Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

A review of eco-friendly functional road materials

Wei Jiang a,⇑, Yue Huang b, Aimin Sha a
a
Key Laboratory for Special Area Highway Engineering of Ministry of Education, Chang’an University, South 2nd Ring Road Middle Section, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710064, China
b
Institute for Transport Studies (ITS), University of Leeds, 34-40 University Road, LS2 9JT Leeds, United Kingdom

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

Performance, applications and

challenges of eco-friendly road
materials is reviewed.

Abundant pore structures make it
possible for PAC to enable additional
functions.

More eco-friendly road materials will
be expanded with development of
science.

Further studies should highlight
design of road materials with
multiple functions.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Extensive studies on traditional and novel engineering materials and the increasing demands by growing
Received 19 August 2017 traffic have led to tremendous changes of the function of roads. Roads, as an important part of the human
Received in revised form 14 July 2018 living environment, have evolved from structures that were designed and built for passing vehicles, to
Accepted 13 October 2018
ecological assets with significant economic importance. In addition to structural stability and durability,
Available online 20 October 2018
functions such as noise reduction, urban heat island mitigation, de-icing and exhaust gas absorption, are
also expected. This study focused on state-of-the-art research on the performance, applications and chal-
Keywords:
lenges of six environment-friendly functional road materials, namely the permeable asphalt concrete,
Road materials
Functional pavement
noise-reducing pavement materials, low heat-absorbing pavement materials, exhaust gas-decomposing
Eco-friendly pavement materials, de-icing pavement materials, and energy harvesting pavement materials. With this
Sustainable construction study, we aim to provide references to the latest relevant literatures of the design and development of
environment-friendly functional pavement, and promote innovation in materials science and pavement
design principles. For this purpose, this review compiled extensive knowledge in modern road construc-
tion and related disciplines, in order to promote the development of modern pavement engineering
technologies.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jiangwei@chd.edu.cn (W. Jiang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.082
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092 1083

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
2. Permeable asphalt pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
2.1. Functional requirements for pavement permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
2.2. Permeable asphalt concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
2.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3. Noise-reducing pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3.1. Functional requirements for reducing pavement noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3.2. Porous noise-reducing asphalt concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085
3.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
4. Low heat-absorbing pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
4.1. Functional requirements for low heat absorption by pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
4.2. Water-retentive asphalt concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
4.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
5. Exhaust gas-decomposing pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
5.1. Demands for exhaust gas decomposition on pavement surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
5.2. Exhaust gas-decomposing pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
5.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
6. De-icing pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
6.1. Demands for de-icing pavement surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
6.2. Active de-icing pavement materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
6.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
7. Energy harvesting pavement material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
7.1. Demands for energy harvesting from pavement surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
7.2. Energy harvesting pavement materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
7.3. Engineering applications and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
8. Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090

1. Introduction provided lower pavement roughness and higher skid resistance,

meeting people’s growing needs for fast and safe travel. The 20th
Road is an important infrastructure that resulted from transport century witnessed extensive studies on polymer material science
activities and has promoted human civilization and development. and consequently, a significant boost in pavement service life
Road construction has a long history; in the 20th century BCE, and stability, with the use of various modified asphalt materials
the Arab Republic of Egypt built roads to transport large amounts and high-performance cement.
of rocks from quarries to sites where the rocks were used to build People’s requirements for ecological sustainability became
pyramids and the Great Sphinx [1,2]. In ancient Rome, people con- increasingly high when the industrial civilization reached a certain
structed an advanced road network centered in Rome, which level, and people realized that roads are not only a means for trans-
played a significant role in the prosperity of the ancient Roman porting people and goods but also an important component of the
Empire and the proverb had it: ‘‘all roads lead to Rome” [3]. More- environment. A road is expected to play a role in infiltrating rain-
over, the ‘‘Silk Road”, which was in existence from the 2nd century water, reducing tire noise, de-icing, and purifying tailpipe exhaust
BCE to the 13th and 14th centuries, greatly promoted the eco- gas, in addition to its basic functions (i.e. load bearing, evenness,
nomic, cultural, and technological exchanges between the east durability and comfort). Since the beginning of the 21st century,
and the west of the Asian continent, making a great contribution the emergence of new functional materials and the development
to the world’s economic development and social progress [4]. Cur- of interdisciplinary science have made the design and construction
rently, the total mileage of roads has reached 70 million kilometers of environmentally friendly functional pavements possible, which
globally [5,6], which is equivalent to 1700 times the circumference
of the Earth’s equator.
Along with human civilization and development of civil engi-
neering, road construction materials have also been continuously
upgraded. From times before the Christ until the 19th century
CE, rocks, pebbles, gravels, wood and pottery fragments were the
main forms of pavement materials [3]. People also explored the
use of other types of materials for road pavement. In 615s BC,
asphalt was recorded as a material to build road in ancient Babylon
[7]. In the 1500s, the Peruvian Incas used materials similar to mod-
ern bituminous macadam to pave their highway system [8,9]. In
1848, the first road with asphalt Macadam pavement was paved
outside of Nottingham, UK, using coal tar as the binder [10]. In
1865, the first road with cement concrete was built in Inverness,
Scotland [11,12]. Later in the 19th century, cement concrete and
asphalt mixture became the main types of high-grade pavement
materials. Continuous improvement on material performance has Fig. 1. Point contact between aggregates in permeable asphalt concrete.
1084 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092

have subsequently resulted in the expansion of research in pave- of >4.75 mm and reducing the proportion of aggregates sized
ment materials. To improve on ecological and environmental per- between 2.36 mm and 4.75 mm [21,22].
formance of road infrastructure, the development of Unlike traditional compact pavement materials which have full-
environmentally friendly functional pavement materials, poses face contact between aggregates, aggregates in permeable asphalt
challenges as well as opportunities to road engineers and concrete form only point contact between each other as shown in
researchers. Fig. 1. Due to the contact area being substantially reduced, the
This study focused on state-of-the-art research on the perfor- requirements for mixture design and component materials are
mance, applications and challenges of six environmentally friendly higher, in order to maintain the strength, stability and durability
functional pavement materials, namely the permeable asphalt con- of the mixture. In terms of binder selection, modified asphalt is
crete (Section 2), noise-reducing pavement materials (Section 3), usually used, with variations in the type and content in different
low heat-absorbing pavement materials (Section 4), exhaust gas- regions due to varying environmental and traffic conditions
decomposing pavement materials (Section 5), de-icing pavement [23,24]. Styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified asphalt or rub-
materials (Section 6), and energy harvesting pavement materials ber asphalt are often used in the United States and Europe
(Section 7). With this paper, we aim to provide an abundance of [25,26]. Hydrated lime, taking up to 1% aggregate weight and cel-
references to the design and development of environmentally lulose fibers, at a rate of 0.3% by total weight of the mixture
friendly functional pavement materials. [27,28], are added to reduce stripping and improve water stability
[21,29]. In Asian countries, such as China, Japan, and Singapore,
high-viscosity bitumen (viscosity > 20000 Pas) is commonly used
2. Permeable asphalt pavement material
[30–32]. Epoxy asphalt and Trinidad NAF 501 natural asphalt have
also been used for permeable asphalt concretes in some studies
2.1. Functional requirements for pavement permeability
[33,34].
To improve durability and anti-stripping property of the mix,
The pores on the ground surface enable rainwater to seep into
permeable asphalt concrete is often produced with excessive
the ground, which helps to restore moisture in the natural soil, reg-
asphalt binder (typically 4.5–6.0% or even more) to generate a
ulate atmosphere humidity, facilitate plant growth, maintain sur-
12 lm to 14 lm thick asphalt binder film, while the film thickness
face water pressure, and replenish the groundwater. When
in a dense-graded asphalt concrete is about 8 lm to 10 lm [21]. In
pavement materials, such as asphalt concrete or cement concrete,
addition, a decreased inter-aggregate contact area leads to
are paved and compacted, rainwater is impeded from direct infil-
increased contact stress, calling for mixture stability and aggregate
tration and the moisture cycle between the underground and
strength [35,36]; resultantly, basalt and diabase with high strength
aboveground spaces is blocked. These effects, together with the
are commonly used [37]. Moreover, the content of elongated
exploitation and excessive use of groundwater in some regions,
aggregate particles in permeable asphalt concrete should be
have led to a series of problems, including considerable reduction
strictly controlled, usually no >10% to 15%, to reduce fine grading
in rainwater infiltration, ecological imbalance, and ground subsi-
and porosity caused by aggregate breakdown [32].
dence [13–15]. In addition, the impermeable pavement surface
Wheel tracking test was used to evaluate the high temperature
contributes to the formation of water films, or accumulation of
stability of permeable asphalt concrete. The evaluation index was
water, on the pavement surface [16], which leads to vehicle drift-
Dynamic Stability. As a result of the use of modified asphalt and
ing and water splash, thus causing traffic accidents [17,18]. More-
skeleton structure, permeable asphalt concrete usually shows
over, traditional impermeable pavement surfaces can cause an
excellent high temperature stability. The rutting dynamic stability
abrupt rise in surface runoff in the event of storms, resulting in
usually reaches 5000 times/mm when the high-viscosity asphalt is
urban inundation [19,20]. For these reasons, permeable pavement
used [22], far exceeding the requirements of 3000 times/mm for
materials have attracted wide interest.
dense-graded modified asphalt mixture, in accordance with the
standard [38]. Furthermore, the coating of thick asphalt binder film
2.2. Permeable asphalt concrete and the use of additives such as lime, have provided the concrete
with adequate water stability. Freeze-thaw split test was used to
Permeable asphalt concrete is a type of gap-graded mix mate- evaluate the moisture susceptibility of permeable asphalt concrete.
rial with a porosity of 16% to 25%. The porosity is achieved by The evaluation index was Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR). Generally,
increasing the proportion of coarse aggregates with a nominal size the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) can reach 80% for dense graded
modified asphalt mixtures. On the other hand, pores and limited
inter-aggregate contact have adverse effects on the anti-fatigue
performance and crack resistance [22]. Findings from fatigue test
under submerged condition (Fig. 2) suggested that with an
increase of porosity, anti-fatigue performance of the permeable
asphalt concrete decreases, and the sensitivity of fatigue life to
change in stress level increases; however, water immersion does
not have a significant influence on the fatigue performance [39].
When permeable asphalt concrete is used in low temperature,
the crack resistance can be improved in several ways, such as by
reducing porosity, increasing the amount of asphalt and modifier,
and adding fiber [37,40].
The rainfall intensity is considered in the design of air void for
permeable asphalt concrete. Generally, an air voids content of
about 20% was used, so that the permeability coefficient can reach
0.4–0.5 cms1, which can meet the permeability demand of roads
during heavy rain. When permeable asphalt concrete is used for
surface layer, the thickness is usually 40–50 mm in a single layer
Fig. 2. Permeable asphalt concrete fatigue test under submerged condition. and 70–100 mm in a double layer. Drainage is provided by the road
 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092 1085

side of permeable asphalt pavement. As for pavement surface mix-

ture, NCAT (National Center for Asphalt Technology) and ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) International (D
7064-04) suggested a minimum permeability coefficient of
100 m/day [41]. In permeable asphalt concrete, there is a good cor-
relation between permeability and porosity, especially with inter-
connected pores [22]. In addition, there is a mathematical
relationship between porosity and the composition of concrete.
For example, for permeable asphalt concrete with a nominal max-
imum aggregate size (NMAS) of 13 mm, the relationship between
permeability coefficients and concrete composition can be estab-
lished via the constant head permeability test [22], by setting dif-
ferent sieve pore passing rates (4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, and 0.075 mm)
and limiting the content of aggregates sized 1.18 mm to 2.36 mm,
as shown in the following equation.

k ¼ 0:0089e0:1942ð33:8780:095P4:75 0:545P2:36 0:090P1:18 2:36 0:549P0:075 Þ ð1Þ Fig. 4. Acoustic absorption coefficients for different PAC mixtures.

where k is the permeability coefficient (cm/s). P4.75, P2.36 and P0.075

are the 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm and 0.075 mm sieve pore passing rates concurrent suction to rush out the clogging from the pore [43]. This
(%), respectively. P1.182.36 is the mass percentage (%) of aggregates specialized maintenance causes an increase in costs. As a result,
with particle size between 1.18 mm and 2.36 mm. studies on raw materials, especially on asphalt binder’s properties
and maintenance techniques, are of great importance for the
improvement of road performance, durability, and reduction of
2.3. Engineering applications and challenges
the life-cycle cost of permeable asphalt concrete.

Permeable asphalt concrete has been widely used in European

countries in recent years, including the Netherlands, Germany, 3. Noise-reducing pavement material
Denmark, Switzerland and Austria [37]. Over 90% of major high-
ways in the Netherlands are paved with permeable asphalt con- 3.1. Functional requirements for reducing pavement noise
crete [26]. The material is known as open-graded friction course
(OGFC) and used in various states of the United States, such as Tex- The growing number of vehicles has led to a serious problem of
as, Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, North Carolina, New Mexico, Ari- traffic noise to urban residents and roadway ecology. Traffic noise
zona, Tennessee, Louisiana, California and Florida [21,24,27]. is mainly generated by the interaction between tires and road sur-
Permeable asphalt concrete has also been widely used in road con- face [44–46]. The factors affecting tyre/road noise mainly include:
struction in Asian countries including China, Japan, South Korea pavement characteristics (aggregates properties, texture depth, air
and Singapore. In particular, Japan has requirement for the use of voids content, etc.), tire characteristics (tread pattern and depth,
permeable asphalt concrete in all expressways to improve road tire type and pressure, etc.), environmental factors (temperature,
safety since the release of ‘‘Guide for porous asphalt pavement” pavement moisture, dust, etc.) and human factors of the drivers
in November 1996 [42]. Moreover, permeable asphalt concrete is (e.g. speed) [47–51]. Research findings have suggested that the
used in pavement surface in many Chinese provinces, especially noise produced by tire/road surface contact is the predominant
in coastal (eastern) and southern regions, to improve skid resis- source of noise when the vehicle speed exceeds 40 km/h to
tance and reduce surface water spray in wet conditions [32]. 50 km/h [52]. Soundproof structures, such as sound barriers, can
In the long-term use, with the repeated wheel load and the prevent noise from horizontal propagation, but are found less cap-
aging of asphalt binder, the accumulation of particles and contam- able of restricting the reflection of noise; also, they take up limited
inants on the pavement surface cause the pore clogging and other urban space and affect pavement lighting [53]. As a result, reducing
main problems of permeable asphalt concrete such as raveling and tire/road noise by using adequate pavement materials has become
spalling, which shortens the PAC’s service life compared with an important means to reducing traffic noise.
dense-graded asphalt pavement [26]. To tackle the problem of pore
clogging, some research institutions have developed a special 3.2. Porous noise-reducing asphalt concrete
maintenance truck for permeable asphalt pavement to maintain
the permeability function of the pavement. The main principle of The use of porous asphalt concrete (PAC) can reduce pavement
such maintenance truck is to use high pressure water jet with noise thanks to the principle of noise reduction by pores. Porous

a) PAC-13c1 b) PAC-13c2 c) PAC-13c3 d) PAC-10

Fig. 3. Typical cross sections of PAC.
1086 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092

pavement materials contain a large number of pores that are con- 3.3. Engineering applications and challenges
nected. Therefore, the ‘‘air pumping action” between a tire and the
pavement is significantly weakened [54]. A porous structure also In Asia and the United States, porous asphalt pavements are
enhances the acoustic impedance of pavement materials, leading designed for effective skid resistance and drainage; whereas in
to the transmission and interference of tire/pavement noise within Europe noise reduction is the priority where porous asphalt pave-
the pavement, which helps with energy dissipation, reduction of ment materials are used [61]. According to the European design
noise generated at the source, and pavement noise impedance [55]. experience, two-layer of PAC, which consists of a 25 mm-thick
Similar to the water infiltration, pavement noise reduction can upper layer with coarse aggregates sized between 4 mm and
be achieved by using PAC. However, there is a difference in the 8 mm, and a 45 mm-thick lower layer with coarse aggregates sized
pore structure design between low noise asphalt concrete and per- between 11 mm and 16 mm, is found to have a better noise reduc-
meable asphalt concrete. As mentioned above, the permeability of tion effect [26]. The noise reduction measured by statistical pass-
asphalt concrete depends mainly on interconnected porosity; by method can be 5 dB to 6 dB [62]. Similar to permeable asphalt
whereas for low noise asphalt concrete, the noise reducing ability concrete, raveling, spalling and loss of noise reduction effect over
of concrete is affected by various parameters other than porosity, time remain the major issues for porous noise-reducing asphalt
such as the number, spatial distribution and dimension of the concrete [55].
pores [56,57].
Fig. 3 shows four typical cross-sections of PAC obtained by
X-ray equipment, where the black color represents air voids. While 4. Low heat-absorbing pavement material
the air voids contents of the four mixtures, are similar (20% ± 0.3%),
the number and dimension of pores in cross-section are signifi- 4.1. Functional requirements for low heat absorption by pavement
cantly different. Fig. 4 shows the acoustic absorption curve of the
four mixtures obtained by an impedance tube [58] at different Currently, large cities in the world suffer from the urban heat
frequencies. Among them, PAC-10 exhibits the best noise reduction island effect (i.e. the temperatures in downtown areas are signifi-
effect across all frequencies, followed by PAC-13c2, PAC-13c3, and cantly higher than in the suburbs) and the problem is becoming
PAC-13c1. It can be concluded that the effect of noise reduction is increasingly serious [63,64]. Heat island brings adverse effects on
not the same for the PAC with similar air voids content, because the urban environment in various aspects, such as an increase of
the spatial distribution, number and dimension of pores inside energy demand for cooling, which leads to more air pollutants
the mixtures are different, which changes the acoustic impedance and greenhouse gas emissions, lowered groundwater quality, and
of the material [22,55]. An analysis of the influence of air voids endangerment of urban biodiversity and human health [65,66].
content on the noise absorbing performance of the PAC shows that Urban heat island is a combined effect of human activities and
the peak value of the absorption coefficient increases as the air local meteorological conditions during urbanization. The causes of
voids content increases. With a constant air voids content, the peak urban heat island effect include the characteristics of urban ground
absorption coefficient decreases as the dimension of pores surface, greenhouse gas emissions, concentration of heat sources,
increases [55]. and air pollution. Roads are a major cause of urban heat island
As demonstrated in previous study [22], the noise reduction can effect [67,68]. Pavement surface in the city, especially asphalt
be effectively improved by adopting fine gradations of the aggre- pavement, has changed the original thermal properties of the nat-
gates and reducing the NMAS, given the same air voids content ural ground surface. The temperature of asphalt pavement surface
of the PAC mixes. Therefore, when noise reduction is the primary rises rapidly under solar radiation to 65–70 °C, a temperature that
concern in pavement design, PAC with smaller NMAS, such as is significantly higher than that of natural ground surface [69,70].
PAC-10 or even PAC-8, can be used. In addition, the air voids con- Furthermore, the pavement surface absorbs and stores heat during
tent of PAC is generally designed to be large, often about 23%, to the day and releases it at night, which aggravates the urban heat
form a void structure that is suitable for dissipating acoustic island effect [69]. Thus, changing the thermal properties of pave-
energy. ment materials is a crucial measure of alleviating the urban heat
The noise reduction effect is also related to vehicle speed. The island effect. For example, using pavement materials with a large
higher the speed, the greater reduction in noise can be achieved thermal resistance coefficient, applying light-colored or heat-
[55,59]. In general, the noise levels of porous asphalt pavements reflective coating materials on road surfaces, as well as using pave-
measured by statistical pass-by method are about 3 dB to 6 dB ment materials with good capacity of absorbing and retaining
lower than that of dense asphalt pavement [60].

Fig. 5. Water-retentive asphalt concrete specimens, surface (left) and cut section Fig. 6. Outdoor temperature test results of porous asphalt concrete and water-
(right). retentive asphalt concrete.
 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092 1087

water are common measures [71]. By reducing the capacity of heat asphalt concrete, in its full capacity, can reduce the temperature
storage, the amount of heat released from the road can be reduced, by 10 °C to 15 °C or more compared with traditional asphalt con-
and the comfort of pedestrians and residents nearby can be crete. Furthermore, water-retentive asphalt concrete can reduce
improved. Besides, this will also help to reduce permanent defor- the pavement surface temperature by 8 °C in the day and 3 °C at
mation of asphalt pavement caused by high temperatures and night. In addition, a layer of 10 cm water-retentive asphalt con-
thus, prolong pavement service life [72,73]. crete can maintain the pavement’s cooling ability for about one
week after absorbing rainwater [78,79].

4.2. Water-retentive asphalt concrete

4.3. Engineering applications and challenges
Water-retentive asphalt concrete is derived from porous
Currently, the uses of water-retentive asphalt concrete are lim-
asphalt concrete in which the pores are stuffed with water-
ited to laboratory tests and filed trials. Reports on use in large-scale
retentive slurry (Fig. 5). The slurry absorbs and stores water after
projects are rare, which is partly attributed to the complicated con-
curing and hardening, enabling the pavement materials to store
struction process. The cooling effect of water-retentive asphalt
excessive water from rainfall or artificial watering. At high temper-
concrete on the surrounding environment is achieved by evapora-
ature, the continuous moisture evaporation will help reduce the
tion of the retained water. As a result, water-retentive asphalt con-
pavement temperature, relieve local heat island effect, and main-
crete has potential for applications in regions with periodic rainfall
tain a comfortable road environment for pedestrians and vehicles
and seasonal high temperatures. Further research and develop-
[74].
ment for water-retentive materials should focus on the perfor-
Water-retentive slurry is prepared by using ground granulated
mance in water absorption, water retention, strength and
blast furnace slag powder, fly ash, alkali activator (which usually
stability; also worth further work are the methods for high-
is hydrated lime) and water. Some additives, such as silica fume,
efficiency construction, and durability of water-retentive asphalt
cement and water reducer, can also be added to improve the
concrete during freezing and thawing in cold regions.
asphalt concrete’s freezing resistance, strength, and workability
[68]. Apart from the inorganic materials that are used for slurry
preparation, a certain amount of water-absorbent resin can also 5. Exhaust gas-decomposing pavement material
be added to absorb water continuously, and enhance the material’s
water retention capacity. However, the difficulty in dispersing the 5.1. Demands for exhaust gas decomposition on pavement surface
water-absorbent resin during blending needs to be addressed in
practice. Exhaust gases from automobile contain a large volume of Car-
To ensure that the slurry materials can be injected and retained bon Monoxide (CO), Hydrocarbon (HC) and Nitrogen oxides
in the pores of porous asphalt concrete, the water-retentive slurry (NOx), and are an important source of urban air pollution [80].
should have excellent liquidity: a liquidity index of 8 s to 12 s is The pavement surface is the initial contact with the exhaust gas
required using the method of flow grout for pre-placed aggregate after tailpipe emission, which suggests that should the decomposi-
concrete (ASTM C 939-02) [75]. Asphalt concrete with water- tion and purification take place on pavement surface, it can be an
retentive slurry stuffed in the pores is considered superior to por- effective way of reducing urban air pollution.
ous asphalt concrete in strength, high and low-temperature perfor-
mance, and moisture susceptibility [74]. 5.2. Exhaust gas-decomposing pavement material
Fig. 6 shows the temperature variation of water-retentive
asphalt concrete and porous asphalt concrete slabs surface by out- Exhaust gas-decomposition by pavement materials can be
door test. The slab specimens were immersed in the water outdoor achieved by using photocatalysis technologies [81]. A photocata-
for 8 h to obtain the same initial temperature (27.9 °C). It can be lyst is applied to the pavement surface to catalyze the oxidation
seen that the variation curves of the two mixtures were following (in the presence of sunlight) of CO, HC, and NOx into carbonates
the air temperature with a time delay. However, compared to por- and nitrates, which will be absorbed by the pavement surface
ous asphalt concrete, water-retentive asphalt concrete had a much and then washed away by rainwater or artificial watering
smaller temperature rise along with the air temperature variation. (Fig. 7). The photocatalytic materials remain unchanged during this
The maximum temperature difference between the two mixes was process. Materials that can be used as photocatalysts include Tita-
13 °C at around 14:00. nium Oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) and
The cooling effect of water-retentive asphalt concrete is closely cadmium sulfide (CdS), among which TiO2 has attracted most
related to pavement surface evaporation, water content, and sur- attention due to its excellent photocatalytic activity, chemical sta-
face reflectivity [76,77]. At high temperatures, water-retentive bility, and recyclability [82–85]. Over the past few years, studies on

Fig. 7. Schematic of exhaust gas-decomposing pavement material.

1088 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092

exhaust gas decomposition using TiO2 have focused on improving 6. De-icing pavement material
the catalytic efficiency, especially under visible light. Variations of
TiO2 in some studies include the nanometer TiO2 [86], modified 6.1. Demands for de-icing pavement surface
TiO2 by adding metal ions to prepare materials such as Fe-TiO2
[87], and modified TiO2 by adding non-metal ions to prepare Snowy weather can lead to reduction in vehicle speed, which
materials with high catalytic efficiency, such as TiO2-xNx which affects journey time and results in an increase of fuel consumption
has lattice oxygen in TiO2 partially replaced by non-metal nitrogen and emissions. Snow and ice on the pavement surface also result in
[88]. All those materials have been found to enhance the photocat- a low friction coefficient and thus, a higher likelihood of traffic
alytic activity and exhaust gas-decomposing efficiency of TiO2 [89]. accidents [96]. Snow and ice can be removed by hand sweeping,
There are two ways of using TiO2 in exhaust gas-decomposing mechanical sweeping or applying a melting agent [97]. However,
pavement materials [84,90]: (1) TiO2 is used in the preparation these methods present the following disadvantages: hand sweep-
of water-based coating, which is directly coated on the surface of ing has a low operation speed and causes delays; mechanical
asphalt concrete; (2) TiO2 is used as a filler and added to asphalt sweeping is costly, and some machines may damage the pavement
concrete during the blending process. TiO2 is likely to be wrapped surface during operation; snow/ice-melting agents lead to pollu-
by the asphalt binder, therefore the distribution of TiO2 particles is tion (of water, soil, and air) and erosion of pavement materials,
limited when added to the mixture during the blending; thus, vehicles, and ancillary facilities [98]. In the event of extremely
direct coating of TiO2 has a higher photocatalytic efficiency com- low temperature or excessive snowfall, snow/ice-melting agents
pared with the blending method. may not be effective in a timely manner [99]. The aforementioned
The efficiency of TiO2 can be affected by environmental condi- approaches are known as passive de-icing techniques as they are
tions, such as temperature, humidity, illumination intensity, and applied externally in response to adverse climate incidents.
presence of contaminants on the pavement surface such as dust
and oil [91,92]. Exhaust gas-decomposing materials prepared by
different researchers also vary from one to another due to the 6.2. Active de-icing pavement materials
use of different photocatalysts materials, experiment conditions,
and evaluation methods. By testing the photocatalytic efficiency Researchers have conducted studies on the active de-icing
of nanometer TiO2 coated onto the surface of asphalt concrete, pavement. The de-icing pavement materials are roughly divided
Hassan et al. found that the degradation rate of NOx in the air into three types, namely the anti-freezing pavement materials,
could reach 31% to 55% [84]. A report by Venturini and Bacchi energy-converting pavement materials, and salt de-icing pavement
found that the decomposition efficiency of different types of materials.
TiO2 ranged from 20.4% to 57.4%, and that anatase TiO2 showed Anti-freezing pavement materials include elastic pavement
the best degradation effect [83]. Field tests on road sections materials and rough pavement materials. The elastic is made by
conducted by Folli Andrea et al. indicated that with ideal climate adding a certain amount of highly elastic materials to the pave-
and light conditions, the daily average density of NO within a ment surface to change the contact between the pavement and
road area can be reduced by 22% compared with the normal pave- tire, and the deformation characteristics of the pavement surface.
ment [80]. By this method, ice and snow can be broken by the stress on the
pavement surface generated from traffic load, thus effectively pre-
venting the accumulation of snow and ice [100,101]. The most
5.3. Engineering applications and challenges commonly used elastic materials are rubber particles that can be
obtained from recycled tires [102].
Tests on road sections paved with exhaust gas-decomposing Open-graded asphalt concrete, such as porous asphalt concrete,
material are seen in various regions, including Milan (Italy), Copen- is often used to enhance the pavement’s texture depth and rough-
hagen (Denmark), and Nanjing (China) [80,83,93]. However, ness [103]. When the pavement is covered with ice, non-uniform
exhaust gas-decomposing pavement materials have been used stress on the snow/ice layer makes it difficult to form ice under
mainly in laboratory studies and there is a lack of applications in the traffic load. With this method, broken ice will be removed by
large projects for the following reasons: 1) Exhaust gas- horizontal force of the vehicles, a larger texture depth is also ben-
decomposition efficiency is less satisfactory on actual pavement efitial to the skid resistance of the pavement surface.
surface owing to the low light intensity, environmental tempera- Examples of energy-converting de-icing methods include the
ture, humidity, and wind. 2) TiO2-coating on the pavement surface heating cable, solar heating, terrestrial heat tube, heating wire,
is found less durable due to abrasion by tires [80,83,92]. 3) Exhaust and infrared lamp heating. Energy storage and conversion devices,
gas-decomposing coating is usually applied at the cost of a such as pipes and cables, are laid within the pavement which
decreased pavement texture depth, which reduces its skid resis- enable the increase of temperature by the heat generated from
tance. As a result, further studies on exhaust gas-decomposing electricity, solar panels, thermal energy or natural gas, for melting
pavement materials should focus on improving the durability of or preventing ice [104–106].
the purification effect, and balance with skid resistance of the Apart from the two active de-icing technologies, salt de-icing
pavement surface. Furthermore, the development of standard test methods, such as adding rock salts (NaCl or CaCl2) to the asphalt
methods, and equipment for construction and maintenance are concrete are used to reduce the freezing point and prevent icing
also necessary. formed on the pavement surface [107,108].
It is worth noting that although titanium dioxide is odorless,
and considered to be non-toxic, non-irritating, chemically and
mechanically stable [94], it still poses potential health hazards. 6.3. Engineering applications and challenges
According to the preliminary collated list of carcinogens released
by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IAC) of the Elastic pavement materials have not yet shown promising
World Health Organization, titanium dioxide is listed as a category results in durability, evenness, and de-icing efficiency; therefore,
2B carcinogen [95]. Potential pollution of road surface runoff it is currently used only in laboratory and road trial tests. As the
water, including threshold value, concentration measurement de-icing effect is influenced by various factors, including environ-
and pathway modelling, should be considered in future research. ment temperature and traffic flow, the elastic pavement material
 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092 1089

a) Piezoelectric pavement b) Photovoltaic power-generating c) Thermoelectricity pavement

pavement

Fig. 8. Schematic of energy harvesting pavements.

performs less effectively in breaking ice when the temperature is ded in pavement structure [124]. Fig. 8 presents the schematic of
lower than minus 12 °C and the ice thickness exceeds 9 mm [109]. the three types of energy harvesting pavements.
Energy-converting pavement materials have undergone long- A good number of laboratory tests and simulation studies have
term research and tests in various countries, such as the United been carried out on the piezoelectric pavement technology. For
States, Japan, China and Europe including Switzerland, Iceland, example, Bowen and Near have patented a piezoelectric actuator
Norway and Poland. Example road projects include the Goleniow for road pavements [132], which was developed recently [133].
airport in Poland [110], the A8 Express road in Switzerland The system developed by Abramovich et al. was tested in a real
[111,112], the Gardermoen parking apron in Norway [113], and road environment by Innowattech using a product called Innowat-
the Gaia system for highway and ramp in Japan [114,115]. tech Piezo Electric Generator (IPEG) [134,135].
Energy-converting de-icing pavement is known for its cleanliness, For the photovoltaic power-generating pavement technology,
being environmentally friendly, and high de-icing efficiency TNO in the Netherlands has paved a solar energy powered bicycle
[116,117]; however, construction of this type of pavement is very lane using a 10 mm–thick glass as the top layer of the pavement,
difficult, it requires great initial investment and on-going mainte- underneath which crystalline silicon solar panels are laid [136].
nance during use [118-121]. As a result, this method is more appli- Julie and Scott Brusaw proposed a solar collector system to replace
cable to road sections for airports, bridges, bends and large- the upper layer of the road pavement, called Solar Roadway, which
gradient longitudinal slopes. consisted of a series of structurally engineered solar panels [137].
Salt de-icing pavement materials have been applied and tested The principle of the thermoelectric pavement technology is that
on road sections in Switzerland, Germany, Japan, China and the the temperature difference between the two ends of the thermo-
United States [107,108]. With a small amount of salt added, the electric module is used to generate a voltage. The greater the tem-
long-term de-icing effect on the pavement remains doubtful as perature difference, the higher voltage is generated. However,
the salt is released gradually. In addition, the effect of salts on making full use of the temperature gradient within the pavement
pavement materials and the surrounding environment, such as structure or between the pavement and the surroundings remains
corrosion, needs further investigation. a key challenge for this technology. Wu et al. improved the power
generating efficiency by connecting high thermal conducting
materials to the subgrade and taking advantage of the temperature
7. Energy harvesting pavement material difference between subgrade and pavement [138,139]. Hasebe
et al. managed to improve the thermoelectric efficiency of pave-
7.1. Demands for energy harvesting from pavement surface ment by embedding water pipes in the pavement to collect heat,
i.e. cool water from a river nearby was introduced to increase the
A large amount of thermal energy and mechanical energy is temperature difference of the thermoelectric module [140].
generated within the pavement when the road serves the traffic.
For example, dark (i.e. asphalt) pavement absorbs solar radiation
7.3. Engineering applications and challenges
and the thermal energy accumulates within the pavement; fur-
thermore, mechanical energy is generated from the dynamic load
The above pavement energy-harvesting technologies are mostly
on the pavement when the vehicle tire passes [122–124]. In recent
at a stage of laboratory testing or field trial, because the many tech-
years, energy harvesting from road pavement has become a
nical difficulties remain unsolved for practical use. The main barri-
research focus in the context of global energy shortage, environ-
ers to using piezoelectric pavement include the inadequate
mental pollution, and climate change [125–127].
durability of piezoelectric materials due to repeated load on the
pavement, low compatibility with traditional pavement materials,
7.2. Energy harvesting pavement materials and the necessity of a second energy conversion because of the
electric power that generate instant high voltage and low current
Studies on the use of kinetic energy focus on the following cannot be used directly [129,141,142]. The challenges for photo-
aspects: 1) Piezoelectric pavement technology (Fig. 8a), i.e. embed- voltaic pavement include: 1) Development of new solar panels is
ding piezoelectric materials in the pavement and converting part of needed to replace traditional pavement materials. 2) The durability
the mechanical energy generated by the vehicle load into electric and stability of a photovoltaic panel must be adequate to resist the
energy [128,129]. 2) Photovoltaic (PV) power-generating pave- effect of external factors, such as vehicle load, rainwater, snow and
ment (Fig. 8b), i.e. paving the road using solar panels instead of tra- ice. 3) The decreasing efficiency of solar panels after abrasion by
ditional asphalt concrete or cement concrete to convert solar vehicles and accumulation of dust should be addressed, along with
energy absorbed by the PV panels into electric energy [130,131]. riding comfort, skid resistance, and reparability [122]. Currently,
3) Thermoelectric pavement technology (Fig. 8c), i.e. converting the use of temperature gradient-based thermoelectric pavement
the heat absorbed by the pavement, especially asphalt pavement, technology is limited by its low power-generating efficiency
into electric energy using the thermoelectric module (TEG) embed- [124,143,144].
1090 W. Jiang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 191 (2018) 1082–1092

8. Summary and conclusions science and sensor technology, findings from research on
existing civil engineering materials will further extend and
(1) With the growing traffic and demand for sustainability, the enrich other environment-friendly functions of road
road that serves as a critical transport infrastructure is also pavement.
changing its intrinsic functions, i.e. from structures that (7) Apart from pavement design and construction technologies,
were designed and built for passing vehicles to ecological maintenance and recycling techniques for existing asphalt
assets with significant economic importance to the built concrete are also growing increasingly robust, which is an
environment. In addition to basic load bearing functions important supplement to studies of material composition
and durability, people now have more expectations of the and structural design.
road, such as noise reduction, alleviation of urban heat
island effect, de-icing, and exhaust gas absorption, to pro- Conflict of interest
vide road users and the public with a better transport envi-
ronment and travel experience. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
(2) The above-mentioned pavement functions can be obtained
in multiple ways. This paper only exemplified a few engi-
neering measures. For instance, in addition to the porous Acknowledgements
asphalt concrete, rubber asphalt (containing elastic rubber
particles) pavement is also found to have a positive effect This project was jointly supported by the National Natural
on noise reduction. Apart from water-retentive asphalt con- Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51608043), the Natural
crete, light-colored pavement is also effective in reducing Science Basic Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China (Grant
the pavement temperature and thus alleviating the urban No. 2015KJXX-23), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
heat island effect, by means of sunlight reflection. Universities (Grant No. 310821172001), and the Construction
(3) Abundant pore structures make porous asphalt concrete Science and Technology Plan in Shaanxi Province of China (Grant
effective in water permeation and noise reduction. Porous No. 2015-K99).
asphalt is also in favor of additional functions, such as low
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