Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

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Construction and Building Materials

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Flexural behaviour of concrete thin sheets prestressed with

basalt-textile reinforcement
Mohammed Hutaibat a, Bahman Ghiassi b, *, Walid Tizani a
a
Centre for Structural Engineering and Informatics, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
b
School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: While the recently emerged textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) composites offer a more durable alternative to
Textile reinforced concrete conventional reinforced concrete, these composites are susceptible to cracking and high deformations under
TRC service loads, which hinders their widespread application for the development of load-bearing structural com­
Prestressing
ponents. Aiming at addressing this issue, the present paper experimentally investigates the flexural response of
Pre-tensioning
Flexural response
non-prestressed and prestressed basalt-based textile-reinforced concrete plates. Basalt is chosen as an emerging
low-carbon reinforcement for TRC composites. The first series of tests is focused on non-prestressed TRCs and
consists of eleven reinforcement configurations considering the role of reinforcement ratio, position and coating
on the flexural behaviour of TRCs. The second series, focused on prestressed TRCs, considered the role of pre­
stressing level (13%, 25% and 35% of the fabric’s ultimate tensile load), releasing time, testing age and coating
type on the flexural behaviour.

1. Introduction widespread application to load-bearing structural components.

Addressing this challenge calls for a range of potential solutions,
Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) combines non-metallic mesh-like including surface modification techniques (i.e. impregnation and
fabrics and a fine-grained concrete matrix [1,2] to form a high- coating) [16–20], incorporation of short fibres [21,22], and the appli­
performance composite material that provides a competitive and more cation of prestressing to the textile reinforcement [23–26]. While pre­
durable alternative to conventional reinforced concrete [3,4]. Given its stressing holds promise as a solution, it has only received little and
significant mechanical properties and pseudo-ductile response, TRC is scarce attention to date. Prestressing concrete structures improves me­
well-suited for the retrofitting and seismic strengthening of masonry and chanical strength, structural performance, bonding, and rigidity
concrete structures [5–8]. The application of TRCs to the manufacturing [23,24]. This approach effectively utilises the material’s high tensile
of new concrete components also allows the production of lighter and strength, minimising excessive deflections from passive reinforcement’s
thinner structural members because of their high strength-to-weight low stiffness [25]. Moreover, it reduces cracks due to shrinkage and
ratio [9]. loads, creating durable, crack-free slender elements.
Although a growing number of investigations have been devoted to a For the application of prestressing technology to TRCs, the devel­
better understanding of the mechanical performance of TRC composites, opment of appropriate test setups that ensure uniform prestressing of the
the focus has been mostly on the load-bearing capacity of TRC compo­ yarns remains a challenge. Selection of a suitable textile (high tensile
nents under flexural or tensile loads [10–12]. Even though there is still a strength, high elastic modulus and, low relaxation) and matrix (suffi­
lack of comprehensive understanding of the structural behaviour of cient workability, high initial and final strength, and low shrinkage) are
components made of these composites [13]. The role of production vital to a successful prestressing application. The bond between textile
tolerance, reinforcement ratio, or reinforcement position on the me­ reinforcement and the concrete matrix and that in between the filaments
chanical response of TRCs has yet to be fully investigated [4,14]. The also plays a significant role in the efficiency of prestressing technique in
existing data have shown the susceptibility of TRCs to cracking and high TRC composites. Coating and impregnation of the textiles generally help
deformations under service loads [15], which can hinder their in improving the interfilament and textile-to-concrete bond

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mohammed.hutaibat@nottingham.ac.uk (M. Hutaibat), b.ghiassi@bham.ac.uk (B. Ghiassi), walid.tizani@nottingham.ac.uk (W. Tizani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133213
Received 16 June 2023; Received in revised form 29 August 2023; Accepted 30 August 2023
Available online 10 September 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

performance, helping in better efficiency of prestressing applications Table 1

[27,28]. Non-impregnated textiles generally perform worse under pre­ Mix proportions and mechanical properties of the cementitious binder.
stressing loads, which is also dependent on the type of fibres (e.g. pre­ Materials/Properties Characteristic parameters
stressed TRCs made of non-coated dry carbon fibres, despite having 3
Cement (52.5 R)* [Kg/m ] 589.2
higher tensile strength and elastic modulus than non-coated dry AR glass Fly Ash [Kg/m3] 189.0
fibres, showed a poorer performance due to their weaker bond with Silica Fume [Kg/m3] 50.3
cementitious matrix and reduction of the interfilament friction after Sand 0.6–1.0 [Kg/m3] 1121.6
prestressing) [27,28]. Water [Kg/m3] 259.2
Superplasticiser dosage [% weight of total binder] 0.016
As such, carbon, basalt, or aramid reinforcements are considered to Water/binder ratio 0.31
be more propitious for prestressing applications [26–31]. Although Aggregate/Binder ratio 1.35
notable prestress losses were observed in prestressed aramid-based TRCs Slump [mm] 280
due to the considerable relaxation of aramid fibres when exposed to 1-day compressive strength** [MPa] 29 (5.7)
7-day compressive strength** [MPa] 65 (6.9)
alkaline environments (commonly present in a cementitious matrix) and
28-day compressive strength** [MPa] 113 (5.1)
the interfilament bond deterioration following the introduction of pre­ 90-day compressive strength** [MPa] 116 (6.3)
stressing forces [31,32]. On the other hand, the susceptibility of AR-
* CEMI Rapid hardening concrete. **Compressive strength of concrete is based
Glass fibres to alkaline degradation and poor creep resistance due to
on samples cured under water. The result’s coefficient of variation is presented
stress corrosion or static fatigue makes them unsuitable for prestressing
in parentheses.
applications [33,34]. Therefore, the utilisation of materials with specific
physical attributes is crucial for achieving functional prestressed com­
bond performance under 24 h [39,40], for resisting prestressing loads
posites of desired strength and stiffness. Materials like basalt fibres have
once the yarns are released [41]. A polycarboxylate superplasticizer that
demonstrated their chemical robustness and favourable physical prop­
fulfils the standard requirements in BS EN 197-1:2011 [42] was added to
erties within sectors such as the aerospace and automotive industries
achieve sufficient workability.
[35]. The versatile forms of basalt fibres, including ropes, short fibres,
The compressive strength of the concrete mix was experimentally
bars, and continuous textiles, have emerged as pioneering materials for
determined at different ages (24 hrs, 7, 28, and 90 days) according to
structural applications [8]. Recently, basalt-based textiles have gained
ASTM C109 [43]. For this purpose, three identical cubes of 50 mm size
interest as a natural-based, non-toxic, cost-effective, and thermally sta­
were prepared and tested at target ages using a 200 kN servo-controlled
ble reinforcement for the development of TRCs [36–38]. As such, the
universal testing machine at a load rate of 1.5 kN/s. The flowability of
existing data on the mechanical performance of non-prestressed and pre-
the concrete mix was determined using the mini-slump cone method for
stressed basalt-based TRCs is scarce [30].
fine concrete by pouring the concrete in a truncated cone with di­
In a recent study, Du et al. [30] investigated the effect of the number
mensions shown in Fig. 1 set over a smooth, non-absorbent plate. Once
of textile layers and prestressing level (i.e. up to 30%) on the flexural
the cone is lifted, the average spread can be calculated over two mea­
properties of coated basalt textiles. They observed that prestressing
surements (D1, D2) [44]. The test results showed the developed mix had
increased the cracking stress by 50% with a slight improvement in the
a slump of 280 mm and an average compressive strength of 29 MPa at 24
pre-cracking stiffness, but negatively affected the ultimate bearing ca­
hrs (65 MPa, 113 MPa and 116 MPa at 7, 28, and 90 days, respectively)
pacity and toughness at all prestress levels when compared to non-
taken from 3 tested samples.
prestressed counterpart samples. However, further investigations are
still needed to understand the performance of basalt textiles in pre­
stressing applications. Textile reinforcement, unlike traditional con­ 2.2. Fabric
crete, is not restricted by concrete cover due to corrosion resistance. It’s
crucial to explore the performance of TRC components with minimal or A flexible, unidirectional basalt textile coated with an alkaline
no concrete cover, and their potential as external reinforcement to resistance polymer coating was used in this study. The wrap and weft
enhance overall composite structure performance. The role of several yarns form an open mesh of 25 mm in orthogonal directions (Table 2).
parameters, such as reinforcement ratio, location of reinforcement, The mechanical properties of the textile were characterised by con­
prestressing release time, or testing age on the performance of basalt- ducting uniaxial tensile tests on at least four identical samples of non-
based TRCs remains not understood. standard bare textile coupons. Textile coupons consisted of two groups
Aiming at addressing these gaps, this paper presents a comprehen­ of single-yarn and two-yarn coupons. The tested samples had a clear
sive experimental campaign on the flexural behaviour of non- length of 260 mm out of 410 mm total length, with a nominal width of
prestressed and prestressed Basalt TRCs. For the non-prestressed TRCs, 25 mm and 50 mm for the single and two-yarn coupons, respectively.
the focus was on understanding the role of reinforcement ratio (0.37%, Strain-compatible steel tabs were glued to both ends of each coupon
0.56%, and 0.93%), reinforcement position, the distance between with epoxy resin to ensure a homogeneous, constant pressure and suf­
reinforcement layers (internal lever arm) and textile surface modifica­ ficient grip. The samples were clamped at both ends and tested using an
tion using sand coating on the flexural response of TRC plates. For the Instron machine under a constant displacement rate of 0.005 mm/sec.
prestressed TRCs, the role of prestress release time (1-day and 7-day), During the tests, the applied monotonic load was recorded using the
testing age (7, 28, and 90 days), surface modification (sand coating), machine’s internal load cell, and the specimens’ extension was
and prestressing level (0%, 13%, 25%, and 35%) on the flexural measured using a video gauge over a 200 mm gauge length targeted at
behaviour are investigated and reported. the centre of the samples. The key results are listed in Table 2. The ul­
timate stress (σfu) of the textile was calculated as follows, from the ob­
2. Experimental programme tained experimental data:
ffu
2.1. Concrete σ fu = (1)
Af
A single concrete mix was specifically tailored and adopted in this
Af = bf *tf (2)
work. The matrix’s composition and the hardened concrete’s mechani­
cal properties are given in Table 1. The matrix consisted of cement, fly Where ffu is the ultimate tensile load, Af is the cross-sectional area, bf
ash, silica fume, and fine aggregate (0.6–1.2 mm). Rapid hardening is the nominal width of the coupon, and tf is the nominal thickness of the
Portland cement (CEM I) was used to attain the required strength and textile coupon provided by the manufacturer datasheet. The modulus of

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Fig. 1. Mini-slump test schematic view.

Table 2
Mechanical properties of basalt textile.
Properties Unit Manufactures’ Data Experimental Data

Mesh size [mm] 25x25 25x25

Fibre orientation - Unidirectional Unidirectional
Efa [GPa] 89 81
Weight [g/m2] 220 -
Density [g/cm3] 2.67 -
Nominal thickness [mm] 0.037 -
σfub One-Yarn [MPa] - 1538 (5.3)
Two-Yarn [MPa] – 1356 (4.0)

*The coefficient of variation is presented in parentheses. a Ef: modulus of elasticity. b σ fu: ultimate tensile stress.

elasticity (Ef) was found as the slope of the linear part of the curve. Fig. 2 2.3. Test specimens and investigated parameters
shows the stress–strain curves of the tested coupons. It can be observed
that the load increases linearly up to the ultimate load in single-yarn The experimental programme was conducted in two stages: the first
coupons. The results from two-yarn coupons are also consistent with stage comprised 13 variables (with five identical samples for each
single-yarn results, with the exception of one sample that shows a configuration) carried out on thin flat non-prestressed TRC plates to
discrepancy near the ultimate load, which can be attributed to the non- investigate the influence of the textile reinforcement configuration (i.e.
uniform distribution of the stress between yarns and local failure of the reinforcement ratio (ρ) and the textile layer (lever arm) position) on the
filaments. overall flexural performance. The outcomes of this series were used to
design the second stage of the tests which was aimed at understanding
the flexural performance of prestressed TRC (PTRC) plates. Three
different reinforcement ratios (ρ) were combined with different rein­
forcement locations, leading to a total of 11 configurations. The rein­
forcement ratio was calculated by dividing the textile’s total cross-
sectional area (Af = tf *b) by the plate cross-sectional area (b*h), where
tf is the equivalent thickness of the textile, b and h are the width and
thickness of the plate, respectively. Hereafter, the reinforcement
configuration will be indicated by the letter (C) in the specimen’s
nomenclature (see Fig. 3). Two, three, and five plies of textile rein­
forcement were embedded in the matrix with different configurations,
presented by measuring the bending depth (dx) of the textile layer with
respect to the top of each sample (Fig. 3). This led to the establishment of
three distinct internal lever arm configurations for the reinforcement,
hereafter referred to as layers. This variability helps in the examination
of the flexural response of TRCs, considering the role of concrete cover,
reinforcement location, and distances between the plies.
Two extra sets of samples were also prepared, aiming at investigating
the effect of in-house coating of the textiles with mortar – samples
denoted by (M) – or sand – samples denoted by (S) – on the flexural
performance. For sand coating, firstly, a thin layer of epoxy resin was
applied to the surface of the textiles and then left to set for one hour. A
layer of sand (the same sand that was used in the concrete matrix but
Fig. 2. Tensile stress–strain results on textile coupons (single and two- with particle sizes of < 0.6 mm) was then sprayed on the epoxy layer. A
yarn coupons).

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Fig. 3. Representative cross-section of the reinforcement configuration.

curing time of at least 72 hrs was adopted at room temperature for the process.
sand-coated textile to fully dry. Mortar coating was only considered in This second stage of the tests comprised 20 variables (with six
the case of C8 samples and was attempted by immersing the textile in the identical samples for each variable) focused on the role of: (a) pre­
same mortar used as the matrix of TRC plates prior to the casting stressing level presented as a percentage of the maximum tensile load of

Table 3
Tested specimens.
Sample ID Configuration Extra No. of No. of ρ* d1 d2 d3 Prestress Sample Prestress release
coating Plies Layers level age time
[%] [mm] [mm] [mm] [%] [day] [day]

1L0P0R28DC1 C1 – 2 1 0.37 20 20 – 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC2 C2 – 2 2 0.37 20 15 – 0 28 –
1L0P0R28DC3 C3 – 2 1 0.37 15 15 – 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 15 10 – 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC5 C5 – 2 2 0.37 15 5 – 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC6 C6 – 3 2 0.56 20 20 15 0 28 –
3L0P0R28DC7 C7 – 3 3 0.56 20 17.5 15 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC8 C8 – 3 2 0.56 20 15 15 0 28 –
2L0P0R28DC8(M) C8 Mortar 3 2 0.56 20 15 15 0 28 –
3L0P0R28DC9 C9 – 3 3 0.56 20 15 10 0 28 –
3L0P0R28DC10 C10 – 3 3 0.56 20 15 5 0 28 –
1L0P0R28DC11 C11 – 5 1 0.93 20 – – 0 28 –
2L0P0R7DC4B1 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 0 7 1
2L13P1R7DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 7 1
2L25P1R7DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 25 7 1
2L35P1R7DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 7 1
2L0P0R7DC4B7 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 0 7 7
2L13P7R7DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 7 7
2L35P7R7DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 7 7
2L0P0R28DC4B1 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 0 28 1
2L13P1R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 28 1
2L25P1R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 25 28 1
2L35P1R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 28 1
3L13P1R28DC12 C12 – 3 3 0.56 10 – 15 13 28 1
2L0P0R28DC4B7 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 0 28 7
2L13P7R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 28 7
2L35P7R28DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 28 7
2L0P0R28DC4B1 C4 Sand/Epoxy 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 0 28 1
(S)
2L13P1R28DC4(S) C4 Sand/Epoxy 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 28 1
2L35P1R28DC4(S) C4 Sand/Epoxy 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 28 1
2L13P1R90DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 13 90 1
2L35P1R90DC4 C4 – 2 2 0.37 10 – 15 35 90 1

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

the roving (ffu), (prestressing loads of up to 0.13 ffu, 0.25 ffu, and 0.35 ffu), production of samples with dimensions of 410 mm in length, 90 mm in
(b) prestress release times (i.e. 1-day, 7-day), and (c) the age at which width, and 20 mm in thickness. These dimensions fall above the mini­
the specimens were tested (i.e. 7, 28, and 90 days). The selection to mum recommended values in RILEM TC 232-TDT [47].
adopt a maximum prestressing level of 35% aligns with the American Subsequently, the concrete mixture was poured and left to settle in
Concrete Institute recommended values for prestressed FRP tendons order to attain adequate compressive strength before releasing the
[45], which suggest a range of 40–65% for aramid and carbon FRP prestressing forces. At the targeted release age, the load was released,
tendons. Research on the long-term creep behaviour of basalt FRP bars and the specimens were detached from the prestressing rig and
indicates their capability to withstand an allowable creep rupture stress demoulded, then subsequently cured in accordance with the prescribed
of 50% of their tensile strength [46]. This choice considers the variations curing regime. For specimens of 1-day release time, these were taken out
in bond behaviour and interfilament stress transfer between textile of the prestressing rig after 24 h and subsequently immersed in a water
reinforcement and FRP tendons. All samples were reinforced using a C4 curing tank for a duration of 7 days. Following this, they were trans­
configuration in which both layers were prestressed (except in one case ferred to a temperature-controlled environment maintained at 20 ◦ C. In
that was reinforced with three layers (C12), in which the top layer was contrast, the specimens with a 7-day release time were covered with a
non-prestressed and the two bottom layers were prestressed). The effect polyethene sheet until they were released and then immediately placed
of sand coating on the performance of prestressed samples was also in the same environmentally controlled storage room until the day of
examined in a number of cases. Table 3 presents the details of both series testing.
of tested specimens.
The notation of examined specimens is xLxPxRxDCNBY(S/M),
where x takes a numeric value quantifying the following inscriptions: as 2.5. Flexural test set-up
L refers to the number of layers (force arm), P stands for the prestress
level in the percentage of the maximum tensile load of the used fabric The flexural response of TRC plates was determined by conducting
(ffu), R denotes the release time at which the prestressing force was four-point bending tests according to EN 1170-5 [48]; see Fig. 5. The
released, D stands for the testing age of the specimens, CN presents the tests were conducted under displacement control at a crosshead rate of
used reinforcement configuration, and BY is the control (Blank) samples, 1 mm/min using a ZwickRoell machine. During the tests, the loads were
for the 1-day (B1) and 7-day (B7) release times. Finally, (S) indicates
sand coating with epoxy, and (M) preliminary mortar coating was
applied to textile reinforcement before casting.

2.4. Prestressing method

A prestressing test rig was developed as illustrated in Fig. 4. The rig

was assembled on a rigid steel frame, with the textile layers being
secured to a sliding clamp (Detail “1″) at both ends. A hydraulic jack
was employed to apply the prestressing forces, which were then
measured by a load cell connected to a data logger. To prevent potential
stress losses resulting from the relaxation of mechanical components,
control nuts were fastened at both ends of the clamp once the desired
prestress level was attained. A suitable mould with separated dividing
walls (see Detail “2”) was specifically designed to ensure the placement
Fig. 5. Four-point bending schematic setup.
of the textile layers at the desired embedment depth and to enable the

Fig. 4. Schematic view of the proposed prestressing system.

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

measured using the internal load cell of the machine, and the dis­ crack propagation. This shift continues until a moment equilibrium is
placements were recorded at the top quarter of samples using an Ime­ achieved between the cracked and uncracked sections. [53]. Once the
trum video gauge extensometer. spacing between cracks becomes smaller than twice the load transfer
The experimental load (F) - displacement (δ) curves were used to length, a stabilised crack pattern will eventually form.
calculate the flexural stress, σ, and strain, ε, at the first crack and the Once the crack formation is eventually stabilised, a third stage
ultimate capacity as [48]: emerges, characterised by deformation hardening. This stage is char­
acterised by a sequential increase in the stiffness, primarily governed by
F×L
Stress (σ ) = (3) the reinforcement stiffness. This is accompanied by crack widening until
b × d2
the point of ultimate stress/failure is reached. A deformation-softening
27 δ×d behaviour can be observed in the fourth phase, controlled mainly by
Strain (ε) = × 2 (4) the type of failure. Once the ultimate stress is reached, a sharp drop in
5 L
the stress is anticipated in the event of yarn rupture as the predominant
where L is the span length (300 mm), b is the specimen’s width (90 mm) failure mode. Alternatively, a less brittle failure mode may be observed
and d is the specimen’s thickness (20 mm). It is worth noting that when failure is influenced by a combination of filament rupture, slip­
although Eq. (4) does not provide accurate stress values after cracking of page, and compression failure of the matrix at the widened crack tip.
the samples, this formulation is used here to ensure consistency with the Additionally, the occurrence of delamination failure, attributed to bond
calculations reported in the literature. The initial stiffness before failure between the textile interface and the matrix, can also be ex­
cracking was obtained by analysing the slope of the linear elastic region pected. This particular failure mode results in the samples failing to
in the load–deflection curve. The flexural toughness (T) was calculated reach their ultimate load capacity and inhibits the complete utilisation
by measuring the area under the load–deflection curve up to the first of the reinforcement’s potential [54]. The key results obtained from
crack (Td) and up to a deflection of 10 mm (Tm) [49]. both non-prestressed and prestressed samples, including first crack, ul­
timate stresses, toughness, and cracking behaviour, are summarised in
3. Results and discussion Table 4 and discussed in the next sections.

Most of the TRC specimens exhibited the typical deformation- 3.1. Cracking behaviour and failure mechanism
hardening response in both prestressed and non-prestressed samples
(Fig. 6) (except for a few samples, e.g. 2L35P1R7D, which showed a Table 5 shows a comparison of the cracking pattern and failure mode
strain-softening response). The overall bending behaviour can be of all tested specimens after failure, and Fig. 7 summarises the average
divided into four phases [41]. In the first phase, an elastic-linear number of cracks and saturated crack spacing observed in the speci­
behaviour is observed, whereas the load is carried mostly by the ma­ mens. The results indicate that in non-prestressed samples (Fig. 7a), an
trix until the occurrence of the first crack. As such, the response in this increase in the reinforcement ratio (ρ) led to a higher number of cracks
phase is mainly governed by the matrix stiffness. However, factors such and a decrease in saturated crack spacing, as expected. For instance, the
as the level of prestressing force, eccentricity, and interfacial bond incorporation of a third layer over the two-layer samples resulted in a
gradually play a role in shaping the extent of this phase [50]. In the notable increase in the average number of cracks compared to two-layer
second phase, i.e. after the occurrence of the first crack, the stresses are reinforced samples (e.g. 40% and 80% increase in C6 and C7 samples,
redistributed to the textile reinforcement resulting in an abrupt drop in respectively, is observed compared to C1-C3 samples). Similar crack
the stress-bearing capacity or the so-called delayed stress distribution densities can also be observed in samples with comparable tensile
[11], phase 2. This delay in the stress transfer is controlled by the reinforcement ratios. For instance, samples C1 to C5 or samples C6-C8
waviness level of the yarns, reinforcement ratio (ρ) and the bond be­ showed a similar crack pattern.
tween the textile and the surrounding matrix [51,52]. With the increase In contrast, the crack spacing in specimens reinforced with three
in load, the sample undergoes multiple cracking as stresses are trans­ layers of textiles (i.e. C6 to C10) does not show a significant change
ferred by the yarns to the surrounding mortar, preventing stress locali­ between samples with three layers of tensile reinforcement and samples
zation in the initial crack. The stiffness of the samples is much lower in with two layers of reinforcement (e.g. C6-C8 and C9-C10). It should be
the second stage than in the first one. Furthermore, as the load is further noted that no delamination was observed among the samples upon ex­
increased, the neutral axis progressively shifts upwards due to ongoing amination of the failure envelope. The average crack width decreased
with the increase in reinforcement ratio, as the specimens were able to
withstand residual load and have lower deflection rates while having
considerable damage [55]. Placing the reinforcement at high flexural
depth can also result in a sudden rupture of the yarns (i.e. C1, C2)
(Table 5), while the samples with lower bending depth failed due to a
combination of partial filament rupture, slippage, and matrix crushing
at the top caused by a higher deflection level.
In the case of prestressed samples, it was observed that the age of
testing (as shown in Fig. 8b) had an insignificant influence on the
quantity and distribution of cracks across all the investigated parame­
ters. On the other hand, the density decreased slightly (and crack
spacing increased slightly) with increments of prestressing loads, with a
few exceptions. Prestressed samples released after 1-day typically
exhibited fewer cracks at elevated prestress levels compared to their
non-prestressed counterparts. Additionally, there seems to be a corre­
lation between prestressing release day and the crack density (i.e. the
crack density almost doubled in the samples released at 7-day compared
to those released at 1-day), which can be the result of better bond for­
mation in those specimens and increased effectiveness of the
Fig. 6. Typical flexural load–deflection curve of TRC plates under flex­ prestressing.
ural loading. Comparable results were also observed in the sand-coated samples,

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Table 4
Summary of the flexural test results.
Sample ID Ultimate capacity First crack Toughness Cracking
Behaviour
Stress (σfu) Deflection (dult) Stress (σcr) Deflection (dcr) Stiffness Tdcr Tm @ 10 mm No. of cracks Crack spacing
[MPa] [mm] [MPa] [mm] [kN/ [kN.mm] [kN.mm] [mm]
mm]

1L0P0R28DC1 15.8(8.20) 11.2(7.20) 4.28(9.80) 0.19(25.0) 2.57(20.8) 0.07 12.0(8.00) 5.00(16.5) 27.0(3.23)
(33.1)
2L0P0R28DC2 15.7(5.20) 12.6(3.10) 4.10(11.3) 0.19(18.6) 2.44(5.88) 0.06 11.1(3.00) 5.00(9.32) 26.0(1.46)
(31.8)
1L0P0R28DC3 12.3(26.3) 12.2(18.0) 4.10(29.3) 0.19(37.0) 2.40(6.01) 0.06 9.10(20.6) 5.00(18.2) 26.0(1.86)
(63.6)
2L0P0R28DC4B1 8.30(17.0) 11.1(11.7) 3.90(19.5) 0.20(17.9) 2.32(11.8) 0.05 7.40(22.5) 3.00(26.3) 48.0(54.6)
(27.1)
2L0P0R28DC5 6.20(20.7) 8.70(10.6) 3.20 0.16(17.4) 2.31(36.3) 0.03 4.80(18.0) 2.00(22.8) 63.0(33.7)
(12.15) (32.8)
2L0P0R28DC6 27.1(10.8) 14.2(5.90) 5.00(14.9) 0.20(12.6) 2.90(20.7) 0.07 17.2(11.9) 7.00(12.8) 24.0(10.2)
(22.4)
3L0P0R28DC7 25.0(8.60) 12.5(7.60) 4.50(18.8) 0.22(26.8) 2.55(21.2) 0.07 16.7(9.60) 9.00(19.9) 20.0(14.8)
(44.2)
2L0P0R28DC8 25.2(11.4) 12.9(6.10) 4.80(12.0) 0.22(21.0) 2.53(16.3) 0.07 16.8(16.2) 7.00(14.1) 24.0(12.3)
(31.8)
2L0P0R28DC8(M) 17.3(14.9) 8.30(29.3) 4.80(15.7) 0.18(12.8) 3.30(16.7) 0.06 14.1(14.0) 6.00(9.70) 25.0(7.15)
(24.4)
3L0P0R28DC9 21.7(9.90) 12.6(9.90) 4.70(6.00) 0.18(12.1) 3.10(12.9) 0.06 14.8(10.9) 8.00(14.5) 23.0(9.71)
(14.8)
3L0P0R28DC10 18.9(7.30) 10.3(3.50) 6.00(6.40) 0.21(10.8) 3.46(15.1) 0.08 14.6(8.40) 6.00(16.2) 27.0(7.99)
(15.3)
1L0P0R28DC11 35.5(14.6) 12.4(12.8) 5.30(11.4) 0.24(20.9) 2.64(18.3) 0.09 23.3(14.0) 9.00(20.7) 21.0(19.6)
(28.9)
2L0P0R7DC4B1 8.80(4.00) 9.35(5.50) 2.47(20.1) 0.34(6.30) 1.36(23.7) 0.07 7.30(11.6) 2.00(0.00) 80.0(33.0)
(7.60)
2L13P1R7DC4 12.2(10.1) 9.29(21.7) 6.20(9.30) 0.40(18.0) 2.47(47.0) 0.15 12.2(11.7) 3.00(17.3) 36.0(11.7)
(23.2)
2L25P1R7DC4 10.5(10.4) 13.6(5.10) 6.30(7.30) 0.37(16.4) 1.51(25.4) 0.12 9.60(8.00) 3.00(17.3) 33.0(15.1)
(5.10)
2L35P1R7DC4 7.71(7.47) 8.82(23.8) 8.60(7.60) 0.20(4.90) 4.50(6.9) 0.12 7.70(6.00) 2.00(0.00) 84.0(21.9)
(11.2)
2L0P0R7DC4B7 13.3(7.50) 11.2(22.5) 4.30(15.6) 0.20(10.8) 2.83(6.79) 0.05 8.50(12.5) 5.00(10.1) 27.0(3.63)
(22.2)
2L13P7R7DC4 16.2(8.50) 11.1(8.50) 6.60(8.80) 0.20(11.9) 3.45(8.48) 0.10 13.2(5.50) 5.00(12.7) 27.0(5.92)
(19.0)
2L35P7R7DC4 17.1(7.00) 6.20(18.0) 10.3(9.80) 0.30(8.40) 4.50(8.39) 0.18 16.5(5.60) 5.00(15.6) 29.0(9.23)
(15.6)
2L0P0R28DC4B1 8.30(17.0) 11.1(11.7) 3.90(19.5) 0.20(17.9) 2.32(11.8) 0.05 7.40(22.5) 3.00(26.3) 48.0(54.6)
(27.1)
2L13P1R28DC4 13.9(6.50) 12.6(6.60) 8.60(7.80) 0.30(10.8) 3.81(11.9) 0.14 12.0(3.40) 3.00(19.4) 60.0(28.5)
(13.0)
2L25P1R28DC4 13.7(6.20) 13.0(17.9) 9.90(9.20) 0.30(7.80) 3.83(7.53) 0.18 10.9(6.90) 2.00(18.8) 68.0(28.5)
(15.6)
2L35P1R28DC4 12.0(7.40) 13.8(25.1) 10.8(7.80) 0.30(14.2) 4.63(12.1) 0.18 10.1(10.7) 2.00(18.8) 89.0(21.8)
(20.8)
3L13P1R28DC12 13.9(10.2) 12.5(17.0) 9.90(13.4) 0.30(11.8) 3.98(4.25) 0.17 12.0(9.50) 2.00(22.1) 81.0(28.6)
(23.5)
2L0P0R28DC4B7 12.4(9.90) 12.8(7.22) 5.60(16.9) 0.20(13.7) 2.77(7.54) 0.08 8.90(10.6) 4.00(11.9) 31.0(16.9)
(28.2)
2L13P7R28DC4 17.2(5.10) 11.1(11.8) 8.10(7.30) 0.30(6.80) 3.23(5.99) 0.15 14.1(2.20) 5.00(15.6) 27.0(6.00)
(10.3)
2L35P7R28DC4 16.7(10.4) 8.22(21.7) 10.3(4.40) 0.40(5.20) 3.11(4.50) 0.28 16.7(6.00) 5.00(15.3) 27.0(2.60)
(8.30)
2L0P0R28DC4B1 17.3(11.3) 14.5(7.70) 6.80(18.3) 0.20(14.8) 3.92(7.93) 0.09 11.5(7.00) 5.00(30.5) 35.0(24.6)
(S) (27.6)
2L13P1R28DC4(S) 18.8(10.1) 11.5(19.2) 9.90(11.6) 0.30(7.20) 4.31(12.1) 0.17 15.6(10.1) 4.00(22.4) 35.0(21.1)
(11.3)
2L35P1R28DC4(S) 18.6(11.4) 10.3(23.5) 11.2(13.2) 0.30(5.50) 4.78(10.7) 0.20 17.3(11.8) 5.00(18.6) 32.0(34.1)
(13.2)
2L13P1R90DC4 15.0(7.10) 11.9(6.3) 9.70(11.6) 0.30(14.2) 3.71(7.73) 0.19 12.9(5.60) 3.00(36.5) 51.0(34.9)
(22.7)
2L35P1R90DC4 15.1(11.9) 12.2(27.0) 12.3(8.77) 0.30(6.50) 4.66(12.9) 0.22 12.3(7.60) 2.00(22.3) 86.0(11.2)
(17.3)

*Coefficients of variation are presented in parentheses.

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Table 5
Failure mechanism and crack patterns.

C.C.: Concrete crushing; F.R.: Full fabric rupture; P.R: Partial fabric rupture; F.S: Fabric slippage.
C.C/F.R/P.R/ F.S: Combined concrete crushing with full fabric rupture, partial fabric rupture and fabric slippage.

Fig. 7. Average number of cracks and their average spacing: a) non-prestressed plates; b) prestressed plates.

wherein the incorporation of an additional sand coating led to a denser utilised, it is anticipated that a more homogeneous stress distribution
crack formation. A substantial increase of 70% in crack density was will occur. However, this also tends to result in more brittle behaviour.
observed over the samples released at 1-day. This increase can be This brittleness became more apparent in the sand-coated samples and
attributed to the improved bond strength in sand coated samples. This the samples released at 7-day, while the age of testing had no significant
enhancement resulted in a more effective utilisation of the textile’s effect on the failure mechanism of the samples.
tensile strength, whereas the sand-coated samples exhibited failure due
to complete yarn rupture. The application of a sand coating contributed
to this improved bond strength and subsequently led to an enhancement 3.2. Flexural behaviour - non-prestressed TRC plates
in the overall stiffness of the composite material [27]. Prestressing led to
a more brittle failure, as the prestressed samples mainly failed by The change in the flexural behaviour of non-prestressed samples
rupture of the yarns (Table 5). When all filaments within the textile with reinforcement configuration (flexural depth, reinforcement ratio)
reinforcement are fully activated and their tensile strength is effectively is presented in Fig. 8. Fig. 8a shows a comparison between samples with
different tensile reinforcement ratios (0.37%, 0.56% and 0.93%, C1, C6,

8
M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Fig. 8. Non-prestressed TRC plates: a) flexural stress–strain curves with different reinforcement ratios; b) flexural stress–strain curves with different configurations;
c) comparison of First Crack Stress, Pre-cracking Stiffness, Ultimate Stress, and Toughness at 10 mm deflection (Tm) of different reinforcement configurations.

and C11, respectively) and a similar reinforcement depth. It can be seen 44% improvement in flexural toughness at 10 mm deflection (Tm).
that the reinforcement ratio did not have a significant influence on the However, this enhancement became less significant after exceeding a
flexural cracking stress, stiffness, or toughness at the pre-cracking stage certain level of reinforcement ratio. Increasing the reinforcement ratio
(Phase1). However, its effect on the post-cracking (Phase 3) stiffness and by 65% in C11 samples over C6 samples has only led to a further
strength is evident; these increase by increasing the reinforcement ratio improvement of 31% and 36% in flexural stress and toughness,
as the member response is mainly governed by the textile in this stage respectively.
[56]. In the case of samples where the textile layers were positioned The influence of the flexural depth of the tensile reinforcement is
closer to the neutral axis (e.g. C5) (Fig. 8b), a noticeable delay in textile insignificant on the cracking stress, stiffness, and toughness (Tdcr) of the
activation was observed, characterised by a sharp decrease in stress specimens prior to cracking, but more notable on the flexural strength or
following cracking. As the reinforcement depth increased, i.e. in C3 and toughness at 10 mm (Tm), see C1-C3 or C6-C8 in Fig. 8c and Table 4.
C1, and the reinforcement ratio increased, i.e. in C6 and C11, this drop However, when one of the layers was positioned at or above the neutral
in stress (delay) became less pronounced. However, the reinforcement axis (e.g. in C4 and C5 or C9 and C10), a slight reduction in the cracking
ratio had only a minor influence on the ultimate deflection, resulting in a stress and toughness (Tdcr) and a more notable reduction in the flexural
negligible increase. strength or toughness at 10 mm (Tm) was observed. The role of adding
The results indicate a positive relationship between the reinforce­ reinforcement in the compression zone can be observed by comparing
ment ratio and both the ultimate stress and toughness (Tm) of the sam­ C2 and C10 samples. A slight increase in cracking stress and stiffness can
ples (see C1, C6, and C11), as demonstrated in Fig. 8b. Comparing the C6 be observed, with a more significant increase in the ultimate strength
and C1 samples, it is evident that a 50% increase in the reinforcement and toughness (Tm), (20% and 32% increase, respectively), and a
ratio resulted in a substantial 70% enhancement in flexural stress and a decrease in the ultimate deflection (20%), with no evident effect on

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

changing the failure mechanism. Moreover, within the same set of less) and toughness (16% less) but had similar pre-cracking properties
samples (C1-C5), C1 and C2 configurations demonstrated nearly iden­ compared to the counterpart samples of the same configuration but
tical mechanical properties, exhibiting the highest stiffness and flexural without extra coating (C8). This can be related to the poor bond caused
stress, as illustrated in Fig. 8c. by the time-lapse between the thin coating layer and the newly placed
The non-prestressed sand-coated samples demonstrated a significant concrete, but it needs to be further investigated in future studies.
improvement in various mechanical properties in comparison to their
non-prestressed polymer-coated counterparts, as anticipated (see
Fig. 8c). The incorporation of a sand coating in C4(S) increased the 3.3. Flexural behaviour - prestressed TRC plates
cracking stress and stiffness by 75% and 69%, respectively. Further­
more, it led to a significant enhancement of 55% in flexural toughness 3.3.1. Role of prestressing level and release time
(Tm), 108% in ultimate flexural stress, and a 30% increase in deflection Fig. 9 presents the typical flexural stress–strain curves and a sum­
when compared to the samples without sand coating (C4). The uti­ mary of all the results of prestressed TRC samples with 1-day and 7-day
lisation of the textile tensile strength was demonstrated by the change in release times. The samples were all tested at the age of 28 days to allow
the sample’s failure mode, where it changed from partial rupture of the comparisons. It is notable that prestressing level have a significant effect
yarns in non-coated samples to a complete rupture of the yarns in sand- in improving the flexural characteristics of the tested specimens.
coated samples. These improvements can be attributed to the enhanced Prestressing of TRC samples had a variant effect on their ultimate
bond of sand-coated yarns with the matrix and the increased thickness of deflection in correspondence to the release time. The 1-day released
the resin layer when combined with sand [12,57–59]. Furthermore, the specimens exhibited an increase in the ultimate deflection with an in­
mortar-coated samples (C8M) scored the lowest flexural strength (30% crease in the prestress level (Fig. 9a and Table 4). In contrast, the 7-day
released specimens showed a decrease in the ultimate deflection

Fig. 9. Role of prestressing level and release time: a) flexural stress–strain curves at 1-day release time; b) Flexural stress–strain curves at 7-day release time; and c)
comparison of First Crack Stress, Pre-cracking Stiffness, Ultimate Stress, and Toughness at 10 mm deflection (Tm).

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

(Fig. 9b). This phenomenon can be attributed to the influence of the flexural properties when compared to their control samples. However,
release time on bond behaviour, although it has yet to be verified. the application of prestressing to the samples resulted in a decrease of
Similar patterns have been noted in existing literature concerning the ultimate deflection by 21% and 29% in 2L131R28DC4(S) and
impact of prestressing on ultimate deflection [27,30,60]. These varia­ 2L351R28DC4(S), respectively, compared to their respective non-
tions can be attributed to differences in production methods, particu­ prestressed control samples (2L0P0R28DC4B1(S)).
larly in terms of prestressing levels, release times the materials In prestressed samples, the influence of sand coating on the initial
employed, and the resulting bond behaviour. Additionally, while no cracking stress and pre-cracking stiffness was comparatively insignifi­
significant change in the stress transfer mechanisms and stress distri­ cant, whereas it had a more pronounced impact on the ultimate stress
bution delay with prestressing is observed in 1-day released specimens, and toughness at 10 mm (Tm) in comparison to the samples with a
there is a clear effect in 7-day released samples. polymer coating (Fig. 10b). For instance, for a prestress level of 13%, the
It can be observed that there is an increase in the first cracking stress cracking strength and pre-cracking stiffness of specimens
with an increase in the level of prestressing in both the 1-day and 7-day 2L13P1R28DC4(S) showed only a 14% increase as compared to
released samples (Fig. 9c). At a prestress level of 35%, this increment 2L13P1R28DC4. Conversely, the ultimate stress and toughness (Tm)
reaches up to 176% and 83% for the 1-day and 7-day samples, respec­ showed a more substantial increase of 35% and 30%, respectively.
tively. Furthermore, the specimens exhibited stiffer behaviour, partic­ Furthermore, sand-coated specimens with a prestressing level of 35% (i.
ularly in the 1-day released specimens. At a prestress level of 13%, the e. 2L351R28DC4(S)) displayed almost identical values of cracking stress
pre-cracking stiffness increases by 65%, which doubles when the and stiffness as those without sand-coating (i.e. 2L35P1R28DC4).
prestress level is increased to 35%. This increment in pre-cracking Nonetheless, the ultimate stress and toughness (Tm) values exhibited a
stiffness was comparatively less prominent in the 7-day released sam­ more significant increase, respectively, of 50% and 70%. Where the
ples, with an increase of only 16% and 12% at prestress levels of 13% sand-coated samples ultimately had similar flexural strength values at
and 35%, respectively. all prestress levels.
In the 1-day released specimens, an increase in both toughness and
ultimate flexural stress is observed with an increase in prestress level to 3.3.3. Role of testing age
13%, with a significant increment of 67%. However, a slight decrease is The changes in the flexural response of prestressed specimens with
observed when the prestress level is further increased to 25%, although age (7, 28, and 90 days) are shown in Fig. 11, and the results are sum­
the values remain higher than those of the reference samples (Fig. 9c). In marised in Fig. 12. It can be observed that specimens subjected to lower
the specimens released at 7-day, a similar change in the ultimate flexural levels of prestress, specifically at 13% (Fig. 11a), do not show a signif­
stress is observed, the strength increased until 13% prestressing level icant change in flexural properties with age, particularly with regards to
and then remained constant at higher prestress levels. The toughness, ultimate stress and deflection with a strain-hardening trend. Conversely,
however, increases with increasing the prestress levels in these samples. for specimens subjected to a 35% prestress level (Fig. 11b), it was
It can also be observed that adding one layer of non-prestressed textile in observed that full utilisation of the prestressing effect required a longer
the compression zone, 3L13P1R28DC12, had no evident effect on the duration (i.e. more than 28 days). This can be due to the combined effect
flexural performance of the prestressed samples compared to its iden­ of high prestressing loads, insufficient bond strength, and low concrete
tical samples which only consisted of two layers of tensile reinforce­ stiffness at an early age in specimens subjected to a 35% prestress level.
ment, 2L13P1R28DC4. It is interesting to note that these samples show a similar flexural
response at the age of 90 days to those loaded at 13%.
3.3.2. Role of surface modification Among the samples examined, the impact of testing age is most
The effect of sand coating on the flexural response of prestressed prominently evident in the 1-day released samples (see Fig. 12a). At low
samples is presented in Fig. 10 and Table 4. Upon inspection of the prestress levels (i.e. 13%), the samples gained 80% of their ultimate
stress–strain curves of the sand-coated samples (as depicted in Fig. 10a), flexural stress and toughness (Tm) within the first seven days, while the
it’s notable that prestressing of sand-coated textiles has improved their cracking stress and pre-cracking stiffness required a longer period to

Fig. 10. Role of surface modification: a) flexural stress–strain curves of sand-coated prestressed samples at different prestress levels; b) comparison of First Crack
Stress, Pre-cracking Stiffness, Ultimate Stress, and Toughness at 10 mm deflection (Tm) between samples with and without additional sand coating.

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M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

Fig. 11. Role of testing age: a) flexural stress–strain curves for prestressed specimens at 13% prestress level; b) flexural stress–strain curves at 35% prestress level.

Fig. 12. Role of testing age: comparison of First Crack Stress, Pre-cracking Stiffness, Ultimate Stress, and Toughness (Tm) at: a) 1-day release time; b) 7-day
release time.

develop. The samples tested at 28 days (designated as 2L13P1R28DC4) compared to those tested at seven days (i.e. 2L13P7R7DC4). Further­
exhibited a notable enhancement of 39% in cracking stress and 54% in more, an insignificant increase of 6% and 7% was noted in the ultimate
pre-cracking stiffness compared to their prestressed counterparts tested strength and toughness (Tm), respectively. In contrast, for the specimens
at seven days (designated as 2L13P1R7DC4). At the age of 90 days, the with a prestress level of 35%, the cracking stress, ultimate stress, and
samples demonstrated a further 14% improvement in terms of cracking toughness (Tm) values remained constant, with a 30% decrease in pre-
stress. However, the pre-cracking stiffness did not change significantly. cracking stiffness in 2L35P7R28DC4 at 28 days of age when compared
In contrast, samples with a higher prestress level (i.e. 35%) reached most to those tested at seven days.
of their cracking stress and pre-cracking stiffness in the first seven days.
A progressive enhancement of other flexural characteristics occurred 4. Conclusions
until 90 days. Specifically, the flexural strength and toughness (Tm)
development took longer, with an increase of 56% and 32% over the 28- A systematic investigation of the flexural behaviour of non-
day period, followed by a further 26% and 22% improvement until 90 prestressed and prestressed basalt-based TRC flat thin slabs with
days, respectively. This disparity can be attributed to the larger prestress different reinforcement configurations was presented in this paper. The
losses experienced at higher levels of prestressing. flexural response of the TRC slabs was presented and discussed in terms
Contrary to the 1-day release samples, the effect of testing age was of stress–strain curves, flexural toughness, failure mechanism, and
comparatively less significant in the 7-day released samples (Fig. 12b). cracking behaviour. The experimental observations led to the following
This indicates that 7-day released samples developed most of their conclusions:
flexural characteristics within the first seven days of their age. Specif­
ically, when considering a prestressing level of 13%, samples tested at 1- Increasing the reinforcement ratio and depth improved bearing ca­
28 days (i.e. 2L13P7R28DC4) showed a slight reduction in the pre- pacity and crack density. An increase in the composite toughness and
cracking stiffness and only a 23% increase in the cracking stress a reduction in the composite brittle failure resulted from higher

12
M. Hutaibat et al. Construction and Building Materials 404 (2023) 133213

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Recommendation of RILEM TC 232-TDT: Test methods and design of textile

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