ETHICS FINALS REVIEWER

2. Normative Ethics
Module 6
• Is the branch of ethics that studies how man ought to act,
GENERAL SUBJECT AREA IN ETHICS
morally speaking.
1. Meta-ethics I. Deontology – Is an ethical system that bases morality on

• study of moral thought and moral language independent moral rules or duties. Deon means duty

• it addresses the question of what morality is and how we ▪ Nonconsequentialism - denies that the rightness

understand moral discourse or wrongness of our conduct is determined

• interested in whether there can be knowledge of moral solely by the goodness or badness of the

truths, or only moral feelings and attitudes consequences of our acts or of the rules to which

• Meta-ethicist - those acts conform.

I. Cognitivism II. Teleology - Refers to moral system that determines the

a. States that moral judgments convey prepositions moral value of actions by their outcomes or results.

that they are either true or false 3. Applied Ethics

b. Capable of being objectively true • Philosophically examines specific, controversial issues.

c. They describe some feature of the world • Refers to the practical application of moral considerations.
• Various Subfields in Applied Ethics
Moral Realism Ethical Subjectivism
I. Bioethics
The existence of moral Holds that the truth (or
II. Environmental Ethics
facts and the truth (or falsity) of ethical
III. Business Ethics
falsity) of moral judgments propositions are dependent
IV. Sexual Ethics
are independent of on the attitudes or standards
V. Social Ethics
people’s thoughts and of a person or group of
perception. people. VIRTUE

• Virtue – a moral characteristic that an individual needs to live well.

II. Non-cognitivism Freely chosen character traits that people praise in others.

a. Denies that moral judgements are either true or o Reason for praise

false i. they are difficult to develop

b. Emotivism – it submits that moral judgment are ii. they are corrective of natural deficiencies

mere expressions of our emotions and feelings. iii. they are beneficial both to self and society

III. Universalism/Moral Objectivism • Virtue ethics

a. Theorizes that moral facts and principles apply to o Developed by Aristotle and other ancient Greeks

everybody in all places. o To understand and live a life of moral character

IV. Moral Relativism o Character-based approach to morality assumes that we

a. Submits that different moral facts and principles acquire virtue through practice

apply to different persons or group of o emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral

individuals. philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting in

Moral Moral Moral order to bring about good consequences.

Empiricism Rationalism Intuitionism • Cardinal Virtues

Is a meta-ethical Contends that Submits that o Wisdom – expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics

stance which moral facts and moral truths are of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment, and

states that moral principles are knowable by advice about complex and uncertain matters.

facts are known knowable a priori, intuition, that is, o Courage – the ability to control your fear in a dangerous or

through that is, by reason by immediate difficult situation.

observation and alone and instinctive o Moderation – the avoidance of excess or extremes,

experience. without knowledge especially in one's behavior.

reference to without reference o Justice – Justice consists in what is lawful and fair, with

experience. to any evidence. fairness involving equitable distributions and the correction
of what is inequitable.
 o NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
Virtue as Habit Virtue and the Golden Mean
o All humans seek happiness, but in different ways.
Aristotle’s idea of happiness Acting in a reasonable manner is
True happiness is tied to the purpose or end of
should also be understood in the done when we choose to and
human life.
sense of human flourishing. This indeed act in a way that neither
o The essence of human beings is Reason.
flourishing is attained by the goes to excess nor defect.
▪ Reason employed in achieving happiness
habitual practice of moral and
leads to moral virtues and intellectual
intellectual excellences, or Excess and defect normally
virtues.
‘virtues’. The virtuous person, indicate a vice. Virtue lies neither
o Aristotle also considers happiness as the summum
who has good character, sees in the vice of deficiency nor in the
bonum - the greatest good of all human life
truly, judges rightly, and acts vice of excess but in the middle
morally. ground
o The Golden Mean

The virtuous person, who has

good character, sees truly, judges
rightly, and acts morally.

ARISTOTLE, SOCRATES, AND PLATO MORAL AND ETHICS PHILOSOPHY

Plato Socrates
Maintains a virtue-based if anyone knows what good is, one
eudaemonistic conception of will always do what is good. Thus,
ethics. That is to say, happiness or if one truly understands the o Phronesis and Practice
well-being (eudaimonia) is the meaning of courage, self-control, ▪ In using golden mean to become virtuous, we must
highest aim of moral thought and or justice, one will act in a recognize not only that the mean is neither too
conduct, and the virtues (aretê: courageous, self-controlled and much nor too little but also it is ‘relative to us’ as
‘excellence’) are the requisite skills just manner. moral agents.
and dispositions needed to attain “I know that this act is completely ▪ Phronesis is a grasp of the appropriate way to
it. wrong and totally wicked, but I am respond in a particular situation and to describe
going to do it anyway.” practical wisdom (phronesis) and thoughtful,
practical doing (praxis).

• Aristotle Ethics THEORY OF FORMS

o Eudemian/Eudaimonistic Ethics - It focuses on happiness
• The world we live in is a poor imitation of the real world.
(eudaimonia), or the good for man, and how to obtain it.
• Our world is constantly changing and we rely on our senses to
o Self-Realization – when someone acts in line with his nature
understand what is going on.
or end (telos) and thus realizes his full potential, he does
• Plato was therefore sure that the real world is outside the one we
moral and will be happy. This is the ultimate human goal
live in.
▪ Living in accordance with reason is viewed as vital in
• This real world is unchanging and eternal.
self-realization or developing one’s potential.
o Telos (Aristotle) THOMAS AQUINAS ETHICS

▪ the essence or essential nature of beings, including • ultimate happiness is not attainable in this life, for happiness in the
humans, lay not at their cause or beginning but at present life remains imperfect
their end (telos). • True happiness, then, is to be found only in the souls of the blessed
▪ The essence or ‘telos’ of human being is rationality in heaven or in beatitude with God.
and, thus, a life of contemplation is the best kind of
• Aquinas Law
life for true human flourishing. o means ordinance of reason for the common good,
o NATURE OF MAN promulgated by someone who has care of the community
▪ Vegetable/Physical o understood in terms of “rules and measures” for people’s
▪ Animal/Emotional conduct and as “rational patterns or forms.”
▪ Rational/Mental
 o Obedience to the law is thus viewed also as participating in • Moral Virtue - Have as their object not God Himself, but activities
or being in conformity with the pattern or form that are less virtuous and inferior to the final end.
o Four types of law ➢ 4 Basic Virtues
1. Eternal Law ❖ Prudence
• Refers to the rational plan of God by which all ❖ Fortitude
creation is ordered. ❖ Temperance
• To this eternal law, everything in the universe is ❖ Justice
subject. ➢ 2 Kinds of Habit
2. Natural Law i. Acquired Habit-repetitive, consistent effort
• Is that aspect of the eternal law which is accessible ii. Infused Habit- directly instilled by God.
to human reason. • Theological Virtues - They provide us with true knowledge and
• Moral law- the order to which people are subject desire of God and of His will.
by their nature ordering them to do well or avoid ➢ Faith
evil. ➢ Hope
3. Human Law ➢ Love

• It includes the civil and criminal laws, though only

those formulated in the light of practical reason
and moral laws.
• Human laws that are against natural law are not
real laws, and people are not obliged to obey
those unjust laws.
4. Divine Law
• It is a law of revelation, disclosed through sacred
text or Scripture and the Church which is also
directed toward man’s eternal end.
• Syndresis
• the innate principle in the moral consciousness of every
person which directs the agent to good and restrains him
from evil.
• knowledge of first principles or an innate habit of thinking.
It is a form of a priori reasoning (independent from
experience)
• Human Inclination
1. To survive
2. To reproduce and educate offspring
3. To know the truth about God and to live peacefully in the
society.
• Features of Human Action
➢ Species
❖ Also called the object of the action
❖ Kinds of human actions- (1) good, (2) evil and (3)
indifferent.
➢ Accidents
❖ Simply refer to the circumstances surrounding the
action.
➢ End
❖ Stands for the agent’s intention.
• Happiness – Happiness is not equated with pleasure, material
possessions, honour, or any sensual good, but in activities
accordance with virtue.
Module 7 • Examples
a. The right to life.
KANTIAN ETHICS
b. The right to liberty.
• Prohibited actions would bring more happiness than the alternative c. The right to pursue happiness.
• Two questions whenever we decide to act d. The right to a trial.
o Can I rationally will that everyone acts as I propose to act? e. The right to a lawyer.
If the answer is no, then we must not perform the action f. The right to freely practice a religion of choice.
o Does my action respect the goals of human beings rather g. The right to express ideas or opinions with freedom as an
than merely using them for my own purposes? Again, if the individual.
answer is no, then we must not perform the action. h. The right of individuals or organizations to express opinions
• This is an example of deontological theory or share information freely in written medium.
• A good person is some who always does their duty because it is i. The right to come together and meet in order to achieve
their duty goals.

UNIVERSAL LAW j. The right to be informed of what law has been broken if
arrested.
• Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time
k. The right to call witnesses to speak on one’s behalf if
wills that it should become a universal law [of nature]."
accused of a crime.
o Maxim – the rule or principle on which you act
l. The right of a person to be treated with respect and dignity
• Basic Idea
even after being found guilty of a crime.
o You are not allowed to do anything to yourself that you
m. The right to freely live and travel within the country.
would not be willing to allow everyone else to do as well
n. The right to work.
o every maxim you act on must be such that you are willing to
o. The right to marry.
make it the case that everyone always act on that maxim
p. The right to bear children.
when in a similar situation
q. The right to free education.
RIGHTS THEORY r. The right to join any peaceful parties or groups of choice.
s. The right to be free from slavery.
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – examined the idea of human rights
t. The right to not be tortured.
within politics
o only a legitimate government that guarantees our natural LEGAL RIGHTS VS MORAL RIGHTS
right to freedom, and from this freedom we derive other
• It must be clear, therefore, that human rights cannot be reduced
rights
to, or exclusively identified with legal rights. In fact, some human
o creation and implementation of rights are primarily
rights are best identified as moral rights. Human rights are meant
dependent on the state and how the government within the
to apply to all human beings universally, regardless of whether or
state functions
not they have attained legal recognition by all countries
o a society can only function politically in relation to the state
everywhere.
if fundamental rights and laws are given and enhanced by
the state Legal Rights Moral Rights

• 3 Rational principles of righteous laws ➢ Refers to rights according to law. ➢ Are rights that “exist prior to

1. The liberty of every member of the society as a man. It exists under the rules of some and independently from their

2. The equality of every member of the society with every particular legal system. legal counterparts. The

other, as a subject. ➢ Legal rights are, clearly, rights existence and validity of a

3. The independence of every member of the commonwealth which exist under the rules of moral right is not deemed to be

as a citizen. legal systems or by virtue of dependent upon the actions of

• Right based theory is the concept of rights-based ethics that states: decisions of suitably jurists and legislators.

o “there are some rights, both positive and negative, that all authoritative bodies within

humans have based only on the fact that they are human” them.

o It can be natural or conventional

▪ Natural rights are those that are moral
▪ Conventional rights are those created by humans
and reflect society’s values
Module 8 Module 9

PLURALISM GENERATIONS

• that there is more than one basic substance or principle, whether it 1. Gen Z, iGen or Centennials: Born 1996 and later
is the constitution of the universe, of the mind and body, the sources 2. Millennials or Gen Y: Born 1977 to 1995
of truth, or the basis of morality. 3. Generation X: Born 1965 to 1976
• Moral/ethical/value pluralism 4. Baby Boomers: Born 1946 to 1964
o that there can be conflicting moral views that are each 5. Traditionalists or Silent Generation: Born 1945 and before
worthy of respect and it implies that there are some values
ETHICAL OUTLOOK AND CULTURAL IDENTITY OF MILLENNIALS
which may be equally correct and fundamental, and yet in
conflict with each other. • Millennials were more open-minded than their parents on
controversial topics
GLOBALIZATION
• Millennials are also labelled as the ‘Boomerang Generation’ or
• is the interaction of the countries into a virtually one multi-faceted ‘Peter Pan Generation,
community may it be politically, economically, or culturally o they perceived tendency for delaying some rites of passage
• it creates globalizing forces and processes have opened up new into adulthood for longer period than most generation
forms of social bonds and responsibilities. before them
• world-wide integration of government policies, cultures, social o living with their parents for longer periods than previous
movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange generation.
of ideas
WORK ETHICS OF MILLENNIALS
• intensification of worldwide relationships which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events • Boomers

occurring many miles away and vice versa. o are hardworking, idealistic, and committed to harmony

• Problems in Globalization • Gen X

o uses up finite resources more quickly. o entrepreneurial, flexible, self-reliant, and comfortable with

o increases world carbon dioxide emission. technology

o makes it virtually impossible for regulators in one country to • Millennials

foresee the worldwide implications of their actions. o tech-savvy, appreciative of diversity, and skilled in

o acts to increase world oil price. multitasking.

o transfers consumption of limited oil supply from developed o Workplace attributes

countries to developing countries. 1. Self-centered with sense of entitlement

o transfers jobs from developed countries to less developed 2. Workaholics

countries. 3. Self-motivated

o transfers investment spending from developed countries to 4. Don’t appreciate feedback

less developed countries. 5. Very short attention spans

o leads to huge US balance of trade deficits and other 6. Not loyal to organization

imbalances. 7. Demand immediate complement and recognition

o tends to move taxation away from corporations, and onto 8. Integrate technology into the workplace

individual citizens. 9. Work dress is whatever feels comfortable

o sets up a currency “race to the bottom,” with each country INDIVIDUALISM

trying to get an export advantage by dropping the value of
Millennials qualified as the self-focused time in life. It does not
its currency.
necessarily mean that they are selfish; it rather means that they
o encourages dependence on other countries essential goods
have fewer social roles and obligations, and more freedom to be
and services.
self-directed.
o ties countries together, so that if one country collapses, the
collapse is likely to ripple through the system, pulling many
other countries with it.
CONFLICT WITH PARENTS Module 10

• One of the supposed causes of the alleged conflict is the difference ETHICS
in mentality
• as a system of moral principles which affect how people make
• Major differences between boomers and millennials
decisions and lead their lives
o Millennials are more progressive on social issues.
• concerned with what is good and right for a person and society.
o Millennials are hesitant to identify themselves with a
RELIGION
political party.
o Millennials are less wealthy. • people and opinions concerning the existence, nature, and worship
o Millennials are reluctant to get married. of a deity or deities, and divine involvement in the universe and
o More millennials live at home than their parents did at the human life
same age. • sacred engagement with that which is believed to be a spiritual

SECULARISM AND HUMANISM reality, religion denotes the belief in, or the worship of, a god (or
gods) and the worship or service to God or the Supernatural.
• Secularism - a non-theistic belief system or a worldview which does
• organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and worldviews
not acknowledge supernatural or divine views of reality
that relate humanity to an order of existence
o Atheism
o Agnosticism RELIGION ROLES IN ETHICS

o Naturalism • religion is necessary for the continued survival of morality as an

o Materialism integral part of human life, especially in a globalized world
o Scientism • Morality cannot survive, in the long run, if its ties to religion are
o Darwinism cut.
• Humanism - a system of thought which gives emphasis to the value • Cut-flower thesis
of human beings and favors man’s thought over faith or religious o those who believe that morality is a valuable human
doctrine. institution, and those who wish to avoid moral disaster,

ETHICAL FOUNDATIONS should therefore make every effort to preserve its

connection with the true religion and the sound religious
• Denying supernatural and religious views as a basis of morality and
belief that forms its roots
decision making
o morality cannot survive without religion
• Notions of human nature/ethical foundation
o does not say that a consequence of abandoning religion
o Human experience
leads immediately to murder, rape, robbery, drunkenness,
o Human need
sexual promiscuity, and the like
o Human reason
THEISTIC ETHICS

• Theism – the belief in God

• Theistic ethics – God-based morality
• God is viewed as true source of all moral laws, and as the only
plausible cause of moral obligations which possess overriding and
binding character
• Moral supernaturalism - satisfactorily explain the existence of
objective ethical values and the moral law.