dolIntroduction to Linguistics

Lecture 1. Language and Linguistics

september 25 midterm exam + october 26 ….exam
Part |
● what is a natural human language
● is language rule-governed
Part ||
● what is linguistics about
Part |||
● the language user

David Adger’s Abralin Lecture (watch video)

P|

-The Theory of Mind

Trying to imply the meaning of what someone says without an actual explanation

Language can be quite inefficient due to it being too complex. It can bring confusion
trying to say something, using different words than your conversation partner would
use.

- watch Kanzi + Koko videos

Frans de waal books-> interesting

languages change continuously

reflectives in linguistics
ditransitive
intransitive: no internal argument, only external argument
transitive: external argument and internal argument

P ||
Introduction to Linguistics
The parser: the human language parser is sensitive to hierarchy and not linear
order, where a string of commands is separated into more easily processed
components, which are analyzed for correct syntax and then attached to tags that
define each component.
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 Language and the language faculty
- Kinds of grammars
prescriptive = saying what is right / wrong, how to use the language
synchronic
dichroic ..?
- Phonetics vs phonology
phonetics = physical pronunciation
phonology = how the mind interprets
Universals =
Compositionality =
Recursion = the ability to create new entities from existing ones of the same type ->
Sheila assumes [that Fatou knows [that Ahmed thinks [that he is the wonderful
[orator [who managed to convince the teacher [to drop [the exam [that was planned
for the following week but... ]]]]]]]]
Creativity =
Onomatopoeia =
Constructed languages =
Computer languages =
Modalities =
Spoken languages =
Sign languages =
Descriptive grammar =
Prescriptive grammars =
Diachronic grammar =
Synchronic grammar =
Pedagogical grammars =
Syntax = sentence structure
Semantics = utterance meaning
Pragmatics = language use/language in context
Phonetics and phonology = sounds
Morphology = word structure
code switching/code mixing!!
Syntactic strategies: hearers anticipate on frequent structural patterns.
Semantic strategies: hearers anticipate on the most likely meaning.

Chapter 2
Chapter 2 The language user
- bottom up and top down processing
 What are the stages?
- Cohort model
- Garden path sentences
- Linguistic competence = being able to form grammatically correct sentences
- Scanning techniques
- EEG and fMRI - what is the difference? - EEG = brain waves, fMRI = shows
active parts of brain

1. Linguistic competence = The knowledge of the language system (mental

lexicon) (competene vs. perormance)
2. Communicative competence = The knowledge of how to use language in
different situations
3. knowledge of the world = Being able to understand a sentence made up from
words within a specific area of interest. “The right back tricked the player he was
marking into running offside.” You will only understand this sentence with knowledge
of the world (of soccer).
Cognitive system = The knowledge of how to use your language in different
situations. ‘Give me stamps’ -> comes off as rude or ill-mannered, English is
probably not the speaker’s mother tongue.
Mental lexicon = Knowledge of words, your reach in vocabulary, not ordered
alphabetically but related through meaning or sound
Activated = When using the mental lexicon, we say the knowledge is being
activated
Activation spreading/ Spreading activation = When language users hear a word,
that word form plus its meaning is activated. This activation will fan out to
surrounding word forms that are closely connected. This is known as activation
spreading or spreading activation
The cohort model = an explanation for how people translate verbal language that
they hear into their cognitive map of language. -> fatster recognition
Priming effect = The priming effect is when one stimulus (the prime) influences
how we respond to a related stimulus, affecting things like processing speed or
interpretation. It's used to study how prior information shapes language
comprehension and production (see page 34)
Performance =
Aphasia = Language disorders that are caused by damage to the brain
● Broca’s area = syntax affected esp. speaking is difficult, comprehension not affected,
few grammatical words ‘telegram speech’
● Damage in Wernicke’s area = phonology and semantics affected, esp.
comprehension difficult, speech fluent but hard to comprehend ‘meaningless jargon’
● Damage in supramarginal gyrus = word retrieval difficulties (anomia)
Continuous =
co-articulation = pronunciation of sounds influenced by surrounding sounds
He always tries so hard to get it right.
Idunnowatsaytim(I don’t know what to say to him)
-> context facilitates interpretation
Variable =
Cohort model = cohort model is a theoretical framework used to describe how
humans recognize spoken words by processing phonemes or sounds in a sequential
manner, from the beginning of a word, and narrowing down the possibilities as more
information is heard
context =
Priming =
Syntactic =
semantic strategies =
Bottom-up processing = bottom-up processing means starting with basic sensory
information and building up to understanding, in contrast to top-down processing
that relies on prior knowledge and expectations
top-down processing = top-down processing involves using prior knowledge and
expectations to guide the interpretation of sensory input or information, influencing
how we understand and perceive it
Conceptualising =
Preverbal message =
grammatical encoding =
Phonological encoding =
phonetic plan =
Articulation =
Slips of tongue = unintentional errors in speech where a person says something
different from what they intended to say.
Slips of the hand = a phrase that refers to unintentional errors or mistakes made
when performing manual tasks or actions with one's hands. These errors are
typically the result of a momentary lapse in concentration, distraction, or other factors
and can lead to actions that were not intended.
parallel =
Incremental =
!!garden path sentence = A "garden path sentence" is a linguistic term used to
describe a sentence that initially appears to be grammatically correct but then leads
the reader or listener down an unexpected or confusing syntactic path, causing them
to reparse or reinterpret the sentence. Garden path sentences are used in
psycholinguistics to study sentence processing and the way our brains comprehend
language.
These sentences are called "garden path" sentences because they lead the reader or
listener down a metaphorical "garden path" of initial interpretation, only to encounter
difficulty or confusion as the sentence structure unfolds.

Chapter 3
Chapter 3 language acquisition
stages of first language acquisition
 1. pre linguistic stage (babbling/babbling sign language)
2. one-two word stage (telegraphic speech)
3. differentiation stage
4. completion stage (around the age of 5)
Errors
1. overgeneralization (using a grammatical rule too much)
2. overextension (all birds are chicken, every woman is mama)
3. omissions (leaving words out)
4. substitutions

Types of bilingualism
- sequential vs. simultaneous
What can influence language acquisition
- input, syndromes, hearing loss, motoric problems (no control of vocal cords)
What factors play a role in second language acquisition?
- motivation (difficult to test), first language, contact (with the language, do you
live in the country or do you learn from abroad), attitude (towards learning the
language, have or want to learn), aptitude (how good you are at learning
language), teaching (education)

Innate language faculty =

Imitation =
Linguistic environment =
Language input =
Interaction =
pre-linguistic state =
one-word and two-word stage =
Differentiation stage =
Completion phase =
Babbling =
Omission =
Substitution =
Overextensions =
Overgeneralization =
Developmental errors =
Speech and language development disorders =
Second language =
Foreign language =
Second language acquisition =
Target language =
First language =
Age =
Contact =
Motivation =
Attitude =
Aptitude =
Critical period =
Transitional period =
Interlanguage (stages) =
Fossilisation =
Order of acquisition =
Transfer =
Positive / negative =
Bilingual situation =
Simultaneously bilingual =
Sequentially bilingual =

Chapter 4
Chapter 4 Discourse
- Grices maxims
1. quality
2. relevance
3. quantity
4. manner (way of speaking, in a pragmatic sense not matching)

Text/Discourse = when there is a link between utterances they form a text or

discourse
Conversational implicature = When having to extract the meaning of one’s
response from context and implication.
- would you like to go out with me -> my bookshelves just collapsed
Cooperation principle = Taking turns in a conversation as listener and speaker,
contributing to the same topic (geen gesprek waarin 2 mensen door elkaar heen
praten en beide hun eigen verhaal vertellen zonder te luisteren naar en reageren op
de ander)
Maxims:
- Maxim of relevance = This maxim suggests that in a conversation, people
should provide information that is directly related to the topic at hand.
Irrelevant or off-topic information can hinder effective communication.
- Maxim of Quality = This maxim emphasizes the importance of truthfulness
in communication. Speakers are expected to provide information that they
believe to be true and have evidence for. It discourages knowingly making
false statements or stating things for which there is no evidence.
- Maxim of Quantity = This maxim encourages speakers to provide just the
right amount of information—neither too much nor too little. It implies that
people should give enough information to convey their message clearly
without overloading the listener with unnecessary details.
Taking turns = When to talk when having a conversation
Adjacency pairs = Two utterances, produced by different speakers, in a fixed order
(hello-goodbye), (question-answer)
Openers = When opening a conversation
Closers = When closing a conversation
Coherence = The consisting utterances should be related to both the verbal and the
non-verbal context in which they appear in a text or sentence
Cohesion = When coherence is achieved with linguistic items. (ellepsis, repetition,
paraphrase etc.) Cohesion is a narrower notion then coherence, since coherence
also includes non-linguistic items.
Anaphoric reference = When a pronoun refers back to another linguistic element
Ellipsis = Leaving out a word without the sentence becoming unclear; ‘I just love
roses but I only want red X in my garden, not blue X.
Repetition = Repeating the same word multiple times in one or more sentences
instead of using anaphoric references like “It’ or “He”
Paraphrase = Using different words to refer to someone or something mentioned
before. ‘I am visiting Paris this weekend. I am looking forward to exploring the city of
love.’
conjunctions: Conjunctions are words that join together other words or groups of
words. A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses of equal
importance. The main coordinating conjunctions are and, or, and but.
After he left, she went home

Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Speech acts
- information
status
focus and topic
focus = new
information
(usually at the
end of the
sentence)
topic = known
information (usually at the beginning of the sentence)
Cleft = when the focus doesn't come at the (look at example in book about
mickey mouse)
- locution and illocution
Locution = linguistic form
illocution = what you are meaning to say
- Performatives = if by saying it you are doing it ?
test for performative verbs -> ‘hereby’
- Direct vs Indirect speech
If you have a performative verb it is definitely a direct speech act
Speech acts = The use of sentences is a form of social action. They may use them
to make a promise, to question somebody, to make a bet, to greet or thank
somebody, etc.
The Two different aspects of utterances:
1. Locution = purely linguistic aspect; their sounds, words, structure, and the
meaning of the sentence as a whole. To a very large extent, these can be
described without regard to how an utterance is used in a particular situation
2. Illocution = functional/ communicative aspect; the speech act that
utterances can perform.
Direct speech acts = utterances that contain a performative verb in the present
tense, they have a first person subject and, if necessary, a second person
representing the addressee (‘I promise I will bring you the book tomorrow.’)
Performative verb = verbs like promise, which express the illocution of an
utterance, (inform, warn, ask, protest, advise, summon)
-Name the speech act
-Are always in the present tense
-Have a first person subject (speaker)
-Can be modified by hereby
Indirect speech act = utterances that do not contain a performative verb.
Felicity conditions = the specific conditions that must be met for a speech act
(such as making a request, giving an order, or asking a question) to be considered
appropriate, successful, or felicitous within a particular social or communicative
context.
Topic = the sentence element that presents known information (‘she’ -> refers to
‘your little sister’
(A: What’s the matter with your little sister?)
(B: She was bitten by a dog.) (a dog-> focus)
Focus = the main point of the utterance, new information; (‘next week’ answers the
question, that is the focus)
(A: When will we know what Anita’s going to do?)
(B: We’ll know next week.) (we-> topic)
Information structure = the connection between sentence structure and informative
value
Social meaning = the conditions governing the use of these forms are not so much
to do with the content of the utterances as with the circumstances under which they
are produced ???
Pragmatic appropriateness = when to address different people with the right
formality of speaking (to not be overly dramatic in kindness when asking a fellow
classmate for a pen, but to use that kindness when asking your professor for a pen)
Style = the social relation between language users and the social function of the
occasion where language is being used (the fourth maxim of the cooperation
principle)
Formal style differences + Informal style differences
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Constituents and word classes
- phrases
primary functions
‘the very tall sister is annoying’
- Content words and function words
Can a word be both content and function words -> Yes
- What are adpositions? prepositions and postpositions

Constituents = Are meaningful units that make up a sentence (either clauses or

phrases)
Clauses = Substances that make up a sentence
Phrases = The central element is a word (‘the answers’ -> kind of like a one-word
clause) (5 types; nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial and adpositional)
Referential function = Noun phrases have a Referential function
- Noun phrase = a phrase that is primarily used to refer
Predictive function = verb phrases have a predictive function
- Verb phrase = a verb that is primarily used to predicate
Attributive function = phrases which are primarily used to attribute properties or
features to something else
- Adjective phrase = when a phrase with attributive function is primarily used
to specify a property of a noun (old, red, big)
- Adverbial phrase = when a phrase with attributive function is primarily
used to specify properties of something that is not a noun (attentively, lovely)
Relational function =
noun phrases =
Heads = the obligatory nucleus (Tough Luck -> tough = head, luck = modifier)
modifiers = the optional additions (a golden heart -> heart = head, golden =
modifier, a = determiner)
Content Words = all words in a sentence except for articles (lidwoorden)
(verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs)
Word classes =
Adpositional phrase = is a linguistic structure composed of an adposition (such as
a preposition or postposition) and a noun phrase, which together convey spatial,
temporal, or other relational information within a sentence. The adposition indicates
the relationship between the noun phrase and other elements in the sentence.
Function words = words that have a structuring function in the clause
(conjunctions, auxiliaries, determiners, particles) (non lexical-content words)
Particles = are pure function words, those that have no corresponding content
Word class, have an invariable form and cannot be modified
(Prepositions = prepositions are words that typically come before a noun or
pronoun and show its relationship to other words in a sentence. They often indicate
location, direction, time, or manner.
 ● Examples of prepositions include "in," "on," "under," "over," "with," "between," and
"through."
Postpositions = Postpositions are similar to prepositions, but they come after the
noun or pronoun they relate to. They serve the same purpose as prepositions,
indicating relationships between elements in a sentence.
● Postpositions are more commonly found in some languages, such as
Japanese and Turkish, where they appear after the noun they modify. For
example, in Japanese, "魚の中で" (sakana no naka de) means "in the fish" and
"で" (de) is a postposition indicating location.
Particles = Particles are a broader category of linguistic elements that include both
prepositions and postpositions, as well as other small words or affixes that serve to
indicate grammatical relationships between words in a sentence.
● In some languages, particles can be prepositions or postpositions, depending
on their position relative to the noun or pronoun they modify. For example, in
English, "in" is a preposition, while in Japanese, "で" (de) can function as a
postposition or particle, depending on its position in the sentence.)
–NP–Noun Phrase, but also DP (i.e., Determiner Phrase)
–VP- Verb Phrase
–AdjP – Adjective/Adjectival Phrase
–AdvP – Adverb/Adverbial Phrase
– AdpP – Adposition / Adpositional Phrase
–PP–Preposition/Prepositional Phrase

Constituent test:
The freshly painted house stood on the hill.
1. Replacement or substitution test
[It] [stood] [there.]
2.Movement test
[On the hill] [stood] [the freshly painted house.]
3.Question test:
Where did the freshly painted house stand?
[On the hill]
4.Clefting test
It is/was [on the hill] that the freshly painted house stood.
It is/was [the freshly painted house] which stood on the hill.
5. Deletion of modifiers
[The Ø painted house] stood on the hill.
[The Ø Ø house] stood on the hill.
6.Deletion / ellipsis of adjuncts
[The freshly painted house] [stood [on the hill] [the whole year]].
[The Ø Ø house] stood on the hill Ø.

-Replacement/substitution: if a string of words X can be replaced by a pronoun or a

pro-form (maintaining the interpretation of the original sentence), then X forms a
constituent.
-Movement: If a string of words X can move, then X forms a constituent.
-Question: If a string X can be questioned with a content question word, and/or serves
as answer to a content question, then X is a constituent.
-Clefting: If a string of words X can be focused by means of a cleft then X forms a
constituent.
-Deletion: If a string of words X can be deleted without rendering the sentence
ungrammatical, then X is a constituent.
-Endocentricity: Constituents represent phrases which are organized around a head.

Chapter 7
Chapter 7 Simple sentences
- When do grammatical role and thematic role do not align
I was bitten by my dog
- reflexive constructions (herself, himself..)
- Valency
Arguments and Adjuncts
argument = example
0 = rain
1 = sleep
2 = think
3 = put
4 = exchange

Category = phrases belong to a category

Functions = phrases serve a function in the clause
Predicate = predicates express a relation between the referents of other
constituents in the clause or it specifies a property of the referent of another
constituent (the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something
about the subject (e.g. went in John went home ))
Argument = phrases that are obligatory associated with a predicate
-> ‘break’ requires 2 arguments; the ‘breaker’ and the ‘breakee’
Adjunct = Constituents that are not required by a predicate (‘Yesterday Sylvie
walked along the beach.’)
Valency = the number of arguments that accompanies a predicate
One-place predicates = a predicate that requires just one argument
Two-place predicates = a predicate that requires two arguments
Three-place predicates = a predicate that requires three arguments
Four-place predicates = a predicate that requires four arguments
zero-place predicates = predicates that describe events which do not require the
presence of one or more participants (weather and time expressions)
Intransitive = zero place predicates
Transitive = one place predicates (respectively)
Ditransitive = two- and three-place predicates (respectively)
Semantic roles =
Grammatical roles = The constituent that determines the perspective of a sentence
has the grammatical role of subject
‘Colonel Mustard killed Miss Scarlet in the kitchen with a gun.’
Agent = the entity that takes the initiative for an event, the acting person; (Colonel
Mustard)
Patient = the entity undergoing the action (Miss Scarlet)
Location = the place where an event occurs or an entity is located (the kitchen)
Instrument = the entity used to carry out the action (a gun)
Recipient = the entity that receives something
Source = the entity something originates from
Subject = The constituent that determines the perspective of a sentence has the
grammatical role of subject (het onderwerp van de nederlandse zin)
Object = in de nederlandse gram: object is waar het ow/subject zich toe richt;
The fireman has rescued the horse. : The fireman=subject, the horse=object +
The horse has been rescued by the fireman. : The horse=subject, the
fireman=adjunct
Cases = special forms of noun phrases ??
Active = the agent is the subject
Passive = the patient is the subject
Valency reduction = the lowering of the number of arguments that is required by a
verb
Co-referential = when the agent and the patient refer to the same person or thing
(‘Das Kind wäscht sich.’ -> The child (agent) washes the child (patient))
Reflexive pronoun = ‘sich’ in ‘Das Kind wäscht sich.’ A word that is used instead of
repeating the noun phrase
Reflexive Constructions = A sentence where a reflexive pronoun is used (such as
‘Das Kind wäscht sich.’)
Pronominalisation = the process of replacing a noun or noun phrase with a pronoun
in order to avoid repetition and simplify sentence structure. Pronouns, such as "he,"
"she," "it," "they," and "them," are used to refer back to previously mentioned nouns or
noun phrases, making the language more concise and easier to understand.
Pro-drop = the phenomenon of leaving out the subject

what is the difference between pronominalisation and reflexive constructions

Chapter 8 complex sentences

What are complex sentences?
- Sentences with a clause as a constituent
- Match the function to the kind of clause
Complement clauses (arguments)
Adverbial clauses (adjuncts)
Relative clauses (modifiers)
Predicate clauses (predicates)
Mustafa went out [to do the shopping]
Went = predicate clause
Mustafa + out = Adverbial
to do the shopping = adverbial clause (it is adverbial = unnecessary, because it says
something about the predicate)

My neighbor [who has been retired for many years] has bought a house in Spain.
‘who has been retired for many years’ = relative clause (not adverbial because it
says something about the argument which is necessary, and it does not say
something about the predicate which would be unnecessary) “who” = relative clause

Constructions
finite vs. non-finite = form
finite: the predicate of the embedded clause is conjugated for person -> read[s] , I
hope that he reads my letter.
finite clause have conjugated verbs
I hate it [When charlotte always wants [to stay at home]]
when charlotte always wants = finite
to stay home = infinitive
Non finite ; 1. infinitive, 2. nominalisation, 3.
participal
1. infinitival constructions: if it has ‘to’ -> I want
[to stay home]
2. nominalisation: If the clause behaves like a
noun -> ‘+the’ (The bischops sudden killing
3. participal: with -ing , She is the person
buying food in the video.
nominalisation: -ing

Phenomenon
- equi-deletion, raising, sequencing
equi-deletion: argument in main clause
raising: argument in embedded clause, keep eye out for appears/seems -> usually
raising
sequencing:
Embedded clause = a clause occurs inside another clause in which it takes on all functions
commonly assigned to constituents or phrases.
Main clause = A clause that is not embedded
Complement clauses (arguments) =
Adverbial clauses (adjuncts) = (not necessary information in the sentence)
Relative clauses (modifiers) =
Predicate clauses (predicates) =
Finite = I wish [that you had read this book]. -> finite embedded clauses (had = finite) the
embedded clause has an overt subject.
Non-finite = I wish [---to read this book] vs. I wish [I could read this book]. -> Non-finite
embedded clause, ((to) read = on-finite/infinitive)
Infinitival constructions =
Nominalizations =
Participle constructions =
Equi-deletion = deletion of an argument in the matrix/main clause that corresponds to (or
‘equals’) an argument in the subordinate clause
Raising and sequence of tenses =
raising -> an argument of the embedded clause becomes an argument in the main clause,
subject of the embedded clause raises to the matrix
Coordinated =
Gapping = an argument in one clause corresponds to an argument in another coordinated
clause. The predicate of one clause corresponds to the predicate in another coordinated
clause

Chapter 9 constituent order

Order within the constituent
Common orders -> object before subject doesn't really happen a lot (SVO, subject
verb object)
Universals
Deviance from basic word order
How to determine the basic word order
basic word order:
- Declarative
- Transitive (two arguments)
- Arguments should be nominal

very quickly = adverbial phrase, it has to be in a certain order

SVO = subject, verb (predicates), object
NODOM = no dominant (word order)
Constituent order = The order in which words or phrases are arranged in a
sentence.
Basic constituent order = The most common word order in a language, such as
Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) in English.
Declarative = A sentence type used to make statements or declarations.
Interrogative = A sentence type used to ask questions.
Imperative = A sentence type used to give commands or instructions.
Complexity = The level of difficulty or intricacy in a sentence's structure and
meaning.
Information status = How new or old the information in a sentence is in the context
of a conversation.
Discontinuous verb clusters = Phrases where verb components are separated
within a sentence, like "I will have been studying."
Extraposition = Moving a part of a sentence to the end for emphasis or clarity, often
used in complex sentences.
Chapter 10 Sentences meaning
Referent: specific, non-specific, definite, indefinite, generic, categorial
Specific vs. Non-specific reference
Specific reference: I know who I am talking about : ‘The queen is coming’
within specific:
1. Definite (the) ‘I saw THE famous actress walking down the street today’ , the
addressee does know who the person you're referring to (the famous actress)
is
2. Indefinite (a) ‘I saw A famous actress walking down the street today’ , the
addressee does not know who the person you're referring to (a famous
actress) is
Non-specific: I think there is someone at the door (you don't know who/whether
there is someone)/ Does Sweden have a king or a Queen
within non-specific
1. Generic (the) The Siberian tiger is going extinct (it is non-specific because
you don't mean one specific Siberian tiger, and it is generic because you
cannot say: A Siberian tiger is going extinct),’ The spider is going extinct.’ is
also non-specific generic.
2. Categorical (a)

Ambiguity on different levels

Deixis vs. anaphoric reference
anaphoric = pronouns -> Sam likes pizza, so she orderd a margerita. She is going to
get it now.
Deixis = when the physical context to point at something (here vs there sesame
street) today/tomorrow, then/now
Tense vs. aspect
Tense = past/present/future, absolute tense vs relative tense
1. absolute tense: Absolute tense is location of E with respect to S
2. she ran E<S
3. she runs E=S
4. she will run S<E
5. relative tense:
1. anterior: event occurs before a temporal reference point: E<R
2. simultaneous: event occurs overlapping with a temporal reference point: E=R
3. posterior: event occurs after a temporal reference point: R<E
Aspect = perfective & imperfective
- Perfective = the situation is presented as finished and completed
- Imperfective = the situation is presented as being in progress
- “Gianni was reading when I came in.” Gianni was reading = imperfective (the
situation is going on, it had started before the speaker came in) , when I came
in = perfective (the event of ‘entering’ is completed)
Static vs. Dynamic
 - something changes
Static = nothing changes (Mary was sitting on the sofa. / Mary was weak.)
Dynamic = something changes (Mary sat down on the sofa. / Mary grew weak. )
- Test? -> add ‘slowly’ , in dynamic situations it will be correct, in static
situations it will not be; ‘Mary sat down slowly on the sofa.’ vs. ‘Mary was
sitting slowly on the sofa.’
Controlled vs. non-controlled
Controlled = one of the participants controls the change (Mary sat down on the sofa.
/ Mary was sitting on the sofa.)
Non-controlled = none of the participants control the change (Mary grew weak. /
Mary was weak.)
- Test? -> Make it an order, in controlled situations you can make it an order, in
non-controlled situations
you cannot; ‘Sit down on
the sofa!’ vs. ‘Grow
weak!’
Telic vs. Atelic
Telic = a telic situation has a
natural end point (John drew a
circle - in an hour)
Atelic = an atelic situation does
not (John drew circles - for
hours)
(situation type = part of the
meaning of a VP, not of the
verb)

Chapter 11 Lexicon
Word = A unit of language that carries meaning and can stand alone or be part of a
larger structure.
Clitics = Small grammatical words that are closely connected to nearby words but
do not function as independent words. (pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, particles,
conjunctions, prepositions)
Open word classes = Categories of words, like nouns and verbs, that can easily
accept new members.
Closed word classes = Categories of words, like prepositions and conjunctions,
with a relatively fixed set of members.
Lexicon = The mental repository of words, their meanings, and how they are used in
a language.
Lemmas = Base or dictionary forms of words from which inflected or derived forms
are created.
Lexicography = The practice or study of compiling dictionaries or the description of
words in a language.
Polysemy = The phenomenon where a single word has multiple related meanings.
Homonymy = The existence of two or more distinct words with the same form
(spelling and/or pronunciation).
Ambiguity = The presence of multiple possible interpretations or meanings in a
word, phrase, or sentence.
Semantic relations = Connections between words or concepts in terms of their
meanings.
Hyponym = A word or concept that is a specific example of a more general word
(e.g., "rose" is a hyponym of "flower").
Antonym = A word with a meaning that is opposite to another word (e.g., "hot" and
"cold").
Synonym = Words with similar meanings, although they may not be identical in all
contexts.
Denotation = The primary, literal meaning of a word, often found in dictionaries.
(The boy was pushy. > He was literally pushing people. + She was cold. > She was
cold in temperature.)
Connotation = The additional, often emotional or cultural associations linked to a
word beyond its denotation.
Semantic features = Distinct characteristics that help differentiate and categorize
words or concepts.
Swadesh list = A list of basic vocabulary words used in historical linguistics to
compare languages and track language evolution.

Chapter 14 Speaking and Understanding - Speech Sounds

Phonetics =
Speech chain =
Speech signal =
Phonetic transcription =
Vowels =
Consonants = speech sounds that are produced by creating a narrowing of some
type somewhere in the vocal tract
Pulmonic = the airstream that is used to pronounce consonants is produced in the
lungs
Non-pulmonic = Consonants produced using an airstream produced by the larynx
or the tongue
Pulmonic consonants subdividing features:
1. Manner of articulation = concerns the degree and nature of narrowing
involved in the production of consonants
Plosives, Fricatives, Affricates, Nasals, Laterals, Trills, Taps, Flaps,
Approximants (p. 293)
2. Place of articulation = the part of the roof of the mouth where the narrowing
occurs
Bilabial, Labiodental, Dental, Alveolar, Postalveolar, Palatal, Velar, Uvular,
Pharyngeal, Glottal (p. 294)
3. Voicing =

Vocal tract =
Vocal folds =
Pharynx =
Oral Cavity =
Nasal cavity =
Glottis = the place between the two
vocal folds

Outer ear =
External auditory
canal =
Tympanic
membrane =
Middle ear =
Hammer, Anvil,
Stirrup =
Oval window =
Cochlea =
Inner ear =
Acoustic nerve =
Voiced/Voiceless Consonants = Consonants produced with (voiced) / without the
vibration of our vocal folds (voiceless)
- Clicks = sounds that are produced by sucking air into the mouth
- Voiced implosives = sounds that are produced by combining a closure of the
vocal tract with lowering the larynx
- Ejectives = sounds that are produced by combining a closure of the vocal
tract with rapid raising of the larynx (p. 296)
Rounding =
Front, Central, Back vowels = p. 297
Close, Close-mid, Open-mid, Open = p.297
Diphthongs = combination of two vowels
Speech synthesis =
Grapheme-to-phoneme conversion =
Diphones = units the size of two half sounds
Automatic speech recognition =

Chapter 15 Sound systems and phonological processes

- Phoneme = sounds that distinguish meaning
- - lowest meaningful units (morphemes)
Minimal pair = the way you show that two sounds are
Allophones (vs. allomorphs)
Allophone = variation (different pronunciations) of the same phoneme
Allomorphs =
Phonology = The study of the sounds used in a language and how they function.
Distinctiveness = The quality of being clearly different or distinguishable.
Phonemes = The smallest distinctive units of sound in a language.
Minimal pair = Two words that differ in meaning by only one sound, demonstrating
the importance of specific phonemes.
Allophones = Variations of a phoneme's pronunciation that don't change word
meaning.
Sound system = The overall set of phonemes and their organization in a language.
Distinctive features = Specific characteristics that differentiate one phoneme from
another.
Morphophonology = The study of how morphemes (the smallest units of meaning)
are affected by phonological rules.
Assimilation = A phonological process where sounds become more similar to
neighboring sounds.
Allomorphs = Different forms of a morpheme in different phonological
environments.
Writing systems = Systems for representing language using written symbols.
Alphabetic = A writing system that uses letters to represent individual sounds or
phonemes.

Chapter 16 Syllables, Stress and Intonation

- Onset, Nucleus, Coda, Rhyme
Rhyme = nucleus + coda together
- feature change
processes?
processes that can happen to sound? -> two sounds that merge into 1
-> sounds that have split into two (that were once 1 sound)
Syllables = Units of sound in a word, typically consisting of a vowel sound and
sometimes additional consonants.
Phonotactics = The rules governing the permissible combinations of sounds within
a language.
Onset = The initial consonant or consonant cluster in a syllable that comes before
the vowel.
Rhyme = The part of a syllable that includes the vowel and any following consonants
(nucleus and coda).
Nucleus = The central, usually vowel, part of a syllable.
Coda = The final consonant(s) in a syllable, occurring after the nucleus.
Syllabic = Refers to sounds that can function as the nucleus of a syllable without an
accompanying vowel.
Stress = The emphasis placed on a particular syllable within a word or on specific
words within a sentence.
Sentence stress = The relative emphasis or prominence given to words or phrases
in a sentence for clarity and meaning.
Feet = In metrical analysis, a unit of two or more syllables that make up the basic
rhythmic structure of a line of poetry.
Iamb = A metrical foot consisting of two syllables, with the stress on the second
syllable (e.g., "toDAY").

Chapter 17 Differences and similarities between languages

Evolutionary paths between languages
Language family = the Indo-European language family comprises a large collection
of languages from europe and india (linked to genetic similarities)
1. Genetic = similarities due to a close family relationship, they have a common
ancestor
2. Typological = the same grammatical structure/order of sentences
3. Areal = similarities due to influences and contact between languages (Balkan
languages)
Sprachbund = where languages show similarities because of a history of shared
contact (linked to areal similarities)
Comparative reconstruction = used to cover former phases of language, it is the
procedure of creating a common form from which others could be derived
Proto-forms and Proto-languages can be derived through Sound laws
Proto-language = a language which was the common ancestor of related languages
that form a language family.
Toponymics = The study of place names
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis- The language(s) you speak determine what you can think
evidence against S W hypothesis -> 1. patients with aphasia (lack of language) can
still think properly 2. color terms + kinship? just because your language doesn't have
a word for it, doesn't mean you dont think it
Sound laws =
Culture =

Chapter 18 Language Variation

Language variation = Differences in the use of language based on various factors,
including geography, social groups, and context.
Sociolinguistics = The study of how social factors influence language variation and
use.
Dialect = A regional or social variety of a language, characterized by specific
phonological, morphological, and lexical features.
Language variety = A generic term encompassing different forms of a language,
including dialects, registers, and more.
Accents = Phonological differences in pronunciation that characterize a particular
group or region.
Phonological = Pertaining to the sound structure of language.
Morphological = Relating to the structure and formation of words.
Syntactic = Concerned with the arrangement and order of words in sentences.
Lexical = Related to vocabulary and words in a language.
Semantic = Pertaining to the meaning of words and sentences.
Pragmatic variation = Differences in how language is used in various social and
communicative contexts.
Linguistic variable = A linguistic element, such as pronunciation, that can vary
among speakers.
Language variants = Different forms of a language, which may include dialects,
registers, or sociolects.
Regional dialects = Dialects that are associated with specific geographic regions.
Isoglosses = Lines on a map that mark the boundaries between regions with distinct
linguistic features.
Sociolects = Varieties of a language associated with specific social groups.
Ethnic variety/Ethnolect = A language variety tied to a particular ethnic group.
Situational factors = Elements in the environment or context that influence
language use, like formality or familiarity.
Styles + Registers = Different levels of formality and language use, ranging from
casual to formal.
Linguistic context = The words and structures surrounding a particular linguistic
element, which can affect its interpretation.
Social meaning = The associations and stereotypes linked to language varieties,
influencing how people are perceived.
Hypercorrection = Overcompensating by using language forms considered more
"correct" but actually making errors.
Language attitudes = Individuals' perceptions and feelings about different
languages and language varieties.
Covert prestige = A form of social status associated with non-standard language
use within a particular group or context.

Chapter 19 Language Change =

Phonological = Relating to the sound structure of language.
Morphological = Pertaining to the structure and formation of words.
Syntactic = Concerned with the arrangement and order of words in sentences.
Lexical = Related to words or vocabulary in a language.
Pragmatic changes = Shifts in the use and interpretation of language in social
contexts.
Grammaticalization = The process by which words or constructions evolve from
content words into grammatical elements.
Diachrony = The study of language change over time, typically in historical
linguistics.
Synchrony = The study of language as it exists at a specific point in time, often in
contrast to diachrony.
Categorical = Referring to language elements that have fixed, discrete values or
categories.
Variable = Language elements that can take on different forms in different contexts.
Bottom-up/Top-down = Approaches in language processing, with "bottom-up"
starting from sensory input and "top-down" driven by higher-level knowledge.
Lexical diffusion = The spread of new words or language innovations through a
population over time.

Chapter 20 Bilingualism
Bilingualism/Multilingualism = The ability to speak two or more languages.
Diglossia = A sociolinguistic situation where two distinct varieties of a language are
used in different contexts or domains.
Circumstances = The particular situations or conditions in which language is used.
Lingua franca = A language used as a common means of communication between
speakers of different native languages.
Language shift, Language loss, Language erosion , Language death /
Language maintenance = The process by which a language loses speakers and
may eventually cease to be spoken / efforts to preserve and continue using a
language.
Language policy = Government or institutional decisions and regulations regarding
the use and status of languages within a society.
Immersion programme / Traditional programme = Different methods of language
education, with immersion being more intensive and immersive, and traditional
programs following a conventional curriculum.
Language choice = The selection of which language to use in a given context.
Code switching = The practice of alternating between two or more languages or
dialects within a single conversation or discourse.
Interference = The influence of one's native language on the acquisition or use of a
second language.
Loan words, Loan compounds, Loan translations / Borrowing = Incorporating
words, phrases, or structures from one language into another.
Creole languages = Languages that emerge from contact between different
languages, often becoming a stable, distinct language.
Pidgins = Simplified, makeshift languages that develop for basic communication
between speakers of different native languages.
Relexification = The process of replacing the vocabulary of one language with that
of another while retaining the original grammar.
Koine = A simplified and often amalgamated form of a language used as a lingua
franca in a region.