414 CHARMS AND AMULETS (Christian)

match in Augustine {de Civ. Dei, viii. 16-22), Not and the Anglo-Saxon libri ptenitentiales (collected
until later times did belief in magic find its way by Wasserschieben, 1851, and by H, J, Schmitz,
into Catholic communities and gain the recognition 1883) bad to lay heavier and heavier ecclesiastical
of the Church herself. penalties on proscribed heathen uses. Under
Nevertheless the Christians had always lived under thesus- Charlemagne the matter was taken in hand by
picion of practising forbidden magic rites (*o*ofrai4t, 1 Ρ i' '•; the State (cf. Capitularia regum, Franc., ed.
'superstitio malefica,'Suet, fieri?, 16). This they inherited from Boretius [Man. Germ, hist.], i, 25, 45, ii. 44}. A
Judaism. Pliny did noteucceed in proving anything of the kind collection of all these decrees is given by Burchard
against them ; but yet in Hadrian's rescript to Servian (as given
by Vopiscus, en. 8) wo find Christian eiders associated with of Worms {Decret. lib. x. [ P L e x l . 831-854]). But
rulereof the Jewish synagogues and Samaritaneas m a ^ m a i w i , the clergy themselves lent support to the practice,
hamtspicee, aliptes. Ae a matter of fact, there were among the and similar usages, but thinly cloaked in Christian
Christians, and especially aniong the Gnostics of ugypt, zealous and ecclesiastical guise, were embraced even by
devotees of magic. What we know of Gnostic worship» with its
incomprehensible formulae, its use of strange objects, and its bishops. The more rationalistic tendencies of the
insistence on ceremonial correctness, shows affinity with magical iconoclasts in the Byzantine Empire and of in­
practices. Forms of conjuration and amulets have come down dividual theologians like Agobard of Lyons or
to us whose origin is undoubtedly Gnostic ; and Origen turned
upon the Gnostics the accusations of magic brought againBt Claudius of Turin in the West were quickly and
the Christians by Celsus (vj. 21-40). But It was not con­ effectively suppressed.
fined to the GnoBtics. It must be admitted that the Catholic In the Middle Ages, Europe presents a spectacle
Chnrch was not quite free from the taint. On the walls of the
catacombs» Jesus Himself is depicted holding a magic wand, similar to ancient Rome, As there magic was
though the theologians lay stress upon the absence of all magical nominally forbidden, and yet flourished, and in
means from His miracles (e.g. Arnohius, adv. Gent. i. 43 f. {USKL many ways received even official recognition, so
iv, ysf.j). The antithesis between Divine and demoniacal is here it is possible to point to a whole series of
clearly shown in the apocrypha] accounts of the contest be­
tween Simon Peter and Simon Magus—the magician kills, the civic and ecclesiastical prohibitions (e.g. Cod, Just.
Apostle makes alive; but otherwise the means employed are the lib. ix. tit. 1 8 ; Deer. Grat, ii, ch, 26, qu. 6), which
same (cf. Joh. Halalas, CkroTl. p. 232, ed. Bonnet ; Georg. Mon. serve only to prove the opposite of t h a t which one
. Sou, ed. de Boor). To the questions of a Christian every
S emon must give an answer (Tert. Apol, £2, 23); even the
breath of a Christian was enough to stay the working of a
would gladly conclude from them. They show not
that there was no magic, but that magic was sus­
heathen charm (Diooys. Alecc, ap. £useb. vii, 10* 4). piciously rife, and in certain forms even sanctioned.
Three things render difficult an exact estimate The few enlightened spirits t h a t arose appear only
of the dissemination of this superstition among as isolated figures, and the two forms of magic—
Christians in the earliest t i m e s : (1) Christian t h a t which the Church sanctioned, and t h a t which
literature is nearly silent; (2) objects cannot he it proscribed—continued to increase side by side.
dated with certainty: and (3) Divine names of Contact with the East and the Crusades strength­
Jewish and Christian character were used also by ened the inclination towards the use of protective
heathen magicians. and remedial charms. In connexion with the
With the 4th cent, magical belief began to take suppression of the Albigensian and Waldensian
a firmeT hold within the Chuieh, although synods heresies the Inquisition developed an unbounded
{e.g. Elvira[A.D. 300 or 313!], can. 6 ; Ancyra [A.D. activity against black magic, which, however, only
315], can. 24; Laodicea [c. 360], can. 34-36) and led to the firmer establishment of t h a t sinister
the great leaders of theology continued to protest superstition.
against the adoption of superstitious means i s sick­ In the 15th and 16th cents., while enlighten­
ness or for the recovery of lost articles. Chry- ment and culture spread more and more among
sostom is especially emphatic (Bee adv. Judceos, the upper classes of society, the Renaissance ad­
hom. viii. 5 [PGxiviii. 935], ad.Pop. Antioch., horn, vancing from Italy brought in its train new forms
xix, 4 [ib. xlix. 196], ad Mlwm. Caiech. ii. 5 [ib. of superstition. The same Humanism which
xlix. 239], hom, in 1 Co 7 ! [ib. Ii. 216], m Ps 9, sought to free itself from the superstitions of the
ch. 7 [ib, Iv, 132], in Joh. hom, xxxvii., Iv. [ii, despised monks turned with unstinted admiration
lix. 207, 301], in 1 COT. hom. xji. S [ib. lxi. 105], in to the ancient modes of thought, and gave a new
Gal. com. i. 7 [ib. Ixi, 623], in Col. hom. viii. 5 life to astrology and all the practices that accom­
[ib. lxii. 358], in 1 Thess. hom. iii. 5 [ib. 412]. Of pany it. In opposition to this, the Reformation,
Western preachers cf. pseudo-Augustine (Csesarius taking its stand upon Apostolic Christianity, and
of Aries (?), Sermo 168. 3, 265. 5, 278. 279, 4 f, [PL resting everything upon the spiritual power of the
xxxix.]; cf, Caspari in ZDA χχν. [1881] 314-316, living Word, sought to put away superstitious
and KiTchtnhist. Anecdota, i, [1883] ly3-2ia, 213- inclinations from the hearts of the people. This
224}; Martin of Bracara (Correctio rwsticorum, ed. did not happen all at once. Luther himself was
Caspari, 1883 ; see also the Capittila, of Martin of as convinced as any theologian of the Middle Ages
Bracara i n P £ c x x x . 575ff.]); Pirminius(Scarapsus, of the power of the devil, and he shared many
22 [.PL Ixxxix.; cf. Caspari, JTireAin/tisi. Anecdota, monastic beliefs which his Humanistic friends iiad
161-192], Vita S. Eligh, ii. 15 [ P i Ixxxvii. 528, ed. already rejected. But he recognized no counter-
Krusch, Man. Germ.. Hist. Ser. rer. Merov. iv, charm save faith and prayer; and with him, above
705,753]; Niiraberger, A us der litter. Einterlassen- all men, it is clear t h a t these notions of the Middle
schaft des M. Bonifatius, 1888, p. 43). But their Ages were nothing but survivals. All Churches
protests assumed the reality of the wonders of magic, alike have joined in the persecution of witches;
condemning them only as ungodly and devilish but it is easy to see how the Protestant conception
(cf, Aug. de Civ. Dei, xxi. 6, de frin. iii. 7, 12), of religion, with its insistence upon the word of
and supposed the existence of a higher form of God on the one hand and upon faith on the other,
magic that was Divine, After the rise of martyr- left ever less and less room for superstitions.
worship and the Invention of the Holy Cross, the Calvinism succeeded perhaps better than Luther-
Church possessed a number of sacred objects from anism. Everywhere, however, the conservative
which protection and ail blessings might be ex­ mind of the peasants held tenaciously to the
pected. This belief flourished extraordinarily from expedients of magic, and even modern enlighten­
the 6th to the 8th century. Pope Gregory the ment has not been able completely to eradicate
Great furthered it with his example and sanctioned them.
it with his authority; for France, Gregory of 2, Underlying ideas,—The basis of magical
Tours is typical. And it was further advanced practice is a conception of the worid "which thinks
through the incursions into the Roman Empire of of everything as animate, and therefore as a vessel
the barbarians, whose Christianity had not pene- of some spiritually operating power. Those opera­
trated beneath the surface. The I r a n k i s h synods tions are not supposed to be psychological or ethical,
 C H A R M S A N D A M U L E T S (Christian) <lfl

but easentittUy physical. The modern conception of theologians whose theories had been made her
electro-magnetic influence affords the best analogy. justification. How difficult was tbe position of
We may call it 'Panpsyehism'—a form of Animism the ecclesiastical theology—compelled to admit
as far removed from the belief in an omnipotent, the underlying theories of magic, and yet un­
ail-working God as it is from the physical point of willing to sanction the practice—appears most
view of the ancient philosophy of nature, or of clearly in the writinga of Gerson. The Church
modem natural science. Among the Jews of t h e herself made war, under the title of magic, sorcery,
restoration, atill under Persian influence, and the and witchcraft, only upon that part of the whole
Greek philosophers of the Hellenistic age, this phenomenon whose methods and aims were outaide
primitive conception took the form of an extra­ ecclesiastical control, and were auspected of con­
ordinarily extensive belief in angela and demons. nexion with heresy—Manichaean, Alhigensian, or
The object originally thought of aa the source of Catharian, The general principles are laid down
power became only a vessel and an instrument in in the Papal bulls (Gregory IX,, Vox in Bama,
the hand of a powerfully operating personality. A.D, 1233; Innocent VIII., Summit desideranies,
The derivative nature of this belief appears in the A.D. 1484, Bullariwm. Romanum [1743], iii. 3. 191
purely accidental association between the two. I t [Mirbt, QutlUn zur Gesch. des Papsttwms, 1895,
is true t h a t an affinity is asserted between certain . 105]; Alexander VI., 1494; Julius II., 1507;
good or evil spirits and certain objects, formal»,
or eeremonies ; but not only has every spirit many
E eo X., 1521 ; Hadrian VX, 1523; Pius IV., 1564),
and detailed directions are given in the Direc-
different instruments of power at his disposal, but torium inquiiitomm of the Spanish Grand In­
the same instrument serves many different spirits. quisitor, Nicolaus Aymericus (135S) (1376?), and in
As in religion, so here we note a tendency to some­ the famous Malleus malefieorum (composed A.D,
thing like henodfemonism : at a given moment 1487 by Kramer and Sprenger, and printed at
man is concerned with but one spirit whose power Cologne, 1489, 1494, 1496, 1511, 1520, etc., best ed.
he wishes to repel or to win for himself. A t the in 4 vols., Lyons, 1669, Germ. tr. by J. W. R.
same time there appears a division into good and Schmidt, ISOti); and in the works of the Jesuits
bad, benevolent and harmful, spirits, into angels M, Delrio [Disquixitionum Magicarwm libn vi.,
and demons. The whole use of charms reste upon 1606) and P. Binsfeld ('fractalus de eonfessionibits
belief in the superior power of the former ; a few malcficorum, et saqarum, 1591}.
forms of magic only have their origin in an opposite We must not, of course, presume t h a t men con­
belief (black magic). sciously entertained these underlying ideas, or
The Neo-Platonists, especially Iamblichus, had t h a t they were acquainted with the philosophical
already systematized these popular notions, and and theological theories about them. Charms are
had attempted to justify them philosophically. applied by ancient custom no less (indeed, perhaps
Christian theology adopted their theories, while more) generally by those who do not understand
far more eager than they to reconcile the whole their meaning. Incomprehensibility and irration­
angel ο logy and demonology with monotheistic ality are often important factors in their use. I t
views (Jon. Damasc. de Fide Orth. ii. 4). On t h e frequently happens t h a t the original meaning of a
one hand, demonstrations were offered to prove ;he charm disappears altogether, and enlightened times
existence of an inward connexion between every subject everything to an ingenious rationalization;
spirit and a definite object or formula ; the name, yet the use of charms and their application remain
picture, or symbol is not merely a human form of as before, and a t any time the original meaning
expression, but possesses an objective value as a may he revived,
form of manifestation in which the spirit is wholly Tatuing, for example, had undoubtedly at first a magical,
or partially operative. Christian theology sought prophylactic import, and it ia possible that this import is
support for these theories in the great thought of retained in the practice of tattling with religious marks which
ia atill found among the Christian peoples of Italy and Bosnia.
the Incarnation of God. If the greatest of all But among modern sailors it survives only as a meaningless
powers, Omnipotence itself, was manifested to our convention, a kind of ornament, as is at once obvious from the
sense in human shape, could not the lower powers subjects chosen. A horse's head on a stable, α pair of antlers
on a ranger's house, are in Germany at the present day common
similarly become incarnate, and embody themselves symbolic ornaments pointing to the nature of the building. In
in men, or even in lower forma? Next to the former times horaes skulls were highly valued among the
purely spiritual beings stand the saints (q.v.), Germans as defensive charms— a use against which, on account
bound through their own past life to the world of of its connexion with heathen sacrifices, the Church waged
energetic warfare. So, too, among the Greeks ox*ekuUs were
sense, who have left behind them in t h e shape of originally Δ charm which later on developed into the so-called
relies {q.v.) vessels of their spiritual power. On frucramvyn-ornament: we do not know what is the meaning of
the other hand, all possible emphasis is laid upon the numerous ox-skulls found to-day in villages of Asia Minor
(see IT. Rott, Kleina&iat. DenkmiUer, LUlJy, p. 82; and art.
the sovereign freedom of the will of God, whose -E'.;Y..\X EELrOTON).
command or permission alone renders possible any U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t is often difficult t o
exercise of power (Lactantius, Inst. Div. ii, 14, 15 ; fix the boundary between charms and ornaments
Aug. de Divinations Daemimum [CSEL xli. 597- or curiosities. W h a t appears a t first sight to be
618], dt Civ. Dei, xii, 25, de Trin. iii, 8,13 ; pseudo- merely a decoration may have significance for its
Aug. Sermo 278. 4 [PL xxxix. 2270]). wearer as a means of protection. At the present
This is the teaching of the Greek theologians, time there is an inclination to give exaggerated
as well as of the Latins (cf. John of Damascus, recognition to this fact, and to attribute to every
and Thomas Aquinas, Sitmma, ii. 2, qu. 91-96, possible object a magical character and purpose,
quodlib. xi. 10), We cannot make these great of which very likely neither its maker nor its
theologians responsible for all the writings that possessor has ever dreamed. We must remember
bear their names ; to such names as Gregorius t h a t in this province, as everywhere, nothing is
Thautnaturgus and Albertus Magnus a whole stationary or universal j nor is the path of human
literature of magic has been attached. Leo the progress a straight line leading ever upwards from
Wise, whose Novella lxv. outdoes all earlier State superstition to enlightenment, hut a tortuous road
ordinances against magic, became in popular t h a t sinks as often as it rises. Moreover, at one
rumour himself an arch-magician, and the like and the same time, different communities in a
happened with Pope Sylvester (Gerbert). In the nation—the country-folk and the town-dwellers—
Middle Ages any serious student of mathematical as well as different classes—the educated and the
or scientific problems—like Roger Bacon or Ray­ uneducated—think very differently upon the sub­
mond Lull.—gained this reputation a t once. But ject. Remembering this, we cannot be too cautious
Magic could yet appeal with some right to the in our conclusions.