Prominent were the poet John Keble, R. Hurrell /ewEric
Froude, John Henry Newman, leader of the "doctrines(xii, p. 213)transmitted
and sayings defines tradition as
from father
movement, and Dr. E. 8. Pusey. Stimulated by to son by word of mouth, and thus preserved
the new Romantic interest in the (idealized) among the people." In our understanding of
Middle Ages and the Catholic Revival in France, tradition we must distinguish clearly between
alarmed by the rising political power of the that which is handed down officially as a
largely irreligious lower classes, Nonconform- "deposit," memories of the past of uncertain
ists and Roman Catholics (now emancipated antiquity, and customs which by virtue of long
from legal disablements), dissatisfied with the usage have come by some to be regarded as of
rationalism, worldliness and ineffectiveness of binding force.
most of the clergy except the Evangelicals, the
11. ORAL TRADITloN. The scholar is rightly
Tractarians asserted the doctrine of Apostolic
sceptical of information based on a long period
Succession of the Anglican clergy and the in-
of popular memory. Recent research has es-
dependence and supremacy of the Church o£
tablished that where such tradition existed in
England vjs-A-v;s the state. These views cul-
a stable society, was publicly recited at
minated in Tract 90, written by Newman in
major religious or secular festivals and was
1841, with its proposal that the Anglican
checkable by written records (all Of which con-
formularies should all be interpreted in a Ro-
ditions existed in early Israel), it may be re-
man Catholic sense. A complete return to all
the main pre-Reformation beliefs and practices garded as fundamentally reliable (cf. Albright:
Fro7# the Sto#e Age to C7"isfi¢#jty, pp. 33 £f.,
was clearly implied. Newman followed these
40-43). Nyberg (Studien zurm Hoseabueh) a.-
convictions to their logical conclusion, being
received into the Church of Rome in 1845 gued that the oral transmission of at least some
of the earlier OT books is in fact a better
and becoming a cardinal in 1879. Many An-
guarantee of their accuracy than the writing
glo-Catholics (the modem name) have fol- of the time.
lowed him since. Nevertheless, moderate An-
Ill. TRADITloN AND SCRIPTURE. Without
glo-Catholic influences have increased to a
entering into the difficult and controversial
position of dominance in the Church of Eng-
land, particularly among the bishops. Anglo- question of the formation of the canon Of
Catholics have revived monasticism and are Scripture it is clear that considerable portions
noted for their insistence on ritual and some of the information in it must for longer or
devoted work in slum parishes. The movement shorter time have been passed down orally
has never commanded the allegiance of a large (c£.11 Tim.I:13; 2:2; I Col.15:13; 11:23
section of the laity. (p¢r¢ha7"Z7¢73o- apo, c£. Amdt p. 87b), etc.).
0. RAYMOND JOHNSTON Few would question K. Barth's dictu-in, "It is,
of course, obvious that there is a tradition
TRADITION. I. DEFINITloN. "In the early which is older than Holy Scripture and on
Christian Fathers, tradition (pflr¢dosjs, trc]ditjo) which Holy Scripture as such is founded: it is
527 TRADUCIANISM

the way from revelation as such to its scrip- biblical account in his A„t].qt4itjes. Even for
tural attestation" (C7lwrc7® Dogow¢t;cs, the Post-Exilic and Intertestamental periods
E.T.
T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh,1956,I, 2, p. 552). he tells us little that is new until he can base
This does not give tradition any authorita- himself on the work of Nicholas of Damascus,
tive coexistence with Scripture. As soon as Herod the Great's historian. There is adequate
Holy Scripture has come into existence by di- evidence of a priestly, cultic tradition, in part
vine inspiration, all tradition left outside it, of great antiquity, some of which is preserved
even if it could be proved to be factually true, in the Mishnah, but while it enables us to re-
has to bow to the authority of Scripture and construct the cult background of the life of
be interpreted by it. It could, theoretically, il- Christ (e.g., Edersheim: T7ie Te7"p!e), it is
lustrate the truth; it cannot interpret it. too uncertain to be authoritative in the inter-
It is entirely illegitimate to try to penetrate pretation of the OT. The rabbinic tradition
from Scripture to the tradition behind it, as found in the Talmud and Midrashim, with
is done especially by Form Criticism (q.v.), the exception of a few older portions of the
in the hope of reaching more objective truth. Mishnah, cannot be used without great care
This is a denial of the reality of inspiration for the period before A.D. 70, and the nearer
and ignores that in both OT and NT we are it comes to the Maccabean period ~ it may be
dealing with a tradition carefully fixed and ignored for almost everything earlier - the less
handed down from the first, not with random valuable it becomes. Nor has Qumran revealed
memories that might be embroidered in the the Essenes as possessors of a valid tradition.
telling. In other words there is no valid tradition ex-
IV. THE VALUE oF TRADITloN. Where tant, Jewish or Christian, that would enable
there is evidence that tradition has been care- us to supplement or give an authoritative in-
fully preserved, we value its historical testi- terpretation to Scripture.
mony, though we subordinate it to the il- BIBLIOGRAPHY
lumination of the Spirit in the interpretation
of Scripture. The most striking example Of this b%g#.%:?EE;.fT?#:e:Set:#;§.#;5`4STa:p:j¥]?,"i?IC;.pFsi:5F3°%'r~Tr!£
is the Masoretic Text of the OT. Though H. L. ELLlsoN
this did not take its present definitive form
till the sixth to ninth centuries A.D. -the con- TRADUCIANISM. This is one of four
sonantal text is attested by the Qumran dis- theories of the origin of the individual soul, i.c.,
coveries as existing essentially in its present that the soul, as well as the body, co\hcs from
form in the first century B.c. -increasingly the parents. Alternatives are: ( 1 ) Pre-existcncc
modern scholars are loath to leave it unless the of all souls; held by e.g., Origen and Mormons;
clear sense and divergent traditions of the ver- (2) Reincarnation (see METEMps¥cHosls);
sions demand it. In the RSV probably 98 per (3) Creationism (q.v.), whereby God creates a
cent of the translation remains true to the fresh soul for each body.
Masoretic tradition. Direct biblical evidence is non-existent, and
V. THE LIMITATIONS oF TRADITloN. It is conclusions must be based on deductions. In
a striking fact that whenever we turn to Ante- favor of traducianism: (1) God's breathing
Nicene exegesis for light on more difficult NT into man the breath of life is not said to be
passages, we find the most divergent views. repeated after Adam (Gen. 2:7); (2) Adam
There is clearly no authoritative theological begat a son in his own likeness (Gen. 5:3);
tradition linking the apostles with the second (3) God's resting (Gen. 2:2-3) suggests no
century. This is confirmed by the writings Of fresh acts of creation ex 7®ibi]o,. and (4) orig-
the sub-apostolic fathers, all Of whom deviate inal sin affects the whole man, including the
from the standard of the NT in some respect. soul; this is simply accounted for by traducian-
It is clear that the only tradition that has any ism.
real claim to link with the apostolic church Traducianism was held by Tert`illian and
is the type of anecdote that Papias collected. many Westerns; since the Reformation by
We find much the same position in Jewish Lutherans; also by the Eastern Church. Ro-
tradition. Josephus, as priest and Pharisee, had man Catholics and most Reformed theologians
access to the two main sources of tradition of are creationists, though Shedd and Strong
his time. Yet few would attribute value to favor traducianism. Modern studies in heredity
most of the few additions he can make to the and I)s}'chosomatic unity are indccisi\'c`, but
TRANSCENDENCE 528

can easily be interpreted on the traducianist Dhal,1840-44, while its ideals of social brother-
side, hood were tried unsuccessfully at the Brook
BIBLIOGRAPHY Farm community, led by George Ripley.
A. H. Strong, Systematic Tbeology, V. I. iv. Transcendentalism is more widely used to
J. STAFFORD WRIGHT designate all objective idealists, regardless Of
individual differences, often carrying an im-
TRANSCENDENCE. A theological term, plication of unwarranted idealism.
referring to the relation of God to creation. It BIBIJOGRAPHY
may mean (1) difference or ``othemess"; (2)
distance or remoteness. In the OT Ex. 24; Isa.
6:1; 40:12-26; Ezek.1 might seem to imply
#ai":s%B#¥?af:!:T##£::'#:a;#£?#;:
12, pp. 399+00; D. MacKenzie, HERE, 12, pp. 419-25.
remoteness. But in Isa. 57: 15; Ezek.11:22-23
JACK P. LEWIS
God's transcendent holiness and glory is com-
patible with his gracious presence. H€ is the TRANSFIGURATION. The verb 7neta-
holy one in the midst (Hos. 11:9), inde- 7"orphoo- is found in three connections in the
pendent and different from his creatures (Isa. NT, first and foremost of that mysterious
55:8-9), yet near in providence and grace change which came over the appearance o£
(Ps. 139). During the intertestamental period Jesus on the mount (Matt. 17:2; Mark 9:2),
the remoteness of divine transcendence was then of the growing moral likeness to Christ
overemphasized e.g., in not using the divine which believers experience in this life (11 Cor.
name. The incarnation and the c.oming of the 3: 18), an experience quite in contrast to con-
Holy Spirit fulfils the OT revelation in the fomity to the present age (Ron. 12:2).
New (Matt. I:23; John 14:14-15, 23). In Clearly the transfiguration incident is in-
highest glory Christ is above his church, yet as tended to be understood as a tuning point in
the Head who is also one with it (Col.I: 18;
Jesus' ministry. From this time on he gave
2:9-10; Heb. 4:14-15; Rev. 1:10-20). The himself less to instruction of the multitudes and
Colossian heresy overemphasized remoteness more to the training of the Twelve. From this
(Col. 2:18-23) and its repetition is evident time on he was mastered by the necessity of
later in Arianism, Socinianism and Deism.
going to Jerusalem to die. The story is told
See also ATTRIBUTEs, DlvlNE. naturally, despite its unusual features. But it
GEORGE J. C. MARCHANT is not accompanied by interpretation. So the
reader must look to the broad context, and
TRANSCENDENTALISM. The term there he finds a logical connection in the
transcendental was used by the Scholastics to Caesarea-Philippi episode one week earlier.
designate properties of objects that transcend The announcement of Jesus that he must go
the ten Aristotelian categories. It was after to Jerusalem to die and then be raised from
Kant applied it to those elements that were the dead shocked the disciples beyond meas-
constituents of experience but which did not ure. Of the week which followed nothing is
come through sense-perception, that it began recorded. Tension was high. Some new dis-
to assume its distinctive meaning. With fur- closure was called for. This time it was given
ther impetus from Schelling, "Transcendental- to the select circle of Peter, James and John,
ism" came to designate German idealism in and it did not come merely from Jesus' lips;
but it was confirmed out of the lips of two
general. Through the influence of Coleridge
its ideas passed into English thought to take representatives of the old covenant, Moses and
unique form in New England after 1836. Elijah. Furthermore, it received the endorse-
Iiere it was used to designate the varied ment of God himself, who instructed the three
eclectic circles in which Emerson, Margaret to listen to his Son, with obvious reference to
Fuller, Theodore Parker, and other kindred the very matter whichhad proved a stumbling
spirits moved. The group represented a reac- block to their faith, namely, the necessity that
tion against materialism and Unitarianism, the Messiah should suffer death.
while at the same time stressing intuitive There is no suggestion that this experience
knowledge -the inspiration of the individual came to Jesus to sharpen his convictions or
soul -and optimism concerning human nature. bolster a wavering determination to fulfil God's
The best literary expression of the movement purpose. Emphasis falls on the value of the
came through a quarterly publication, TJ}e experience for the disciples. Christ was trams-
529 TRANSLATION

figured before them, and the Father's voice is seen in its unity. Here we perceive that the
was directed to them rather than to the Son. living and the dead are one in Christ, that the
The connection with OT revelation is es- old covenant and the new are inseparable,
tablished by means of the glory-light and the that the cross and the glory are of one, that
cloud, which had previously been united in the age to come is already here, that our
the shekinah, as well as by the divine voice human nature has a destiny of glory, that in
and the presence of leading saints of olden Christ the final word is uttered and in Him
days. Revelation which was then incomplete alone the Father is well I)leased. Here the di-
comes to fulness now (cf. Heb.1:I-3). The verse elements in the theology of the New
connection with the baptism is made by the Testament meet" CThe Glory of God and the
Father's voice, the title Son, and by the very Transfiguration of Christ, Long"ns, Gleen
significance of the baptism as pointing ahead and Co., London, 1949, p. 144).
to the cross. The connection with the tempta- See also GLORY.
tion appears in the acceptance of the path Of BIBLIOGRAPHY
suffering rather than a grasping af ter imme-
diate glory. The transfiguration has its proper #i#tgei:n:3;,!5::S;I:;a:tt4G##,:o#nfi#ikiteaS;:;:a!,:-
sequel in Gethsemane, for there the commis- natural.r.ess of Cmrist, pD. \65-85.
sion which Christ accepted at the baptism and EVERETT F. HARRISON
shared with the disciples as a f ixed purpose at
Caesarea-Philippi is accepted afresh in its ter- TRANSGRESSION. See SIN.
rifying reality. The connection with the resur-
rection is apparent from Jesus' caution to the TRANSLATION. The translation of
three disciples to maintain silence about what Enoch and Elijah and the future translation of
they had seen on the mount until the Son of the saints at the second advent constitute the
Man should rise from the dead (Mark 9:9). scope Of the present article.
The connection with the future glory Of the Enoch was a godly man whose life was
messianic kingdom is suggested by the words pleasing to the Lord (Gen. 5:22 ff.). Like
of Jesus about some of his company being Noah, he was a preacher of righteousness to
privileged to see the kingdom in its manifested an ungodly generation (Jude 14 f.). His trans-
power (Mark 9: 1). A similar use is made of lation was (I) accomplished by God (Gen.
the transfiguration in 11 Pet. I : 16-18. 5:24); (2) prompted by faith (Heb.11:5)
Critical attempts to make this incident a and (3) rewarded by heaven (Heb. 11 : 5).
throwback from the post-resurrection appear- Elijah also was a godly man. His translation
ances have failed. Nowhere in the appearances was (I) announced (11 Kings 2:1); (2)
does Jesus possess the dazzling brilliance de- known by others (11 Kings 2:2-9); (3) ac-
scribed here. Uniformly he is represented as complished by God (11 Kings 2:1, 9); (4)
speaking to the disciples when he manifested plainly visible (11 Kings 2:11) and (5) per-
himself to them. This is not true here; he manent (11 Kings 2:12). On the mount of
merely converses with Moses and Elijah. Fur- transfiguration Elijah appeared with the glori-
ther, Christ always shows himself in solitary fied Lord (Matt.17:3).
fashion after his resurrection, but here he is There are two translations of the saints. The
accompanied by the men from the past. The first is primarily spiritual and is synonymous
divine voice is not a feature of the resurrec- with regeneration. This translation, initiated
tion appearances, but it has a prominent role by God (Col.I:13) and prompted by faith
in the incident before us. (John 5:24), transfers believers from Satan's
The lesson to be gleaned from the trams- kingdom to Christ's kingdom (Col. I : 13) and
figuration for Saviour and disciple alike is the issues in the forgiveness of their sins (Acts
inseparable yoking of suft`ering and glory. The 26: 18). By this spiritual translation their real
cross is the will of God. It is the path to the citizenship is in heaven (Phil. 3:20, ASV).
splendor of rewarding bliss. There is a further The second and final translation of believers
lesson, perhaps. The place of prayer is the is primarily physical and is synoriymous with
place of transfiguration (Luke 9:29). the rapture (q.t7.) (I Thess. 4:13-18). This
A. M. Ramsey has well summarized the translation is (I) contingent on the Lord's re-
value of the transfiguration for the church. turn (I Cor.15:51 f.); (2) completely trans-
"It is a mirror in which the Christian mystery
forming (Phil. 3:21); (3) instantaneous (I
TRANSMIGRATION 0F SOULS 530

Cor. 15:52); (4) unannounced (I Cor. tural implement employed for separating the
15:53); (5) permanent (I Cor.15:53); and husks from the com by a rigorous process
(6) subsequent to the resurrection of dead be- known as triz7tihatjo, and which readily sug-
lievers (I Thess. 4: 16). By this translation the gests a usage illustrative Of human experience.
bodies of believers are transformed so they may Apocalyptical, eschatological, and predictive
live as citizens in the new Jenisalem (Phil. considerations lend the English word "tribula-
3:20 £.; I John 3:2 £.; Rev. 21:1-7, 9-11). tion" its major biblical interest centered in the
WICK BROOMALL great apocalypse o£ Matthew 24 (c£. Mark 13
and Luke 21) where the Greek word is
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. See thzjpsjs which means literally "a pressing to-
METEMPSYCHOSIS.
gether." The word is translated variously in
TRANSUBSTANTIATION. The theory the AV by tribulation, afflicted, affliction,
anguish, burdened, persecution, trouble. To-
Of transubstantiation, accepted by Rome as a
dogma in 1215, is an attempt to explain the gether with the verb t7iljz76 the following
statements of Christ: ``This is my body," and groupings are suggested: (I) Parable (Matt.
`This is my blood" (Mark 14:22, 24) as ap 13:21; Mark 4: 17; John 16:21). (2) Retribu-
tion (Ron. 2:9; 11 Thess.1:6; Rex 2:22).
plied to the bread and wine of the Lord's Sup-
(3) Discourse (Acts 7: 10; 7: 11; 11 Col. 8: 13;
per. It is insisted that the "is" must be taken Acts 11:19; I Cor. 7:28). (4) Apocalypse
with the strictest literalism. But to our senses
the bread and wine seem to remain exactly (Matt. 24:7, 21, 29; Mark 13:19, 24). (5)
Disciples and discipline (appointed to - I
as they were even when consecrated. There is
Thess. 3:3 and eighteen other references;
no perceptible miracle of transformation. The
explanation is f ound in terms of a distinction secure in-Ron. 8:35; Rev. 7:14; refined
by-Ron. 5:3(2); 12:12; 11 Col. 7:4; I:6;
between the scrcalled` "substance" (or tnie
comforted in-II Col.1:4; 4:17; Phil. 4:14;
reality) and the "accidents" (the specific, per-
I Thess. 3:7; succor enjoined-James I:27;
ceptible characteristics). The latter remain,
but the former, i.e., the substance of bread and 11 Cor.1:4; I Tim. 5:10). The thought con-
tained in the Greek word t71!ipsjs is best repre-
wine, is changed into that of the body and
blood Of Christ. This carries with it many sented iD the Hebrew by words derived f ron
serious consequences. 1£ Christ is substantially
the related roots 5tlq, which in the hiphil
means "to straiten," "to distress" (Deut. 28 : 53,
present, it is natural that the elements should
55, 57); Stir, "to bind up," ``to press upon,"
be adored. It can also be claimed that he is "to beset''; and Sclrar, "to oppress," ``to perse-
received by all who communicate, whether
rightly to salvation or wrongly to perdition. cute" (Nun. 10:9). Derivatives from the last
There also arises the idea of a propitiatory im- named root are found in Deut. 4:30, a passage
molation of Christ- for the temporal penalties which became contributory to Jewish eschatcr
Of sin, with all the associated scandals Of pri- logical and apocalyptic concepts by association
vate masses. The weaknesses of the theory are with the biblical term "end Of days," found in
obvious. It is not scriptural. On sharper analy- the same verse, and always connected with
sis it does not even explain the dominical the advent of the messianic age which was to
statements. It contradicts the true biblical ac- be ushered in by "birth-pangs" (Sota IX, 15;
count Of Christ's presence. It has no seoure Enoch XCIX, 4; C,1).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
patristic backing. It stands or falls with a Mishnah; R. C. Trench, Stt.dy ;n Words; M. Buber,
particular philosophical understanding. It de- For the Scke of Heonen.
stroys the true nature of a sacrament. And it LAWRENCE DUFF-FORBES
certainly perverts its proper use and gives rise
to dangerous superstitions inimical to evan-
gelical faith. TRICHOTOMY. This term, which signi-
BIBLIOGRAPHY fies a division into three parts (Greek trjcJi¢,
"in three parts"; tet#7®ei„, "cut"), is applied in
theology to the tripartite division of human
2tt££:.trc;#,a:I:%:;p;,.e;;::i;go%e;ss:oo§foz#;:,¢,;8§§:P¥ge,:#bET£T:: nature into body, soul, and spirit. This view
GEOFFREY W. BROMILE¥
developed from Plato's twofold division, body
TRIBULATION. The word ``tribulation" and soul, through Aristotle's further division
is derived from the Latin trjz7t4]„", an agricul- of the soul into an ( I) animal soul, the breath-
531 TRINITY, THE

ing, organic aspect of man's being and a (2) rivals (Deut. 5:7 ff.). Hence there can be no
rational soul, the intellectual aspect. question of tritheism.
Early Christian writers, influenced by this Yet even in the OT we have clear intima-
Greek philosophy, found confirmation Of their tions of the trinity. The frequent mention of
view in I Thess. 5:23, "And the very God of the Spirit of God (Gen. I :2 and p¢ssit") may
peace sanctify you wholly; and . . . your whole be mentioned, as also, perhaps, the angel of
spirit and soul and body be preserved blame- the Lord in Exodus (23:23). Again, the plural
less unto the coming Of our Lord Jesus Christ." in Gen. I :26 and 11 :7 is to be noted, as also
Origen even took the words so7„¢ ("body''), the plural form Of the divine name and the
psyc7ie ("soul"), and p"ewm¢ ("spirit'') as clues nature of the divine appearance to Abraham in
to the proper method Of inter|)reting all Scrip- Genesis 18. The importance of the word (Ps.
ture, suggesting that each Scripture should be 33:6) and especially the wisdom of God
interpreted (I) in its natural or somatic mean- (Prov. 8: 12 ff.) is a further pointer, and in
ing, (2) its symbolic or psychical meaning, a mysterious verse like Isa. 48: 16, in a strong-
and finally (3) in its spiritual or pneumatic ly monotheistic context, we have a very close
meaning. Such piecemeal interpretation of approach to trinitarian formulation.
Scripture or of human nature is likely to miss In the NT there is no explicit statement
the tremendous biblical emphasis upon whole- of the doctrine, (apart from the rejected I
ness and unity, where even in the Thessa- John 5:7), but the trinitarian evidence is
lonian proof-text Paul prays that they may be overwhelming. God is still preached as the one
sanctified w77ozzy and that their whoze spirit, God (Gal. 3:20). Yet Jesus proclaims his own
soul, and body may be preserved blameless. deity (John 8:58) and evokes and accepts the
Both Tertullian and Augustine held to the faith and worship of his disciples (Matt.
dichotomy (q.v.) of body and soul but leaned 16: 16; John 20:28). As the Son or Word, he
almost to the threefold analysis Of man by can thus be equated with God (John 1:I)
making the Aristotelian distinction between and associated with the Father, e.g., in the
the animal and rational soul. Present theologi- Pauline salutations (I Cor.I:3, etc.). But the
cal and psychological emphasis is almost alto- Spirit or Comforter is also brought into the
gether upon the fundamental wholeness or same interrelationship (cf. John 14-16).
unity of man's being as against all philosophi- It is not surprising, therefore, that while we
cal attempts to divide it. have no dogmatic statement there are clear
BIBLIOGRAPHY references to the three persons of the Godhead
Tfhha#E#,%:p%#§#?!f#iiop#:_ihRE,.o£#eoe* in the NT. All three are mentioned at the
baptism of Jesus (Matt. 3 : 16 f.). The disciples
are to baptize in the name of Father, Son, and
;e.Topfras¥eBs.ycE?oLogice:.:s,aB?;#?het.:pycEffti:nora:!Fira% Holy Ghost (Matt. 28:19). The developed
V;ew of Ma"; W. M. Horton, A Psyc7iozogjGa] Approach
•o Theology. Pauline blessing includes the grace of the Son,
WAYNE E. WARD the love of God and the communion of the
Holy Ghost (11 Cor.13:14). Reference is
made to the election of the Father, the sancti-
TRINITY, THE. Although not itself a fication of the Spirit and the sprinkling of the
biblical term, the trinity has been found a blood o£ Jesus Christ (I Peter I :2) in relation
convenient designation for the one God self- to the salvation of believers.
revealed in Scripture as Father, Son and Holy The fact that Christian faith involves ac-
Spirit. It signifies that within the one essence ceptance o£ Jesus as Saviour and Lord meant
of the Godhead we have to distinguish three that the Trinity quickly found its way into the
"persons" who are neither three gods on the
creeds of the church as the confession of faith
one side, not three parts or modes of God on in God the`Father, Jesus Christ his onl}7 Son,
the other, but coequally and coeternally God. and the Holy Ghost. The implications of this
The main contribution of the OT to the confession, especially in the context of mono-
doctrine is to emphasize the unity Of God. God theism, naturally became one of the f irst con-
is not himself a plurality, nor is he one among cerns of patristic theology, the main aim being
many others. He is single and unique: "The to secure the doctrine against tritheism on the
Lord our God is one Lord" (Deut. 6:4), and one side and monarchianism on the other.
he demands the exclusion of all pretended In the fully developed doctrine the unity o£
TRISAGI0N 532

God is safeguarded by insisting that there is origin Of the Trisagfo7® cannot be maintained.
only one essence 6r substance of God. Yet the Its liturgical use is almost exclusively confined
deity Of Jesus Christ is fully asserted against to the Greek and Roman churches.
those who would think of him as merely BIBLIOGRAPHY
adopted to divine sonship, or pre-existent but HVB,]uE,t;p.P.3;DxrevYS±fiir p5¥8FK; J. Bingham, origi#es,
in the last resort created. The individuality of
WICK BROOMALI.
Father, Son and Holy Spirit is also preserved
against the notion that these are only modes TRITHEISM. See TRINITy.
Of God for the various purl)oses of dealing
with man in creation or salvation. God is one, TRUST. See FAITH.
yet in himself and from all eternity he is Fa-
ther, Son and Holy Ghost, the triune God. TRUTH. The first Christian theologian to
Trinitarian analogies have been found by attempt any systematic exposition of the con-
many apologists both in nat:ure generally and cept Of truth was Augustine. His immediate
in the constitution Of man. These are interest- aim was to refute skepticism. If man's mind is
ing, but are not to be thought of as providing incapable of grasping truth, particularly if
a rationale of the divine being. More pregnant man is incapable of grasping the truth about
is the suggestion Of Augustine that without
God, then morality and theology are impos-
the trinity there could be no fellowship or love sible. (See KNowLEI)GE. For an account of
in God, the divine triunity involving an inter- Augustine's epistemology, see 8. 8. Warfield,
relationship in which the divine perfections Studies in Tertulhan and Augustine.) Aug\is-
find eternal exercise and expression independ- tine distinguished four senses Of the tern
ent Of the creation Of the world and man. truth. First, truth is the affirmation of wi7hat is;
Rationalist objections to the Trinity break three times three is nine, and David was
down on the fact that they insist on inter- Of Israel. Second, every reality (particu-
preting the Creator in terms of the creature, the immutable, supersensible ideas) can
i.e., the unity of God in terms of mathematical considered as an affirmation of itself : it
unity. More scientifically, the Christian learns is tnie when it merits the name it claims. In
to know God f ron God himself as he has this sense beauty and wisdom are truth. Third,
acted for us and attested his action in Holy the Word Of God, Jesus Christ, is the Truth
Scripture. He is not surprised if an element of because he expresses the Father. And fourth,
mystery remains which defies ultimate analysis
in the realm of sensible objects, such as plants
or understanding, f or he is only man and God and animals, there is a resemblance, but only
is God. But in the divine work as recorded in
a resemblance, to the primary realities of point
the Bible the one God is self-revealed as Fa-
two above. Strictly speaking, a visible tree is
ther, Son and Holy Ghost, and therefore in
not a true tree. But as the resemblance is real,
true faith he must "acknowledge the glory Of
even sensible objects have a degree of truth.
the eternal Trinity."
BIBI.IOGRAPHY Many contemporary students Of the Bible,
fearing that Augustine or others are too deeply
influenced by Greek philosophy, attempt to
¥#¥§;B#3e;>;o¥e%,fh¥e#drgfg¥¥6?Fi..]±'%§:riL#ias? specify the several senses in which truth is
GEOFFREY W. BROMII.ET
used in the Scripture. Hoskyns and Davey,
The Riddle Of the Ne:w Testainent CRev. ed.
TRISAGION. This name (frjsclgjo#, "thrice pp. 33 ff.), after quoting Eph. 4:20-24, seek
holy") was originally applied to a liturgical for a conception Of truth that will have ``not
hymn based on Isa. 6:3. Later, probably dur- an intellectual but a moral and spiritual effect
ing the patriarchate of Proclus (434-46), it upon them." The common conception of tnith
assumed the following fom: "Holy God, Holy as "a fact" or "what is real," so they assert,
"has no moral or spiritual significance." The
and Mighty, Holy and Immortal, have mercy
upon us." The Trjs¢gjo# entered into the Hebrew notion of tn]th, with its close relation
Monophysite controversy when the clause to God, is considered un-Greek. So also Ger-
"who was crucified for us" was inserted af ter hard Kittel (TWNT, Vol. I, pp. 240 £f.) dis-
the word "Immortal." Neither this nor later tinguishes, more cautiously perhaps, between
modifications found favor except among the Hebrew and Greek usage, citing several pas-
Monophysites and Monothelites. The apostolic sages in the Platonic dialogues.
533 TYPE, TYPOLOGY

One should, however, bear in mind that individual cases the distinction is not certain."
the technical concepts of the philosophers are One of the six meanings is "that which has
hardly ever used by the majority of the popu- e.xistence or duration." It is true that truth
lation, whether in ancient Greece or modern exists or endures, but it is not in this sense
America. The Bible, too, is written in colloquial that Eph. 4:21 and Gal. 2:5,14 define truth.
language, and the senses in which it uses the Similarly one can rely on the truth with-
term truth are not so different from colloquial out defining truth as "that on which man can
usage anywhere. rely." Ron. 15:8 is not thus to be pressed;
One should also bear in mind that moral nor with the connotation o£ "sincerity" can 11
and spiritual truth is as much truth as mathe- Cor. 7:14,11:10; and Phil. 1:18 be used
matical, scientific, and historical truth. It is all for this purpose.
equally "intellectual." Non-intellectual truth Rather, all these usages are derivative from
is unthinkable. It is not true that the common the basic meaning of ``the actual fact" or "the
conception of truth as a fact or what is real truth of an assertion." Cf. Mark 12:14, 32;
``has no moral or spiritual significance." We
Luke 4:25; Acts 26:25; Ron.1:18, 25. It is
need only to recall that God gave the Ten not another and different meaning of the
Commandments. term, but exactly the same meaning, in the
Furthermore, the Greek philosophers did NT as in the OT, when it is applied to cor-
not divorce tnith from moral and spiritual rect doctrine or right belief. Cf. 11 Cor. 4:2;
values. Plato went so far as to teach, to the 6:7; 13:8; I Tim. 2:4; 11 Tim. 3:7.
consternation of many readers, that a knowl- Like other words, truth too can be used
edge of the truth automatically guarantees a figuratively, by metonomy, in which the ef fect
moral life. Both Pythagoreanism and Nco- is substituted for the cause. Thus when Christ
platonism were systems of salvation; and even says, "I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life,"
the Stoics and Epieureans made ethics the the word truth is just as figurative as the word
culmination of philosophy. life. As Christ is the cause of life, so is he
The differences between the Hebrew Scri|)- the cause of truth. That water freezes and that
tures and the Greek philosophies are rather to a sinner may be justified by faith are true
be sought in the nature and the method Of because Christ creatively said, Let it be so.
the salvation I)roclaimed, in the concepts of CORDON H. CLARK
sin, of redemption, and the specific norms of
morality; and not in the usage of the word TWELVE, THE. See AposTLE.
truth. The relation between God and truth
in the Scriptures is indisputably quite different TYPE, TYPOLOGY. Such terms as typos,
``type" (Ron. 5:14; I Cor.10:6,11); sk;a,
from anything found in Greek philosophy,
"shadow" (Col. 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:I);
mainly because the concept of God is so dif-
ferent. It is in such theological content, not in hypode;g7t®¢, ``copy" (Heb. 8:5; 9:23);
philological usage, that the important distinc- se-7#eio„, ``sign" (Matt.12: 39),. paraz7o!g, "fig-
tions are to be found. ure" (Heb. 9:9; 11 : 19); and c}"£;tyros, "anti-
The usage of the words in the Scripture sup- type" (Heb. 9:24; I Pet. 3:21) are involved
ports this conclusion. Plain, ordinary, factual in the study of biblical typology.
tnith is the point o£ Gen. 42:16, "Ye shall A type is a shadow cast on the pages of OT
be kept in prison, that your words may be history by a truth whose full embodiment or
proved, whether there be any tmth in you" antitype is found in the NT revelation. Our
(Cf. Deut.13:14; 17:4; 22:20; Prov.12:19; survey is limited to a few aspects of this im-
Jer. 9:3). Esth. 9: 30 concerns legally certified portant subject.
information. and Josh. 2: 12 points to a private That typology is a legitimate part of theo-
oath. logical study is proved by the following con-
It is not a different meaning but precisely siderations: (I) the word tyros and its syno-
the same meaning when the veracity of divine nyms (see above) are used in such a way as
revelation is asserted. God tells the truth; he to justify this approach to OT history. (2)
tells what is so; his assertions are correct. Cf . The "as . . . so" construction (e.g., Matt.
Dan. 8:26; 10:I; 21; Pss.19:9; 119:160. 12:40; Luke 17:26; John 3:14) indicates a
For the NT Kittel lists six different mean- close spiritual affinity between an OT fact and
ings of the word truth, but adds that "in many its NT counterpart. (3) In many 1)laces (e.g.,
UBIQUITY 534

I Cor. 15:22; 11 Cor. 3:7 f£.; Gal. 4:22 ££.; have so embellished the OT history with types
Heb. 3:1-10:18) an obvious parallelthat the simple history is all but ignored. At
is
drawn between OT history and its NT inter- the other extreme are found those who refuse
pretation. to see in OT history any typical meaning. The
Types have the following characteristics: tnie view is found between these extremes.
(I) They are thoroughly rooted in history. A few simple distinctions will safeguard
Jonah's experience is just as credible as the the student of typology. (I) One must dis-
momentous event which it adumbrates (Matt. tinguish between the type backed by NT au-
12:40). The serpent episode belongs to the thority and the type based on the speculation
same historical category as the event which it of the modem interpreter. It is not to be in-
graphically I)refigures (John 3: 14). (2) They ferred, however, that no type is valid unless
are prophetic in nature. Their tert"i7!"s ad supported by specific NT authority. Sober
q44em is always in messianic times. Melchize- exegesis must prevail over wild fancies. (2)
dek, the historical figure (Gen. 14), becomes One must distinguish between the type that
the spiritual prefiguration of Christ's eternal definitely conoborates a doctrine and the type
priesthood (Ps.Ilo; Heb. 7). (3) They are that has no relevance to a supposed doctrine.
definitely designed as an integral part of re- Jonah's expulsion from the great fish typifies
demptive history. Types are not afterthoughts Christ's resurrection (Matt. 12:40); but Jo-
cabalistically read back into the OT story. nah's restoration to the land does not neces-
They retain their typical significance even af t- sarily typify Israel's restoration to Palestine.
er the antitype has appeared (c£. I Cor. 10: 1- (3) One must distinguish between what is es-
11). (4) They are Christocentric. They all sential in a type and what is peripheral in the
point to Christ in one way or another. If the same type. Some typologists have become so
OT as a whole centers in Christ (Luke 24:24, bogged down in details that absurdities and
44; Acts 3:24 ff.), surely the types anticipate puerilities have swallowed up the essential
his redemption Of fallen mankind. (5) They truth. (4) One must distinguish between the
are edificatory -having spiritual meaning for type that is completely fulfilled in the antitype
God's people in both dispensations. The OT and the type, though partly fulfilled, that still
saint was undoubtedly edified by the typical retains its typical significance for the future
signif icance of such things as circumcision world. The Book of Revelation affords many
(Deut. 30:6), the sacrifices (Hos. 14:2) and illustrations of this feature of typology (e.g.,
the coronation of Joshua (Zech. 6:9-15). 14: I).
Much of the OT (e.g., Ex. 25 -40) would BIBLIOGRAPFT
have only antiquarian value today if it were
not for types embedded in the text.
Widely divergent views are held by exposi- 5#2¥2:t;3;;.:££AcOFfs,.s]#,Dtw$5;.ys§.:r.e]£:k2:{£E2;2£;,fof£
tors regarding the scope of typology. Some WICK BROOMALL

UBIQUITY. See GOD. litical, intellectual, and religious attitudes of

all Catholics are determined by Rome. It is
ULTRAMONTANISM. Though Ultra- intolerant toward any other creed. National
montanism existed in the eleventh century, the Catholic sentiment finds in Ultramontanism a
ready enemy.
:]Einre:i:si:m¥:gh]icr¥ho:nthfep:rna:tepeanr%
tioTa`rt;amgoenntea.:i,si:mar:fseFW.I;t:c:?elpos:-ar,ehveo.Ieuj
:et:?t.:riy;hn:,;sn::h:he:r:siip.s:,:t:hee!oni,:T;:e,:f:I::: strength as the papacy recovered its power
535 UNCIRCUMCISI0N, UNCIRCUMCISED

and influence until finally its policy became ence between Peter and Judas (Luke 22:32;
regnant as a result of the Vatican Council of Matt. 27:3 I.; Acts 1:16 f.).
1870.
W. STANFORD REID
SHERMAN RODDY
UNBLAMEABLE. In the AV this con-
cept is translated by such words as blameless,
UNBELIEF. Although there are many ref-
erences in the OT (Nun. 20: 10; Isa. 9: 30 f.) guiltless, innocent, clean, acquitted, and to be
unpunished. The Hebrew verbs 7?6Z`?`d, z644,
to the phenomenon of unbelief, no single
and zd&¢/.€, with their derivatives, primarily
word is employed for it. In the NT on the
carry this meaning. The basic idea of #6bc3 is
other hand, the writers use ape!.tJ®ei¢ and
probably to empty out and moves on to be
apjsfj¢, both of which imply a certain ob- free of guilt (Num. 5:31), exempt from pun-
stinacy and resistance to truth (Ron.11:20,
ishment or an oath (Gen. 24:8). The word
z6&£ carried the sense of cleanness, of being
fi;eE=t.th2:#:f;t[h:i:;b]e:|£]e3v;erH::iu::s]2t);
justified before God (Isa. I:16) whereas
zG&flE puts the stress on brightness or purity
::c::tai:s:reavc:ri:ega:nbe::'i:hal:igsp:ei,Cf::ecvaet|eag:.rz
(Lam. 4:7).
(a) in nature, and (b) in redemption. Thus At least eleven adjectives, representing ten
unbelief is fundamentally a rejection of the
roots, are used in the NT (and in the
offer of the gospel of God's grace (Matt.
LXX), as follows: ¢"zeovptos (and the adverb
13:58; Mark 16:16; Acts 7:51 f.; 14:2; Ron.
¢7"e7#Pto-s), from 7#e7#pJio77i¢j, "to blame";
2:8; 11:30 f.). It is the ground-motive of sin
¢~co-7"elos and cl77®o-"os, from 7"67#os, "a blem-
(Rom.14:23; I John 5:10), causing man's
disobedience to God's law. So it is unbelief
i:?,',',i?,=:'j::,,i:mo,T:%g,k;`:,a.us;e,;'r:`:espe:n#ei;:
which brings upon him, unless there is a "to call in," "to accuse," "to prosecute;
Mediator, God's wrath and judgment (Ron.
11:20-24; Eph. 2:2; 5:6). ?n?pllemptos, £rom epilambanoi'rai, "to lay
hold of"; ¢t7®6os, from tho-e-, ``penalty"; flspj.los,
Unbelief in the Christian sense is caused from spjlos, "spot," "blemish," "stain"; apros-
neither by merely intellectual doubts of, nor kopos from proskopto-, "to stumble," ``to strike
by emotional opposition to the truth. It finds against''; akclkos, from kczkos, "evil," "I)erni-
its origin in what the Bible calls "the heart," cious"., akeraios, £rom kerannymi, "to T\\ix," "to
and is the outgrowth of a basic characteristic mingle''; the a- or ¢7®- in each instance being a
of the corruption of the man's personality, the negating prefix.
desire for human autonomy over against the The state of the natural man is portrayed
sovereignty of God. This comes out clearly in in the Scriptures as one of guilt, condemna-
the account of the fall contained in Gen. 3 tion, reproach, impurity, and justly deserving
and in Paul's exposition of this theme in Ron. punishment. The wretchedness of the guilt
1:20-25. (cf. also Ps.14:1; Isa. 6:9-12; Je[. and the severity of the condemnation can be
17:9.) Unbelief thus dominates the whole removed only through the atoning merits of
man so that he needs to be reborn spiritually the shed blood of Christ (Col.I:21-22).
by the grace of God (John 3:3-13; I Cor.
I :22-24; 2: 12-16). JULIAN C. MCPHEETERS

There are, of course, instances of unbelief UNCIRCUMCISION, UNCIRCUM-

on the part of Christians, as in the case of the CISED. The Hebrew adjective `drgJ, the noun
`orzj!, and the verb `¢-ra! represent this condi-
disciples, particularly of Thomas, after the
resurrection of Christ (Mark 16:11; Luke tion. Similarly, the Greek adjective ¢perjt-
24:41; John 20:27). Such unbelief was but 7#gtos, the noun akrobyst;a, and the verb
temporary, however, whereas the non-Chris- ep;sp¢o"¢i describe the same condition. The
tian's unbelief according to the usual Christian presentation here is based on these terms.
view is his total rejection of God's self-revela- In the OT the uncircumcised are those-
tion. The Christian's doubt is the result of a whether Israelites (Josh. 5:7) or non-Israelites
temporary weakening of faith, while that of (Judg.14:3; 15:18; I Sam.17:26)-upon
the non-Christian is much deeper and more whom the act of circumcision had not been
fundamental as shown in the ultimate differ- performed. As circumcision represented obedi-
UNCLEAN 5 36

ence to God's covenant (Gen. 17:9-14; Ex. (I Kings 3:9), through the word (Ps.
4:24-26), so uncircumcision represented re-
bellion and unbelief (Jer. 6:10; 9:25 f.). i's'::3:k::sth;iEara#:li:a,o:np'ionv,.e,f=5i:i
Spiritually, the uncircumcised were the un- virtue highly extolled in Proverbs. It is asso-
regenerated (Lev. 26:41; cf. Deut. 10:16; ciated with discrimination between good and
30:6; Jer. 4:4). The uncircumcised were ex- evil in I Kings 3:9, a usage which comes very
cluded from the covenant (Gen. 17: 14), from close to its essential significance.
the Passover (Ex. 12:48), from the land
p.nTe:,in:#kr,eq:enndterT,Tn::Fs:;:.-:::o-(::::
§i°dshf;o5ri7t)riefrh°oTyt:i:yea(::aTa5¥:{5.Zerie44=:2: know, be cognizant of''), and sw#jGt"j ("to

ieenndd°:h:ruotu:i¥;,th::'£r:en£S:rs:::adr'Lyf,3m::ej
their derivatives.
i:tis;I;:3:2;ii-ni:a;:£di!iir::[c!v:al;y;,:i;:fi:c:(:ie;f The repeated contrast between `hearing"
4: 10). and ``understanding" in the Scriptures (Neh.
The following truths summarize the NT 8:8; Isa. 6:9-10; Mark 4:12; 7:14; Acts
teaching: (1) All Gentiles are uncircumcised 28:27, etc.) is the best clue to the meaning
(Acts 11 :3; Ron. 3:30; I Cb[. 7: 18; Gal. 2:7; °£eth:£gc:]Pf::ap:;eT°of|nf:rs:adnd€tffomnp]i:Sta°8::Sr:

:i,hh..i:1:2;.(:?e.F,::i:::,:c:sAo.:s',s:,elq,u&ei
:3i:::uhae|ns,'ioinng:fptat:i.3i::|ny,duanfud:is,aTdT:,gi,:
a divine gift (Ps.119:34, 73; 11 Tim. 2:7;
;:i::,:saeL±;3t,RL:F=2L:e:d¥f];:¥PgLFh:eLaT{¥t2huoE:c¥;h.
I;oi;£):::t,5€i:u:k:ers°::4;:i,5d5a::`:;S:t`:g:P¢(::n:£r42yEE¥
(4) A Gentile who in physical uncircumcision

It results from faith (Heb. I I :3); is essential

;£e:I:t:uh:TICS:1;gis::t::ffi;cs]:c:[§s;:b;u:t:#:±sc;c:cv:esu[::leg:
circumcised by his disobedience (Ron. 2:25-
27). (5) Thus in Christ neither circumcision £1£i?;n::::h::sdm8(:¥s:)¥L2:);}e¥(:i;yLi:xp:a;S:S):
The frequent NT citation of Isa. 6:9 ££.
Z;rc::.Cfr7C:u];:£Si°an].h5a:S6;a:?]5S;Pfi#:]3?:][u): (e.g., Mark 4:12; Matt. 13:13-14; John
(6) Uncircumcision in heart (that is, un- 12:40; Acts 28:26, 27) indicates the close
regeneracy) is infinitely worse than uncircum- connection between understanding of the
cision in the flesh (Acts 7: 51; c£. Jer. 9:25 f.). things o£ God and obedient surrender to the
(7) Jews and Gentiles, the circumcised and will o£ God (cf. I Cor., chaps. 1-2).
the uncircumcised, are united in one body o£
WESTI.AXE T. PURKISER

¥]if|:::::a{eEdpt.y2t:h]e`?a2c}.tE:t£SASB:£i::,utnh£:1:
common father, was justified (Gen. 15:5 f.) UNGODLINESS. The word asebeja in its
while still uncircumcised (Ron. 4:9-12). various forms occurs seventeen times in the
NT. The translation ``ungodly" or "ungodli-
WICK BROoMALI. ness" occurs in every instance in the AV and,
excepting Titus 2: 12 ("ineligion") and I Pet.
UNCLEAN. See CLEAN, UNCLEAN.
4: 18 ("impious"), in the RSV. Ungodliness is
UNCTION. See ANolNTING. not merely another evil in a catalog of sins but
is the root oLit Of which other sins grow. Thus
UNDERSTANDING. A biblical term used in Rom.I:18 czsez?eja is distinguished from
adjkia ("unrighteousness, wickedness"). The
:ois:ienf::i:get:efrc:=p:i:e::iroenaop`p::::isT.g:,:: works of ad;kja, whose range is very broad, of
facts or data (Dan.12:8; Matt.13:13-14). which Paul speaks in I:24-32, spring out of
It is the most frequent rendering of the He-
brew Z7€t®, Z7€w4 ("understanding, wisdom, (hd|ahsaerbde,flK|9t:e|Thic*keT'Spevaekrs,a;nv,oLl9#.
knowledge, meaning"), from a root meaning Kohlhammer, Stuttgart,1949, Bd.I, s.156).

:opes:gsar::ef=deenr:::`ny3i,ntgo!':stitE:ui;F£..#e&| I;::+ah:egrfadceeaoffs€:isetEtat£:cc°otiepr]£sphaes:asgae]:
5 37 tJNITARIANISM

spacially and temporally conditioned and de-

::tio:nadlsowodri|sji;line::r:ss:othr:n:.ud::eisu:i3:Tfi: pendent (Gen. 1:26-27; Job 33:4; Ps. 8:5;
cant (Titus 2: 12). The flood was a judgment Isa. 64:8). There is thus a qualitative meta-
upon ungodliness (11 Pet. 2:5). The result of
that ungodliness is indicated in Gen. 6:5. ?hheys::±ed::=:e?£:rebeftsw:]efgdetah:ga]msaenp.arAa:

;ehei=ing::,u:i::i::eo:it::sdoi:toa?:d=:notn:eh- £oann,£:;a[a¥::gphtfnmgadteofne]ga€:sohTm£Tfagte6

ru]dt:d4f:°n¥odiinn8e::]£±e;Sers[[GoP;t:.g2;:e).in]t: 3;uad]i:ybewy££tnhg8ib€°den.W];t?5;h£Emcc[e.th;C:a2`ir
licentiousness. Ron. 4:5 and 5:6 might also Ron. 5: 12). Thus man is now not only dif-
be mentioned, though the connection is per- ferent, but also in conflict with God.
The only unity, therefore, which man may
F.a.p:ntho:a6TC`::r#cE.b`ai;s2h6ini;:nqg:od:;i:s: have with God is through God's action in
is equivalent to taking `away sins. In every
case in the NT the word occurs in connection Zes::nci]j:STr:]acnAT::Nh i:::]£ t6:0:8± ).Chris:
with various sins; in several cases, as shown, elect from all eternity are by the divine will
the connection is casual. The other NT refer- united with Christ in whom they died on
ences are I Tim.1:9; 11 Tim. 2:16; I Pet.
4:18; 11 Pet. 3:7; Jude 15 (four times);
Jude 18. ;r:I:ve:n¥:hteo,¥ohn:oew6L:;I:y5§§;o:=]a:]ht;tE:::;]d5awn:€],f:;
The word is used frequently in the LXX. 16:7-15; 16:21-23; Ron. 8:5-17; Col.1:27).
Though not as predominant, one can say that This becomes concrete in the symbolism of
the same idea is at least present when the the Lord's Supper (Matt. 26:26-28; I Cor.
LXX uses ¢sez7e;a to render such Hebrew 11 :23-26; Gal. 2:20). In principle, therefore,
words as sdr4 ("apostasy, revolt") and pega`
("transgression," especially against God's law,
"revolt, rebellion").
%ri::]£:]t;hua]t:fiteft:c:a|lyy:ici]e]}n;i::d;estt:I?]G£:oai:
BIBIJcroRAPHy creatures who even in eternity will never be-
Amdt; Schrenk in TWNT (on edjkfo). come divine.
RALPH A. GWINN BIBLIOGRAPHY

UNION WITH GOD. Belief in a religious

devotee's ability to unite himself with his god
is very ancient. Much ethnic religion is based
Ffi;-o3sfffghE=ifh;gi;i#:;i!':ug##%:'°;g6%;in;,;;
upon this concept, whether it be the idea of W. STANFORD REII)
the believer's becoming physically one with
UNION, HYPOSTATIC. See CHRls-
his god as in Mithraism, or of his being
TOLOGY.
absorbed spiritually into his god as in Bud-
UNITARIANISM. Th. origin of this an-
f.tl;s:e.nEisinty?;eofctErii::iianng:ha:.aclfos::%a::: cient heresy is to be found in the Arian con-
days of Nco-Platonism in the teachings of such troversy of the early fourth century when
men as Meister Eckhart (1327) and other Arius, presbyter in the church at Alexandria,
mystics. It would seem to be basic to the set forth the system of thought which bears
Roman Catholic idea of the "stigmata" of his name. He denied the orthodox doctrine of
Christ's passion which are said to appear in the Trinity and asserted that there was a time
when God was not the Father and Jesus
:i:s,eaTEoi,h;::bfty;na|::e:x:::iessedwfno'leya.:; Christ was not the Son. Because God foresaw
influence on the doctrine of the Mass. the merit of Jesus the man, Christ was accord-
The biblical point of view is radically dif- ed a kind of divinity, but he was never of the
ferent, since it takes seriously two fundamental same substance as the Father although he is
facts: creation and fall. Man is the creature o£ worthy of worship. This early and rather high
God, which means that while made in God's
image, he is never eternal, autonomous nor =°::nc°£{oinit:cr;::i:=3¥;Sacn°dndbeymtEeedcboyu::i:
self-sufficient as is God (John 5:26; Acts of Constantinople in 381. Throughout the
7:25; Ron. 9:19; 11:33-34), but is mortal, Middle Ages Unitarianism in any form was re-
UNITY 5 38

garded as heretical. It reappeared in a some- is not a part of the Christian church. In 1959
what different guise in the writings o£ Michael they voted to inerge with the Universalists.
Servetus and was accepted by some of the BIBIJOGRAPHY
more radical of the Anabaptist groups.
It received a new impetus and theological gf"as§uifeh;#gir#£„##:%¥.;T#i#1:E=:,ffi:e8+**?„=j
foundation in the Socinianism (q.vJ o£ Laelius C. GREGG SINGER
and Faustus Socinus and in the Racovian
Catechism o£ 1605. Although they rejected UNITY. The word unity is as such very
the deity of Christ and the orthodox doctrine rare in the Bible, but the thought behind the
of the Trinity, the Socinians held to a kind o£ term, that of the one people of God, is ex-
supematura)ism and even insisted on the wor- tremely prominent. Already in the OT Israel
is descended from the one father, and al-
;]Pe];Pin:f£!eshi:r€shur£:c:£Sonaf:;Vinetheped¥a%'atf= though the tribes are later divided the Psalmist
his ascension. But his divine nature was the commends unity (Ps. 133:I) and Ezekiel
rfseul.t.,if.dh.i:#,ei:tno.:d,if:cfea.||TeLadnenai:g looks to the time when there shall be "one
stick" (Ezek. 37:17). Nor is this merely a
political or natriral unity, for Abraham is
Fhe:dwti#tiLeu:ti,lie¥::eses:sinagf:lot.fr:efd:E.i:: divinely elected, and Isaac is the child o£
is to be found in his life and teachings rather special promise and miracle.
than in his vicarious death upon the cross. In the NT this ur,::y is expanded in ac-
cordance with the original promise. The wall
With the coming of the Enlightenment and
of partition between Jew and Gentile, and
indeed between Greeks and barbarians, bond
::etfgpehaarna:sceof°f,odsee£;T£€i:;!]yu:itfri::h£::
and slave, male and female, is broken down.
became more rationalistic and less supemat-
There is now the one people of God embrac-
uralistic in its outlook. Nature and right rea-
ing men of all nations (Eph. 2:12 f.; Gal.
son replaced the NT as the primary sources
3:28).
of religious authority, and what authority the
But this new unity is not one of mere good
Scriptures retained was the result of their
will, or common interests, or ecclesiastical or-
agreement with the findings of reason.
ganization. It is a unity of expansion because
Unitarianism came to New England as early of contraction. It is a unity in the one seed
as 1710 and by 1750 most of the Congrega-
(Gal. 3 : 16) who has come as the true Israelite
tional ministers in and around Boston had and indeed the second Adam (Rom. 5: 12 f.).
ceased to regard the doctrine of the Trinity The old and estranged men are made one in
as an essential Christian belief. In 1788
Jesus Christ (Eph. 2:15). The.one Jesus
Christ is the basis of the unity of his people.
Kien;'s E::|aa¥|,, tE;eca`irset dAeTign'i:ea|? cE:::?ri:: But they are one in Jesus Christ as the one
when its rector, with the consent of the con- who reconciled them by dying and rising again
in their stead. As divided men they first meet
s;e#:ioT:££:t];.teif:°:i:hmep]£fuorfgyuan]:ta:£eann?s°: in his crucified body, in which their old life
in New England Congregationalism seemed is put to death and destroyed. They are recon-
complete with the election o£ Henry Ware, ciled in one body by the cross (Eph. 2:16).
"We thus ju`dge, that if one died for all, then
:ontahveowfig]]o]g¥hnaef:tooff5Tve£:::;£taatrfaHna#:::i:n, were all dead" (11 Cor. 5:14). But Jesus
In the nineteenth century, under the im- Christ rose as well as died, and as the Resur-
pact of Transcendentalism (q.v.), Unitarian- rected he is the one true life of his people
ism became steadily more radical. Its later (Col. 3:3-4). They thus meet in his risen
leaders such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and body, in which they are the one new man.
Theodore Parker rejected those remaining su- See also NEw CREATloN.
pematural elements which William Ellery Yet if this unity is centered in Jesus Christ,
Channing had seen fit to retain. Modern it is necessarily a unity of the Holy Spirit.
Unitarianism has become increasingly human- Believers have their new life in Christ as
istic. Many members of the American Uni- they are all born of the one Spirit (John 3:5;
tarian Association, founded in 1825, have Eph. 4:4). But this means that they are
come to the conclusion that their movement brothels of Jesus Christ and of one another in
 5 39 UNIVERSALISM

the one family o£ God. They have the one UNIVERSALISM. Universalism is the
God and Father of all (Eph. 4:4). They not doctrine of the ultimate well-being of every
only have a common birth, but a common
mind which is the mind of Christ (Phil. ¥arnsoF;mTTeAd.OCC.t.riFnegh::athpeagfaonL::.:aa|fh;i:i
ultimately be happy because all are, by nature,
3i:I:.uTpheaynaEeabli:g,i:Ztohfe&n::E::i:,ghbei:g the creatures and children of God. The uni-
Spirit (Eph. 2:22). versalistic heresy (it is rejected by the general
How full and real this unity is emerges in tradition of the church - Eastern, Roman and
the fact that the church (q.v.) is called the Protestant) in Christianity teaches that al-
bride of Christ, and is therefore one body and though all of the human creatures of God
have fallen into sin and are lost, all will be
:T;o;Pfifttc¥ithch:1:mbe(cdf;sc[rifeodr.q:it]e7;s£#; saved through the universal redemption of
as his body, of which Christians are the dif- Christ.
ferent members (Ron. 12:4). Since it is by Christian universalism has existed in two
faith that Christians belong to Christ, their historical forms: restoration at death and res-
unity is a unity of faith (Eph. 4:13). It is
expressed in the two sacraments, for as there ::aytiobne asf:;i f,:tu5: ?Tenis.h|::i:;.I |E:o.Iyatt:;
is only one baptism (Eph. 4:5), so there is Christian universalism taught by some from
only one loaf and cup (I Cor.10:17). the time o£ Clement of Alexandria to the
Since unity belongs so essentially to the Universalist denomination of today. Probably
people of God, it is right that it should find the most celebrated adherent of this position
expression in the creed (one church), and was Origen (d. 254). He rejected the notion
that in all ages there should be a concern for of endless punishment, teaching that the
Christian unity according to the prayer o£ wicked, including the devil, after enduring
Christ himse]£ (John 17:21). For the attain-
ment of genuine unity, however, it is necessary ;::thpai:Srif::dhef[o]rfirea:e;ea{°pner.y°#6C:m]:
that the following points should be observed. 18 f.). This is the doctrine of the #pokatastczsis
Christian unity is a given fact of the new pa7eto-7c. The Universalist movement in Amer-
life to be believed and accepted in faith in ica was torn asunder by the appearance of
Christ. It is not the unity first created, safe- those who affirmed perfection of all at death
guarded or enforced by a human institution without further purgatorial punishment, but
or association. Nor can it be simply equated a declaration adopting the "orthodox" view of
with a particular structure of the church or punishment before perfection was made in
form of ministry, practice or dogma. Like the 1878, at Winchester, N. H. After insisting
righteousness of the Christian, it is found
first and primarily and exclusively in Christ.
Again, Christian unity is not identical with :n:e:tE:enf,:.:::ii:itid;;taf,::;;:i:ie:;:a:ny:::;e:;ei:co:n:
uniformity. It does not allow division. But it in regard to the future may exist among us,
does not exclude variety. The one Spirit gives none of us believe that the horizon of eternity
different gifts (I Cor. 12:4 f.). In the one will be relatively either largely or for a long
body o£ Christ there are many members (;Z7jd., time overcast by the clouds of sin and punish-
14 f.). The unity grounded in Christ leaves ment, and in coming into the enjoyment of
scope for diversity of action and function, the salvation, whenever that may be, all the ele-
only conformity being to the mind of Christ ments of penitence, forgiveness, and regenera-
#
and direction of the Spirit. tion are involved. Justice and mercy will then
Finally, the unity received in faith must be seen to be entirely at one, and God be all
find expression in historical life and action. in all.„
i
There must be no antinomian acquiescence in James Edwin Odgers notes that the scrip-
divided or competitive Christian bodies. To tural arguments of Universalism turn on three
# this extent, it is right and necessary that there points: (1) The purpose o£ God: the restora-
should be an active pursuit of practical unity, tion of all things to their original excellence
but only on the basis of the unity already (Acts 3:21); (2) The means of restoration:
E
given, and therefore with a fuller looking to through Christ (Rom. 5:18; Hetj. 2:9);
Christ and readier subjection to his Spirit. (3) The nature of the restoration: union of
# GEOFFREY W. BROMILEY every soul with God (I Cor.15:24-28). The

i`
UNKNOWN GOD 540

church catholic construes these verses as re- effective point of contact to introduce them
ferring not to every man, but to every man to the true and living God.
who is united with Christ, and she feels that BIBIIcOFLApm
ag*to¥£aff'c5tin£#'gprAPEnm¥on[[A#|;.:2*er
#kfuechbibiincai£:::crph:::t:°fnthfesd:em±atib:e_
SAMUEL A. CARTLEDGE
tinies of the righteous and the wicked (Matt.
25:46; John 3:16; 5:29; Ron. 2:8-10; 9:22-
UNLEARNED. This word is used to len-
23).
The Unitarian denomination has, from ::rtisi}ea"c##eg)?'i€nnittteo:I;seac°cfu:£e¥c°erazi'i
early times in this country, been.close to the Pet. 3: 16); (2) aprjde«tos, an "uninstructed,"
Universalists in sentiment and action. The `N¥r;Snh[; % i`]fcoT]££ih. 2¥g3°,nfu{:i:ersenfntimthe:
other denominations o£ Christendom have
stood for the doctrine of future, endless and `f:.ih.:dg:xa:n';:iin!,:id,'eoite:sifronn:iFt-::;I.??i,i:
irremediable punishment of the wicked.
Nevertheless, the universalist leaven has been
(I Cfor. 14:16, 23-24; Acts 4:13 et az.);
(4) agrow7#atos, to describe "a totally illiterate
i:eg#yyoB:e;?¥%,£¥Scla2]%:.yz;m±Ty:HP::I:t¥ocad¥: individual" (Arndt; A-S). This last word is
Roman Catholics - and it is truer of Protes- used by the Jerusalem authorities to refer to
tants - "Some . . . teach that the punishment in- Peter and John in Acts 4: 13. In this context
it is either deliberately intended as a vicious
;:i;;:e:ea±]npta£:' o?:tv::;t.„£t is not torment as
BIBIJOGRAPHY i:s::d(¥%)mo.I.e(amngd:?ai:eisse::reto`iEe±i±
AinmR#EEfFis##u°!squerns"Bcequ3kisr;EF.ouBg#rs°r'anTfes£ men who were without the benefit of tech-
nical training in the Jewish professional
JOHN H. GERS"ER schcols.
GLENN W. BARKER
UNKNOWN GOD. (Greek ag"6s±os thcos).
This phrase is found only once in the NT, UNPARDONABLE SIN. See BI.As-
at Acts 17:23. As there is no definite article PHEMY.
in the Greek, the translation "to an unknown
god" is somewhat better than "to the un- UNRIGHTEOUSNESS. The ten nd;ha
known god" of the AV. Much debate has occurs twenty-six times in the NT. The word
I,aag:!d4,Cff::ef`np:i;i:=ec!a:c:s:n!:::;rofDTh:1;: is rendered by four different terms in the
AV: "iniquity" (seven times), "unjust"
(twice), "unrighteousness" (sixteen times),
others after him mentioned altars ``to un- and "wrong" (once). The RSV translates
known gods" in and around Athens. Deiss- ¢dikia as "wickedness" (seven times), "iniq-
mann argues rather convincingly that a muti- uity" (four times), "unrighteous" and "wrong-

::tcff:a¥en;Ptfj:nth£:u£:o:tdpceerfimryumA'.D?:0::gi% s:ing.:'w:::;?,e(t::;ecseeea:chh)),":Tifg<?dt.:huosnnees:::

±e=us`e:i. `1`t,oo,u:ek,TsoTEe gs::rs," .Pi:g;ne: :;a]fit#,,„:;,:ntjhuestffie§V„:ej:5:a;,„t:njcae::.:£3:

lessness") instead of adjkja.
Eif|:uweini:A:h:::ic:as.fb:;::ttnitdoes:nwi:dtotz In the LXX adjkha occurs some 190 times
the Athenians to release sheep on the

frcer:f::gu,:t,oat£€a¥E::;::artethgeoz,,:agv;i:#;::
whatever unknown god was responsible for i:e:k:I;ri`iinft::1;:ish,:fuiies`is;:t:ii::n:t`:n;rt;iii-
::?ud:rgai:::i:]sac:::dp<%]amnayunh£V:unseegoda,?,
though he may have adapted a plural to a ;ogufst3;g:s;'n3n::ayn::i::e:ee::syirn::?u:s:3e;,:i;udnt:
C;ling.±ch, A Greet-E_prglish L_exicon _gf. the
`ygi'7)T8::rsityust°£bec:a£::fgu°]:::est;:hiickag:i
!':nags:;aha.tfo::;h;::e::;:,a:!e,::eie:::;:s:ga:s:i.::
541 VAIN, VANITY

unrighteousness as the opposite of the dis- 6:18; 12:8; Judg.14:3; I Sam.18:20; Jer.
tinctively Pauline emphasis on the righteous- 27:5); and (3) the ethical "just, upright,
ness. that comes from God (dikalosyn6 ek
fheow). In Paul's thought righteousness stands ;tor££g]?t]£;°rpws:r8';:(4?epur;.v:28::46;;]Lr5:82S:4];.:]5;
opposed to wrath (orge-). At the same time it Scholars -differ as to the original meaning
is not without significance that adjkja and of the root y5r. Some consider it to be the
djke].osy#e- are formed from the sanie root. literal Hebrew meaning "upright" while others
See also UNGODLINEss.
BIBHOGRAPHY :roa]cdtatbh]:;,t£:eo£::i:i.T:aen£,:£gr„*segefte]e;t£::Z[
Amdt; Schreck in TWNT,. RtlvB. meaning is a later development. Just when it
RALPH A. GwlNN came into being in Israel is difficult to de-
termine, but it is possible that it was in use by
UPRIGHT, UPRIGHTNESS. These are the time of Moses (Deut. 32:4). Be that as
predominantly OT terms. The Greek word
orthos ``upright" occurs only twice in the
i;iu:t:?;edth£:ymt°hrea]'foe}::#:iguseax8aem;S]esc:[eatr£¥
NT: "Stand upright" (Acts 14: 10) and ``make
adjective appears with f6g, "good" (Deut.
straight paths" (Heb.12: 13).
6: 18), S¢dd€q, "righteous, just" (Deut. 32:4),
The Hebrew verb y65ar (occurring 27 and t677¢, "complete, blameless, perfect" (Job
times), the adjective y656r (119), and the
I : I); the plural adjective ye5dr€#® (32 times)
nouns yo-5er (14), 7"€56r (19, always plural),
designates "the upright" = "the righteous" as
and ow€56r (23) are employed with three areas
distinguished from "the wicked" (Prov.
14: 11); and with sedeq, "righteousness," are
3:.Tv::,?'eng,:,s,(.:i)g#,e:ie=a,lh`,`Ter;g[t,eevree:,t,":;
f`ound the nouns t"€5dr (Prov.I:3; 2:9) and
Sam. 6:12; I Kings 6:35; Ps. 26:12; Prov.
t%€56r (Isa.11:4).
2:13; Isa. 26:7; 40:3; Jer. 31:9); (2) the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
figurative "straight, upward in the eyes of = KB,. RTWB, p. 273.
pleasing, agreeable to" (Ex. 15:26; Deut. DEWE¥ M. BEEGLE

VAIN, VANITY. The basic meaning Of (Gen.I:2), or "empty space" (Job 26:7),
the Hebrew words translated by "vain, van- that which is unreal (I Sam. 12:21).
ity," revolves about the ideas of emptiness,
The idea is expressed in the NT and in
worthlessness, and purposelessness: (a) hegel,
the LXX by the following: do-reo#, "unde-
which concretely means "vapor" or "breath,"
servedly, to no purpose," I.ron do-rea, "a gift";
but figuratively that which is evanescent, and
eike-, "without cause," "to no purpose"; ke"os,
without purpose (Ps. 94:11), it also means: "empty"; mat¢jos, "in vain, futile," from
``to act without meaning," ``to become worth-
t"ate-", ``folly." All of these words carry the
less" (Jer. 2:5 and Job 27:12); (b) hj""d7",
idea of useless, empty, to no purpose, etc., in
that which "costs nothing," that which has "no
a generally neutral sense morally. The idea of
purpose," that which is "done without cause" vanity in the sense of conceited, proud, etc.,
(Ps. 35:19); (c) 56w', that which has "no
is not expressed by these words.
good purpose" (Ex. 20:7) or has been "done
to no avail" (Jer. 4: 30), "emptiness of speech"
Life is empty, useless, to no purpose, worth-
(Job 35:13), a "worthless character" (Ps. less and without meaning, when lived upon
26:4) or "worthless motives" (Isa. 5:18);
the human plane, without recognition of the
(d) r;q or r;qd", "being a worthless person" claims of God on the whole of life.
(Jer. 9:4), "efforts which have not effect or
success" (Ps. 7:5); (e) to-h¢, "formlessness" JULIAN C. MCPHEETERS
VAINGLORY 542

VAINGLORY. Ke7!odonos or fee#odcode is a tion. Thus 11 Sam. 23:10 reads, "the Lord
Pauline term used only in Gal. 5 :26 and Phil. wrought a great victory [literally, salvation]
2:3. It is compounded from ke74os ("empty, that day" (cf. Pss. 20:5-6; 106:47). Victory
vain") and doac¢ ("glory"). The RSV trans-
lates the words with "self-conceit" and "con- f cfa°urseth:£ Vipgdh£:ea:|°sn 1:v££ng°do: PthueTP°pS:rs: ::
ceit" respectively. The best insight into the
meaning of the term is found in its conse-
g;d;,s;e::u::,::s;,:s::1,:oo;e.:sh;i::i:saT:a,:t:.t:o::s;?::i::
:euseuT,csesi:ns.:::irians:s.alnndGean`,;;:6,.;i:nrs:lo|¥ tion of that righteousness. Isaiah says, ``Can
Phil. 2:3, Paul contrasts lowliness of mind or the prey be taken from the warrior, or can the
humility with vainglory. F. Davidson says of captive of the victor [literally, righteous man]
the latter usage, "Vainglory means the ambi- be rescued?" (Isa. 49:24; cf. 41:2,10; 54:17;
tion of any member of the church to gain Mal. 4:2).
position, so as to create a following and to In the OT victory is almost exclusively over
minister to his personal vanity." (NBC, ;7® external foes and issues in physical peace and
foco'. security (cf. Josh. I : 15; ]er. 23 :6; Ps. 69: 14).
WESTLAKE T. PURKISER But in the NT victory is expressed mainly in
terms of spiritual forces and blessings. It is
VENGEANCE. See REVENGE. not triumph over social or economic difficul-
ties that is the concern of the NT; it is mas-
VICAR. See OFFlcEs, EccLEslASTlcAL. tery over temptation and the powers of evil.
To be sure, the ultimate issue of this age will
VICARIOUS. See BLooD, SACRIFlcE. be Christ's victory over physical forces (Rev.
5:5; 6:2) and over Satan himself (Rev.
VICE. The Greek terln hakin occurs eleven 19: 11-20:3). In this the Christian will share
times jn the NT. In Matt. 6:34, and only
(Rev. 3:21). But the NT gives greater em-
here in the NT, it has the idea of "trouble."
It is used in the general sense of depravity, ]Pnhai££Sst;I:s:i::°¥aft]?at]£tft::h;i:ttfoarnyc::e:n£¥
wickedness, vice, though the translation vice
enticements and assaults of the world. This
does not occur in either AV or RSV. The is made possible when one appropriates by
word vice in the broad sense of that which faith the power of Christ's victory on the
corrupts or degrades might well be used in cross (I John 5:4-5; John 16:33; Ron. 8:37;
I Cor.14:20; James 1:21; I Pet. 2:16. In
Eph. 6: 10), which is made manifest through
Acts 8:22 the Greek word is used in the gen-
Christ's indwelling presence (I John 4:4),
eral sense but without the connotation of our
and when the word of God rules in one's life
word vice. Most often the word represents a
(I John 2: ,4).
specific type of wickedness. In this latter sense
Thus victory is both present and escha-
perhaps the best translation would be "malice" tological. It is now that a Christian enters into
(Ron.I:29; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8; Titus 3:3;
I Pet. 2: I). In I Cor. 5:8 the word might be
rendered either malice or vice, depending on :Fned¥sW::maFi€teb]rees:irz:Stfo°£±ant£:mfhfur¥et(ct£:
I Col.15:24-28, 54-57).
whether one thinks Paul is referring to the
BIBI.IOGRAPHY
divisions in the church at Corinth or to the
case of immorality of which he speaks in the TeNdrH*t,Spn#6.gg'eAm¥:;ti8itiE:u#aseind°fintrfuh#|
immediate context. ROBERT 8. LAURIN
See also MALlcE.
BIBIJOGRAPHY VINE. The word occurs many times in the
Amdt,
RALPH A. GWINN
g::;geTsre:nasvtihneeyFr:?rewwerepespe':tirue,reinvi.nhe:
VICTORY. Victory is above all a religiously land.

::nfEt£:hneedb:sol:C:Ej]££cna]S;r#:;I::`ardco:: emTrhgees::eio,`sogi::Ira,=:a::.g|sroafe,::erefewno:!
J:uessts'{:I:fshj::t.Sill?28_2r;;arS£]:io;£gha:ew°:ys:
connotes some basis in religious or divine ac- i:urca;dag,efjahn::1;*I::fe,:I,::r:G:q;!¥i:sh,g:ei:,i::
543 VIRGIN BIRTH OF JESUS, THE

harvest was wild grapes. This symbolic lan- Chastity is assumed for reputable maidens
guage pictures the disobedience o£ Israel to
God and the disappointment o£ God over {oLehv;v:]j::nL:kaefn:;£3n6e)da(n,dud::¥S]:8]e2n)e,ra:i¥
their actions. The tenderness, care and wise

§i:aide::(v(::irei2S±r;:1t;D:(u))t:Z224?Ll;;¥t)l#::;:¥ti:i
i:i,i¥:e£¥:!|:i.:s:hiaf|iet;::?;c:ice?ed:Caw:p:r:e: look is itself sin (Job 31:I; Matt. 5:28).
Absence of virginity implied harlotry, which
and the disciples as the branches (John 15). required stoning (Deut. 22:21); false accusa-
This figurative use of the word "vine" is one tion was thus criminally serious (vss. 18-19).

i:sst.hi8:Z;;,tuoi|ersas¥iem:I:1a.geed:i:;:nf?s`l::
fused to the man, when he must still pay the
``bride-price" (Ex. 22 : 16-17). Fornication with
I:;:i;:r:::±:rj::I::i::;:;I:o:w;§je:;o;I:y;e;+:;t:T:::{r: an engaged virgin (c£. Joel 1:8) equaled
adultery and carried the death penalty (Deut.
22:23-27).
:h¥n:C:I:!df::h¥]s¥ae:]]inta8ba|:::I;i:n|i°:tih]±::: In lsraelitish society (cf. Deut. 32:25)
the Master. virgins sometimes wore distinctively long gar-
See also FRulT. ments (11 Sam. 13:18-19). They received
BIBHOGRAPHY special consideration (cf. Amos 8:13) and
KD; I8. were so characterized by ornaments (Jer.
LEWIS T. CoRI.BIT
2:32) and joyful dancing (31:13) that their
sorrow represented calamity (Lam.1 :4,18).
VIRGIN, VIRGINITY. Scripture uses Virgins rejoiced as brides' companions (Ps.
45:14; Matt. 25:1; c£. S. o£ Sol.1:3.; and
:I::ems::i(:fn)t:,rmfvf,°rf:'igi:i9.rfet!q.¥:p::i:: 6:8), though in times of distress (I Cor.
ed," unambiguously designates a woman with- 7:26) or for religious service (vs. 32) a virgin
held at home from sexual relations (Judg. might not be given in marriage (vss. 36-37)
•21: 12). Be!tizd thus contrasts with widow or
or might remain single (vs. 28; though c£.
divorcee (Lev. 21 : 14). Be!ti!;t# (pl.), "stage
]udg.11:38-39).
of virginity," signifies concretely the evidence "Virgin" symbolized lsrae]'s political inviola-
of chastity from the wedding bed (Deut.
bility (Isa. 37:22; contrast Jer.14:17; 31:4)
22: 17, ICC). The term `azm4, "virgin, maid,
or Babylon's protected luxury, until suffering
violence (Isa. 47:I; cf. Egypt, Jer. 42:6).
i::?:i:;,;,',s:e:ris]¥:S:::]ayslc`:;I:ny:,f:;;ourt¥,;8°`:§;::i
yefrre8ifynft3:t:]ost°hesrt*]izfe=se#d(S]s¥°E]2e:4a_S5;SIT;
33:25). While less specific than I?e!tllA, `¢l~i6
Cor.11 :2; contrast Ezek. 23:3, 8; Jer.18: 13).
in the OT never signifies a married woman
BIBHOGFLAPHY

::etsur:tehde,ra:`mRaei±ef;';(o6enTh;4T4;I;I,gi#:.yiaE R.JSD:EivJ£?onn,MPTffiTy'2f,ri:5.P¥o8¥)6f°nd"C„P.45ngl;
J. BARTON PAYNE
£E:.2jo3r)d'?:idJhefsm3i€::fo¥earzes=a.d7e;:n4e)i
by the addition of be!tlz4, contrast "a`6r6 VIRGIN BIRTH OF JESUS, THE.
9eftiz4, "a damsel that is a virgin" (Deut. I. DEFINITloN. The virgin birth of Jesus, as
22:23). The NT term pcirthe"os, "one put
presented in the Bible, was a birth in normal
aside," specifies virginity, parthe%eia, as human flesh from a normal human mother
Mary's (Matt.I:23; Luke 1:27) prior to her who was a virgin in the strictest sense of the
relations with Joseph (Matt.I:18, 25; Luke word. That is, not only did Jesus have no
I:34), or even of chaste men (Rev.14:4). human father, but no coitus of any kind,
In the LXX p¢rthe#os renders be!tlLS, but also
7€¢`6rd when a virgin is intended (Gen. 24: 14;
cf. `ali.¢4, vs. 43; Isa. 7: 14). fT:;al;:.s:un¥;.n;a.:#.fa:I;|g|arcoe:!Tee:;ii:
Second Person of the Trinity, the eternal Son
(£rne.-m2Zi:t:16,VirLg::.ity2is:|P3r-i|Z::ins,f.Cris::;: o£ God, took to himself a genuine and com-
VIRGIN BIRTH 0F JESUS, THE 544

plete human nature, and was born as a man,

without sunendering in any way his complete :rid,ee:::.thfi:i:vsee:,ht¥easc?reempohn¥,£Calasfacoth::
divine nature. manded in Lev. 12, has reference to the
The kind of miracle involved is made dear
by the fact that no branch of the Christian ::fe:rfine!ef:,eec,Eie`dp|::at|gre.n`:uthnerininL:a:
church, no sect or heresy within the historical and Mary, but to
Christian movement has ever regarded the fu:;rfrs;e:uost.tfro,:sefahe initiatory
rite, cir-
Holy Spirit as the father o£ Jesus. cumcision and presentation with a blood of-
•soTnhe.fsta::I,9,ntnet?ea.t:F|:d:sri?ofurtalep3i=gf: :i:;n!:e#i:.uniE:fnha:cv:eiu;n':Jeesisfscioa::o:e:nt:
birth may be disputed. See Luke 1:35. How-
ever, even here the words ``Son of God" need Luke, the doctrine of the pre-existence of Jesus
as the eternal Son Of God, as taught by John
:oo:a3;eb,:sepdar:3i:as:easvifr.g|i|:wbsi:rtbbel=issere:i
the overshadowing protection of the Holy :Frgfnpab::in:e§:I::pechc:a]Pyre8uaTP:4S:££oanndo£,oE:
Spirit and the power of the Highest, the 1 : 14.

child when born will be called 7ioly. He is

=#.i:te,E:`]ansdon;:'heB.utpa?:a::?,eri,oTse.TeaaI g;seT::?`Ev:|or!ne?:y:Eofef?;fte7ITth::tt#e;::',mfce=S
not depend on the technicalities of the study
:i:t5::us.;s&edsenptr:iai,T|ythde.Sacuripfu.I;shai: of the Hebrew word `a!tnd or the Greek word

:tne;n:;tpcr£;:;]£;:e]Pfta:eiii,£°E:Scha£:set°o;htieF:]¥gei: #rfthh:"g:.n`L'asT.eiac;i?,sE:i,?,q!a.t:23b#
birth.
11. ScRlpTURE REFERENCEs. The virgin
::Ootap£;:hc3|£,::a#dd:a:e#iT]s::;?o(r¥#tai::I;
of the "Son" was to be "Immanuel," "God

¥ftahn:;,."t(h:)£e[::rich]Fss`is:n';fw:::dtE:S:h;:
;i::::i:;k;;fux±i§jt:th:::ii;;:di:t:i;:,:o::Si:::jiii:i:::;n:i:i:n| AI]arE.Wa:I.dQu¥NaEs:.atieEe°£b]Si:capiasi.actrineof
Matthew by Joseph himself. The genealogy
in Matt.I:I-16 may well be that of Joseph, the virgin birth is unique in human culture.
for Jesus, born and reared in his household
was legally his son. This fact does not in the
slightest degree constitute an argument against
the virgin birth. Contrary to the RSV foot- il;ri;::mps:irrt:e;V::f,I:::n::s¥i;:ie:r#:eif||iiE;#i
note to Matt. 1 : 16, "Other ancient authorities trine is that of a virgin birth in the strictest
{ead Joseph, to whom was betTothe4 the vir_gin_ sense. See the "Definition" above. Without ex-
Mary, was the father of Jesus iyho is called c:eo:nt`fo:s;i:::aa:a::h-s;ot:;::s:?itEk::t:hc:ric:o::ao3v::ri:
Christ," there is only one Greek manuscript
which contains this reading, and there is no
textual evidence that this is anything but a it is essential to the biblical doctrine that Jesus
scribal error. is not half god and half man, but that he is

oft¥ek;:Srfucacr°yuiterfssei8£Vme:yfi°a:e¥eae¥'Son¥£:i :`es¥tiTia:£tften:ij:esth:£fl€Sohd.'',`:£e£;:;nhgga!£:::
the "eyewitnesses" (Luke I:2) from whom hyp¢rc7®67®J . . . he bumbled himself by taking
Luke says he gathered data. The genealogy Of the essential attributes of a servant" (Phil.
Luke 3:23-38 may be taken as Mary's gene- 2:6-7).
IV. IMpoRTANCE. It is sometimes alleged
that the doctrine of the virgin birth is of rela-
::;?I:,sa.,aerge:df.dr.s:Leepa=:.se,sp¥rt,Tereenso;::dt:; tively little importance to the Christian
careful study. Mention may be made of the church.
On the contrary, if the biblical doctrine of
the virgin birth is not historically true, there
;;Cgtzpr::t:etri:¥:1:;:,?£Th2e]?is::]CL:JLgu=da`)`tt:P:c:¥)Snfu:: is no reason or basis for holding the other
545
VISION

eL:a:egjee];:ea|€:C:rfn::'th£::ttyhefopfi::tim:::¥;e:
Furthermore, there can be no honest doubt
that the Bible presents the incarnation as hav- ;h`e!:je:r¥:t¥b:cr:;e:i;ti;I?nil:F:ern::::¥£j.:ref:::i¥I
];nngdttahkaetnn:t]a:ey£¥caT]eya::;:£:h:;::i;i:]ab}]iteha tian ethical term.
BIBHOGRAPHY
Andt; refermce given above to JB; MM
and held today. In fact, we cannot conceive
of the eternal pre-existent Son of God becom- RALPH A. Gw]NN
ing man by means of ordinary generation
without ceasing to be God. In ordinary gen-
VISION. The' revelation Of the word and
will of God to man by the inspiration of the
eration a new "person" begins to exist.
Holy Spirit involves besides the dream (q.v.)
BIBIIOGRAPHY
In all the mass Of literature two books m`ist be men-
tioned as outstanding: (I) The_VIfg;a.Bjquh of Christ
Hg¥F+:±¥ii¥ich%#;ihee:tFth£gt¥ri'§°ffi%±
eEesdi°ser=:p¥be?-,ers±9£h_y=r°g:th&±±9th:gean¥¥£; i:he;:s:;e3:ged::.:I:?vc,::,;¥::eT;:ingbv;i::h;:

Lha¥;;Cathsee:S:n:££ssf8*takaend(a:Trs46T2:reN:°::
24:4, 16; Dan. 10:7; Acts 9:7; 10:9). How-
J. OLIVER BuswELL, ]R.

VIRTUE. The word arefG cecurs five times :¥:;vt;¥e:n¥]:ygo]±gffi:Taett:;:boe¥;:::sd]]:v::e:;er:ee:

in the NT: Phil. 4:8; I Pet. 2:9; 11 Pet.I:3; ing and the wakening state (Zech. 4:1-2;
twice in 11 Pet.1:5. In the AV the word is Luke 9:32; Rev.1:17).
translated "virtue" in each reference with the Behind the biblical term "vision" lies some
derivative of Hebrew hfiz4 or r6'd, "to see," or
Greek opt'oow¢;, horao»¢¢i, "to envision." From
:e;i:::t:]S:.:p¥;h]:I;§8tva:I::[d[:I::t;:e]ttGh3:a;:y:£:ei: the nature of the vision as an instrument o£
derful deeds" in I Pet. 2:9, and as "virtue"
both times in 11 Pet.1 :5. All of these transla- :::;:lFa,ecdo.:T:nsipciar:ifna,1.:ti;al:h(eE:e¥:nlo2:2i:
25; Joel 2:28; Acts 2: 17) and the absence of
:i::Sfnat:eappert°e¥r*]]]Wit.|i:rtahsetosc:i:£c££maer:i: such divine manifestations with periods of
religious decline (Isa. 29:11-12; Lam. 2:9;
Mic. 3:6; Ezek. 7:26). In the time o£ Eli
;::f;I.::i;;,natsr:;ge,:::;;I:!d:;(?.:;:3enadnodr,femcal: such declension is thus described: "And the
6: 13, and teh;ZZ6 (``praise, adoration, thanks- word of the Lord was precious [i.e. rare] in
those days; there was no open [diffused, or
8£3V:i;:'3na:rfltrheetGiniFue]::;o4f2;::tG]f:I:e3h:i?i; widespread] vision" (I Sam. 3: 1).
The visions vouchsafed in the Bible were

::a::e;leo:£)tv:£b:£;il:hTefi:eiss;:u2:)tf:o£::a:sLni:G:eEn:
;;:i;r!a.;rs:eiii)ei;;::ei:;er:4S:I;::;;:d;:r„:iu;k;es:I:;r:1Fjta-::ii 19:15), Balaam (Nun. 22:22) and Peter

]tnAc:san]v2:;i::a3cfet:nmtehs%nTce,reasp:a:£cvt£;svt:,nsano€
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Micah, Dan-
{§tr::I:v]£;:e¥::::i::,s#;p;;c;::::eygfie:t:¥¥§:
£':ra:nnsgdroa:no::::E:1;I:Sve:11:alr:;;S:?is:lg:in:u?'s:.e:::S;oe![
;1:I:suai::gs|||Ssahntoia;iaE:|o,:::oj:sdty:"::i:::::t|oi:a:;i
vjr£„s, meaning strength or courage, and v;rftis
i:.|o::::p:raota;nEdet:hye|f::o:nm:¥o¥:i:::?.:-:::(::e:e:-
:Susds::I;Ve:£f;:rTuevj:'s"£awne.:'o(rAe:::!y8°::yd;S: 18:20-22; Jet.14:14; 23:16; Ezek.13:7-10).

£ou*±nm:£:svt;I;¥n[t[e,repsT£.n:7o2j;e33;tfonthat BIBIIOGRAPHY
Standard Bible Encyclopaedias.
MERRILI. F. UNGER
the infrequent use of oretG, a word which
VISITATION 5 46

VISITATION. The use of epjskopG as resent God as using his voice as a means of
"visitation" (Luke 19:44; I Pet. 2: 12) signi-
fies a demonstration o£ God's power. Its OT ::]nf;:3ma:uan£Caoti°t:aar#yreavuea:ti:n.v::c:S;ehpfrceh-
background reveals that this may be one of constitutes the material substratum of the
blessing or punishment. The phrase hgt#era theophany, as in I Sam. 3:4-21, where the
boy Samuel is at first mistaken in believing
:fj::a°.P:So:(3]a:e£Lj?:s]:}js££o;G¥e{bLa:k:ergt:t4£:; that the voice was that of Eli. In Deut. 4: 12
is o£ Jer. 6:15; 10:15; 11:23. In all of these special importance is placed upon this method
of revelation: "The Lord spoke to you out of
the midst of the fire; you heard the voice of
::s:;a:r::Siagij::e;;S::?pe;¥e,;S¢v.t:hr;dpe§:¥be;s°:i:i the words but you saw no form; there was

g:d|'so,vifi:a.tion|:f:,r:::.S;inag.f%:.p5uo:i:i,mJeenr: :i:]nytaovf:i:.."R¥:::atv£:'iceb];S&`:C::£c£:o°£P¥':
(Hos. 8:13; Jer. 5:9; Lam. 4:22, etc.).
Closely allied with the actual outcome is the
idea of judicial investigation (Job 7: 18; 31 : 14; ;;eaanis:t,:n::ra:riac¥ctt,ea`rr:o:?::::.Eel:|enke:n:;:o::I:ay;t2h?:
Ps. 17,3). conduct (Deut. 5 :22-24).
The context of Luke 19:44 indicates a Later Jewish theology developed the doc-
trine of the batJ® q6] (Bath Kol), which means
i:::£s?uarovis;:a:£s°nia]kn;ntgheav¥£#bTeasna€v=:or£:: literally, daughter of the voice. It means that
God's voice itself was not heard, but only an
£:sapeg:fc]:;uTv:stft£:::;,oTfggyfswcaosnroefa:;:£
by Luke 1:67, 78; 7:16; Acts 15:14. :c|:3:titsn.w,,o::;::pEieedvoi;Caw:,;siabi:ib:Cant:
The interpretation o£ I Peter 2:12 offers festation of God. Jewish writers are not agreed
some difficulty. The context reveals that in
this visitation (either -a final or intermediate ::rteoetTtefr:sc£:n£Tre£::i:g:£eba£¥bf£::,]b]Pdte:heo¥
one, probably the latter) the pagans will gain revelation. In the OT the notion is found in
clear insight into Christian conduct. The ques- Dan. 4:31 (4:28 in MT). In the NT one
tion is: Does this insight proceed from God's finds the idea in the divine voice at the bap-
tism of Jesus (Matt. 3:17), and the voice
gracious dealing and issue in conversion or
from God's judgment and result in condemna- from heaven heard by Paul (Acts 9:4).
tion? Critical opinion is divided, but the rna- ARNOLD C. SCHULTZ
jority prefer the former aitemative.
VOW. By a vow is meant a voluntary obli-
CHARI.ES A. HODGMAN
gation or promise made to God. It is generally
VOCATION. See CALI„ taken on condition of receiving special favors
from God. Often during sickness or other
VOICE. The words for ``voice" in the orig- kinds of affliction the vow is made to God. It
is then to be carried out when the calamity is
;nha:_tt]:,n£::ge:,i+:eE:ebareo¥£:_e,:afide;haereG:=E over or the desire is granted (Gen. 28:20-22;
to express (I) the tone of musical instniments Nun. 21 :2; I Sam. I : 11; 11 Sam.15:8). The
(11 Sam.15: 10; Matt. 24:31); (2) the sound conditions of the vow are the following: (1) a
of water (Ezek. I:24; Rev. 1:5); (3) the
noise of a multitude (Isa.13:4; Rev.19:I);
(4) the clap of thunder (Ps. 68:34; Rev. ¥2E}Sca°f:ts¥S€:£f£::o;;,me:bdt:#i:::dn:::,:tseirF:PT:d;e:
::;6:Le(5c}atttt::£h[£o:£eswinngds{hEaz:::s](i€?: ::i:(t:)£::1(t4];St::e:?]]¥s:i::££isga:Che£E:
tends to the spiritual edification of the one
:;:2,2)`,7!8;h:hgr:::;ngfoafbairTi:lftcocT.e|(2F:;; who makes the vow.
(9) the crackling of thorns (Eccl. 7:6); Who may take such a vow? (I) The person
(10) the cry or voice of animals (Job 4: 10);
(11) the spread of rumor or fame (Gen. £Sasvu£:jn8utft:c±::?.::esiti[g¥n::Txtecnhtiifhaotr£S;
45 : 16).
p,:r(23fit:va.nwu::;lfcaes!u=iendd.=|a,y::etrt:::
vo£¥:tofth::n:::d:fefrde.Ssri]esos:I:;£:eL?r= deliberation. Being an act of worship, it may
 547 WAIT

not be taken rashly. (3) It must be voluntary

an€sbtietaJ:: :r#i?]]6.n this subject there is {£3nesut:°r2S:3:eEac:::P5t:?;ednn:h£8:£2gJ;.°iLgd:
the lawfulness of the vow is also evident from
little or no diversity of opinion. That the vow the fact that the baptismal covenant is in the
is lawful appears from the following considera- nature of a vow. An element of vow is also
tions. First, from the nature of a vow, being clearly implied in the celebration of the I.old's
a promise made to God. It may be an expres- Supper. In both sacraments there is a conse-
sion of gratitude for some favor already grant- cration to Christ and a vow to be faithful to
ed or a pledge to manifest gratitude for some him. The same is true of the marriage cov-
enant, because the promises therein made are
?i:Si£.nfac€;S£;Cod;esdh°t#t#dGo=ewf;tu[t:§rn?nn: not inerely promises made between two parties,
him back to his father's house he would con- but an oath and a vow taken before God.

:achr.atevao.?.e;tsen::.,:f.:ll,Fees?i#etop!ae|hmo:
especially, abound with such vows to God cipYeo:;smeanyfo:::;rb#ek::a#:y;fTe;sh?[ianh-
and clearly stated in Prov. 20:25.
BIBHOGRAPHY
:hpas;k:5,i.I'df.:lsle'c..nTe,sheeavr:wegr|eas;ifoun|sb::
cause the Bible contains many examples and
Eq:#E±=d:£nt;o?nstepi;e¥,:fte¥.e°€ngr'"5:w(.?n£=teT#,?ke
E:syi;n,;::fitci.Pennstt:rkh;irthfaatit:iulp::;=::::: WILLIAM MASSEI.INK

WAGHS. The word wages as used in the for any service given, which seems to be its
English Bible is the translation of two Greek main biblical meaning.
words and five Hebrew words. Since it is
HOWARI) Z. CLEVELANI)

;:n:e:sii::gen?:g:;:jnfi::F;:a:::tu::i::glib;£:arct:y:t;a: WAIT. The word appears in the Scriptures

as both a substantive and a verb. There are
various words used in the original languages
ffeee.Te:s!:i?:sg::;i:i.:ss:..hdasvean#t.eadses:
for this idea but the most frequent one is the
The earliest biblical reference to wages is
Hebrew root 'dra9, which means to lurk, to
in Gen. 29:15. The OT law demanded the
i ambush, etc. It is the root also of wake, watch,
payment of daily wages (Lev. 19:13) and and Arab. As a substantive the word means
1
judged severely anyone withholding wages an ambush, a plot, or a watch, and is used in
(Jer. 22: 13). three different ways. (1) Lie in wait (Deut.
This word occurs only five times in the NT 19: 11; Josh. 8:4). In Judg. 9:25 the AV has,
``And the men of Shechem set liers in wait for
a
i£]¥2fco°rn#kngdot£:.i:n::ay]idetahe°fa]:::a¥:: him . . ." while the RSV has, "And the men
given to soldiers (Luke 3: 14) or the penalty of Shechem put men in ambush against him
one suffers from sin (Rom. 6:23). The Greek ..., " (2) lay wait, Judg. 16:2, "and they
compassed him in, and laid wait for him all
:::g;,%.S;r):Sinmt°hree#eTqu±:n:]ny]yretnwd£::edtr:`::: night." The RSV has here "lay in vyait for
lated in the AV "wages" (John 4:36; 11 Pet. him all night" (cf. Jer. 9:8). (3) Laying of
2: 15). Thayer's lexicon notes that the other wait, as in Numbers 35:20, "But if he thrust
Greek word, ops6";o", originally meant any- him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of
thing bought to be eaten with bread. Later on wait .... " The RSV has here, "lying in wait."
it came to be a general term for remuneration When wait is used as a verb it is used in
WALDENSES 548

different ways. It is used (I) of God's long- a symbolic and nonliteral meaning, (4) figura-
suffering towards men (Isa. 30:18; I Pet. tive, as conduct, to live, walk Of life. This
3:20), (2) to express expectation (Luke latter meaning is frequently found in Pauline
12:36; Acts 10:24; 11 Thess. 3:5), (3) in literature.
the sense of serving or ministering to someone Figuratively, peripqteo- is a Hebraism. The
(11 Chron.13:10; I Cor. 9:13), (4) to refer word ". . . self-evident as it seems to us, seems
to the f aith of the believer who is ready to never to have been used by the Greeks unin-
listen to God and who is confident that God fluenced by Semitic thought" (A. L. Williams,
will speak to him, and that he will see a dem- Ed. Col. cI#d Phizem.). Walk as conduct rests
onstration of God's power (Pss. 33:20; 37:7; upon the OT a-s used in both Pauline and
Isa. 40:31; Rom. 8:19). Johannine passages (Ron.13:13; Eph. 4:1;
ARNOLD C. SCIIULTZ Col.I:10; I John I:7; Ill John 4). In the
NT the metaphor perip¢te-o is found in Paul
WALDHNSES. Peter Waldo was a rich thirty-three times, elsewhere sixteen times.
Amdt notes its common use "to walk" with its
merchant of Lyons who, concerned with life's
many shades Of meaning; also the metaphorical
brevity, sought counsel from a priest. Since
use with emphasis on conduct. In this sense
the priest suggested that Waldo should sell
there are numerous grammatical combinations
his goods and give them to the poor, he did
in the Greek NT.
so in 1176. He tuned his attention to the
Scriptures and decided to follow the example Chrysostom, Hotwjljes, writes, "As to walk
of Christ. is necessary for us, so also is to live rightly."
Followers were attracted to Waldo, choosing The classic NT passage is probably Col. 1 : 10.
to call themselves the "Pcor in Spirit" or the Eadie comments: "It describes the general
"Poor Men of Lyons." Dressed in simple garb tenor of one's life, his peculiar gait and prog-
they went around preaching, only to be f or- ress in his spiritual journey ,... to be good
bidden by the archbishop o£ Lyons. The pope and to do good." An interaction of right think-
allowed them to preach where the local bishop ing and right conduct is involved leading to a
worthy walk.
gave permission. However, the Waldenses dis-
regarded this restriction and then sought au- In the NT there are several related words:
thority from the Third Lateran Council stoiehos, stoicheo-, from "a row"; so to walk in
(1179). The council denied them, but they a line; porewo"¢a;, "to journey, to pass from
went on preaching despite the church's restric- one place to another"; flcostrop72G, "conduct,
tion. In 1184 they were declared heretics by deportment." As a metaphor, perjpafeo- is akin
the pope. They spread up the Rhone, the to all Of these.
Rhine, into the Netherlands, Germany, and BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bohemia, as well as Spain and Italy.
L£AEfi,Jocbonfos?%ijse.£3fos3#j?:*#.PBino¥£fTR;gdr„E;
The Waldenses sought to conf orm to the
apostolic church. They used the vemacular I#in,MriE[t;°%'an8:;ma#rheparfileal#e#"#;an#Z€yigF:
Scriptures, went about two by two in simple ¥ae£::°gafosst;j£°sh:.„;G'pe£.±ze:#, ggTrotes; A. I.. Wil-
clothes, and preached. They denied the ef- ROBERT WINSTON ROSS
ficacy Of the mass and the existence of pur-
gatory. They revived the Donatist attitude and WARFARE, WAR. Several Hebrew words
adopted a pietistic view of life. are involved, as Sd¢6', "a mass of persons,"
The Waldenses of the Piedmont valley have then campaign and thus warfare; mj]b67"4,
``fight," or "a battle"; qerdp, "encounter, battle,
persisted to the present and make up the old-
cst Protestant church. war"; and others. Greek words are stratja, and
BIBHOGRAPHY polemos, ``warfare" and "fighting," also "war."
The term war or warf are is generally applied
K;#a=:fam¥biar'B§¥±gT:.Sc#Ei#C°a£¥;MTitae##dhi#; to amed conflict between groups as organic
SHERMAN RODDY units; i.e., tribes, races, states or geographic
units either religious or political (see E7®cSoc
WALK. A familiar word in the NT, and Scj).

possibly misunderstood because of having sev- Early references to war in the OT were
eral meanings: (1) commonly to go about, tribal raids (Gen. 14). Whether to plunder,
(2) to walk with someone, to walk alone, (3) to attack, to repel attack or to avenge, the
549 WATCH

tribe or group gathered around its champion trustworthy Captain, a good cause and tried
(Judg. 7). The spoil from such warfare was weapons. He fights the good fight of faith.
shared. Warfare depended in part upon the The Christian ethics of war poses immense
season of the year (11 Sam. 11:I), taking problems. A theodicy of history must consider
place in the spring and summer. The soldiers the ramifications of God's sovereign purpose in
were placed in a battle order depending upon relation to the nations of the earth.
army size and number and the size of the BIBLIOGRAPHY
enemy forces. Night watches were kept be-
cause of night attack, ambush and attack from
hiding. ££{iij};,:ST:€e=E:i:h:e:]i§£:oH„aDnffc¥##g¥#c£;::p;5?;
ROBERT WINSTON ROSS
Warfare e.xhibited cruelty. The victor of ten
proved unmerciful, putting kings and leaders WATCH. Six or more words are translated
to death and enslaving prisoners (I Kings "watch" in the NT. Four are used in relation
20:30 ff.). Spies were regularly used (Josh. to Christ's return and are always used meta-
2:I; I Sam. 26:4) and the simile of the
phorically in these contexts as well as in pas-
strong arm was correct because the battle was sages dealing with ethical conduct. Agryp#eo-
hand to hand combat. Victory was celebrated and gre-goreo- mean "to keep oneself awake,"
by war songs (Nun. 21:27-30; Ex. 15:21; or "to be on the alert, be wide awake spiritu-
Judg.15:16) and heroes were often military ally." While 7ie-pho- literally means "to be so-
men. Four of those in Heb. I I are mentioned ber" (antonym of to be drunk), only the
solely because of war heroism. Warriors re- metaphorical meaning "to be well-balanced,
tuning home were welcomed with victory self-controlled" is found in the NT. Blepo- has
celebrations (Judg.11:34; I Sam.18:6 ff.), the idea of ``watch out, look to yourselves, be-
memorials were set up, and gold, silver, and ware of." These four words imply that we are
trophies were placed in the sanctuary. to be mentally and spiritually ready for the
Jehovah was a God of war. Israel sought coming of Christ. Such readiness comes from
the will of God before eng,1ging in warfare dedication to him. Two other words for watch
(Josh.I:I; 20-23) and priests accompanied are: te-re6, "to keep watch over, guard, to
the army as did the ark. Eli died upon hear- keep in the sense of preserve, protect, observe";
ing that the ark was c.aptured in battle (I paratgreo-, ``watch someone to see what he
Sam. 6:12-18). Jehovah used war to punish does, watch, guard, and observe."
Israel and also to judge Israel's enemies (I The NT stresses attentiveness regarding
Sam.15: I-3). The soldiers joined in the sac- Christian life and conduct. This includes alert-
rifice before the battle, kept themselves pure ness in prayer (Eph. 6:18; Col. 4:2; Matt.
(11 Sam.11:1) and sought the blessing Of 26:41; Mark 14:38); watchfulness for false
Jehovah actively. To sanctify war was a com- teaching (Mark 8:15; 12:38; Acts 20:31);
mon simile (Jer. 6:4; Mic. 3:5). being well-balanced and alert because of the
The early Christians used the language of devil's activity (I Pet. 5:8); taking care not to
war metaphorically. "More than conquerors," fall from the position one has reached spirit-
"good soldier," "trumpet-sound," were all com-
ually (I Cor. 10: 12; 11 John 8); watchfulness
mom. As the trumpet sounded the charge, so for souls and self-control under all circum-
the trumpet will signal the return o£ Christ. stances as characteristics of Christian leaders
This with other similes gives chiliasm a mill- (Heb.13: 17; 11 Tim. 4:5); alertness in spirit-
tary sound and a martial setting, and Satan ual defeat (Rev. 3:2-3).
will be set down in final conquest, or war. In eschatological passages, "watch" points
Jehovah as a God of war is pictured as a con- up the urgency of the situation. In the Olivet
queror, as a shield and fortress, as shooting his discourse the alertness is for the coming of
arrows at his enemies, and as championing the Christ which is to occur af ter the tribulation
defenseless. of those days (Matt. 24:4, 29, 42; 25:13;
The Christian life was also seen as a spirit- Mark 13:5, 9, 33, 35, 37; Luke 21:8, 36).
ual warfare (11 Cor. 10:3-4), therefore the Christians in Thessalonica, although they are
soldier must have spiritual weapons (Eph. sons Of light so that the day of the Lord Jesus
6:11-]7). James and I Peter speak o£ "war will not overtake them as a thief, are yet to
in the soul" and "warfare in your members." be on the alert and well-balanced (I Thess.
In the spiritual warfare the Christian has a 5:6, 8). Prepared for action and exeri`ising
WATER 550

self{ontrol, the believer looks to the grace to WAY. One Of the earliest designations for
be brought to him at the revelation of Christ the Christian faith was JOG hodos, "the Way."
(I Pet.1:13). All six references are found in Acts and in
BIBLIOGRAPHY connection with the apostle Paul. The word
occurs twice in reference to his pre-conversion
A.AZ;£tieG.£nE.Tgivti,Thne,Bpfs;97;HOG:'Eapje#=3!
fro#kiv,£npp.ry3H6 persecution of Christians (9:2; 22: 14), twice
A. BERKEI.E¥ MICHELSEN in connection with the opposition to his min-
istry in Ephesus (19:9, 23), and twice in his
WATER. The present survey attempts to
defense before Felix (24: 14, 22). These set-
classify some Of the literal and some of the tings of hostility suggest that for the non-Chris-
symbolic uses Of water in the Bible. In some
tian world the term 7.g hoczos-like the un-
cases the line of demarcation between these complimentary c72rjst;a7ios -was decidedly de-
uses is thinly draun. rogatory. The expression may well mark a sig-
The literal uses of water are seen in the nificant crisis in the growth Of primitive Chris-
following instances: (1) the water of creation
tianity. In the eyes of the priesthood at Jeru-
(Gen.1:2, 6-10, 20-23; Pss.18:15; 33:6 f.; salem the ever-expanding band Of disciples
104:2-9); (2) the water of ordinary provi-
were becoming a distinct and heretical sect
dence (Job 5:10; 36:27-29; 37:6-13; 38:25-
within Judaism (cf. esp. 24:14).
30, 34-38; Ps. 65:9; Jer.10:]3; 51:16); (3)
The background of the term is to be found
the water of extraordinary providence -mira- in the teaching o£ Jesus concerning the two
cles (Ex. 7:14-25; 14:21-31; Josh. 3:13-17;
ways -the easy way that leads to destniction
4: 15-18; I Kings 18 :33-38; 11 Kings 2:8; Jonah
as opposed to the hard way that leads to life
I:12-17; Matt. 14:28 £.; Luke 8:24; John
(Matt. 7: 13-14). Jesus also spoke Of himself
2:7); (4) the water Of judgment-the flood as ``the way . . . unto the Father" (John 14:6).
(Gen. 6-8; Isa. 54:9; I Pet. 3:20; 11 Pet. The author Of Hebrews reflects that through
3:5 f.).
his flesh Jesus had opened up the ``new and
The symbolic uses of water are illustrated living way" into the heavenly sanctuary (Heb.
in the following examples: (I) symbolizing 10:20). Back of all this lies the wealth of
the Trinity-the Father (Jer. 2: 13), the Son teaching in the OT -especially in the Psalms
(John 7:37; Rev.1 : 15), the Holy Spirit (Isa. -concerning "the way of the righteous" and
32:15; Ezek. 36:25-27; John 3:5; 7:38 £.); "the way of the wicked" (Ps. 1 :6; cf. also Isa.
(2) symbolizing man's state of sin-sinful- 30:21 and Jer. 21:8).
ness (Isa. 57:20), apostasy (Jer. 2:13), self-
The concept Of the two ways formed the
will (Isa. 8:6), punishment (Isa. I:30; 8:7;
pattern for a good deal of the catechetical in-
Jer. 8:14; 23:15), death (Job 24:19; 26:5; struction in the early church. The Djdehe
27:20); (3) symbolizing man's state of grace
begins, "There are two Ways, one of Life and
-the gospel invitation (Isa. 55: 1; Rev. 21 :6;
one o£ Death," and then follows six chapters
22: 17), sorrow for sin (Jer. 9: I; Lam. 2: 19),
of commentary on these two ways. Closely con-
regeneration (Ezek. 47: I-12; Joel 3: 18; John
nected are the last chapters of Bar7®4bas (xviii-
3:5; Titus 3:5 £.; Heb. 10:22), the Spirit's
xx) which treat the ``two Ways . . . one Of
baptism and indwelling (Isa. 32:15; 44:3;
Light and one o£ Darkness."
Ezek. 36:25-27; Joel 2:28; John 7:37 I.; I BIBLIOGRAPHY
John 5:6-8), eternal life (John 4:14), sanc- ISBE; Commentaries swb Acts 9:2; HOB.
tification (John 13:5, 10; Eph. 5:26), trials ROBERT H. MouNCE
(Isa. 30:20; 43:2), £mitfulness (Ps.I:3; Jet.
17:8; Ezek. 47: 12), perseverance (Isa. 58: 11;
•w¥iTh4,Li:HtieThoeTT:r!ap:.:,ne(r€':Z.u3S:?2;3:
Jer. 31 :9); (4) symbolizing man's eternal state
-the lost, without water (Luke 16:24); the and in the NT ewpori¢ (Acts 19:25). The
saved, with ttie water Of life (Rev. idea expressed by wealth is sometimes that Of
7:17;
22: 1 f.). a feeling of well-being but usually it means
The use of water in the OT ceremonial to possess riches. The possession of wealth is
system (e.g., Ex. 29:4; 40:7, 12, 30) un- in Scripture frequently looked upon as an in-
doubtedly has symbolical significance. dication o£ God's blessing (I Sam. 2:7; Eccl.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 5:19). Wealth, even though given by God,
James Patrick in HI)B; John Reid in I)CG; James was not to dominate a man's life. In fact, its
Str'alian in HDAC.
WICK BROOMALL limitations are seen in such passages as Ps.
551 WIDOW

49:6-7, and its transitory character in Job 21 condition as a result of cures effected by
and Jer. 12. Although it is recognized in Christ or the apostles. For this purpose the
Scripture that poverty may bring sorrow, it is verb s6zo- and the adjective Jiygie-s are em-
also emphasized that wealth has its dangers. ployed.
Jesus condemned the man whose main inter- ROBERT V. UNMACK
est was in building larger barns (Luke 12: 16-
21). WICKED. WICKEDNESS. Since the first
Wealth may even imperil one's salvation and all-important demand which God makes
upon man is perfect obedience to his revealed
(Matt. 19:23). Consequently there are many
warnings in the Scriptures directed at the rich will (Gen. 2: 16 f.), it follows that any want
of conformity to or transgression of the law o£
(I Tim. 6:17; James 5:I-3). The Scriptures
also make clear that the wealthy are subject God is sin. In the OT as in the NT a num-
to specific sins. Wealth may result in trusting ber of different words are used to describe the
too much in self, and in conceit (Prov 18: 11; sinful condition o£ fallen man. They are ren-
28:11). It may result in highmindedness (I dered by such English words as evil, sin, in-
Tim. 6:17) and selfishness (Luke 12:19). iquity, transgression, and wickedness. "Wicked"
Jesus made it clear that all would be held ac- (wickedness) is the rendering of more than a
countable for the use made Of their riches. dozen Hebrew words and of five Greek words.
Of the former, it most frequently renders
ARNOI.D C. SCHULTZ r696` (252 times). Wicked apparently always
involves a moral state, unlike r¢` (usually ren-
WHITSUNDAY. The Christian feast of dered by "evil") which may describe misfor-
Pentecost, celebrating the descent of the Holy tunes and distresses resulting from sin as well
Spirit on the apostles (Acts 2: 1-4). It falls on a.s sin itself . Wicked is contrasted with "right-
the fiftieth day after Easter; hence the date of eous" (Sac]d€q), especially in Proverbs (e.g.,
Whitsunday is governed by the date of Easter. 12:5; 13:5; 29:2) and in Ps. 37. Wickedness
In the early centuries of the church the vigil is an active, destnictive principle (Prov. 21 : 10`;
of the feast was, like Easter eve, a day spe- 29: 16). This active opposition to God and his
cially set apart for baptism, and the title
"White Sunday" almost certainly owes its people causes suffering and distress (Ps. 10).
But it is vain; the wicked shall perish in his
origin to the white garments worn by the new- wickedness (Ps. 9:16). It is the confident
ly baptized. The celebration of the festival is
prayer and expectation of the righteous that
of great antiquity, dating possibly from apos- this may be true (Ps.11; 68:13). The pros-
tolic times (cf. Acts 20: 16).
perity of the wicked tries and tests the faith
See also CHRlsTIAN YEAR. of the righteous (Ps. 73). "Wicked" is used
FRANK CoLQUHOUN less frequently in the NT where i[ usually
renders the strong word po"Gros (e.g., Matt.
WHOLE. In the Bible, the English word ]3:19, 38, 49). But the word "sinner"
``whole" is a translation of ten different He-
(7}¢7"¢rto-fas), which frequently renders r654'
brew words and twelve Greek. The basic OT in the LXX, is also frequently used in the NT.
word is kol which means the whole, totality.
OSWAI.D T. ALLIS
The basic NT word is Jio]os and means whole,
entire, complete. In Hebrew as well as Greek, WIDOW. The widow in the OT is pri-
without the article the word refers to the marily a figure of helplessness or neediness,
whole collection without concern for the in- that is, one unable to protect or provide for
tensive quality. With the article it means that herself. For this reason the Mosaic law enjoins
the integral parts are complete as well. The special consideration and justice for her, along
adjective almost always stands in the predicate with orphans and strangers, and threatens pun-
position. The articular phrase "in the whole ishment by God upon those who do other-
world" (Ron.I :8) shows the intensive idea. wise (Ex. 22:22-24; Deut.10:18; 24:17-21;
In the expression ``the whole city" (Acts cf. Mal. 3:5). So the widow is an apt symbol
21:20) the adjective is used after the noun for destroyed Jerusalem, that is, a city bereft
and also shows intensity. of people and goods, helpless and unprotected
The most distinctive special use occurs in (Lam.1:I; cf. Isa. 47:8; Rev.18:7), and
the Gospels and the Book of Acts where the severity of judgment can be expressed when
word rather often denotes a sound, healthy even the widow is destroyed (Isa. 9: 17).
WILL 552
'The NT continues the idea of special con- to do the will Of God may be largely im-
cern for the widow (James I :27) and of judg- mobilized (Ron. 7:15 ff.). The aid Of the
ment upon those who oppress (Mark 12:40), Holy Spirit is needed (Ron. 8:4). Continued
but makes more explicit the OT idea Of needi- dependence on the Spirit results in the
ness by drawing a distinction between widows strengthening of the will so that the meeting
and "real widows" (I Tim. 5:3-8). The latter of the divine requirement becomes more con-
are those without children or grandchildren to stant.
care for them, and thus are to be provided for The present trend in psychology is away
by the church. If anyone neglects a relative from the notion of will as a f aculty and toward
who is a widow he has disowned his faith, the viewpoint that it is an expression Of the
for this is contrary to the will of Christ. He total self or personality (q.v.). Normal life in-
is worse than an unbeliever, for even the eludes the capacity for making decisions, and
heathen care for parents (I Tim. 5:8). one is responsible for his choices. That choice
There is also an indication of a special class which makes all others the more meaningful
of widows who, according to patristic sources, is commitment to Christ.
had certain charitable and overseeing duties. See a`lso FREElroM.
EVERETr F. HARRlsoN
It was required that they be at least sixty
years Of age, married only once, and well- WILL OF GOD. In the OT the Hebrew
known for good works. Younger widows were
refused admission to the order because Of lack I)dpgs designates God's "counsel" or "good
of maturity and selfroontrol (I Tim. 5:9-16). plc-asure" (Isa. 44:28; 46:10; 48:10; 53:10);
ra$6tt, his "goodwill" and "favor" (Ezra 10: 11;
ROBERT 8. LAUEN Pss. 40:9; 103:21; 143: 10); `G$4, `This counsel,"
in the sense of that which has been planned by
WILL. The Scriptures manifest greater in- deliberation (Pss. 33: 11; 73:24; Prov.19:21;
ter€st in the will Of God (q.v.) than in the Isa. 5:19; 46:10). In the Aramaic Of Daniel
will of man. The latter is not treated in the usual terln employed is the verb SC96', sig-
analytic f ashion any more than heart or other nifying God's "will" and "desire" (Dan. 4: 17,
psychological terms. Yet the material warrants 25, 32; 5:21). The NT makes use of three
consideration. The notion Of inclination is ex- principal words: bo4.fe-, God's ``etemal plan and
pressed in the OT by 'd!4, nearly always in purpose based on his deliberation" (Luke
negative form, whereas the other leading words 7:30; Acts 2:23; 4:28; 20:27; Eph.I:11);
fmo:nT£:]£,:a£„pa]:gut:gGf;etEephNas+aetht:ecf£[: t7.eL5..i¢, his "will according to his inclination"
(Acts 22: 14; Ron.12:2; Eph.1 :9; 5: 17; Col.
verbs are tz&ezo- and Z7owzoti¢aj, which mean to 1:9); and endokja, his "good pleasure" and
"delight" (Luke 2:14; Eph. 1:5, 9; Phil.
wish or to will according to the demands Of
the context. The noun thele-t.¢¢ is used mainly 2: 13).
Of God. Decision or plan is the force of the Although God's will is absolute, i.e., uncon-
rarely used bowle-(Luke 24:51; Acts 5:38). ditioned by anything outside himself, it is not
To will in the sense of coming to a decision distinct from his divine nature, that is, ¢bso-
is sometimes expressed by kr;„6 (I Cor. 5:3). hately arbitrary, but is in complete harmony
Among the more striking passages in which with his holiness, righteousness, goodness and
theze-7.¢¢ is used of man are Eph. 2:3, where truth. Thus there are those things which God
the word has the force Of desire, and 11 Pet. cannot do (Nun. 23: 19; I Sam.15:29; Heb.
I:21, where it denotes an act Of the will. 0£ 6:18; James 1:13; 11 Tim. 2:13), because
supreme import is Luke 22:42, the Geth- they are contrary to his essential character. The
semane declaration Of Jesus' submission to the highest end of God's will is himself .
will Of the Father. Here is the pattern for the All that which is not God exists by his sov-
cat)itulation of the will Of the believer to God. ereign will, which is therefore the basis Of all
But this does not mean the adoption Of an existence. God is under no obligation to will
attitude of passivity such as may be suggested that which is, and he rules over all according
by the motto: "Let go . . . let God." It means to his free counsel and determination (Ps.
rather the determination that the individual I 15:3; Prov. 21 : 1; Job 10:9; Isa. 29: 16; Ron.
shall actively cooperate with the revealed pur- 9:15-18; I Cor.12:11; Rev. 4:11).

pose of God for him. The power of the flesh God's decretive will determines whatsoever
is so great that even in the Christian the will comes to pass (P§. 115:31; Dan. 4:17, 25,
553 WINE

32, 35; Acts 2:23; Eph.I:5, 9,11), while WINE. Among the words used for "wine"
his perceptive will declares how man showzd is the Hebrew yayj7¢ for which the Greek NT
live (Matt. 7:21; John 4:34; 7:17; Ron. has Oft®os and the Latin vj"„ow. yayj7D appar-
12:2). He does not cause sin (a.v.), but it ently is a loan word from a non-Semitic root.
exists in accordance with his purpose and he It is the usual word in the OT for the fer-
controls and punishes it (Ex. 4:21; Josh. mented juice of the grape (Gen. 9:21, etc.),
11:20; I Sam. 2:25; Acts 2:23; 4:28; 11 and appears in our traditional Hebrew text
Thess. 2:11). He is under no obligation to 141 times. It is uniformly rendered "wine."
save sinners, but he wills so to do and chooses Oj#os is found over thirty times in the NT,
whom he will (Ezek. 18:23; I Tim. 2:4; 11 not including its use in compounds, as in
Pet. 3:9; Ron. 9:11,18). oj"opofGs, "winebibber" (Matt.11: 16; Luke
God's will is inscrutable, for no man may 7:34). Yayj" was`used as a family beverage
understand it, any more than he may compre- as well as at special dinners and was included
hend the being of God himself (Job 9:10; in some of the offerings (Ex. 29:40). The
Ron.11:33). Therefore, one must submit to wine of the drink offerings is consistently des-
God in reverent obedience, knowing that he ignated as yayj# (Nun.15 : 5,10, etc.). In the
dces all things well (Isa. 45:12,13; Ron. OT period yayj7® is limited in its use to the
9:,6-23). juice of the grape but in later Hebrew it in-
BIBLIOGRAPHY cludes the fermented juice of different kinds
of fmit, such as apple wine and date wine.
E:crg*3;VIsfsokg:T£,¥p¥8tti,::ppfo;6.7E;.a£3-fiiinL: Another important term for wine in the OT
W. STANFORD REID is t¢ro-5. It occurs thirty€ight times in the OT
and is sometimes translated "wine" and some-
WILL-WORSHIP. This is the rendering times "new wine." It was considered a staple
Of the Greek ethefothrGskej¢ (Col. 2:23) in the along with com and fresh oil (Gen. 27:28;
AV, ASV, ERV (RSV "rigor Of devotion"). Deut. 7:13, etc). As such it is mentioned
Et7ielothre-skeha is not attested elsewhere; it with com and fresh oil as subject to tithe
may have been coined by Paul himself, on the (Deut. 12: 17), and the payment of first fruits
analogy of words like efhefodoukej¢ (a com- (Deut. 18:4). Thus in some cases t€ro-5 has
pound used by Plato and other Greek writers reference to fresh grape juice, before and dur-
in the sense of "voluntary subjection"). Deiss- ing fermentation. The word is also used of
mann renders it a "self-made cult" and con- the juice while still in the grape as "the new
trasts it with the "spiritual service" (Zogjke- wine is found in the cluster" (Isa. 65:8).
hatreie) Of Ron.12:I (Pflwl, London,1926, However, in some passages it clearly denotes
p.118). H. N. Bate renders it a "faked-re- the femented juice of the grape (Hos. 4: 11),
\igion" CA Guide to the Epishes of St. Paul, where it has intoxicating properties. The t€ro-5
London, 1926, p. 143), as though the ele- that is drunk in the courts of the sanctuary
Fwe::,de-£?,'o-(s;mf.lief.P#eui:L`iiedE#'isFi (Isa. 62:8-9) is fermented wine. This is sup-
ported by the evidence that yayi# was used in
Howard, Gr¢m7#¢r of NT G7.eek, Vol. 11, the offerings.
Edinburgh, 1929, p. 290). But Paul uses it in
order to suggest that the heretical teachers at A third important word used for wine is
5Gky-r. It occurs twenty-two times in the OT
Colossae thought that by initiation into their
and is rendered ``strong drink." Its root is the
higher "mysteries" they could offer God a vol-
basis for the Hebrew for dmnk, drunkard, and
untary addition to his basic requirements -a
drunkenness. The etymology of the word justi-
supererogatory devotion by which they hoped
fies the conclusion that 5e-!dr may designate
to acquire superior merit in his sight. In this
any intoxicating drink regardless of its source.
sense "will-worship" has come to be used Of
"worship according to one's own will or fancy, It should be pointed out, however, that the
Targumim and the Peshitta sometimes trans-
or imposed by human will, without divine
late 5e-kdr as ``old wine." Added to this is the
authority" (New E7®glisJ® Diet;o#ary X. ii, Ox-
fact th-at Nun. 28:7 designates the drink of-
ford, 1928, s.v.).
fering as being of 5e-&67., which is rendered in
BIBIJOGRAPHY
Amdt; K. L. Schmidt in TWNT,. MM; J. 8. Light- this passage by some versions as "strong wine."
£oot, Cofossims, ed loo. No beverage other than the juice of the grape
FREI)BRICK FTVIE BRUCE would be accepted for this purpose. The word
WISDOM 5 54

also appears in I)arallelism to yay;7® (Isa. 5 : 11, 28: 13 ff.). Only God, of course, possesses this
22; 28:7; Prov. 20:I; 31:6). wisdom in the absolute sense (Job 12:13). It
More infrequently used words are: (I) cannot be derived by human intelligence (Job
bet„er (Deut. 32:14 where the AV renders 28: 12; Eccl. 7:23; Job 2:21). The scoffer will
"grape," and the RSV has ``wine"; Isa. 27:2, never find it (Prov. 14:6); but God, whose
AV has "red wine," RSV, "a pleasant vine- attribute it is (I Kings 3:28; Dan. 2:20), free-
yard"), (2) `6sfs (Isa. 49:26, AV has ``sweet ly gives it to those who seek it (Prov. 2:6;
wine," RSV, "wine"; Amos 9:13, AV, RSV, Eccl. 2:26).
have "sweet wine"; Jcel I:5, AV, "wine," The controversial passage in Proverbs (8 :22-
RSV, "sweet wine"; Joel 3:18, AV, "new 31) has often been interpreted as a proof Of
wine," RSV, "sweet wine"; S. Of Sol. 8:2, AV, the Trinity in the OT. In its context, however,
RSV, have "juice"), (3) s69e' (Isa. 1:22, it is better taken as a personification of the
AV, RSV, have "wine''; Hos. 4:18, AV, divine attribute which God exercised in the
"drink," RSV, "dninkard"; Nab. I:10, AV, creation of all things and which also he wishes
``drunkards," RSV fcotnote has, ``drunken as to impart to men in order to lead them into a
with their drink," (4) related terms derived righteous life.
from the verbal root i7¢4sa&, "to mix [wine] In the OT the concept of divine wisdom
with spices" (Ps. 75:8; Prov. 23:30; Isa. must not be abstracted from its practical im-
65:11; S. Of Sol. 7:2; 8:2). plications for men. The tmly wise man is the
BIBIIOCRAPHY good man, and the truly good man is he who
at the very beginning wisely chooses to give
*i:§.5:is¥::.J¥B±BmA=R.°£.#rmN¥T¥y£#jbB;.£3; God his proper place in his life.
ARNOI.I) C. SCHUI.TZ In the OT Apocrypha three bocks, the Wis-
don o£ Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, and Baruch,
WISDOM. In the OT the English word are also to be included in the `Wisdom" ]itera-
wisdom represents the translation of many He- ture. In post-biblical times, the Jews developed
brew words, but by far the most common is this type Of literature still further. Its culmina-
lion is to be found in the works of the Jewish
Zio!nd (150 times). More than half of these
references are found in the so<alled Wisdom philosopher Philo (d. A.D. 50).
literature (Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes). In the NT, the Greek word sophie occurs
frequently and repeats most Of the OT usages
Outside this Wisdom literature, the word
supplemented by the relation which Christ
seldom refers to God or even purely ``spiritual"
bears to the divine wisdom. Wisdom is an at-
wisdom but to human skills or abilities which
tribute of God (Luke 11:49), the revelation
may or may not be God-given. Such skills were
of the divine will to man (I Col. 2:4-7), a re-
involved in the tabernacle preparation (Ex.
ligious and spiritual understanding of the will
28:3; 31:3, 6), in warfare (Isa.10:13), in
Of God on man's part (Matt. 13:54; James
sailing (Ps. 107:27), and in ruling (Deut.
1:5; and often ascribed to Christ in an ab-
34:9; Ezek. 28:4; I Kings 2:6 and very fre-
solute sense as perfect humanity), and the
quently with reference to Solomon). Wisdom human intellectual capacity (Matt. 12:42 and
(skill) may be bad and condemned by God 11 :25). There is also a proud human wisdom
(Ezek. 28:17; Isa. 29:14; Jer. 8:9; 11 Sam. which spurns the divine wisdom and which
20:22; Isa. 47: 10).
leads only to destruction (I Cor. 1 : 19-20).
In the Wisdom literature, the word often The distinctive element in NT wisdom is
refers to a mere humanly derived knowledge its identification Of Jesus Christ as the wisdom
(Eccl. 1:13; Job 4:21), which brings only o£ God (I Cor.I:24), who becomes the ulti-
grief and frustration (Eccl. 1 : 12; 2:9-11). In mate source of all the Christian's wisdom (I
contrast with this human wisdom, however, Cor.I:30).
there is a divine wisdom, given by God, which BIBHOGRAPFT
enables man to lead a good and tnie and satis-
fying life. Such divine wisdom keeps the com- wy£ a. GHO¥dea-?e¥.wThalit¥¥h%. Of God 4„d the
mandments of God (Prov. 4:11), is charac- KENNETII S. KANTZER
terized by prudence (Prov. 8 : 12), discernment
(Prov. 14:8), humility (Prov. 10:8), is based WITCHCRAFT. The term witch is popu-
on the fear Of the Lord (Job 28:28; Prov. 1arly used of one who uses black magic, a
9:10), and is of inestimable value (Job process of working harm through a compact
555 WITNESS, TESTIMONY

with an evil spirit or, more particularly, the transliterated to form the English word "c¢rtyr
devil. For temporal possessions or power the (a.v.), meaning one who suffers or dies rather
witch was thought to have sold her soul to the than give up his faith. However, in the NT,
devil, as in the Faust legend. suffering was an incidental factor in the word.
The biblical witch is entirely different from A thorough study of witnessing would neces-
this medieval concept. She is more properly sitate a study of the whole Bible. Such words
the sorceress, mcEtI55ep4 (Ex. 22: 17). The sor- as preaching, teaching, and confessing would
cerer and the sorcereis used magical formulae, have to be included. Greek words (fifteen in
incantations, or mutterings to exercise control number) stemming from "witness" (..¢artys) are
over the unseen world. used over two hundred times in the NT. The
Sorcery, or witchcraf t, was common in the most common usage is found in the Johannine
ancient Near East. The term is used Of the writings in which seventy-six instances are
"wise men" Of Egypt during the time of Moses
found. Acts has thirty-nine instances and the
(Ex. 7: 11) and their Babylonian counterparts Pauline writings thirty-five.
during the exile (Dan. 2:2). Nahum (3:4) Leaving aside those uses Of the word which
calls Babylon "the mistress of witchcrafts," refer to man's witness to men (cf . Ill John
Z7ci`tiha± kesd.pf7». Jezebel and her Baalist com- 12, et a}.), God's witness to men (cf. Acts
patriots were accused Of resorting to ``whore- 13:22, et az.), man's witness against men (cf.
doms and witchcraft" (11 Kings 9:22). All Matt.18:16, c! a].) and miscellaneous uses
forms of sorcery and witchcraf t were strictly (cf. John 2:25, et a!.), we will consider the
forbidden in Israel (Ex. 22:18; Lev. 20:27; distinctively Christian use of the words.
Deut.18:10-12).
First, there are those testimonies which are
The sorcalled "witch of Endor" (I Sam. meant to establish the incarnation and the
28:3 ff.) is called 'G5e£ Z7a`6hat '6Z7 ``a woman
truth of Christianity. In ]ohn's Gospel, where
who is mistress of necromancy." She was a
this is primary, we find instances of all the
member of a class of people who sought to main witnesses. John the Baptist "bears testi-
communicate with the dead. Saul sought her mony" (mflrtyre6) to Jesus as the coming Sav-
services as a move of desperation. Although iour of the world (John 1:7, 8, 15, 32, 34;
God used this interview to bring a message of 3:26; 5:32). The works that Jesus did were a
judgment upon Saul there is no hint that the testimony that he came from the Father (John
woman had supematural power. She appeared 5 :36); this explains why John called the mira-
terrified at the sight Of Samuel.
cles "signs" (sg"eio„). The OT Scriptures are
Samuel declared, "Rebellion is as the sin Of a testimony to Jesus (John 5:39)-this
witchcraft (qese")" (I Sam. 15:23). Balaam thought is behind most of the NT quotations
(Josh. 13:22) and the Philistines (I Sam. from the OT. After the resurrection, the main
6:2) were "diviners." The "witchcraft" or evidences Of the tnith of Christianity are: the
p7iari.¢akeha Of Gal. 5 :20 in the first instance ministry of the Holy Spirit (John 15:26), the
refened to drugs or potions. It came to be as- witness Of the disciples to the resurrection
sociated with poisoning and witchcrafto (Acts 1 :22, et aJ.) and the signs and wonders
CHARLES F. PFEIFFER by which God attested the ministry of the
apostles and the churches (Heb. 2:4).
WITNESS, TESTIMONY. Properly, "a The pattern of Christian missionary and
witness" (nlartys) is "one who testifies" (7Ȣr- evangelistic activity is set in the NT. Several
€y7.e6) by act or word his "testimony" (..¢or principles emerge. (1) Witnessing is the uni-
tyrjo#) to the tnith. This act of testifying is versal obligation of all Christians (Luke 24: 48;
called his "testimony" (1.¢artyrja). In ancient Acts 1 :8). That the act of witnessing was not
days, as at the present, this was a legal term restricted to the apostles or ministers is shown
designating the testimony given for or against by those references in Acts which speak of all
one on trial before a court of law. In Christian the disciples giving testimony (cf. Acts 2:4).
usage, the term came to mean the testimony This is one of the most needed emphases for
given by Christian witnesses to Christ and his modern Christianity. (2) The testimony to be
saving power. Because such testimony often given centered in the facts and the meaning
meant arrest and scourging (cf. Matt.10: 18; of the earthly ministry Of Jesus (Acts 10:39-
Mark 13:9), exile (Rev.I:9), or death (cf. 41) and to his saving power (Acts 10:43).
Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6) the Greek was The primary wimesses were the apostles who
WOE, WOES 556

had personal knowledge of this ministry from but did not have the rights or status of men.
its beginning (Acts 1:22). This knowledge Greater freedom came to women in Mace-
they delivered to others who gave testimony to donia, but it was enjoyed only by a minority.
it also (Heb. 2:3-4). They, in turn, were to In Roman society women enjoyed greater prac-
entrust this message to others who would con- tical, though not legal, freedom than in Greece,
tinue to give witness to it (11 Tim. 2:2). The but licentiousness and moral laxity was ram-
primary message was this Christian "tradition" pant. In the Hebrew society the woman had
(prradosis) (I Col. 15:1-3). (3) Christian little position legally (cf. Gen. 31:14-15;
witnesses were to be faithful without regard Nun. 27:1-8), but her practical status was
to their personal safety or comfort (Matt. one Of dignity, particularly in the home. Chil-
10:48, et ¢!.). (4) Christian testimony was dren were the special charge of the mother
attended by the ministry Of the Holy Spirit (Ex. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 19:3; Prov. I:8;
and the manifestation of God's presence and 6:20; 20:20; 30:11,17). God included "all
power (Heb. 2:3-4). the people" (including women, Ex.19: 11) in
BIBLIOGRAPHY the covenant relationship with himself.
Amdt; ". Women were expected to share in religious
FRED L. FISHER
ceremonies (Deut.12:12,18; 14:26; 16:11,
14); they could take part in the offerings
WOE, WOES. The Hebrew uses two main
terns for "woe," ho-wy and 'o-wy, while the (Lev. 6:29; 10:14); and they may have
formed a kind Of "temple choir" (Ezra 2:65;
Greek uses oowj. The word sometimes signifies
Neh. 7:67; cf. Heinrich Ewald, T7ie History
a feeling of sympathy or compassion (Matt.
of Jsraez, Longmans, Green, and Co., London,
24: 19) or an expression of despair or lamenta-
1878, p. 285).
tion, as, "Woe is me . . . !" (Ps.120: 5). In other
Christianity brought a revolution in the
places it has an oracular signif icance and is a status of women, the Virgin Mary being the
form Of anathema, curse, or waning of pun-
tuning point (Luke 1:48). Jesus taught
ishment.
women and received their ministrations and
The Hebrew prophets frequently used ora-
financial support (Matt. 28:I; Luke 8:3;
cles beginning ``Woe unto . . ." concerning a
10:38-42; 23:56; John 4). In the life Of the
wide area of Israelite life. For example, ``Wce
early church women were among the I irst be-
unto thee, 0 Jerusalem!" (Jer. 13:27). "Woe
lievers (Acts 12:12; Phil. 4:2). Some, like
be unto the pastors that destroy and scatter the
Priscilla and Phoebe, were outstanding lead-
sheep Of my pasture!" (Jer. 23: I). ``Wce un-
ers. However, the NT does not allow them
to the foolish prophets . . ." (Ezek. 13:3).
"Woe unto them that are at ease in Zion . . ." leadership in public worship and assigns sub-
ordination, dependence, and difference of na-
(Amos 6:I). The seven woes Of Isaiah (Isa. ture as reasons for this restriction (I Cor.
5:8,11,18 f., 20, 21, 22, 23; cf.10:1) may
14:34; I Tim. 2: 13-14). Deaconesses are not
be compared with the seven woes pronounced
unequivocally attested as a recognized group
against the religious leaders Of his day by
until the third century and probably grew out
Jesus (Matt. 23:13,15,16, 23, 25, 27, 29).Of the order of widows which was prominent
ARNol.D C. SCHULTZ in the first two centuries (I Tim. 5). Through-
out this period the emphasis was still on the
WOMAN. The generic tern man includes dignity of woman in the home (Eph. 5).
woman, but as an individual creation o£ God BIBLlacRAPFT
she was formed out of the man (Gen. 2:21-
24). Because of this creative order the Bible
assigns headship (I Cor.11 :7-9) and authority
(I Tim. 3: 12-13) to the man. Rulership is also
ftEb£&Ffh£;a:##¥#,%„¥ssfnh,#*;„;,:;:
CHARI.Es C. R¥Rm
delegated to the man as a result of the fall
(Gen. 3,16). WOMEN, ORDINATION OF. There be-
In Judaism the position of woman was ing no clear scriptural statements on the ques-
markedly better than it was in Greek or tion of women's ordination, consideration Of'
Roman civilization. In the ancient Greek world the question should include the following re-
women were considered inferior to men. Wives lated biblical teachings: (1) Although the
led lives of seclusion and practical slavery. The Bible emphasizes equality in spiritual capacity
het¢jr¢j enjoyed more freedom of movement and worth of both sexes before God (Gen.
557 WORD

1:26-29; Ex.15:20 ff.; Luke 10:39-42; 24:5- 2:4-8; 3:11; Jer.18:18; I Cor.12:28; Epb.
8; John 11:21-27; Acts 17:4), consistently 4: 11-12). Hence, to prophesy is not the same
from the Adamic sin until the end Of the pres- as to preach. Prophecy was the gift par excel-
ent order, woman's function is designated as lence which indicated God's presence, ap-
helpmeet and mother (Gen. 3:16; 18:11 ff.; proval, and so"eti"ces choice for leadership in
Judg.13:3 ff.; Luke 1:26 ff.; I Tim. 2:15), government. But from the outset women were
while that of man is to provide for and govern waned that for them it did not include gov-
the family, this latter requiring teaching, judg- erning (Nun. 19, cf. Judg. 4:8-9 concerning
ing. and disciplining (Gen. 3: 16; 18,: 19; Eph. the only exception). Since prophecy showed
5:22 ff.; I Tim. 4: 13-16). In Christ the wife's God's presence, in the NT where the Holy
subjection to the husband is changed from the Spirit's presence becomes the earnest of heir-
OT motivation of outward conformity to law ship (Eph. 1:13-]4), it was essential that
to heart devotion to Christ (Eph. 5:22, 33). many women have that gift (Acts 2: 17, etc.).
Government of higher institutions grew out of See also WoMAN.
OT patriarchal family structure, and male BIBIJOGRAPHY
family government is a basis for choosing
church leaders (I Tim. 3:4-5). As in OT, all
appointments to NT offices are men (Mark &ffi;c;e£C¢,.P#d¥cerrR¥tg,e'#:Z:pchzzr§hit;;ow#:¥?:*#§
CARL W. WILSON
3:13 ff.; Acts I:26; 6:5 ff.; etc.). Paul's pro-
hibitions of women's speaking in the church
WONDER. See MIRAcl.I.
have in view preserving male authority in the
home (I Col.14:34, 35; I Tim. 2:11-12).
WORD. I. THE VocABULARy. The princi-
Thus, the important reason against women's
pal Hebrew expression is d6bdr, which also
ordination is that it offers a logical and psy-
means "subject" (cf. Judg. 3:20), but can
chological inconsistency to clear Bible teaching
equally mean an act or deed. Sometimes, as
concerning home government and its relation- in I Kings 11 :41, it is difficult to decide which
ship to higher institutions, and therefore strikes
is intended.
at the root of government and law and order.
In the LXX de9dr is usually represented by
(2) The normal relationship of the sexes as logos or rhGw¢¢. This passes into the NT,
a basis for society during fleshly life, which where fogos occurs more than 300 times and
is marriage (``one flesh" Matt. 19: 5), will give rhG"¢ more than 70. The two are not always
way after the resurrection to an eternal status easy to distinguish though 7.he-7toa relates strict-
in which men and women will be as angels ly to ``that which was said." It has also pre-
(Matt. 22:30). Both men and women are served, especially in Luke-Acts, something of
``heirs" to this future state in Christ, and con-
the sense in which dr-bar is used for deed.
cerning it Paul teaches there is "neither male
11. THE ACTlvE \VoRD. Allied with the am-
nor female" (Gal. 3:28-29; c£. Eph. 5:22; 6:5;
bivalence between word and act in the mean-
etc.). Peter teaches that now wives should be ing of dr-g6r is the dynamic Hebrew concep-
subject to their husbands and appeals in the tion Of word. Evil words are tantamount to
same passage to women's equal heirship as rea- evil deeds (Ps. 35 :20 -``matters" -in the AV
son why men should treat them with careful is deg6r£"i). A word solemnly given carries its
consideration (I Pet. 3: 5-7).
own potency, and cannot be recalled (cf . the
(3) The prophetic gift involves having a whole story in Gen. 27). In this God's word
direct oZ7/.ectjve t"essage from God so that the is archetypal. God speaks, the universe comes
man or woman acts simply as God's mouth into being (Gen.1:3 ff.), and, despite the
and does not convey his or her own message, necessity Of anthropomorphic language (e.g.,
but God's (Ex. 7:I; 4:15-16; Jer.I:9; Ezek. Ps. 8:3), the OT insists on the active word as
3:27; I Col. 14:30; 11 Pet. I:20-21). False the means of creation (cf. Ps. 33:6), and this
prophets or prophetesses give their view of is a cardinal Christian understanding (Heb.
God's will out of their own heart (Ezek.13:2, 11:3). God's word will effect its purpose as
17; Jer. 23: 16, etc.). On the other hand, the surely as snow and rain effect theirs (Isa.
gifts of government and teaching involve the 55:10-12). The miraculous birth o£ Jesus is
individual's giving st4b/.ectjt7e jt4dgme„t under certain because God's word is self-fulfilling
guidance of the Holy Spirit and are always (Luke I:37 ASV, which echoes the LXX Of
differentiated in Scripture from prophecy (Mal. Gen.18: 14, on the miraculous birth o£ Isaac).
WORD 5 58

God, when he fulfills a promise, ``performs his The message spoken by Jesus is the word
word" (Deut. 9: 5). o£ God (Luke 5: 1 etc.); so too is th-e message
Ill. WoRI) As REVELATloN. Such is the of which he is the subject, preached by the
background Of the use of digdr to designate apostles and the early Christians (Acts 4:29,
the prophetic message. The word of the Lord and frequently). It may be particularized by
had not been revealed to Samuel at the time a distinctive feature, e.g., the word Of the
Of his call (I Sam. 3:7). The word "comes" kj#gdom (Matt.13:19), or Of the cross (I
to a prophet (Jer.I:2, 4 and passj7"). It may Col.,,,8).
be an object Of vision to the prophet (Jer. V. WoRI) As SCRII.TURF. Ps.119 presup-
38:21). But the word is so inseparably linked poses a written revelation which the Psalmist
with God's acts of mercy and judgment in can describe as 'laws, precepts, statutes, judg-
history that, in the light of recent sad events ments-or as God's word (vs.105) or words
and his own message, Jeremiah entreats the (vs. 130).
nation to see the word o£ Jehovah (Jer. This usage is adopted by our Lord, who dis-
2:31). When the prophets cry, "Hear this tinguishes between the word Of God and the
word" (e.g., Amos 4: I; 5:1), they are declar- human tradition confused with it (Matt.
ing a revelation which must have a historic 15 :6), and who correlates the original revela-
fulfilment; for God's word is settled in heaven tion and its written fom (John 10:35). Paul
(Ps. 119:89). The covenant-loving Israelite refers to the teaching of the OT as the word
is guided by God's revelatory word (Pss. of God (Ron. 9:6 ff.), and to an individual
119: 105, 130, etc.). Ddpdr occurs nearly 400 passage as a "word" (Ron.13:9; Gal. 5:14).
times in the OT to express divine communica- Tfie difficult I Tim. 4:5 probably relates to
tion to God's people. scriptural prayers (the active word once more).
The OT viewed as a whole is described by Biblical usage thus appears under several
Christ as God's word (Matt. 15:6). The forms, yet with an overall consistency. The
same term applies to the Christian revelation word of God is his self{ommunication. He
as a whole (cf. Col. 3:16). It is used, more- spoke by the prophets. He has spoken by
over, Of Christ himself (John I: 1,14), God's Scripture: Scripture is his word. He has
spoken by a Son: Christ is his Word. The
personal word of revelation (see LOGos). In
the OT, and, completely and perfectly, in gospel, the doctrine of Scripture, and the
Christ, God has spoken (Heb.I:1): in dif- preaching Of Christ are his word. In each case
ferent degrees, but the same word. Christ the word is active, saving and judging.
himself keeps God's word of commandment VI. WoRD AND SplRIT. This implies neither
(John 8:55). Those who reject Christ do not a mechanical nor a magical view of the word
possess God's words (John 5:38); his disciples Of God. The key is in the concomitance Of
are marked by their possession of Christ's word and Spirit. The revelation to the proph-
words (John 15:7). And this active word can ets (and in NT days to the apostles also,
strip a man of his pretensions, and convict him Eph. 3:5) is regularly associated with the
(Heb. 4:13). Holy Spirit. Functions predicated of the Spirit
IV. WoRI) As GospEL. God's word of reve- are predicated also of the word (cf. John
lation has reference to salvation, and itself 16:8 f. with Heb. 4:12 f., John 14:16 with
effects that salvation. The context of Isa. Ron.15:4, John 5:39 with John 15:26). In
55:10 ff. relates to pardon for the penitent. some of these instances there is explicit refer-
The prophetic word speaks Of grace and ence to Scripture; elsewhere "the word" in
mercy as well as Of wrath and judgment. The the wider sense is in view.
saving word may even be personified, and This lies behind the confidence of the Re-
spoken of as sent by God to heal his people formers in their appeal to Scripture. They ap-
(Ps. 107:20). The word of our God which peal to the text, rightly understood; but they
endures for ever (Isa. 40:8) is explicitly called recognize also that the word carries its own
the gospel (I Pet. I:25). The word is still enlightenment (that Of the Spirit) to those
self-fulfilling; for in the same context it is who approach it in penitence and faith. The
`by the word Of God" that Christians are born word acts because of the Holy Spirit speaking
again (I Pet.1:23; c£. James I:18). The dis- in Scripture. The word read, like the word
ciples are clean through the word spoken by preached, profits When it is ``mixed with faith
Jesus (John 15:3). in them that hear it" (c£. Heb. 4:2).
559 WORK

BIBLIOGRAPHY and abilities with which to subdue and use

the physical world. In Exodus 31 : 1 ff., Judges
3: 10 (cf. also Isa. 45) and many other places
it is stated that it is the Holy Spirit who gives
ffgg;:;£%j:o;*:viiiiiLFijni#¥i¥c#±%#;i!j man these endowments. Certain OT characters
are also said to have received special gif ts f ron
WORK. Throughout the Bible there are God which would enable them to do their
many references to work, the words used to work: the Judges, Saul, and even the heathen
designate it being divided into two classes. king Cyrus (Judg. 3:10; I Sam.10:6 f.; Isa.
There is the term which has no moral or phys- 45). The NT writers assume the point of view
ical implications as, for instance, when God Of the OT, but stress it particularly in connec-
works in creation, or when reference is made tion with gifts and abilities possessed by mem-
bers of the church (I Cor. 12; Eph. 4: 11 ff.).
generally to man's works in this life. Meha'&ji
Moreover, they continually emphasize that
(Gen. 2:2; Ex. 20:9; I Chron. 4:23; Hag.
1:14), "a`G5eh (Gen. 5:29; Ex. 5:13; Prov. God calls all men to work and positions in life
16:3; Eccl.1:14) in the Hebrew, and ergo7® in which they are to serve him. While this
in the Greek are the usual words employed for appears in the OT as in the case of Esther
this purpose. There are, however, other words, (Esth. 4:13-14), the apostle Paul repeats it
with great frequency in his writings (Eph.
yeg€`4 (Gen. 35:42; Deut. 28:33; Ps. 128:2;
6:5 ff.; I Tim. 6:1-2; Philem.).
Isa. 55:2; Ezek. 23:29) and `dtndl (Ps. 90: 10;
Eccl.1 : 3; 2: 10 et seq.; Jer. 20: 18) in the OT, Work, however, even though a man may be
and kopos in the NT (Matt. 11:28; John richly endowed with gifts, cannot be anything
4:38; I Cor. 4:12; 15:58; I Thess.1:3; 11 but ultimately empty unless man realizes that
Thess. 3:8), which imply weariness, trouble its true purpose is to glorify God. Paul makes
and sorrow. this very plain in speaking to both servants
and masters (Eph. 6:5 ff.; I Tim. 6:I-2)
Work and labor of themselves are never
summing it all up in his instruction to Chris-
held to be evil, but rather are thought of as
tians to be not "slothful in business, but
man's natural occupation in the world. Even
fervent in spirit serving the Lord" (Ron.
in the state of innocency man as the apex Of
12: 11), and in his exhortation to do all things
creation, the representative of all creation be-
to the glory of God (I Cor.10:31).
fore God (Gen. 2: 15 f£.), was given work to
In practice, such a view of work means that
perform as part of his normal existence. This
is contrary to much modern thinking which the Christian must always regard his work as a
adopts the attitude that man should avoid work divinely appointed task in which, as he fulfills
as something evil and to be avoided if at all his calling, he is serving God. This requires
him to be honest and diligent in all that he
possible.
That man's sin has corrupted and degraded does, whether as employee or employer. Such,
work is at the same time continually repeated for instance, is the central point in the parable
in the Bible. Gen. 3:17 f. specifically states of the talents (Matt. 25: 15). If he is a serv-
that work will, because of sin, change its char- ant, he is to be faithful and obedient, doing
acter to become the cause of man's ultimate all things as in God's sight (Eph. 6:5 ff.),
while if he is an employer God lays upon him
physical disintegration. This would seem to be
the reason for work in subsequent portions Of the responsibility of fair dealing and considera-
the Bible frequently embodying the idea of tion towards his employees. He is to pay them
weariness. Indeed, this is the theme of the adequately and not to defraud them of their
Book of Ecclesiastes in which the Preacher wages, "for the laborer is worthy of his hire"
states that all man's labor that he does under (Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14; Amos 5:8 ff.;
the sun is vanity. Man as a sinner works Luke 10:7; Col. 4:1; James 5:4 f.). Thus all
solely with worldly ends in view, the outcome honest work is honorable and to be performed
being a sense of frustration and hopelessness, as a divinely given commission to God's eternal
for ultimately he will disappear from this glory (Rev.14:13).
earth and his works with him (Eccl. 2). Only BIBLIOGRAPHY
as he interprets his work in the light of eter-
nity will his understanding of it change. ;|p|;.sh::ag];;#j:J#::`±":t;e;e£?i:c%e,¥Co#;#ow?£;Rc¥`;8:'£:S;fi?£l§:
Yet even sinful man possesses great gifts W. STANFORD REID
WORKS 560

WORKS. See GooD WoRKs. be used to describe such a state Of affairs? The
answer is likely to be found in the fact that
WORLD, WORLDLINIESS. In the OT, the powers of spiritual evil, which have Satan
'eres, which is properly earth in contrast to
as their head and appear to be organized on a
heaven (Gen.1: I), is occasionally rendered vast scale and with great efficiency (Eph.
world, but the more usual term is tG9GZ, which 6:12), dominate the life of unredeemed hu-
signifies the planet as having topographical manity. Satan niles a kingdom which is op-
features, as habitable and fruitful (Pss. 19:4;
posed to the kingdom of God (Luke 11:18).
90:2). The NT words are o;ho¢t7#e#e-, denot-
We are not dropped into the depths Of a
ing the poprilated world (Luke 4:5); aft-#,
hopeless dualism by reason of this opposition,
which is usually r.endered age (a.v.), but which
for the word teaches that the sphere Of divine
occasionally combines with the concept of time
control embraces ``all things." Therefore, even
that of space (Heb.1:2; 11:3); and kos7"os,
over the world which is maned by the love of
which contains the thought of order or system.
evil and by the sinister hold of the devil, God
The latter word may denote the material world
is still sovereign. Satan's kingdom exists by
(Ron.1:20), or even the totality of heaven
and earth (Acts 17:24); the sphere Of intelli- permission, not by reason of divine helpless-
ness. Reconciliation has been provided for the
gent life (I Cor. 4:9); the place Of human world (11 Cor. 5 : 19), whereby men may leave
habitation (I Cor. 5:10, I.c.); mankind as a
the rcalm Of darkness and be transfened into
whole (John 3: 16); society as alienated from
the kingdom Of the Son o£ God's love. Those
God and under the sway of Satan (I John who will not do so must share the fate Of
5:19); and the complex of ideas and ideals
Satan,
which govern men who belong to the world in
this ethical sense (I John 2: 15-17; James 4:4). Worldliness, though not a scriptural tern,
Since kos"os is the leading term involved, is certainly a scriptural concept. It is an affec-
it calls for further consideration. Among the tion for that which is unlike God and contrary
to his will (James 4:4; I John 2:15-16). The
Greeks, kos7#os became used for the universe,
since it suitably expressed the order noted refusal to live an ascetic life is not a proof of
there. The Hebrews, on the other hand, were worldliness, nor is the love of the beautiful.
not hospitable to the concept of universe, but The determination of what is worldly should
thought in terns of the heavens (the abode of not rest solely upon the nature Of an activity
God) and the earth (the realm of human exist- or habit viewed as a thing-in-itself, but also
ence). God was the author of both, and the upon the spirit Of the one who indulges him-
regularity of the movements of the heavenly self. If one is actuated by selfishness or neglect
bodies and the rhythm of the seasons bore of God, he may be more worldly in God's
witness to his creative wisdom and the power sight than another whose outward acts are
of his sustaining control. NT writers follow more questionable, but whose heart does not
this pattern Of OT thought, avoiding, with condemn him, because he is not consciously
rare exceptions, the use of the word kos7#os disobeying his Lord.
BIBLIOGFLAPHY
for the heavens and the earth combined (Acts
17:24 is explicable as an adaptation Of the R#£:E#asgD"esces€E###onu,inchEB£LS.,#5#8,8E*
message in terms congenial to the hearers, who
were Greeks). The word kos"os, then, in the EVERETT F. HARRISON
NT, prevailingly denotes the earth, and by an
extension o.£ thought is used for mankind WORSHIP. Our English word means
``worthship," denoting the worthiness of an in-
which dwells on the earth. Perhaps this proc-
ess was assisted by the fact that, owing to dividual to receive special honor in accordance
human intelligence and \the drive for social with that worth. The principal biblical terms,
integration, man's life presents considerable the Hebrew Sdhd and the Greek grosky7®e6,
order. emphasize the act Of prostration, the doing o£
But the most striking fact about the NT use obeisance. This may be done out of regard for
of kosmos is the readiness with which the term the dignity of personality and imf luenced some
is employed in an evil sense. Again and again, what by custom (Gen.18:2), or may be based
especially in the Johannine writings, the world on family relationship (Gen. 49:8) or on sta-
is presented as something hostile to God. This tion in life (I Kings 1:31).
seems to spell disorder. How, then, can kosowos Ch a higher plane the same terns are used
561 WRATH

of divine honors rendered to a deity, whether A%g#rim*tiq5T3aA,h,E#3¥?C8T#idELw59:DdsintwRREBS.hivin

to the gods of the nations (e.g., Ex. 20:5) or
EVERETT F. HARRISON
to the one true and living God who reveals
himself in Scripture and in his Son (Ex.
WRATH. Wrath, anger, and indignation
24: 1). The tutelage of Israel in the wildemess are integral to the biblical proclamation of the
laid great stress on the sinfulness of idolatrous
living God in his opposition to sin. While
worship and its dire consequences (e.g., Deut.
God's love is spontaneous to his own being, his
8:19). No injury to God compares with the
wrath is called forth by the wickedness Of his
denial Of his uniqueness and the transfer to
creatures. Thus it is the wounding of his
another of the recognition due to him. In this
light must be understood his references to him- gracious love, the rejection of his proffered
mercy, which evokes his holy wrath. God's
self as a jealous God (Ex. 20: 5).
act of wrath is his Strange work (Isa. 28:21).
Perversion of worship is seen in Satan's
C. H. Dodd has well observed, "Wrath is the
avid effort to secure for himself what belongs effect Of human sin: mercy is not the effect of
properly to God alone (Matt. 4:9), as well as human goodness, but is inherent in the char-
in the blasphemous figure of the beast (Rev. acter o£ God."
13:4). Undue deference paid to men verges
at times on worship and is resisted by the On the other hand, the exhaustive studies
Of Fichtner in the OT and of Staehlin in the
godly (Acts 10:25, 26). Bamabas and Paul
NT (see BIBI.IOGRAPH¥) do not sustain the
protested the attempt to worship them at Ly- thesis that wrath is an impersonal retribution,
stra based on the impression that they were
an automatic, causal working out of an ab-
gods who had come down to men (Acts stract law. In the OT wrath is the expression
14:11-14). Loyal angels refuse veneration
of the personal, subjective free will o£ Yahweh
(Rev. 22:9). who actively punishes sin, as in the NT it is
It is useful to distinguish between a broad the personal reaction of God, not an inde-
and a restricted meaning of worship as applied
pendent hypostasis. In the face of evil, the
to God. In general he may be honored with Holy One of Israel does not dodge the respon-
prayer and praise and the bringing of sacri- sibility of executing judgment. He demon-
ficial gifts (I Sam.1:3). This cultic worship strates his anger at times in the most personal
is especially appropriate in the house Of God way possible. "I the LORD do smite" (Ezek.
(Ps. 138:2) and when it is carried on with a 7:8 f.). In such NT passages as John 3:36;
desire to be clothed in his holiness (Ps. 29:2). Ron.1:18; Eph. 5:6; Col. 3:6; Rev.19:15;
In a still broader sense the service which issues 11:18; 14:10; 16:19; 6:16; cf. Rom. 9:22,
from worship and derives there from its inspira- wrath is specifically described as God's wrath,
tion may be included (Matt. 4: 10). his wrath, thy wrath, or the wrath of the
In the narrower sense worship is pure adora- Lamb. The wrath of God is being continually
tion, the lifting up Of the redeemed spirit revealed from heaven, actively giving the
toward God in contemplation of his holy per- wicked up to uncleanness, to vile passions, to
fection. Matthew distinguishes between the reprobate minds, and punishing them in the
presentation of gifts by the Magi to the Christ day of wrath and revelation of the just judg-
child and their worship of him (Matt. 2: 11). ment (q.v.) of God (Ron. I : 18 -2:6). In 11
Jesus made an epochal statement on this Thess. I:7-9 Paul writes as personal a de-
subject (John 4:24). To worship God in spirit scription of the Lord Jesus' action in directly
involves a contrast with worship in the letter, punishing the disobedient as can be penned.
in the legalistic encumbrance so characteristic In the total biblical portrayal, the wrath of
of the Jew; to worship him in truth contrasts God is not so much an emotion or an angry
with the Samaritan and all other worship frame of mind as it is the settled opposition of
which is false to a greater or lesser extent. his holiness to evil. Accordingly, the wrath of
Our Lord made possible a more intelligent God is seen in its effects, in God's punishment
worship of God by revealing the Father in his of sin in this life and in the next. These in-
own person. As the incarnate Son, he himself flictions include pestilence, death, exile, de-
is deserving of the same veneration (John struction of wicked cities and nations, harden-
9:38; 20:28; Heb.1:6; Rev. 5:6-14). ing of hearts, and the cutting off of the people
BIBIJOGRAPHY Of God for idolatry or unbelief. They reach into
R. Abba, Prjt.cjpzes of Christiatl Wors7i3p; R. Martin- the life to come in Jesus' descriptions of ever-
WRITE, WRITING, WRITTEN 562

lasting punishment, of a hell of fire, where the cuneifom system of writing and their
their worm dieth not and the flame is not documents dating from as early as 2900 B.a.
quenched. The day of wrath is God's final judg- can be read by means Of these wedge shaped
ment against sin, his irrevocable condemnation characters. The cuneiform system spread rapid-
Of impenitent sinners. ly to the Semitic Babylonians, Assyrians, Hit-
The OT description of God as "slow to an- tites, and many others.
ger and plenteous in mercy" is best understood In Egypt writing developed according to a
as a blessed revelation full of wonder and awe. hieroglyphic system which can be traced back
For only he who apprehends the reality Of to as early as 2900 B.a. This system passed
God's wrath is overpowered by the magnitude through its own series of independent modifi-
Of his mercy, as it is declared in Isa. 54:7-10 cations and developments.
or in the ASV reading of Ps. 30: 5, ``His anger The alphabetic system appears to have orig-
is but for a moment, his favor is for a life- inated around 1800 B.c. in Canaan. It is not
time." As mercy gets the upper hand in these altogether certain how this system related to
OT passages, so the ultimate NT word is the the older systems of writing, but since all al-
grace Of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God phabets can be traced back to an original type,
the Father made ours in the fellowship of the it is believed by many that the alphabet was
Holy Spirit. invented in a single place by one or a group
Accordingly, the way of escape from the Of individuals who had enjoyed a familiarjty
wrath Of the Almighty is abundantly presented with Egyptian hieroglyphics, cuneiform, and
in both testaments. While man's puny efforts other styles of writing (see F. Cross, Jr., ``Writ-
are insufficient, God's own heart of love pror ing'', TCERK, pp. 1191-92). In any event
vides a way of salvation. He calls men to re- this Canaanite (Phoenician) system of writing
became in time the basis for all alphabetic
pent, to return unto himself , to receive his for-
scripts and from this source the Hebrew alpha-
giveness and renewal. He receives the inter-
cession of his servants-Abraham, Moses, bet took its origin. To date the earliest sam-
Eleazar, and Jeremiah-for his people; and ples of classical Hebrew script are the Moabite
himself provides the OT sacrif icial system by stone co. 850 B.c. and the more recently dis-
which his wrath may be averted. covered Gezer Calendar co. 925 B.c., but the
antecedents of classical Hebrew are much
In the NT the call is to faith, to repent-
earlier than this.
ance, to baptism in the name of the Lord Jesus
who saves us from the wrath to come (I Thess. Writing is frequently mentioned in the OT,
I:9-10). For `when we are justified by his particularly in regard to various historic and
blood and reconciled by his death vi7e shall be sacred events (Ex. 17:14; 28:1]; 31:18;
saved.from the wrath by his life (Ron. 5:9- 32: 15). Kings, priests, prophets, professional
10). The most poignant word about God's scribes, and people in superior position were
expected to be able to read and write (Deut.
punishment is that it is the wrath of the Lamb
17:18; 24:I, 3; Isa. 29:11-12).
(a.v.) ivho took upon himself and bore the
sins of the world. Various writing materials are also mentioned
BIBLIOGRAPHY in Scripture such as stone covered with plas-
ter (Deut. 27:2-3), as well as stones en-
graved with iron pen or chisel (Josh. 8:32;
gg¥:i,¥jj:gc]Bis;#;F:Di§[ii;g#:e:Sh#LgEO¥¥:drE: Ex. 34:28; Deut. 4:13). Although leather or
WILI.IAM CHnDs ROBINsoN papyrus are not mentioned in the OT, they are
presumed known and used (Jer. 36:2-4, 18,
WRITE, WRITING, WRITTEN. The 23; Ezra 4: 7-11 ). Other writing materials used
significance of writing is incalculable: its in- by OT people were potsherds, wooden tablets,
vention may well act as the dividing point be- metals, and precious stones. In NT times
tween primitive and civilized peoples -pre- parchment and, papyrus became the dominant
historic and historic times. Writing first ap- writing materials.
pears in pictographic script somewhere around The word written, gegropt¢i, is used more
3200 B.c. and is found among the Sumerians than fifty times in the NT with reference to
(believed to be the inventors of writing), the quotations from the OT. (John uses gegr¢7"-
Egyptians, and the Canaanites. From their pie- t7ce7¢o" esfi72). It is derived from grap7i6, "to
tographic script, the Sumerians soon developed write," and is related to he- gr¢p72G which is
563 YOUNG, YOUNG MEN

used of individual scripture passages or in the word Of revelation from God, recorded these
plural Of Scripture as a whole. Gegr¢ptai is words that they might constitute an objective
used widely in the papyri with reference to standard against the fluctuations Of time and
the regulative and authoritative character of history. So God spoke to Moses, ``write this for
the document referred to. In the sphere of di- a memorial" (Ex.17:14). It must also be re-
vine revelation geg7.¢Pfflj "always implies an membered that it is only the written word
appeal to the indisputable and normative au- which is entitled ``to claim the four characteris-
thority of the passage quoted" (Crem p. 165). tics of durability, catholicity, fixedness and
Consequently when the sacred writers referred purity, - four attributes, the first two of which
to Holy Scripture in these terms it meant they impart something of the divine stamp to our
did so as an appeal to absolute authority human word, and the last two Of which form
(DeissBS, T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1901, pp. a corrective against the imperfection of ou
I I 2- 1 4) . sinful condition" (A. Kuyper, Pr;7¢cipkes o
It has been a problem to some today to ac- Sc!cred TJ7eozogy, Eerdmans Publishing Co.
knowledge that a written word could rightly Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1954, pp. 405 f.)
be described as the authoritative revelation of BIBLIOGRAPHY
God. It is not to be understood, of course, that
the writers o£ Scripture believed that because
they wrote their words down they thereby
i,r;:;D::::a:jn:;8:¥ih;ei;:::£};§5;':'%S£]!£Se:'ifiieE¥#;r¥:CP;£s#8iq;;e6]:f5;5,y;
possessed some magical authority, but rather
that the sacred writers, having received the GI.ENN W. BARKER

YOKE. Widely used in the Bible, yoke has `6Z t6r4 along with the `6! 7"alJ€tlt 5f 7"c}yj7#,
``the yoke of the kingdom," will €ve-ntually in-
several meanings. It may refer to a piece of
curved timber fitted with bows for the necks augurate the messianic age. Not so for Jesus;
of draft animals to serve as an instrument in for the yoke of the Pharisees produces slavery;
pulling a cart or plow. It is also a symbol of but his, freedom and direct access to the
slavery. In I Tim. 6: I Paul employs the Greek Father.
counterpart, zygos, in this sense when he ad- BIBLIOGRAPHY
monishes all under "the yoke of slavery" to re- SBK; K. H. Rengstorf in TWNT.
spect their masters regardless of the treatment HERMAN C. WAET]EN
they receive.
More important, however, is the theological YOUNG, YOUNG MEN. Young men are
significance Of the word in its connection with conspicuous on the pages of both the OT and
the idea of slavery. The slavery here is not NT. Samuel, Saul, David and Daniel were all
physical but spiritual; and the yoke is a picture young men when they came into prominence.
of the law as the people's taskmaster. In this Jesus began his ministry as a young man and
respect Paul warns the Galatians not to ie- revealed a genuine concern for youth (cf. Matt.
submit to the ``yoke of slavery" because they 19:16-22 and parallels; Luke 7:11-17). Paul
have been freed by Christ from servitude to was a young man when he was converted
the law (5: I). The same idea is expressed in (Acts 7:58), and he and Barnabas chose a
Acts 15:10.
young companion, John Mark, to accompany
A paradox presents itself in the use Of yoke in them on their first Gentile mission. Timothy
Matt. I 1:29 f. How can a yoke be easy? But also was relatively young (I Tim. 4: 12) when
Jesus is addressing those who already bear a yoke, he assumed the responsibility of the Ephesian
the "yoke of the law," the `6! t6r4, which is a church -an indication that positions of leader-
vital concept in rabbinic piety. Bearing the ship were sometimes entrusted to the young.
ZEAL 564

'Ihere is evidence, however, that there were

clusive designation, c£. 2: 18.) Age was revered
well marked distinctions between the young and received due respect (I Tim. 5: 1-2; I Pet.
and the old in the early church. I John 2: 13 - 5:5) while youth was exhorted to self{ontlol
14 indicates that only two special age groups, and godly living (Titus 2:6).
"fathers" and "young men" were recognized
in the church. (``Children" is probably an in- WAITER W. WESSEI.

ZEAL. The Hebrew noun qi#'4 "zeal, ar- Their movement began with Judas of Galilee
dor, jealousy" (occurring 43 times) has its in the days o£ Quirinius as an underground
counterpart in the Greek zgfos (16 times in opposition to the Roman power. They held
the NT), while the denominative verb qdnd' that violence was justified if it would free the
(= to have qj7}'4) "be zealous, jealous" (34) nation from its foreign oppressors. Josephus
is equivalent to the Greek verb zGho-(11). Be- (BJ IV, iii. 9; VII, viii. 1) described them as
ing equivocal tens, qj"'d and zGfos can be fanatics whose extravagant claims and untem-
either good "zeal, ardor, jealousy for" (Ps. pered rashness made them a hindrance to their
69:9; 11 Cor. 7:7) or Z7¢d "envy, jealousy Of" own cause. He identified them with the ex-
(Nun. 5:14; Acts 5:17), depending on the tremists who provoked the war with Rome in
motive. At times, however, even zeal with a A.D. 66, and he intimated that the internal
sincere motive is improper (Ron. 10:2; Phil. strife that weakened the defense of Jerusalem
3:6). Paul, sensing the dual function of these and ultimately contributed to the fall of the
terms, made himself explicit in 11 Cor.11:2: city in A.I). 70 was partially attributable to
"For I am jealous for you with a godly them. Toward the last of this period they seem
jealousy." to have become a group of political assassins
The qualification "godly" hearkens back to with no constnictive program, but with a
the OT usage Of qa""d' (Ex. 20:5 = Deut. mania for overturning all government and or-
5:9; Ex. 34: 14; Deut. 4:24; 6: 15) and qa7i"6' der. Josephus' estimate may have been biased,
(Josh. 24:19; Nah.I:2), always Of God, in but it is the best primary source available.
the striking anthropomorphic expression In doctrine they were closely akin to the
"jealous God." God is jealous for Israel, as a Pharisees because of their extreme nationalistic
husband for his wife, because by choice and interpretation Of the OT, and in spirit they
covenant they are peculiarly his own. He is were like the Maccabees. Their intense desire
zealous for their protection and salvation, but for an independent kingdom may have drawn
at the same time he is a ``consuming fire" some Of them into the company o£ Jesus' dis-
(Deut. 4:24) when evil is in their midst. ciples. At least one of them, Simon, is distin-
God's jealousy is as much a I)art Of his right- guished f ron Simon Peter by being called "the
eous, holy character and being as is his love. Zealot" (Luke 6: 15; Acts 1 : 13).
The NT dues not speak Of God being BIBIul0GRAPHY
jealous. Rather, it is God's Son (John 2:17)
and God's spiritual sons (11 Cor. 7: 11; 11 :2), E;wREeRE3f%##]Tow##T]#:e##.
12-14.
who exhibit this ``divine zeal" in behalf Of
MERRII.I. C. TENNE¥
God's holiness and kingdom, and so it must
be in the church today. ZION. Geographically, Zion designates, as
BIBLIOGRAPHY is now generally held, the lower eastern hill
Arndt; KB; RTWB; SHERK.DEWET M. BEEGLE
or ridge of Jerusalem. Modern excavations have
confirmed this location.
ZEALOT. The Zealots were a party of Historically, Zion began, as far as biblical
militant Jewish patriots of the first cenfuiy. history is concerned, when David captured the
5 65 ZOROASTRIANISM

Jebusite Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tze, and several He-

``the cityfortress and made
Of David" it, as enlarged,
- the capitol into
of his king- brew prophets. That Zoroaster used Vedic ma-
dom (11 Sam. 5:6-10). Three geographical terials f ound in early Hinduism can hardly be
factors enhanced its historical significance: denied; that he was a polytheist like Darius,
(1) its strong position; (2) its central location; Xerxes, and others who were probably Zorcr
(3) its being outside the territory of the twelve astrians (at least, their inscriptions pay homage
tribes. Zion came to its predicted end (Jer. to Ahura Mazda), seems most likely. But
26:18; Mic. 3:12) when Jerusalem was de- Zoroaster was protesting against the false and
stroyed (A.D. 70). cniel in religion, and followed the principle,
"if the gods do aught shameful, they are not
Figuratively, Zion - under such descriptions
as ``daughters Of Zion" (Isa. 3 : 16 £.), "children gods." Accordingly, he exalted Ahura Mazda
Of Zion" (Joel 2:23), etc.-represents, by a (``wise Lord," often improperly translated
``Lord of light") as supreme among the gods or
figure called sypecdoche, the city of Jerusalem
or the entire Hebrew nation. spirits, and viewed the world as an age-long
struggle between Ahura Mazda and Angra
Typically and spiritually, Zion (gathering
Mainyu (or Ahramanyug, Ahriman, ``Spirit of
significance from its geographical, historical
evil''), both of whom came into existence in-
and figurative background) becomes, in the
dependently in the distant past. Zoroastrianism
Psalms and in the prophets, the spiritual coun-
is therefore called a Dualism-but it is a
texpart of the literal city. The theology of the
"spiritualization" of Zion has hardly yet been limited Dualism. Zoroaster calls upon men to
join in this conflict on the side o£ Ahura
explored by expositors. A few gems from this
Mazda, the key words of such religion being
rich territory must suffice: (1) The literal "good thoughts, good words, good deeds." The
Zion was a strong fortress (11 Sam. 5:7); the
ultimate victory of Ahura Mazda, however,
spiritual Zion is immovable (Ps.125: I). (2)
was not to be accomplished by human assist-
The literal Zion became the seat o£ David's
ance but by the advent of a messiah-like figure,
throne (11 Sam. 5:9,12); the spiritual Zion is
the Saoshyant. The duration of the struggle
the place of the messianic throne (Ps. 2:6).
was to be 6,000 years (3,000 had already
(3) The literal Zion became the birthplace
passed when Zoroaster was born), following
o£ David's children (11 Sam. 5: 13); the spirit- which was to be the resurrection and judg-
ual Zion is the birthplace o£ God's elect (Ps. ment. Many of the details of Zoroastrianism
87:5 f.; Isa. 66:8). (4) The literal Zion was
are later developments, some post-Christian
the place where David received the promise
and even post-Mohammedan, and scholars are
of an eternal house and throne (11 Sam. 7);
divided on what elements are to be traced to
the spiritual Zion is the place where "the ever-
Zoroaster's own teaching.
lasting covenant" is established (Jer. 50: 5; c£.
Heb. 8:6-10). (5) The literal Zion, in con- Because Of the fact that the revelation of the
trast to the ceremonialism of Sinai, housed the doctrines of resurrection, angels, Satan, and
ark in a single form of worship (I Kings the Messiah comes late in the OT or even in
8: 1 ff.); the spiritual Zion becomes the eternal the intertestamental period in early Judaism
embodiment of the true worship of God "in (a.v.), scholars have frequently traced these
spirit and truth" (John 4:23 f.; cf. Amos ideas to Zoroastrian influence exerted upon
9:11 f.; Acts 15:15 f£.; Heb.12:22 £f.). the Jewish people after the Babylonian exile.
WICK BROOMALL Moulton examined these points in detail and
concluded that they were "not proven." The
ZOROASTRIANISM. A religion that de- discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls has reopened
veloped in Iran from about the sixth century the discussion, due to the presence of marked
"Zoroastrian" influences in the Qumran ]itera-
B.c., generally ascribed to Zoroaster (Zarathus-
tra) who was born in Iran "258 years before ture. Some of the most striking parallels to
Alexander." The date o£ Zoroaster's birth has Jewish-Christian eschatology can be shown to
been given variously at 6000 B.a., 1400 B.c., be very late developments in Zoroastrianism.
and 1000 B.c., but Herzfeld accepts the tra- On the other hand, it would not do violence
ditional date, approximately, as now confirmed to a high view of inspiration to admit that
(Herzfeld, 570-500 B.c.,. Jackson, 660-583 God could have used Zoroastrianism as a
B.a.). Accordingly, Zoroaster was contemporary means of stimulating the Jewish mind to think
with other great religious personages, including on these subjects even as he used Hellenism
ZOROASTRIANISM 5 66

to Prepare t:he Jewish mind for the Christian BIBLIOGRAPIIT

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been zoroastrian priests. WILLIAM SANFORD LASon