CULTURAL PROFILE OF GANDHĀRA:

AN APPRAISAL

by

Tauqeer Ahmad

INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES
UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2011
CULTURAL PROFILE OF GANDHĀRA:
AN APPRAISAL

Dissertation submitted to the Institute of Archaeology and Social

Anthropology, University of Peshawar in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

Approved by:

1. Professor Dr. M. Farooq Swati

Institute of Archaeology & Social
Anthropology, University of Peshawar Supervisor

2.

Internal Examiner

3.

External Examiner

INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR
2011
 i

Contents
List Abbreviations
Map
List of Illustrations
Acknowledgement
Chapter 1: Introduction
Discovery and Interpretation of the name
Discovery of Gandhāra Art
Development of Archaeological activities
Phase 1
Phase 11
Phase 111
Chapter 2: Historical Background
Physical Setup
Gandhāra: Meaning
History:
Achaemenians
Alexander’s invasion
Mauriyan rule
Occupation of Bactrian Greeks
Indo-Scytho-Parthians
Kushāns
Huns or Ephthalites
Chapter 3: Gandhāra Art
Independent Cult Images
Non-Buddhist Deities
Relief Penals

Chapter 4: Architecture
i. Secular Buildings
Cities
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Forts and Citadel

Palaces
ii. Religious Buildings
Stupa
Vihāra and Shrines
Chaitya
Fire Atar
Chapter 5: Weapons, Tool, Implements and Garments
i. Weapons
Club
Spear
Triśula
Sword
Dagger
Archery
Battle-axe
Armour
ii. Tools and Implements
Garments
Buddha
Bodhisattva
Royality
Priests, Ascetics and Monks
Deities
Miscellanious
Chapter 6: Jewellery and Headdresses
i. Jewellery
Head Ornaments
Necklaces
Earrings and Ear Pendants
Armlets
Bracelets
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Anklets
ii. Headdresses
Śakyāmuni
Brahmā
Bodhisattva
Turban Styles 1-V11
Jaṭāmukuṭ Fashions
Chapter 7: Miscellenious
i. Household Vessel
ii. Musical Instruments
Drum
Cymbal
Gong
Bell
Harp
Lyre

iii. Wind Instruments

iv. Transport
Land Transport
Beasts of Burden
Wheeled Vehicle
Water Transport
v. Sports
vi. Balance
vii. Royal Insignia
Chhatra\ Chatra
Throne
Chapter 8: Conclusions
References
Bibliography
Figures
 iv

Abbreviations

ASI Archaeological Survey of India

ASR Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India
BDCRI Bulletin Deccan College Research Institute
BEFEO Bulletin de l’Ècole Francaise d’ Extrème
BSOS Bulletin of the School of Oriental (and Afghānistān) Studies,
London
CAH Cambridge Ancient History
CHI Cambridge History of India
CII Corpus Inscriptionum Idicarum
EHI Early History of India. by V.A. Smith. Oxford 1924
EI Epigraphia Indica, Delhi
HIEA History of Indian and Eastern Architecture by J. Fergusson.
London.1910.
H IIA History of Indian and Indonesian Art by A.K. Coomarswamy.
London,1927.
Si-yu-Ki. Si-yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. Translated
from the Chinese of Xuang Zang (AD 629) BY Samuel Beal.
London, 1884.
IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly, Calcutta
JA Journal Asiatique, Paris
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta.
JāT. Jātaka (or Jātakas)
JIH Journal of the Indian History
JNSI Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Bombay.
JARS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Irland,London.
MAIS Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India
Periplus Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Translated and annotated by W.H.
Schooff. London, 1912.
SBE Sacred Books of the East. Oxford
 v

ZDMG Zeit schrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gessel schaft

 vi

Archaelological Sites of Gandhāra

 vii

List of Illustrations

Figs
1. The Urn carried into KuśiNāgar. Lahore, No. 48 (Ingholt: No. 151)
2. Distribution of the Relics. Peshāwar, No. 1973 (Ibid: 152)
3. Panel relief from Shnaisha depicting Buddha at City gate. (Rahman 1993: No.
XXX1X a)
4. City wall. Lahore, No. 1073. (Ingholt: No. 464)
5. Ānanda Askes a Castless Girl for Water. Lahore, No. 2169 (Ingholt: No. 103)
6. The Buddha Enters Rājagṛiha. Lahore, No. 1182 (detail). (Ingholt: No. 91)
7. Sumāgadhā and the Naked Ascetic. Karachi, formerly Lahore Museum, Nos.
2124 and 1601, from Sikri. (Ingholt: No, 116)
8. Chanḑaka and Kaṇṭhaka Return. Lahore, No. 116. (Ingholt: No. 51)
9. Life in the Palace. Karachi, No. 507; formerly in Lahore, No 567. From
Jamrud. (Ibid, No. 39 A)
10. Life in the Palace. Lahore, No.46 (Ibid, No.40)
11. Life in the Palace. (Zwalf: No. 170)
12. Seated Bodhisattva. (Kurita 1990: No. 43)
13. The Renunciation, Lahore, No. 46; part of Fig. 10, above. (Ingholt: 39 B).
14. Seated Bodhisattva. From Swāt. (Kurita: No. 45).
15. Conversion of Nanda. (Marshall 1973: No. 121; Zwalf: No. 205)
16. Miracle of Śrāvasti. From Loriyan Tangai, Calcutta Museum (Marshall 1973:
No. 122)
17. Dīpankara Jātaka. (Zwalf: No.127)
18. Fragment of a false-gable. Takht-i-Bāhi. (Ibid: No. 254)
19. Offering of the Dust. (Ibid: No.217)
20. Persepolitan Column. (Ibid: No. 455)
21. Persepolitan Column. Peshāwar Museum, No, From Sahri Bahlol (Ingholt:
No. 362) s
22. Persepolitan Column. Lahore No. 1958. (Ibid: No. 364)
23. Corinthian Column. (Zwalf: No. 452)
 viii

24. The Great Renunciation and Corinthian Columns. From Takht-i-Bāhi (Ibid:
No. 173)
25. Corinthian Column Bound by Bands. (Ibid: No. 453)
26. Buddha and worshippers. (Ibid: No. 265)
27. Square Column with Oblong Device. (Ibid: No. 131)
28. Square Column with Vertical Band. (Marshall 1973: No. 59)
29. Viśvantra Jātaka: Two Buddha figures—one for each column. (Kurita 1990:
No. 846)
30. Presentation of a mango Grove. Upper monastery Nathu. Calcutta Museum.
(Marshall 1973: No. 88)
31. Corner panel. (Zwalf: 210)
32. Square Corinthian Column with Standing Female. (Kurita: No. 428)
33. Standing male devotee with offering. (Ibid: No. 44)
34. Standing male figure with long sleeves. (Ibid: No. 45)
35. Hanging garland. (Ibid: No. 194)
36. Hanging garlands. (Ibid: No. 290)
37. Hanging garlands. (Ibid: No.117)
38. Ornamental garland. (Private collection, Japan). (Kurita: No. 675)
39. Corinthian capital. (Rahman XXX111b, 1993)
40. Corinthian capital from Jamāl Garhi. (Zwalf: No. 457)
41. Reed hut. Peshāwar Museum. (Marshall: No. 66; Ingholt: No. 54)
42. Reed hut. Gai collection; Peshāwar. (Ingholt: No. 349)
43. Reed hut. (Zwalf: No.298).
44. Reed hut. (Ibid: No. 298)
45. Hut. From Kāfir-koṭ. (Ibid: 225)
46. Hut. Gai collection; Peshāwar. (Ingholt: No. 465)
49. Brackets. Peshāwar. (Ibid: No. 101)
48. Brackets. (Zwalf: Nos. 470-71)
49. False bracket. (Ibid: No. 430)
50. False bracket. (Kurita: Nos. 690, 692)
51. False bracket. (Ibid: No. 693)
 ix

52. Transportation of the Relics. From Sikri. Lahore, No.2030. (Ingholt: No. 145)
53. Transportation of the Relics. From Sikri. Lahore, No. 2061. (Ibid: No. 149)
54. Three stupas. Peshāwar, No. 1151. (Ibid: No. 155)
55. Stupa worship. From Swāt. (Zwalf: No. 299)
56. Stupa worship. From Jamāl Garhi. (Ibid: No. 235)
57. Stupa with columns having lion-shaped capitals. (Rahman 1987: No. 704)
58. Dome. Gai collection, Peshāwar. (Ingholt: No. 471)
59. ‘Vihāra’ with worshipper. From Takht-i-Bāhi. (Ibid: No. 469)
60. Dome of Vihāra. Lahore, No. 390. (Ingholt: No. 468)
61. A small chapel (shrine). From Takht-i-Bāhi. (Zwalf: No. 506)
62. Shrine with a preaching Buddha. From Mālkhāna (Peahāwar). (Ibid: No. 110)
63. The Balo Kile Gumbat. (Rahman 1984: No. missing)
64. Chaitya arches. (Kurita: Nos. 568-69)
65. Fire-altar. (Ingholt: Nos.XX1, 4 and 478; Kurita: No. 197)
66. Fire-altar. (Kurita: No. 708)
67. Fire-altar (Zwalf: No. 48)
68. Fire-altar (Kurita: No. 707)
69. Adventure and Punishment of Maitranyaka. From Jamāl Garhi. Peshāwar,
No. Y. (Ingholt: No. 2)
70. Stucco. Private collection, Japan. (Kurita: No. 627)
71. Dream of Māyā. Gai Collection, Peshāwar. (Ingholt: No. 10)
72. Guarding the Urn. From Takht-i-Bāhi, Peshāwar, No. 1319c.
73. Seated Figure. Private collection. Japan. (Kurita: No. 470)
74. Pāncika. From Tahkal near Peshāwar. Lahore, No.3. (Ingholt: No. 338;
Marshall 1973: No. 143); Kurita: No. 465)
75. Skanda-Kāttikeya from Kāfir-koṭ (lower Swāt). (Ibid: No. 102)
76. Submission of Apalāla. Purchased from Messers Spink and son. (Zwalf : No.
215)
77. Hāritī from Sahri Bahlol, Mound c. Peshāwar No. 1773. (Ingholt: No. 341)
78. Assaurt of Māra. From Peshāwar. (Zwalf: No.185; see also Ingholt : No. 65)
79. Panel showing Vajrapāni and other figures. (Zwalf: No. 293)
 x

80. Host of Māra. Lahore, No. 538. (Ingholt: No. 64; see also Ibid. No. 118)
81. Private collection, Japan. (Kurita: No. 871)
82. Hunting scene. Peshāwar Museum. (Ibid: No. 664)
83. Hunting scene. Private collection, Japan. From Mālākand(?) (Ibid: No. 663)
84. Three headed deity. Private collection, Japan. (Ibid: No. 520)
85. Private collection, Pakistan. (Ibid: No. 863)
86. Stupa drum panel. From Swāt. (Zwalf: No. 164)
87. Assault of Māra. (Ingholt: No. 186)
88. Standing Figure Wearing Greaves. Private collection, Japan. (Kurita: No.
609)
89. Warrior with Dagger and Shield. From Mālākand. Private collection, Japan.
(Ibid: No. 624)
9o. Statuette of a Warrior. Peshāwar, No. 13. From Sahri Bahlol. (Ingholt: No.
561)
91. Conversion of Angulimāla. Lahore, No. 2361. (Ibid., No. 118)
92. Standing figure in Coat of Mail. Private collection.,U.S.A. (Kurita: No.622)
93. The Great Departure. Lahore, No. 256 (Ingholt: No. 47)
94. The First Meditation. Lahore, From Sikri stupa. (Ibid: No. 36)
95. The Buddha, Kevarkian Collection, New York. (Ingholt: No. XV114)
96. The Buddha. Peshāwar, No.1424. From village near Daulat, Mardan district.
(Ibid: No. 206)
97. Seated Buddha Preaching. From Swāt. (Zwalf: No. 30)
98. Interpretation of Māyā's Dream. Lahore, No. 2332. From Sikri.(Ingholt: No.
11)
99. Buddha performing a miracle before ascetics. (Zwalf: No. 203)
100. Birth of the Bodhisattva. (Ibid: No. 145)
101. Reassuring Maitreya flanked by worshippers. Karachi, in Box 20; From
Rawalpindi (Ingholt: no.XX,1). See also Ibid: no. 150, 153, 338, 339.
102. Donor in Iranian costume. Peshāwar, No. 1769, From Sahri Bahlol, Mound
D, 1912 (Ibid: no. 417).
103. Worshippers in unusual costumes. Peshāwar, No. 1551, From Sahri Bahlol,
 xi

Mound D, 1913 (Ingholt: no. 420).

104. Maitreya flanked by female worshippers. Peshāwar, No. 1701. From Sahri
Bahlol, Mound C (Ingholt: no. 310).
105. The child Bodhisattva going to school in a ram cart. From Chārsada Tehsil.
Victoria and Albert Museum, London (Marshall 1973: Fig. 950
106. Yakshi Standing Under a Śāla Tree. From Upper Monastery at Nathu.
Calcutta Museum (Ibid: Fig. 89).
107. Tutelary couple from Takht-i-Bāhi. British Museum (Zwalf 1996: No. 98).
See also Kurita 1990: Fig. 417.
108. Head-band of Maitreya. Lahore, No. 2354. From Sikri (Ingholt 1957: No.
291). Peshāwar, no. 184, from Sahri Bhlol (Ibid: no. 307)
109. Ibid: No. 311.
110. Panel showing Birth of Bodhisattva (Zwaf 1996: no. 149).
111. Head of Bodhisattva Siddhārta. Peshāwar Museum, No. 1095 M, from
Palatu Dheri (Ingholt: No. 283).
112. Bodhisattva Siddhārta in meditation. Peshāwar Museum, No. 1739; from
Sahri Bahlol, Mound C, 1912 (Ibid: No. 284).
113., Bodhisattva Siddhārta in meditation, donors, and monks. Lahore, No. 105
(Ibid: No. 287).
114. Standing Maitreya. From Buner-Yusufzai border (Ibid: No. 51).
115. Standing Bodhisattva. From Jamāl Garhi (Ibid: No. 50).
116. Seated Maitreya. From Takht-i-Bāhi (Ibid: No. 66).
117. Seated Bodhisattva. Donated by G.A. Dale (Ibid: No. 77).
118. Seated Bodhisattva. From Yusufzai (Ibid: No. 78).
119. Panel relief Buddha and worshippers (Zwalf: No. 277).
12o. Hand of a Bodhisattva. From Takht-i-Bāhi (Ibid: No. 87).
121. Hārītī wearing flexible bracelets (Kurita: no. 487).
122. Hārītī wearing multiple bracelets (Ibid: No. 493).
123. Bath of the newborn Child. Peshāwar, No. 2071. Formerly in the Guides
Mess, Mardan (Ingholt 1957: No. 16).
124. Relief Depicting the Great Miracles of Śrāvasti. Peshāwar area (Czuma
 xii

1985: Pl. 104).

125. Relief depicting a seated Buddha in dhyāna mudrā with Brahmā to his right.
Wali of Swāt collection (Lohuizen-de Leeuw 1979: Fig. 33).
126. Entreaty to Preach the Doctrine (Zwalf 1996: no. 197). Brahmā with clasped
hands stands on the proper left.
127. Brahmā (proper left) and Indra entreat the Buddha to preach.
Archaeological Museum Saidu Sharif (Swāt), No. 725 (Schmidt: Fig.
272).
128. Indra and Brahmā entreat the Buddha to preach. Lahore Museum, Lahore,
No. 588 (Ingholt 1957: No. 71).
129. Entreaty to Preach the Doctrine (Zwalf 1996: No. 194).
130. Miracle of Śrāvasti. From Sahri Bahlol, Peshāwar Museum, No. 1527
(Hargreaves 1986: Pl. 2 (a)). See also Marshall 1973: Fig. 124.
131. Cult of the turban. Peshāwar Museum, No. 2064 (Ingholt 1957: No. 50). See
also Marshall 1973: Fig. 62.
132. Bodhisattva in Meditation. From Sahri Bahlol. Peshāwar Museum, No. 1645
(Ibid: No. 541). The double bandeau is noteworthy. See also
Hargreaves: 99.
133. Head of Bodhisattva. From Sikri. Lahore Museum, No. 946. The head gives
an excellent idea of the sumptuous headdress of a Bodhisattva, with the
elaborate turban, the tapering tenon, at the fantail crest. (Ingholt: No. 330).
134. Head from an image of a turbaned Bodhisattva (Zwalf: No. 81).
135. Head from an image of a turbaned Bodhisattva (Ibid: No. 82).
136. Head of Bodhisattva in stucco. From Sirkap, found near the apsidal temple.
Taxila, No. 1384 (Marshall 1951: Ⅲ, Pl. 148, Fig. 5).
137. Death of the Buddha. Of the four figures standing behind the bed, the one
with raised arms on the extreme right wears such a turban. From Takht-i-
Bāhi (Zwalf: No. 230). See also Ibid: No. 231. In this case three persons
stand behind the bed. Of these the one in the middle wears a similar
turban.
138. Head of a Bodhisattva. Brooklyn Museum, No. L 67. 21. 29 (Schmidt: No.
353).
 xiii

139. Seated Bodhisattva. Loriyan Tangai. Indian Museum, Calcutta No. 4982
(Schmidt: Fig. 363).
140. Head of a Bodhisattva. From Taxila; National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi
(Schmidt: Fig. 374).
141. Image of a Bodhisattva. From Mekhasanda, near Shāhbāzgarhi in the
Mardan district. Musée Guimet (Ibid: Fig. 375).
142. Maitreya. From Mohra Moradu, Taxila. Karachi, no. 444 (Ingholt: Fig. 292-
93).
143. Seated Bodhisattva. Peshāwar district. (Chandigarh Museum, No. 1107
(Schmidt: Fig. 735).
144. Presentation of the bowls. From Jamāl Garhi (Zwalf: Fig. 189). See also
Ingholt: Fig. 67-69.
145. Offering of the Monkey. From Sikri Stupa, Lahore (Ingholt: Fig. 115).
146. Buddha and Monks at the House of Srīgupta. Gai Collection, Peshāwar
(Ibid: Fig. 123).
147. Presentation of the Four Bowls. Peshāwar Museum (Marshall 1973: Fig.
150).
148. Presentation of the Bowls. From Swāt or Buner (Zwalf: Fig. 191).
149. Terracotta Bowl. Private Collection, Japan (Kurita: Fig. 825).
150. Silver Goblet. Parthian period. Sirkap, Taxila (Marshall 1973: 42).
151. Drinking Scene. From Buner. The Cleveland Museum of Art (Kurita 1990:
Fig. 535).
152. Nāgīs offering wine. From Kāfir Koṭ. (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 338). .See also
Marshall 1973: Fig. 83.
153. Toilet Tray with crowded drinking scene. From Sirkap, Taxila. National
Museum, New Delhi (Marshall 1973: Fig. 16).
154. Drinking party of nine figures. Probably from Swāt. Peshāwar Museum
(Ibid: Fig. 40).
155. Head of Dionysus. From Sirkap (Taxila). National Museum Karachi (Ibid:
Fig. 29).
156. Drinking scene. Tokyo National Museum (Kurita 1990: Fig. 571).
 xiv

157. Drinking scene. From Haḍḍa (S. Afghānistān). Musée Guimet, Paris
(Marshall 1973: Fig. 49).
158. Viśvantra gives away the choice Elephant. From Sahri Bahlol. Peshāwar,
No. 1366 (Ingholt 1957: Fig. 49). See also Ibid. No. 13.
159. Birth of Siddhārta and the seven steps. National Museum Karachi (Ibid: Fig.
14).
160. Hand holding a water pot from an image of Maitreya. Acquired in Peshāwar
(Zwalf1996: 74). For a comparison see also Ibid: Fig. 51.
161. Panel showing a kneeling woman beside a pot. (Zwalf: Fig. 523).
162. Birth of Siddhārta’s Groom Chanḍaka and of his Horse Kaṇṭhaka, Karachi.
Formerly Lahore, no. 1966 (Ingholt: Fig. 19).
163. Wine drinking scene. Tokyo National Museum (Kurita: Fig. 565).
164. Bracket in the form of a winged devi. From Dharmarājīkā, Taxila Museum.
(Marshall 1973: Fig. 25).
165. Monk and donors in Iranian costume. From Sahri Bahlol. Peshāwar, No.
1722 (Ingholt: Fig. 418)
166. Basket carrier (Kurita: fig. 875).
167. Toilet-tray with pair of lovers. From Sirkap. National Museum of Pakistan,
Karachi (Marshall 1973: Fig. 13).
168. Toilet-tray with drinking scene. From Sirkap. National Museum of Pakistan,
Karachi (Ibid: Fig. 14).
169. Toilet tray with hippocamp and rider. From Sirkap. Taxila Museum (Ibid:
Fig. 15).
170. Preparation for the First Sermon. Peshāwar, No. 1963 (Ingholt: Fig. 74).
171. Three scenes from the story of Nanda. From Jamāl Garhi, Calcutta Museum
(Marshall 1973: Fig. 116).
172. Coffin of the Buddha. Gai collection, Peshāwar (Ingholt: Fig. 144).
173. Attack by Māra and his Host. Freer Gallery of Art (Kurita 1988: 1, Fig. 226).
In the upper left corner, the figure standing first in the second row has a
hook shaped stick presently known as “dagha”.
174. Panel showing musical instruments. Private collection, Japan (Kurita
1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 543). The partly damaged figure in the left carries a
 xv

cylindrical drum.
175. Panel showing a musician and a dancer. From the Buner Yusufzai border
(Zwalf: Fig. 522).
176. Dancing scene. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada, No. 930-192
(Kurita 1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 532). See also Francine Tissot, Gandhāra, Paris
1985, P. 234; Planche XLI, no. 2.
177. Indra and his Harpist visit the Buddha in the Indraśāla cave. Lahore
Museum. No. 1401, (Ingholt 1957;Fig. 128; Kurita 1988:1, Fig. 340). It
shows three-stringed harp.
178. Indra and his harpist visit the Buddha in the Indraśāla cave. Lahore
Museum. From Sikri stupa (Ingholt 1957:Fig. 129; Kurita 1988: 1, Fig.
332). The harp has four strings.
179. Visit of Indra, From Swāt or Buner (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 219). The harp has
five strings.
180. Dancing scene. From Buner. The Cleveland Museum of Art (Kurita 1990:11,
Fig. 534). See also F. Tissot, op. cit: Fig. XLI, No. 6. The number of
strings in this case is eleven.
181. Fragment of a relief showing dancing scene. Tokyo National Museum
(Kurita 1990: 11, Fig. 547).
182. Fragment of a relief showing music scene. Private collection of Mr. Sherrier,
London (Ibid: Fig. 546).
183. Drinking, dancing and Music. From Chakhil-i-Goundi, Haḍḍa. Guimet
Museum (Kurita 1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 541). The female musician standing on the
extreme right has a pear-shaped guitar. See also Kurita, op. cit., Fig. 544,
548, 549, 553.
184. Base ornamented with garland and Erotes. From Lower Monastery at
Nathu, Callcutta Museum (Marshall 1973: Fig. 91). The Erote standing in
the loop of the garland on the extreme right has a shouldered lute. See
also Zwalf 1996: Ⅱ, Fig. 339. The standing figure third from right has such
a lute, F. Tissot, op. cit., Planche XLI, No. 11.
185. Fragment of a panel relief depicting “Māra’s Attack”. Private collection,
Japan (Kurita 1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 525).
 xvi

186. Fragment of a relics depicting a drummer and flautist, Private collection,

Japan (Ibid: 1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 543).
187. Animal-faced figure. Private collection, Japan (Ibid 1990:Ⅱ, Fig. 557).
188. Stair-riser length showing musicians. From Jamāl Garhi. (Zwalf 1996:
Fig.331). The figure standing on the extreme right is playing the double
flute (Joṛi).
189. Stair-riser length showing figures, trees and beasts of Burden. From Jamāl
Garhi (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 307).
190. The Renunciation. From Khanpur (Dhir). Private collection, Japan (Kurita
1988: Fig. 139).
191. The Great Departure. Private collection, Europe (Ibid 1988: Fig. 144).
192. The Great Departure. Private collection, U.S.A (Kurita 1990: Fig. 862).
193. Return to Kapilavastu. Possibly from Swāt. Private collection, Japan (Kurita
1988: Fig. 58).
194. Visit to the temple to Thank Divinity for Newborn Child. Mr. Sherrier,
London (Kurita: Fig. 75).
195. Siddhārta meets with old man and the Great Departure. Private collection,
Europe (Kurita: Fig. 75).
196. The Great Departure. Private collection, Japan (Kurita: Fig. 146).
197. Farewell of Chanḍaka and Kaṇṭhaka. Possibly from Swāt. Private
Collection, U.S.A. (Kurita: Fig. 158).
198. Farewell of Chanḍaka and Kaṇṭhaka. Butkara remains, Swāt (Kurita:Fig.
159).
199. The State Elephant sent to Siddhārta. From Sahri Bahlol. Peshāwar
Museum, no. 2065 (Ibid 1988: Fig. 103). See also Ingholt 1957:Fig,26.
200. Stupa drum panel showing the prediction of the Bodhisattva’s Destiny and
the Arrival of the Elephant in two scenes. From Swāt or Buner (Zwalf
1996: Fig. 158).
201. Elephant and mahout. Private collection, Pakistan (Kurita 1990: Fig. 743).
202. Caprisoned elephant. Private collection, Japan (Ibid: Fig. 741).
203. Caprisoned elephant. Karachi Museum (Ibid: Fig. 740).
 xvii

204. Transportation of the relics. Lahore Museum, no. 1172 (Ibid:No.150).

205. Fragment of a panel with the Buddha beside an amorino feeding a lion
(Zwalf 1996: Fig. 291).
206. Lion teased by Amorino. From Sikri. Taxila Museum, No. 1455 (Ingholt
1957: Fig. 458).
207. Siddhārta rides to school. From Sahri Bahlol, Mound C, 1912. Peshāwar
Museum, No. 1719 (Ibid: Fig. 23).
208. Siddhārta rides to school. Mr. Sherrier, London (Kurita 1988: Fig. 81).
209. Return to Kapilavastu,. From Swāt (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 156).
210. Panel showing dancers and a chariot with riders (Ibid: 1996: Fig. 327).
211. Two merchants offer food to the Buddha. From Takht-i-Bāhi. Peshāwar
Museum, No. 797 (Ingholt 1957: Fig. 67).
212. Caravan of merchants. From Chatpat (Dani 1968-69: Pl. 35, Fig. 63).
213. Panel showing the dream of Māyā, the interpretation of the dream, and the
departure from Kapilavastu (Ibid: 1996: Fig. 143).
214. Fragment of a panel with a chariot. From Takht-i-Bāhi (Zwalf, op. cit., Fig.
537).
215. Māyā and Siddhārta Return to Kapilavastu. Karachi Museum. From
Rawalpindi (Ingholt 1957: Fig. 17).
216. Unidentified. Lahore Museum, No. 1335 (Ibid: Fig. 174).
217. The Birth of the Bodhisattva and the return to Kapilavastu. From Swāt
(Zwalf 1996: Fig. 154).
218. The birth of the Bodhisattva and the return to Kapilavastu. From Swāt
(Ibid: Fig. 155).
219. The Child Bodhisattva Going to School (Marshall 1973: Fig. 95).
220. Wheeled chariot with three passengers pushed and drawn by birds. Private
Collection, Japan (Kurita 1990: Fig. 746).
221. Transportation of the relics. Private Collection, Japan (Kurita 1988: Fig.
522). See the panel on the extreme left in the lower register
222. Panel showing standing six watermen (Zwalf 1996: 1, Pl. X11, Ⅱ, Fig. 301).
223. Relief showing athletic contests. From Jamāl Garhi. Peshāwar Museum, No.
 xviii

1906 (Kurita 1988: Fig. 90).

224. Siddhārta competes in wrestling and Tug-of-war. From Sikri. Lahore
Museum, No. 2031 (Ingholt 1957: Fig. 29).
225. Stupa drum panel. (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 161).
226. Panel showing the archery contest. (Ibid: Fig. 166)
227. Wrestling match. Private collection Europe. (Kurita 1988: Fig. 93). Compare
Ingholt 1957: Fig. 445. See also Marshall 1973: Fig. 105.
228. Wrestling Match. Peshāwar Museum, no. 1938. (Ibid: Fig. 94). It bears an
inscription in Kharoṣṭhi letters which reads minaṃdrasa (of Menander).
229. Panel showing the Bodhisattva as King Śibi ransoming a pigeon with his
own flesh (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 136; and vol. 1, Pl. Ⅴ). See also Kurita 1990:
Fig. 847 and Ingholt: 1957: Fig. Ⅹ,2.
230. Panel showing the Bodhisattva as King Śibi ransoming a pigeon. Private
collection, Pakistan (Kurita, op. cit., Fig. 849).
231. Panel showing “Sivi-jataka”. Peshāwar Museum (Kurita, op. cit., Fig. 848).
232. Fragment of a panel showing the Buddha preaching (Zwalf 1996: Fig. 287).
233. Stupa drum panel showing a Bodhisattva, presumably Maitreya, with
ascetics. From Hoti Mardan (Ibid: Fig. 126).
234. Attack by Māra and his Host Peshāwar, No. 2072. Formely in the Guides
Mess, Mardan (Ingholt: Fig. 66).
235. Offering of the four bowls. Lahore Museum. From Sikri Stupa (Ibid: Fig.
68).
236. Standing Buddha. Tokyo National Museum. (Kurita 1990: Fig. 201).
237. Seated Buddha. Mr. Sherrier, London. (Ibid: Fig. 202).
238. Standing Buddha. Willard Clark collection, U.S.A. (Ibid: Fig. 213).
239. Interpretation of Māyā’s Dream. Peshāwar Museum, No. 2067. Formerly in
the Guides Mess. (Kurita 1988: Pl. Ⅳ). See also Ingholt, op.cit., Fig. 12.
 xix

Acknowledgement
In this context I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Muhammad Farooq Swāti,
presently Vice Chancellor of Swāt University in Swāt, for his excellent
supervision. I must admit that this work would never have seen the light of the
day without the active help and advice of Prof. (retd) Dr. Abdur Rahman, whose
untiring guidance was all the time available to the present writer both at the time
of conducting research and then putting down the results in black and white. I
acknowledge his help with much gratitude.
I should also like to thank Drs. Naseem Khan, Ibrahim Shah, Gul Rahim,
and Mukhtar Ali Durrani, all of the same Department of Archaeology, for the
kindness shown to me during the period of course work at the Department. My
thanks are also due to Messers Asad Ali and Muhammad Naeem Bacha and Asim
Amin and the library staff of the Department for their help in different ways. I am
also grateful for help to the librarians and staff members of the libraries of the
Departments of History and Archaeology, University of the Punjāb as well as
Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Peshāwar.
It remains for me to thank and gratefully acknowledge the guidance I took
from earlier writings on the subject, which are too many to be counted here. My
work is no way aimed at minimizing their importance.
The bibliography is chiefly a record of works consulted without seeking
completeness. Abbreviations are used only where necessary. The most recurrent
spellings of proper names are presented to their more correct but pedantic forms.
 1

Chapter 1
Introduction

The tremendous volume of sculptures yielded by the excavations of the

Department of Archaeology, University of Peshāwar, the Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, the Dīrectorate of
Archaeology, Government of Khyber Pakhtun Khwa and the Italian Mission in
Swāt, in the last three to four decades, resulted in the construction of new
museums in Pakistan. Swāt Museum at Saidu Sharif in Swāt, Sir Sahibzada Abdul
Qayyum Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at the University of Peshāwar
sprang up within a short period of time. The most recent additions in the series
are Pushkalāvati Museum at Chārsada and Archaeological Museum at Hund,
celebrated capital of the Oḍi Shahis (Hindu Shahis) of Afghānistān, Gandhāra and
the Panjāb during the period stretching from the early part of the nineth to the
early part of eleventh century AD. This scientifically and systematically
excavated material was not avaible to the early writers and, as such, they could
not present possible wholistic picture of the Gandhāran culture. In view of the
problem, the present author has made an effort to analyse the above mentioned
Buddhist reliefs in the light of latest research a fresh cultural profile.
Isao Kuritas’ two volumes on Gandhāra Art in the Ancient Buddhist Art
Series and W. Zwalfs’ A Cataloque of the Gandhāran Sculptures in the British
Museum were a timely help which extended the horizon of this research (Kurita
1991; Zwalf 1996). While Isao Kurita has been able to bring to light several
Gandhāran sculptures hidden in private collections. Zwalfs’ work (2 vols.)
presents the whole collection of Gandhāra in the British Museum with well
researched comments and references for each item. All this urged the present
writer to take up the subject once again for a fresh look.
K. Krishn Murthy (1977) was first to make a substantial contribution to the
study of cultural material as reflected in the sculptures of Gandhāra. The material
available to him came primarily from the excavations conducted from time to
time by the Archaeological Survey of India at various sites, in particular at Taxila,
Takht-i-Bāhi, Jamāl Garhi, Sikri, Sahri Bahlol, etc. Marshall and others such as
 2

Alfred Foucher, Hugo Buchthal, James Burgess, Albert Grünwedel studied this
material, which consisted mainly of sculptures in stones and stucco from artistic
point of view without attempting any kind of an exhaustive cultural survey. The
material was scattered in many different museums which must have the task
doubly the difficult. No comprehensive record was available.
In 1957 Harald Ingholt brought out a very important volume based on
careful selection of significant sculptures exhibited in Pakistani museums
including some private collections of which he prepared a set of excellent
photographs which he published in his Gandhāra Art in Pakistan (Harald Ingholt
1957). Besides, Sir John Marshall’s reports, which appeared in three volumes
regarding his excavations at Taxila, and his study of Gandhāra Art entitled The
Buddhist Art of Gandhāra (Sir John Marshall 1951; 1960), The Gandhāra
Sculptures: A Cultural Survey (K. Krishan Murthy) depended mainly upon Harald
Ingholt.
In 1985 (Francine Tissot took up the subject and presented her study in
book entitled Gandhāra (Francine Tissot :1985). But no fresh excavation on a
Buddhist site except those of Italian Mission in Swāt, Pakistan, had been
undertaken after Marshall’s work at Taxila and as a result no fresh material was
available to her. Her source material was almost the same as that of Murthy.
Numerous Gandhāran sites were plundered during this time and material was sold
to private collectors.
Fresh materials were brought to light when the Department of
Archaeology, University of Peshāwar, launched two successive campaigns first in
Dīr and then in Swāt. The excavations revealed a lot of sculptures for scientific
study open to scholars and researchers. Meanwhile the Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan opened up several new sites
such as Nimogram, which yielded a rich crop of nicely executed sculptures. It is
note worthy that fresh material from this and other sites that has prompted a fresh
look—a third study aimed at cultural survey of Gandhāra art (K. Krishan
Murthy:1977; Francise Tissot: 1985) as no attempt was made by the earlier
writers to explain the then known material in the light of information brought
about by archaeological discoveries and techniques available at that time. Nor did
they try to correlate this material reflecting for instance architecture, to those
 3

remnants of the past which are still available on the countryside in the form of
traditional craftsmanship.
Present study comprises of eight chapters. Of these ‘Chapter 1’ deals with
the interpretation of the name ‘Gandhāra’, the discovery of Gandhāra art as a
result of accelerating European Interest in archaeological activities in the
Peshāwar valley. A new interpretation of the name Gandhāra is here presented.
‘Chapter 2’ gives a sketch of physical setup, meaning of the term
Gandhāra and an outline of historical background of Peshāwar valley in which
Gandhāra took its birth and flourished for centuries as long as patronage from
historical actors—rulers and the rich—was available. Historical developments
cast their shadows upon contemporary art.
‘Chapter 3’ briefly presents the subject matter of Gandhāra art throwing
some light on independent cult images, non-Buddhist deities and relief panels.
The problem whether independent images appeared first or relief panels still
remained unsolved, though there is evidence to show that relief panel appeared
first. It is with the relief panels that we are mainly concerned here.
Architecture reflected in our relief panels on the whole reflect
contemporary styles but, in some cases, the reliefs show that architecture was
used merely as a decorative element to dramatic scene, particularly when it
depicts, for instance a three-centred horse-shoe arch which was not known in
Gandhāra at that time. A scheme of tripartite elevations and ground plans was the
most favoured among Gandhāran artists. This forms the gensis of ‘Chapter 4’.
‘Chater 5’ gives an account of the weapons, tools, and implements
reflected mainly in our relief panels, though independent images also help in
determing the true nature and shape of these objects. Th spear-blade for instance
appears to have developed from its stone counterpart.
Gandhāra has been the rendezvous of culturtal currents emanating from
different parts of the world. This may be seen in the variety of garments which
forms focal point of discussion in ‘Chapter 6’, including jewellery and
headdresses.
Miscellaneous other aspects of the culture of Gandhāra for which the
number of illustrations are limited and cannot be developed into separate
chapters, are grouped together in ‘Chapter 7’. They include household vessels,
 4

musical instruments, transport, sport, weighing instruments, royal insignia etc.

‘Chapter 8’ presents a brief summary of the conclusions.
The people of Gandhāra must have enjoyed a prosperous life, but all its
vestiges are now extinct. Litrary sources do allude to in a limited way to the lively
Gandhāran Civilisation yet its ancient cultural profile can not be reconstructed
without a detailed study of Budhist reliefs retrieved from a number of
archaeological sites in Gandhāra and its neighbouring regions. Lying in different
museums and private collections in and abroad, these reliefs are so overwhelming
in a variety of cultural information that cannot be overlooked by any student of
archaeology or art history. The reliefs provide enough data to reconstruct the
Gandhāran cultural profile by studying diverse decorative styles or motifs, etc.,
which has been attempted to analiyse in succeeding pages.
The correct interpretation of the notices left behind by some Chinese
pilgrims and the classical writers helped in finding out that the ancient name of
the Peshāwar valley was Gandhāra. But what this name really meant could not be
so correctly determined as to inspire our confidence. A commonly accepted
explanation is that Gandhāra, consisting of Gandh and hāra, gives the meaning
the “land of fragrance”, as gandh in Sanskrit stands for fragrance, perfume, smell,
and hāra for land. This rather naïve interpretation has gone unscrutinised so far
and leaves much to be desired. Ruth Young’s recent attempt (2009: 57-63) to
“explore” the name in different texts throws no new light.
Gandhāra is no doubt a composite name comprising gand (or gandh) and
hāra. We are much familiar with the second part of the name, i.e., hāra,
pronounced as hār, as it occurs in many other names such as Potohār (Pothohār),
Vanhār, Nāgarahāra, Nirahara etc. and definitely means the land or territory. But
the first part, i.e. gand/ gandh is problematical. Should we take it as meaning
“fragrance”, one may legitimately ask where has that fragrance now? Peshāwar
valley is the same, like any other piece of land with no claim of possessing that
special quality—the so-called “fragrance”—as a dominant characteristic to stamp
its own name upon the entire land.
The most significant geographical feature of the Peshāwar valley is, and
has been the huge volume of water brought into it by its rivers from the catchment
areas of the Hindukush and the Himalayas. The geographical formation of the
 5

valley showing gravel beds topped by alluvium suggests that it is a gift of the
Kābul, Swāt and Indus rivers. The volume of waters brought down by these rivers
is gradually decreasing but they are still capable of showing their strength, a
terrible demonstration of which was seen last year (i.e. 2010) when the whole
valley was turned into an ocean causing immense loss of life and property. The
overwhelming impact of water may also be seen in the fact that much of the land
now under cultivation was, as late as, in the Mughal period, full of swamps where
huge animals like rhinocerous roamed freely and were occasionally killed by the
Mughal emperors like Babur, Akbar and Jahangir. This, in fact, is the feature
which gave its name to the entire valley.
It is interesting to see that the point where the Kābul joins the Indus is still
known as Kunḍ, that is, a bowl or, figurately, a great reservoir of water. The name
Kunḍ brings us very close to “gand”, the first part in the name Gandhāra. The
vowel u in Kunḍ is easily accounted for. For instance, Qandahār/ Qandhār (in
Afghānistān) is usually taken as synonymous with Gandhāra. An early Arab
historian tells us that the old people of Qandhār pronounced this name as
Qundhār. This obviously means “the land marked by a Kunḍ or water reservoir”.

Discovery
The discovery of Gandhāra art is a by-product of the European quest for
ancient coins. European scholarship had always been fascinated by the adventures
of Alexander the Great in the east. Accounts of these adventures were supplied by
the classical writers but there was nothing on the ground in the form of coins or
monuments to substanciate them. Great was the joy when chance discoveries of a
few Bactrian Greek coins in the 18th century set the ball rolling in this direction.
Footprints of Alexander’s successors in the east were thought to be emerging. The
coins were deciphered and published which stimulated the interest of various
private collectors. The establishment of the Asiatic society by Sir William Jones
on 15th January 1784 facilitated the work of publication. A journal called Asiatic
Researches was first issued in 1788.
Encouraged by these developments Col. Jones Tod during his 12 years
residence in India collected 20,000 coins of all denominations and published a
memoir upon Greek, Parthian and Indian coins in the first volume of the
 6

Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1824. He described the greater

number as possessing no interest, but the collection also had a few of entire
novelty, and great numismatic and historical values. Of this description were
coins of Apollodotus and Menander, now for the first time discovered. Col. Tod’s
discovery of these coins, remarks H.H. Wilson constitutes an era in the history of
Bactro-Indian numismatics (W. W. Wilson 1841:4). Another enthusiastic coin
collector was Charles Masson. “In the July of the present year (1833)”, he states,
“I left for the city of Kābul to explore the districts north of it … I soon learned
that large number of coins were continually found on the plain (called Begram)”.
Masson continued his researches during the four succeeding years and, besides
opening a large number of stupas, collected more than 30,000 coins (H. H.
Wilson 1841:11).
Meanwhile a French officer of the army of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh ruler of
the Panjāb, General JB Ventura opened an ancient monument, actually a Buddhist
stupa, near the village Mānikiāla/ Mānkiāla (JB Ventura 1832). It was first
reported by M Elphinstone, who on his way back from Kābul in 1808 sent a party
to test Col. Wilford’s view that Mānkiāla marked the site of ancient Taxila.
Elphinstone’s party found no remains other than the tope, as the stupa was locally
called, but twelve years afterwards Moorcroft, crossing the spot, was informed by
people that old walls, potsherds, and ancient coins were frequently discovered.
Topes were also observed by Moorcoft on the west of the Indus and in
Afghānistān (Wilson 1841: 31). The “tope” of Mānkiāla was not a solitary
example of its kind on this spot. M. Court who visited the place shortly afterwards
found no less than fifteen topes in the neighbourhood which he opened and,
luckily, found Roman coins in one of them. An account of Ventura’s discovery,
effected in April and May 1830, was forwarded to Calcutta and made known
there about the end of the same year. In the beginning of March 1832, Lieutenant
(later Sir) Alexander Burnes, then on his way to Bokhāra, visited Mānkiāla and
inspected the operations of Ventura. Burnes also made a collection of coins which
was published by James Prinsep in the journal of the Society for June 1833
(James Prinsep 1933: ii, 310).
Ventura’s work at Mānkiāla and Masson’s digs in Afghānistān opened up
a new field, namely, Buddhist archaeology, which stimulated general interest in
 7

images and paved the way for plundering such monuments. Sir Aurel Stein (1929:
17) just at the outset of his famous Swāt trip bitterly remarks: “My first visit was
to Nal, at the foot of the Mora pass, where, above a small village, diggings made
for Colonel Deane in 1897 had brought to light a mass of fine Greeco-Buddhist
relievos. These had been excavated from fine stupas or shrines by local Pathans
without supervision or guidance; but, at least, they were safely lodged in the
Calcutta Museum. Much regrettable damage and loss have been caused, before
and since, in tribal territory and elsewhere along the Peshāwar border, by
“irresponsible” digging for remains of that Hellenistic sculptural art which once
adorned all Buddhist sanctuaries of this region. How destructive such digging
usually was and how often much of the spoil, when sold to amateur collectors,
was ultimately scattered or destroyed, is a story too sad to be told here”. One of
the most evocative descriptions of “stupa-hunting” has been given by Major
Herbert B. Edwards (1851) of the 1st Bengal European Fuzilier Regiment, in
connection with his notice of Akra mound near Bannu (Herbert B. Edwards 1851:
335-41).
With this a vague outline of a Gandhāra school of sculpture showing
Greek as well as local influences started emerging. The first note on this subject is
apparently by W. Jackson (1852:511-13) who illustrated two pieces of Gandhāra
stucco found near Peshāwar. In the same year E.C. Bayley (1852:606-21) found a
detailed note on some sculptures found in the Peshāwar district. These were
collected by Colonel Lumsden of the Guides Corpe and Lieutenant Stokes of the
Horse Artillery from a site known as Jamāl Garhi. A sketch plan of the Jamāl
Garhi stupa and drawings of sculptures and architectural pieces are also given.
The development of archaeological activities which finally resulted in the
discovery of Gandhāra School may be divided into three phases. The first phase
was dominated by Cunningham, the second by Marshall and the third by the
Italian Mission in Swāt, the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshāwar
and the Japanese missions.

First Phase
A systematic enquiry into the ancient past of India started with the
establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861. Alexander
 8

Cunningham, then in his 48th year and freshly out of the army with the rank of
Major General was appointed as its first head (Chakrabarti 1988: 57).
Cunningham identified the ancient city of Pushkalāvati with the two large towns
of Parang and Chārsada and in the same general area two small stupa sites
mentioned by Xuan Zang. The site of Varusha with a cave and a spring was
identified with the village, Palodheri, near Shābāzgarhi and ancient Utakhanda
with Hund. Salātura, the birth place of Paṇini was identified with the modern
town Choṭa Lahore and Rānigat with Aornos of the classical writers.
Cunningham’s major achievement in the Panjāb was the identification and
description of the ruins of Taxila in which he mentions the ramparts of Kacha-Koṭ
and Sirsukh and the great city of Sirkap each of which being as large as the
imperial city of Shāh Jahān at Delhi. But the size and number of the stupas,
monasteries and other religious buildings, he remarks, is even more wonderful
than the great extent of the city. Hasan Abdal with its Buddhist ruins was
identified with the place of the legend of the Nāga Elapatra. In the same general
area he laid a trench to a depth of 22 feet at a stupa near Boati Pind while Balar
stupa was opened by a local chief. He mentions the stupa of Badarpur as one of
the three largest stupas in the Panjāb (the others were Mānkiāla and Shahpur). He
also refers to Buddhist remains at Tarnawa, Kurmal and Rawalpindi or Gajipur.
He visited Mānkiāla and excavated a large mound (200X180X10-12 feet) north of
the stupa opened by Ventura. At Sonalia Pind, near Mānkiāla, he opened a stupa
and found, along with coins, a stupa model in its relics’ chamber.
It is not possible to cover all the archaeological activities of Cunningham
in this brief note. His initial appointment for two years was extended upto 1864-
65 season when the government of India appreciated the results of the surveys
carried out by him, but, without recommending further extension. As a result
Cunningham left for England on 9th February 1866.
But the need for systematic exploratory activities was soon felt so that in a
dispatch dated 11 January 1870 the Duke of Argyll, the then Secretary of State,
wrote of the necessity of centralising the archaeological activities under the
government and putting them on a secure basis. The government of India under
the viceroy Lord Mayo accepted the suggestion and wanted Alexander
Cunningham at the head of new central department, the Archaeological Survey of
 9

India. Cunningham was back early in 1871 to take over.

In the introduction to the report of 1872-73 season, Cunningham began
with a reference of the increasing number of sculptures coming from the
northwestern regions. The ruins which first came under scrutiny during this
season were those in Peshāwar valley. At Shāhbāzgarhi, Cunningham satisfied
himself by taking a fresh copy of the Aśokan inscription and noting the existence
of an extensive city in the vicinity. The excavations at Takht-i-Bāhi were
superintended by Sergeant F.H. Wilcher of the Sappers and Miners. The stupa of
Jamāl Garhi, opened by Colonel Lumsdem, was surveyed and cleared by Sergent
Wilcher. The remains of Sāwal Dheri, Nogrām and Khairabad were briefly
mentioned. In 1878-79 he reported the finds of beautiful Gandhāra heads at
Rokhari, near Mainwali.

The reports from the northwestern frontier were sporadic. In the third
volume of Indian Antiquary (1874) there was a report on the Buddhist ruins at
Jamāl Garhi with the plan of the excavated monastic and stupa structures. The
excavations were done in March and April 1873 by the 8th Company of Sappers
and Miners under the command of Lieutenant Arthur Crompton. There was also a
note on the collection of the Gandhāran sculptures by G.W. Leitner in Indian
Antiquary of the same year.

Second Phase
Archaeological activities in the next phase filled the museums with
sculptures. Clandestine diggings also increased to fill private collections. In fact
the arrival of Lord Curzon as the Viceroy of India in 1899 marked the dawn of a
new era for Indian archaeology. He reorganized the archaeological survey and
recreated the post of the Dīrector General which had been abolished after the
retirement of Cunningham. John Marshall was appointed the new Dīrector
General. He joined the department on 22 February 1902 and continued to work in
this capacity till 1928 (Chakrabarti 1988:128). But he stayed on in various
capacities to 1934. All field researches done in this period except the work of
M.A. Stein in Central Asia in the early part of the 20th century, were either
directly due to his planning and direction or closely linked to the work begun by
 10

him. Marshall unleashed a vigorous programme of excavations.

Spreading over 25 square miles Taxila was a world by itself. During the 24
years (1912-36) of his work on this site Marshall laid bare all the important
monuments that we see there at present. The discovery of the Indus Civilization
during this period would seem to have shifted the focus but the work on Taxila
and other sites of less importance was not allowed to suffer.
In Gandhāra the mounds of Bālā Hisār, Mīr Ziyārat, Palātu and Ghaz
Dheri were partly excavated. The work at Takht-i-Bāhi, done in two seasons,
1907-8 and 1911-12, by D.R. Spooner and H. Hargreaves, was mainly of the
nature of clearance to prepare a plan of this monastic complex. Its ground plan
had become necessary because, as Spooner (1911: 180) has rightly remarked,
“many of the best pieces of Gandhāra sculpture now to be found in the museums
of Europe were originally recovered from this site”. The site of Sahri Bahlol
possessed, in addition to its main stupa mound, a large number of mounds in the
vicinity, including a small town site. The stupa mound was excavated by Spooner
in 1909-10, while Aurel Stein (1911-12) investigated another six mounds in this
area. Sahri Bahlol yielded a large number of sculptures including the tallest
Buddha images now exhibited in the Peshāwar museum. Work on Shāh-ji-ki-
dheri, outside the Ganj Gate of Peshāwar city, was undertaken by Spooner in
1907-08. The famous Kanishka casket was found in 1908-09 season. The site was
identified with Knishka Vihāra. In 1909-11 Hargreaves undertook complete
clearance of this area exposing thereby a cruciform stupa. In 1915-16 Pandit V.
Natisa Aiyar (1915-16: 115-16), then superintendent of the Frontier Circle,
described with plan and measurement a stupa called Shpola 27 miles from
Peshāwar on the road to Landi Kotal in the Khyber pass. In 1920-22 Hargreaves
conducted clearance work at Jamāl Garhi and also located stupas at Hāji Bela,
Beddādi, Chitti Gāti, Palosa Khpa (near Jamāl Garhi), Asota, Koṭ Sirkap near
Mansehra and another Koṭ near Takht-i-Bāhi (see Chakrabarti 1988: 134-35).
There was no place to properly preserve all these finds. Therefore a new museum
was established at Peshāwar and filled up with sculptures and other finds.

Third Phase:
In the third phase the marginal areas of Gandhāra such as Swāt and Dīr
 11

became major fields of archaeological investigations, while Gandhāra itself was

relegated to a secondary position for the simple reason that spoliation of cultural
sites had been going for so long and at such a rapid speed that nothing much was
left for proper investigation after the middle of the 20th century when the
Department of Archaeology, University of Peshāwar, initiated its programme of
excavations in lower Dīr, around Chakdara, the crossing point, at which a proper
bridge built during the British period, provides access to upper Dīr, Bajaur and
Chītral.
The research programme of the Department of Archaeology, University of
Peshāwar, was carried out in two separate campaigns. In the first campaign, 1963-
64 to 1968, the work was started at two ancient cemeteries at Timargarh and a
settlement site at Balambat but it went on developing towards the investigation of
Buddhist sites in the vicinity of Chakdara. Thus the sites of Damkoṭ, Chaṭpaṭ,
Andan, Ramora and Bambolai were excavated and published in the journal of the
Department entitled Ancient Pakistan. It may be remembered that the Department
had already carried out excavations at Shaikan Dheri, near Chārsada, bringing to
light a number of fine schist sculptures. The materials from the Dīr sites are now
on display in the Dīr Museum, Chakdara. In the second campaign, before shifting
attention to Swāt, the site of Charg Pati and a few other sites of lesser importance
were excavated in Dīr. In Swāt the site of Butkara Ⅲ and Shnaisha, excavated by
Prof Abdur Rahman, yielded a rich crop of sculptures now exhibited in the
University museum at Peshāwar.
The main sites of our interest excavated by the Italian Mission in Swāt
include Butkara Ⅰ, Panr Ⅰ, Gumbat, Saidu Stupa, Bir-Kot-Ghundai (Barikot), and
Uḍigrām. Part of the sculptures found from these sites is to be found in the Swāt
Museum, Saidu Sharif. Parts of the sculptures found from these, and also from
some other sites, is to be found in Pakistan in the Saidu Museum, Swāt and
another part in Itlay in the Is MEO Museum at Rome.
The Japanese archaeological team from Kyoto University excavated in the
Mardan district between 1959 and 1967, at sites situated within Gandhāra proper.
These sites include Kashmir Smast, Chanako Dheri, Tarelli and Mekhasanda.
Another Japanese team from the same University brought the great site of Rānigaṭ
under the excavation and exposed very interesting sculptures. Meanwhile the
 12

Government Department of Archaeology and Museums carried out its research

programme at Nimogram in Swāt and more recently at Garh Moriyan, Hāji Shāh
Mor and Jinnān Wali Dheri.
Dr. Karl Jettmar’s work in the Karakoram in 1980 opened up a new field
in which rock carvings scattered in the whole area spreading over hundred of
miles became the focus of attention of successive German teams.
Marshall’s three Volumes on Taxila and his The Buddhist Art of
Gandhāra, in addition to the contributions made by Foucher and other art
historians, made major portions of this art accessible to the scholarly world. Then
Islay Lyons and Harald Ingholt 1957) published a catalogue entitled The
Gandhāra art of Pakistan based on a collection of excellent photographs taken by
Mr. Lyons of sculptures then available in the Museums of Pakistan. “Whatever be
the deficiencies in one or other, the photographs reproduced should make the
study of Gandhāran Art easier for future students in this fascinating field”
(Ingholt 1957: 8). K. Krishna Murthy used this material for his The Gandhāra
Sculptures: A Cultural Study which he compiled in 1977. But Gandhāra art
specimens were adding up every day resulting in even larger collections than
what Murthy had benefited from. Quick in succession came Francine Tissot’s
Gandhāra in 1985. It was based on the study of sculptures exposed till about
1980. This cultural survey is a little more detailed and, just like Murthy’s, is
illustrated with drawings and photographs. But Gandhāra art specimens are still
pouring in and there seemed to be no end. The materials brought to light by the
Department of Archaeology, the Japanese Missions, the Dīrectorate of
Archaeology Frontier Government, and the Department of Archaeology and
Museums, Government of Pakistan, have not so far been subjected to any such
cultural survey. This fresh material necessitated a fresh look. The present writer
has therefore taken up the subject once again in the following pages for a
reappraisal and re-interpretation where necessary. Fortunately recent works: (1) A
catalogue of the Gandhāra Sculptures in the British Museum by W. Zwalf (1996)
and (2) Gandhāran Art by Isao Kurita (1990) has made the job a little more
handy. As Ingholt, Zwalf and Kurita are easily available most of our illustrations
refer to these works.
 13

Chapter 2
Historical Background,

Physical Setup:
In between the Mohmand Hills in the west and Mahāban Range in the east
lie high mountains known as Mālākand, Barandu and Chamla, which provide
access from the northern side through different passes such as Mālākand, Shāh
Koṭ, Mora, etc, into the alluvial plains of the Peshāwar valley (ancient Gandhāra).
In fact, this line of high and low mountains running from west (Mohmand Hills)
to east (Mahāban Range) separated Gandhāra from the northern valleys, mainly,
of Swāt, Dīr and Chitrāl. The western boundary of Gandhāra is similarly marked
by mountains running from north to south. These are known as Khyber hills and
Koh-e-Sufaid or, put together, as Sulaiman ranges, and extend further southward
as far as Baluchistān (a province of Pakistan). The most prominent feature of
these hills is the famous Khyber which had been used by invaders as well as
traders and merchants in ancient times, and now it has a metal road connecting
Peshāwar with Kābul (Afghānistān) (H. W. Bellew 2001:6-19). Ref. ?
The southern side of Gandhāra is covered by high and low hills generally
known as Kālā (correctly Karā) Bāgh which separate it from the Bannu Basin.
The only open side, the eastern boundary of Gandhāra, is marked by the river
Sindh, which is also locally known as Abāsīn (meaning "Father River") (Dani
1995 :18). Ref. ?
Within these limits, lies the Kien-to-lo of the Chinese pilgrims (Beal 1969:
145) identified as Gandhāra of the Rigveda and the present valley of Peshāwar
(Cunningham 1924: 85). Thus, it appears that Gandhāra was the ancient name of
the Peshāwar valley of which both the northern and western limits are occupied
by foot hills of the Himālaya and the Hindu Kush, respectively (Dani 1964: 8).
The most prominent feature of the country of Gandhāra is its rivers and streams
which traverse through the whole length and breadth of this alluvial plain. They
include the Kābul, Swāt and Kalapāni, etc. The Kābul originates to the west of the
Kābul city and receives the waters of small tributaries on both sides (north and
south) such as Ghurband coming from the Hindu Kush and Surkhāb and Lamghān
 14

which join it above Jalālābād, while the Kunar and Chapriar empty themselves
into it below Jalālābād. Thus, draining a number of fertile valleys the Kābul,
having crossed the Mohmand Hills enters into Gandhāra where again it receives
waters from a number of small and large streams and is known as Landai. Finally
it debouches into the mighty Sindh near Kunḍ. Similarly, the river Swāt (ancient
Suvāstu) originating in the upper reaches of the Swāt valley joins the Panjkora
near Mālākand and enters into Gandhāra from the north to join the Kābul near
Pushkalāvati (Chārsada). Besides this, the Kalapāni, also a perennial river
receives rain waters from the adjacent foothills and very often causes great
damage to life and property in central Gandhāra. These hills interrupting the
alluvial plains of Gandhāra create small fertile valleys which are drained by
several small streams serving as feeders for one river or the other (Zwalf 1996:
14).
So far as the geological formation of the Peshāwar valley is concerned its
fertile plains are made up of alluvial materials deposited by the rivers and streams
in the course of millennia. The natural forces are still at work so that deposition
and erosion which has resulted in topographical changes at several places is still
going on (Dani 1964: 8). In ancient times, Gandhāra had been connected with its
neighbouring countries. Being located on the north-western frontier of South Asia
it served as a gateway with its passes (Daras) providing access to the
neighbouring countries while the river valleys such as Kābul, Ghurband and
Panjshīr facilitated trade-routes between Gandhāra and Central Asia. Through
Afghānistān Gandhāra got access to the Silk Road running between China and the
Meditterranean. Through the northern valleys such as Gilgit Gandhāra was
connected with China. For the Indian plains it served as a trade emporium where
trade goods from Central Asia exchanged with those from southern countries.
Similarly, it was connected with eastern countries or river valleys as far as the
Gangetic plains in the east and Dakkan in the south, by Rāja paths (Shāhrāh). As
still we find Aśoka's Rock Edicts at Shāhbāz Garhi and Mānsehra were
apparently installed along the trade routes that traversed Gandhāra linking it with
the neighbouring counties.
 15

Gandhāra: Meaning:
The word Gandhāra makes its first appearance in the oldest religious
literature of South Asia, i-e, Rigveda (Griffith 1968:652), which is generally
thought to have approximately been composed between 1500 to 1000 BC
(Basham 1963:31). So for as the meanings of the word Gandhāra is concerned it
is often translated as ‘the land of fragrance’—taking “gand” as fragrance and
“hāra” the land. Thus, the composite form of the word Gandhāra suggests “a
country or piece of land the soil of which yielded abundant fragrance and,
because of this quality, it apparently, came to be known as Gandhāra ‘the land of
fragrance’.
In the Vedic and Puranic literature the Gandhāra is frequently referred to
as “Uttara” (northern) country, inhabited by Gandhāras (Raposn 1955:26).
Moreover, kien-to-lo of the Chinese pilgrims is also identified as Gandhāra
(Cuningham 1924:55). The measurement of its boundaries is however for the first
time described only by Xuan Zang (Beal 1969:55). Thus, the country of kien-to-lo
measured 1000 li east to west and 800 li from north to west. This measurement
corresponds with the present valley of Peshāwar as it is marked by Jalālābād hills
(Afghānistān) on its west, and the river Indus on the east, Swāt and Burner hills
on the north, and Kālā Bāgh hills on the south (Cunningham 1924:55). It seems
that the term Gandhāra is not unusual in the region as we also have other names
following the same pattern. These are as Nāgarahāra, Poṭhohāra, Vanahāra and
Nirahāra etc.
From where did these regions get their nomenclature is a question that
needs to be addressed. The answer may be looked for in the topographical
features of each region. As, Nāgarahāra or Na-kie-lo-ho (Beal 1969:91) (meaning
“land marked by a city” ) has given its name to the entire surrounding region, the
plateau like tract to the east of river Indus seems to have derived its name from its
hump like topographical formation. Infact, the word Poṭho is a Prakrit form of the
word pusht, i.e 'back'. As this region occupies the back of high hills, it naturally
came to be known as ‘Poṭhohāra’, 'the land at the back'.
This pattern of nomenclature may be noticed even to the south of the Salt
Range where a vast tract of land is still known as ‘Vanahāra’, i-e, “wood land”. It
seems, therefore, certain that all these regions took their names on account of the
 16

topographical features of the land they represent. Now, the name Gandhāra, if its
meaning, “the land of fragrance” is correct does not fall into this pattern.
Therefore, doubts are expressed regarding this meaning of the name. The most
prominent feature of the topography of the Peshāwar valley, as noted above, is its
river system comprising the Kābul and the Swāt which first split up into various
branches and then converging a little above Nowshera, form a single stream
which ultimately joins the river Indus near a place known as Kunḍ (meaning
reservoir or pond). In rainy season this pond swells over a vast area converting
the land into a vast reservoir. This Kunḍ or reservoir would seem to have given its
name to whole of the Peshāwar valley which must have been in the beginning
known as Kunḍhār “the land marked by a huge sheet of water” (Ahmad 2000:29).
It is noteworthy that Qandhār (in Afghānistān) is recorded by early Muslim
writers as Qundhāra (Abdur Rahman 1979:14).
The Peshāwar valley played a vital role in the propagation of Buddhism. It
is from this region that Buddhism spread as far as central Asia and China etc. As
a result Gandhāra enjoyed a very high esteem and reputation as a holy territory in
the ancient Buddhist world. Now, if the use of the term Gandhāra had been
confined merely to the Buddhist period, its alleged meaning (purporting
fragrance) would certainly make some sense. One could easily find a reference to
the spiritual fragrance of Buddhism. But the name is much older than the
Buddhist period and first occurs in the Rigveda about one thousand years before
the advent of Buddhism in Gandhāra (Smith 1964:162). Was Gandhāra a holy
place even then to justify the meaning “land of fragrance”, there is no evidence to
support it.
The composition of the Rigveda was followed by the Brāhmanas. During
this period the centre of religious activities shifted to the adjacent country on the
east, i.e., the upper portion of the Doāb between the Jumnā and the Ganges. This
was Brahmārshideśa, i.e., ‘the country of the holy sages (Rapson 1965:40). In the
Atharvaveda and also in the Śrauta Sutras Gandaris are mentioned as a despised
people to whom fever as an illness was wished to be relegated (Majumdar
1951:258). Thus, it appears that Aryans of the Vedic period did not look upon
Gandhāra as a sacred place which could inspire the Vedic poets to eulogize its
virtues.
 17

Moreover, along with several other tribes Rigveda also mentions Gandaris
but does not specify the boundaries of their country. In post Rigvedic period,
however, we learn about new tribes, as several old ones disappeared and got
merged into each other under new names. One of them, Druhyus, was once
counted amongst the five principle tribes of the Panjāb. But the Druhyus, it seems
were pushed during this tribal struggle for grabbing land into the north western
corner of the Panjāb (Majumdar 1951:258) between Rāwalpindi and Attock.
Angāra, the Druhyu king, was killed in the turmoil and was succeeded by a
person named Gandhāra, after whose name the Druhyus settlement in the Panjāb
came to be known as such. The traditional history (based on Puranas) says that it
was due to this that the term Gandhāra came into vogue as the name of a territory.
The Druhyus (now Gandharis), after sometimes crossed the borders of India, i.e.,
Indus, and founded many principalities in the Mleccha territories in the north (i.e.,
Gandhāra). A certain king Skuni of Gandhāra alongwith several others is also
mentioned to have taken part in the Bhārat war. Another ruler of Gandhāra was
Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin in the middle of the 6th century BC, who had
established diplomatic relations with his contemporary king Bimbisāra of
Magadha (Ibid:279).
In brief we have five different options regarding the meaning of the
Gandhāra: (1) the land of fragrance, (2) or huge pond of water, (3) Gandhāra a
king of Druhyus, (4) Gandhāra as a tribal name mentioned in Aśoka’s rock Edict
and (5) Gandaris as mentioned in post Vedic literature. Which of these is correct
is anybody’s choice. In our view No.2 is more probable. Whatever may be the
case it seems certain that the country of Gandhāra existed to the west of river
Indus till the Achaemenian invasion (Majumdar et al 1980:41). Moreover, the
name is also mentioned by Albīruni early in the 11th century (Sachaul 1992:21).

History:
Achaemenians:
So far as the history of Gandhāra is concerned its earliest definite
reference is found in the Achaemenian inscription of Behistūn (c.520-518 BC)
which lists twenty three satrapies including ‘Gadara’ (=Gandhāra) of the
 18

Achaemenian empire of Darius but Sindhu (the Indus region) is omitted

(Thripathy1942:15-16). Thus, this epigraph suggests that at the time of
installation of Behistūn inscription Indus region did not form part of Persian
Empire. However, the other two inscriptions discovered form Persepolis (c.518-
515) and Naksh-I-Rustan clearly mention Hi (n) du, taken to be upper Panjāb as a
part of Persian realm.
The fourth inscription coming form Hamadān, however, omits Gandhāra
and mentions only the name of 'Hindu' satrapy of Achaemenian Empire
(Majumdar 1980:41). It may be inferred that by the execution of Hamadān
epigraph the whole Sindhu valley including Gandhāra was compositely
represented by the term ‘Hindu’ as the Achaemenian satrapy. The Achaemenians
kept control over Gandhāra almost for two centuries, but, unfortunately that long
span of occupation is nowhere recorded except in stray references.
Apparently, the Achaemenians were on the decline under Xerxes although
their control over the far flung regions continued. Persian sway over Gandhāra is
proved by the particular call of Darius Ⅲ to Indian troops in his final encounter at
Arbela to repel the Greek invasion of Persia (Rapson 1965:305). Persian defeat at
Arbela by the Greek and Macedonian forces ended the Achaemenian political
sway over their eastern provinces in which Gandhāra was also included.
Alexander’s invasion:
Alexander’s campaign in the Sindhu valley is documented merely by classical
writers whose accounts are not quite as full as one may desire. They do not, for
instance, refer to the Persian satrapy of Gandhāra by its own name. However, the
capital of Gandhāra, i.e., Peucelaotis (=Pushkalāvati) and its occupation by
Alexander is recorded. Hephaestion and Perdiccas were dispatched by Alexander
to lay siege of Pushkalāvati (Chārsada). Astes was the king of this small state of
Asṭakenoi (=Ashṭakarāja) who refused to surrender before the Macedonians
(Majumdar et al 1980:43). After subduing the states of Swāt and Buner Alexander
also joined his generals at Pushkalāvati. For a month or more Astes resisted
Alexandr’s army but failed and laid down his life in fighting. The city was
occupied and given over to a certain Sangaya or Sanjaya—an enemy of Astes
(Rapson 1965:318). Gandhāra was now included in the new satrapy constituted
by Alexander, comprising areas west of river Sindhu (Indus) and Nicanor was
 19

made its governor (Majumdar 1960:15) (326 BC). However, the people of
Gandhāra, soon after the invasion, stood up in revolt against Alexander's
governor and killed him. Shortly afterward this revolt was put down by Philip, the
Governor of Taxila (Rapson 1965:331). While Alexander was retreating he
divided the conquered territories into seven satrapies. The satrapy to the west of
Sindhu included Gandhāra and was put under the governorship of Philip
(Majumdar et al 1980:52).
Soon after the departure of Alexander the satrap Philip (or Philippus) was
treacherously killed by mercenaries (Majumdar 1960:89). As a result, Pithon, the
son of Agenor, was transferred to the northwest or Gandhāra (Ibid: 239). After
the retreat of Alexander from the Sindhu Valley the country of Gandhāra went
under the control of Pithon with Pushkalāvati as its capital. The news of the death
of Alexander in summer 223 BC spread like wild fire. Alexander had no
legitimate successor. This led his generals to claim share out of his conquered
territories. As a result, Pithon abandoned the northwest and rushed to Western
Asia to help his friend (Rapson1965:385). To whom did Pithon entrust the
administration of the northwest or Gandhāra, the classical writers do not allude.
Nothing is known about the political setup of the county of Gandhāra till it was
annexed to the huge Mauryan Empire.
Alexander’s satraps of the Indus valley, in fact, could not survive his death
and, consequently, a political vacuum was created which could be taken
advantage of by any adventurer. When political anarchy or fermentation or
polarization, both in the Indus valley and Western Asia settled down, it paved the
way for the rise of Chandragupta Maurya as a dominating force to the east of the
river Indus down to the Indian sea, including the whole of northern India. At the
same time Seleucus established his hegemony over Western Asia including Iraq,
Iran, Afghānistān and the valley of the Oxus and Jaxertes rivers. Having firmly
established himself over the eastern provinces of Alexander, Seleucus marched
towards his veteran and valiant adversary Chandragupta Maurya. In 305 BC both
Greek and Indian armies met each other at the eastern bank of the river Sindh.
The classical writers are unanimously silent on the happenings of this significant
historical event. They just narrate very simply the terms of the treaty concluded
between Chandragupta and Seleucus. The most significant outcome of this treaty
 20

was that Seleucus had to cede vast territories lying between the river Sindhu and
Hindu Kush mountain to Chandragupta Maurya (Majumdar etal 1980:60).

Mauryan rule:
After this humiliating defeat of Seleucus, the country of Gandhāra passed
on into the hands of the Mauryans. We do not learn about any significant role
played by the country of Gandhāra or its people during the rule of Chandragupta
Maurya or of his successor Bindusāra. Most probably Gandhāra was
administratively included in the viceroyalty of Taxila. During Aśoka's reign,
however, Gandhāra received one of the Buddhist missionaries, Madhyantika, for
the preaching of Buddhism (Raspson 1965:449). No significant event took place
in the subsequent history of Gandhāra other than this Buddhist missionary who
left far reaching effects on the history as well as the cultural life of Gandhāra.
Aśoka succeeded his father in about 273 BC and continued the usual
aggressive policy of expansionism. However, prolonged war of Kālinga left very
depressing effects on Aśoka, and also, according to Buddhist literature, the
teaching of Buddha changed his whole outlook of life and made him a pious
person from a ferocious and tyrant one, as soon as he was converted to Buddhism
(Tripathy 1942:163-64). As a result, he adopted a new state policy well known as
'Dharma Policy’ which he also propagated by engraving rock edicts carrying his
‘Dharma Policy’. Aśoka also installed two sets of these edicts in the country of
Gandhāra along the ancient Rājapatha (Shāhrāh) which connected the
northwestern countries with South Asia. The remains of these rock edicts can be
seen at Shāhbaz Garhi and at Mānsehra.
Gandhāra remained a part of Mauryan Empire till its disintegration. We
learn from Tāranāth that one of the successors of Aśoka named Vīrasena set up an
independent kingdom in Gandhāra (Tāranāth 1869:48-50).
Moreover Polybius informs us about a certain Sophagaseus or Subhagasena
who was an Indian king of northwest frontier (c.206 BC), with whom Antiochus
Ⅲ renewed his ancestral relationship (Rapson 1965:462). It seems that
Subhagasena or one of his predecessors was, probably, a viceroy of Mauryan
emperor and later on he declared himself independent king of the northwest in
which the country of Gandhāra was also included.
 21

Occupation of Bactrian Greeks:

Who followed Suhagasena in the office is nowhere recorded nor is there
any reference to the Indian invasion by the Bactrian king Demetrius, although the
latter is remembered as ‘king of the Indians' (Majumdar et al 1980:108).
However, it seems that after one hundred years of local rule the fortunes of the
Gandhāra once again fell into the foreign hands. In subsequent centuries
Gandhāra saw a succession of foreign invaders who followed each in their
footsteps. The political domination of the Bactrain Greeks continued almost for
two centuries (2nd and 1st centuries BC) as is evidenced by the profuse distribution
of coins issued by more than thirty (Bactrian and Indo-Greek) rulers (Ibid:111).
Among the most outstanding kings are included Demetrius, Eucratides
Heliocles, Menander, Antialkidas etc. On the basis of numismatic evidence, it is
sometimes suggested that the Bactrian Greek rulers belonged to two different
houses headed by Euthydemus and Eucratides. In the second half of first century
BC the Bactrians of Gandhāra came to face a new threat spearheaded by fresh
Central Asian invaders. These invaders were known as Scytho Parthians. On the
base of numismatic studies, it has been suggested that the Scythian ruler Azes I
deposed the last Greek ruler of Pushkalāvati (the capital of Gandhāra) named
Hippostratus (Bopearachchi et al 1995:44-45). The Greek cultural impact on the
contemporary Indian society where they ruled almost two centuries is not much
evidenced except in stray elements, as it is proved by archaeological excavations,
particularly at Taxila and Shaikhan Dheri. However, in the field of numismatics
the Greek mint masters showed unprecedented skill, and definitely introduced
new mythology, script, devices etc. The real cultural impact of Bactria based on
Greeks traditions began to penetrate the northwest after the extinction of Greek
political suzerainty, in the succeeding centuries during the Scytho-Parthian and
Kushān periods.

Indo-Scytho-Parthians:
Sakas, generally known as Scythians were originally Central Asian
nomads who seem to have had been striving with their rival tribes in the second
 22

half of 2nd century BC. They pushed the Greeks out of Bactria down to the Sindhu
Valley. There were three Saka settlements, namely (1) Saka Tigra Khauda (with
pointed helments), (2) Saka Haumavarga and (3) Saka Taradarya (beyond the sea)
(Majumdar etal 1980:120). Saka Haumavarga, however, has been identified by
Thomas with Scythians, who afterwards occupied Sakastan (Sijistān or Seistān)
which is identified with sourthern Afghānistān (Thomas 1906:186).
The earliest among the Scythians was Vonones who may have originally
been a governor of Drangiana (eastern Iran), but , by taking advantage of the
relaxed Parthian control over the eastern frontier regions, declared his
independence, as his coins show imperial title ‘the great king of kngs’. Further,
numismatic evidence informs that his brother Spalirises was a subordinate ruler in
relation to the Great king of kings’. Another group of the Scythian coinage treats
Spalirises as the ‘Great king of kings’ while Aya (Azes 1) takes a subordinate
position. The imperial title ‘the great raja’ appears on the coins of Aya or Azes 1
in kharoṣthi legend. About this time the eastern districts comprising the Indus
Delta and adjoining regions of the Parthian empire were governed by officials of
Scythian origin (Majumdar et al 1980:123-24), who, in the beginning, owed their
allegiance to Vonones but later on declared themselves independent rulers. The
earliest was Maues (Moa or Moga) whose name is also found on numerous coins
issued by him, also discovered by Marshall at Taxila. On the basis of evidence of
coins issued by Maues, (known as over-strikes of Maues) it has been suggested
that the Greek ruler of Taxila was deposed by Maues, and that it was Maues who
started the Vikrama era in 58 BC. But, later on, Maues was ousted from Taxila by
a Greek ruler of the house of Eucratides, named Appostratus. Appostratus Ⅱ was,
however, dethroned by Azes Ⅰ as the later issued over-strikes of the former. Thus,
Gandhāra fell into the hands of the Scythians in 55 BC (Bopearachchi et al
1995:44-45). There are other Scythian rulers whose names are known from
numismatics such as Azilises (Ayisha) and Azes Ⅱ (Aya or Aja).
To establish the precise chronology of Scythian rulers it seemed
impossible to a great extent. Marshall was the first who attempted to distinguish
the coins of Azes Ⅰ from those of Azes Ⅱ (Marshall 1951:769). Moreover, Rapson
believes that Azes Ⅱ was succeeded by Gondophares in AD 19 (Rapson
1965:515).
 23

Like Vonones, Gondophares originally was a Parthian governor of

Arachosia (Qandahār) under the Greek king of kings, Orthagnes. Various
versions of the same name in different texts point out the problems of different
prakrits or dialects. Gondophares was certainly the greatest among all the Indo-
Scytho-Parthians. So much famous was he that, according to the Christian
tradition, the Parthians were allotted to St. Thomas by Christ himself as a special
area of missionary activities (Smith 1974:145). The coin types and their
distribution show that Gondophares became master of the Saka-Pahlava
dominions both in eastern lran and in Pakistan. The Takht-I-Bāhi inscription of
Gondophares leaves no doubt that he was a ruling monarch by his own name
(Sircar 1965:245). Gondophares captured Gandhāra and the adjoining areas by
defeating the last Scythian ruler Azes Ⅱ, most probably in AD 19 or some time
earlier, as the date of his inscription of Takht-I-Bāhi favours it. However, the
precise chronology is one of the most perplexing problems of South Asian
history.
The exact date of Gondophares is nowhere recorded. So also is the case of
his predecessors namely Pacores (Majumdar et al 1980:131) and Abdagases
(Cribb 1985:282-300). From the coins we also learn about other names,
sometimes as subordinate to the ‘Great king of kings’ and sometimes with the
imperial title. This list includes Aspavarman, Sasa or Sassan, and Satavastra
(styled as ‘Great king of kings’), Phraates (sometimes as governor of Gandhāra)
etc. The rulers of Scytho-Parthian line held their sway for more than a century
(from the 2nd century BC to the1st century AD) over the eastern region of Iran and
the areas corresponding to the present day Pakistan. Moreover, the flow of
cultural traits, as compared with earlier period became more rapid from the
northwest as archaeological data of the period corroborates.

Kushāns:
The most celebrated and gifted people as rulers in the history of Gandhāra
were ‘Yueh-chis’, also known as Kushāns (as abbreviated form of the original
word Kuei-shuang). Chinese historical literature brings Yueh-chi in the limelight
of history as nomads, who, being ousted by their powerful rival tribe Hiung-nu
 24

from their original abode (Tien-shan range in the Chinese Turkistan), marched
towards the west and, having faced many vicissitudes on their way, finally
succeeded in setting down in the country of Bactria in the last quarter of 2 nd
century BC (Puri 1965:3-5). Infact, the Yuch-chi tribe comprised of five major
sections, each having its own independent principality with its own ruler at the
head in the country of Ta-hia or Bactria. Kuei-shuang section was, however, most
outstanding among all which, subsequently, under their wang or king Kiu-Siu-Kio
or Kujula kadpphises (kadphises 1 AD 15-65) attacked and annihilated the four
other His-hou or principalities (Majumdar et al 1980:139).
Later on, Kadphises 1 conquered Kao fu (or Kābul) and Ki-pin (or
Kāfirstān) by defeating the Parthians as the overstruck coins of the former tell us
(Bopearachchi et al 1995:49). The conquest of Gandhāra by the Kushāns is also
attested by the Panjtār inscription which has been assigned roughly to the period
between AD 15 and 65 (Majumdar 1980: 139). The epigraph clearly refers to a
Kushān monarch, although he remains incognito. By that time Gandhāra was
under the Pathian control till about AD 56. The Panjtār inscription, no doubt,
would have been installed by Kujula Kadphises soon after his conquest of
Gandhāra. Senavarmas’ inscription supplies further evidence as it clearly
mentions both Kujula Kadphises and his son Sadashkano. The inscription,
apparently, suggests that Sadashkano was Kujulas’ governor of Gandhāra. The
relevant portion of this inscription reads: ‘Honoured is the Great king of kings,
Kujula Kadphises’ son Sadashkano, the Devaputa’ (Bailey et al 1980:22-29).
Another inscription of the time of Kanishka was found in Afghānistān in
1993 at a site called Kāfir Qala near Rabātak (Pul-l-Khumri). In the Rabātak
inscription the predecessors of Kānishka are thus mentioned: Wima kadphises as
father, Wima Takto as grandfather, and Kujula Kadphises as great grandfather,
(Cribb 1996:1-2). In the light of the above mentioned inscription it is evident that
Kujula Kadphises had two sons, i.e., Wima Takto and Sadashkno. Coins of the
Kushān period, however, do not mention their names. The absence of
Sadashkno’s name from coins is, to some extent, understandable for Senavarma’s
inscription suggests that he served as governor of Gandhāra under his father
Kujula Kadphises. But the omission of Wima Takto’s name from the Kushān
coinage adds more confusion to the Kushān chronology, as he is explicitly
 25

mentioned as the successor of Kujula Kadphises in the Rabātak inscription. Now,

the Chinese historical literature places Yen-kao-chen on Indian throne after the
death of his father, Kiu-siu-kio or Kujula Kadphises (Majumdar et al 1980:136-
39). Did Wima Takto survive Kujula, his octogenarian father, or did he ascend the
Kushān throne only for a very short period and hence could not issue coins of his
own name, remains to be established. Kujula Kadphises died at a ripe age of
eighty. It has recently been suggested that the “nameless” king of the coins was in
fact Wima Takto.
Nonetheless, numismatic evidence favours Chinese chronicles that Kujula
Kakphises was succeeded by Wima Kadphises (or Kadphises Ⅱ) (AD 65). Wima
Kadphises was, in fact, a powerful Kushān ruler who established trade relations
with Romans as his gold currency was based upon the weight standard of the
Roman aureus (8.035 grammes or 124 grains). Moreover, coins weighting double
the weight standard of an aureus were also struck. This gold currency of Wima
Kadphises brought prosperity and gave boost and impetus to commercial
activities. The Kharoṣṭhi legend maharajasa rajaDīrajasa sarva loga iśvrasa
mahiśvarasa vima kath phiśasa tratarasa appears on the reverse of the gold coins
of Kadphises Ⅱ. It is said that Wima Kadphises must have been converted to
Hinduism (Chattapadhya 1979:37) and that he became a votary of Śiva while his
father Kujula was a Buddhist.
Moreover, Soter Megas (the great saviour) group of copper coins, found
over an extensive area stretching from Khotan (Chinese Turkistan) to Mahturā,
presents a puzzle as to which period precisely they belong to. These coins show
particular symbols along with corrupt Greek legend ‘Basileos Basileon Soter
Megas’ (the king of the kings, the great Saviour). In some cases these coins
display a Kharoṣṭhi legend which reads maharajasa rajaDīrajasa mahatasa
tratarasa (of the great king, the king of kings, the great saviour). In fact, the
Kharoṣṭhi legend on the reverse side of the Soter Megas group of cons has
striking similarities with the Kharoṣṭhi legend found on the cons of Wima
Kadphises (or Kadphises Ⅱ). This may lead one to conclude that they were issued
by one and the same ruler i.e. Wima Kadphises. If this explanation is correct,
then, why did not Wima Kadphises place his name along with Kharoṣṭthi and
Greek legends? This puzzle may be resolved in the light of Senaverma’s
 26

inscription which, no doubt, mentions a certain Sadashkno, son of Kujula, whom

the latter may have appointed governor of Gandhāra. But did Sadashkno issue this
Soter Megas group of coins? If so, then it seems very strange that he, as a viceroy
of Gandhāra, enjoyed such an elevated status, that he took up so glorifying a title
as was only reserved for a king. Otherwise, it seems most probable that Soter
Megas group of coins, with all probabilities, would have been issued by
Kadphises Ⅱ or more probably Wim Takto.
After the death of Wima Kadphises (or Kadphises Ⅱ) his son Kanishka (or
Kanishka Ⅰ) ascended the Kushān throne, most probably in AD 78 (Puri 1965:35-
36). The genealogy of the Kushāns is a controversial subject among scholars of
ancient Indian history. Formerly, it was generally held that Kanishka was not the
son of kadphises Ⅱ and that he belonged to another branch of the Yueh-chis or
probably hailed from the little Yueh-chis. Now, the discovery of the Rabātak
inscription (Afghānistān) has finally settled this long genealogical dispute as it
clearly mentions that Wima Kadphises was succeeded by his son Kanishka
(Cribba 1996:1-2), (Kanishka Ⅰ).
Kānishka Ⅰ is regarded as the greatest ruler among all the Kushāns. He is
generally believed to have elevated Po-lu sha of all the Chinese pilgrims (=
Purushapura, present Peshāwar) as capital of the Kushāns (Beal 1969:97).
Buddhist tradition tells that Kanishka was converted to Buddhism by the magical
influence of Buddha’s teachings. His is also depicted as an impious and cruel
person, but like Aśoka, he took refuge in Buddhism owing to the feelings of
profound regret over his misdeeds (Ibid: 99-100). Thus Kanishka became a
zealous follower of Buddhism. During the reign of Kaniska Gandhāra
experienced most glorious period of its history, as it emerged as a great cultural
as well as flourishing trade centre where from all Dīrections traders used to come.
That is why one modern historian has translated the word Peshāwar as Peshaha-
war, i.e. full of artisans (Dani 1979:223 fn). Kanishka issued a variety of coins.
His gold currency, like that of his father, was of Roman standard, issued to
compete the international market. Buddhist art touched its unprecedented height
as it displayed a variety of shades and reflected the cosmopolitan nature of
Gandhāra. Like Aśoka, Kanishka patronized Buddhism. Buddhist tradition tells us
that on the advice of Parśva (or Parśvika) a Buddhist assembly was held to settle
 27

the disputes that had crept into it with the lapse of time. According to a Chinese
account the meeting took place in Gandhāra. Kanishka ruled for 23 years till AD
101 or 102, provided his reign started in AD 780 (Majumdar 1980:144). A later
date (AD 120) is presently preferred by scholars.
Kanishka met a violent death by his own people and was succeeded by his
own son Huvishka (A.D. 104-138). The date of Huvishka’s accession is well
attested by inscriptional record. Brāhmi inscriptions from Mathurā fixe his
reigning period from the year 26 to 60 of the Kanishka era, well corresponding to
the years AD 104-138 (Ibid: 148-149). Among the Kushān rulers Huvishka issued
a large number of coins. His gold coins are the most interesting of all the Kushān
series and show about thirty different representation of king on the obverse side.
On the reverse is the largest number of divinities (Mitterwalner 1986:5-6).
Huvishka was succeeded by Vāsudeva who is regarded as the last in the
line of ‘great Kushāns’. In his several Brāhmi inscriptions he is mentioned as
maharaja rajatiraja devaputra shahi or simply maharaja Vāsudeva. Vāsudeva’s
rule is dated till the year 99 of the Kanishka era. Like his predecessor Huvishka,
these epigraphs evidently refer him to the regnal reckoning of Kanishka Ⅰ (Ibid:
26). Vāsudeva Ⅰ is regarded as the last representative, of ‘the Great Kushān’
family founded by Kujula Kadphises Ⅰ. But it does not mean that the Kushāns
ceased to rule. Infact, the line of the Kushān emperors who reigned after
Vāsudeva Ⅰ is termed as ‘Later Kushāns’. Alexander Cunningham was the first to
coin this term (Cunningham 1962:18).
Various inscriptions, found from Mathurā, Gandhāra and Afghānistān,
together with the evidence of coins show that certain Kushān emperors ruled over
extensive areas, stretching from Kābul to Bihār even after the fall of the Great
Kushāns’ empire. Although, the precise genealogy like the one from Rabātak is
not known yet in the light of inscriptional as well as numismatic evidence, the so-
called ‘Later Kushān’ period has been approximately arranged in a rough
chronological order. The exact period in term of years of these Kushān kings
seems hard to establish in the absence of any reliable literary or archaeological
data. However, it is generally suggested that Kanishka Ⅱ was the first Later
Kushān emperor who followed Vāsudeva Ⅰ on the Kushān throne. He is also said
to have inaugurated a new regnal era. Kanishka Ⅱ was succeeded by another
 28

Kushān ruler named Vasishka (or Vajheshka of Ᾱra inscription or Jushka of

Kalhaṇa). After Vāsishka, Kanishka Ⅲ ascended the kushān throne. According to
the Ara inscription Kanishka Ⅲ was son of Vajheshka. Thus we have another
genealogical evidence of the Kushān kings, like that of Rabātak inscription.
Kanishka Ⅲ was followed by Vāsudeva Ⅱ. Although no inscriptional record has
so far come to light to prove the existence of Vāsudeva Ⅱ, a sizable body of coins
both in gold and copper are found which preserve the name Vāsudeva in Bactrian
Greek legend. Moreover, there are other Kushān rulers whose names are found on
stray coins and who might have succeeded Vāsudeva Ⅱ. These are Skkinatha,
Gadakhra and Kirada (Kidār) (Mitterwalner 1986:27-40).
The last Kushān ruler of Gandhāra and northern Panjāb was first reduced
into a subordinate position and then deprived of what authority he had. Thus, it
was, in the 4th century AD perhaps that the country of Gandhāra passed into the
hands of its new masters, well known as Kidār Kushāns. The most outstanding
ruler among the Kidār Kushān was Kidār himself, who founded the Kidār-Kushān
line of rulers in the northwest (Gandhāra and northern Panjāb India) (Ibid: 40-44).
The Kidār Kushān rule was a short lived phenomenon. No great king like Kujula,
Wima or Kanisha sprang up in this new line to give a second lease of life to the
Kushāns’ empire. The Kidār rulers could not revive the glory of their ancestors.

Huns or Ephthalites:
In the middle of the 5th century AD Ephthalite or Huns appeared on the
political horizon of north-west India and, without evident resistance, swept away
the cultural life of Gandhāra. Toramān and Mihiragula were their most powerful
leaders, who carved out a huge empire, stretching from the Hindu Kush to Bihār
(eastern India). According to the Kura inscription, found in the Salt Range,
Toramān enjoyed a high royal status as his title Rājadhirāja Mahārāja Toramān
Shāhi Jabul shows. An inscription from Madhya Pradesh also shows that the later
had established his rule as far as the Gangetic Valley. Huns were known as
enemies of Yueh-chis. They are described by Chinese chronicles as Hsiung-nu
and were known to the Sanskrit writers as Hunas. Huns were originally a group of
Turkish, Mongolian and other racial elements and were not of homogeneous race.
In the 4th century BC Tung-hu, Yueh-chi and Hsiung-nu were important groups of
 29

northern barbarian tribes of Chinese Turkistan. These tribes were often at war
with each other on the one hand and on the other raided and looted settled
inhabitants of southern China causing great trouble to China’s ruling dynasties.
So much so that the king Shih-huang-ti of Ch’in dynasty had to build a Great
Wall of China extending from the sea to the farthest western point of Kansu
province to check the devastating inroads of these barbarian tribes. On the death
of Shih-huang-ti, new king named Mo-tun (209-194 BC) extended northern
boundaries by defeating Wu-sun, Tun-hu and Yueh-chi, and other neighbouring
tribes in the Mongolia. However, in 140-87 BC Chinese emperor Wu-ti inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Hsiung-nu and executed their tribal chiefs in Kansu. In the
middle of 2nd century BC Hsiung-nu were overpowered by another rival
Mongolian tribe and, being forced, moved westward in pursuit of fresh pasture
lands. Now they went through Turkistan and finally split up into two groups or
branches. One branch headed towards Volga and finally reached the heart of
Europe. Other branch proceeded to the Oxus and succeeded in establishing a
dominant political force with the family name Ye-th-i-li or simply Ye-tha—the
Ephthalite or White Huns of European writers and Haital, Haftāl of Persian and
Arab historians. Having captured power in the valley of the Oxus in 5th century
AD Ephthalite threw off the yoke of Juan Juan from their shoulders and started to
expand their kingdom. They moved across the Hindu Kush into Afghānistān and
further down into the plains of Pakistan. However, the real founder of the glory of
Huns was Uti—son of Tatam. Uti also fought wars for ten years against the
Sāsānians and finally pushed them out of the Oxus valley. Encouraged by this
great success Huns quickly crossed Hindu Kush and advanced into Afghānistān
and Gandhāra. They continued their expansion and invaded Gupta Empire in AD
460 in the Gangetic plains, where their military progress was checked by
Skandagupta. Nevertheless, by the end of 5th century AD they had already carved
out a vast empire with Balkh as the capital city. Chinese pilgrim Sung-yun visited
Gandhāra in 520 AD. By that time two generations of the Huns had already
passed. Lae-lih was Hun king of Gandhāra according to Sung-yun. According to
numismatic, literary (Rājatarangini) and inscriptional evidence Lae-lih was
succeeded by his son Toramāna on the throne. Kura inscription (Salt Range)
mentions him: Rājadhirāja Mahārāja Toramāna Shāhi Javula (or Jabul). The last
 30

word stands for prince and appears to have used as a Hun title.
Though no connected history or records have survived regarding the
history of Toramāna, his prowess seems above doubt and is amply evidenced in
inscriptional record. The Eran inscription of Sangar district of Madhya Pradesh is
very important in this regard. It is thought that at the time of installation of this
inscription (Eran), Toramāna enjoyed political hegemony over extensive region
extending from Kābul (Afghānistān) to Madhya Pradesh. His rule over Gandhāra,
Panjāb, Rājaputana and Kashmīr is shown by his coins. It may also be deduced
from coin symbols, i.e, sun-symbol that he was a worshipper of Sun-god.
However, Jain literature claims that he was converted to Jainism and lived at
Paivaiya on the bank of the Chandrabhāga in the Panjāb. According to the Kura
inscription, found in the Salt Rnage, Toramān enjoyed a high royal status as his
title Rājadhirāja Mahārāja Toramān Shāhi Jabula shows. Another inscription
which comes from Madhya Pradesh speaks of as Mahārājadhirāja Toramān
denoting that he had established his rule as far as the Gangetic Valley. Toramān
was succeeded by his son Mihiragula, whom Xuan Zang called the king of
Shakal, i.e. Sialkot. The evidence of his coins shows that he was a follower of
Pashupati, i.e. God Śiva. Mihiragula, probably, died in AD 550 (Qureshi
1967:159-60). With the death of Mihiragula the glorious period of the Hun rule
ended. After the disintegration of the Hun power small local states emerged. At
this stage there is nothing much in our sources regarding the country of Gandhāra
accept that its capital was Po-lu-sha-pu-lo (=or Peshāwar), its royal family was
extinct and that it was being governed by deputies from Kāpiśa or Kia-pi-Shi
(Beal 1964:92-93).
 31

Chapter 3

Gandhāra Art
With the growth of knowledge in the 19th century concerning the Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent, it came to be generally recognised that the valley of
Peshāwar in the northwest Frontier Province (abbreviated as NWFP) of which the
present official name is Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, was anciently known as Gandhāra
as indicated above. Scholars took up this name and, as a matter of convenience
extended it to designate the art pieces found there. Thus the term Gandhāra art
came into vogue.
From the conquest of the Achaemenian emperor Cyrus, the Great (558-28
BC), to about AD 460 when northwest India was overrun by the Ephthalites,
Gandhāra remained under foreign yoke for about one thousand years, excepting a
brief interval marked by the Mauryan rule (305-190 BC). The foreign invaders
hailed from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds and in each case brought
new ideas to enrich the local culture. But, inspite of the tremendous pressure
which these foreign cultures must have exerted on the local way of life, the bulk
of the population of Gandhāra remained faithful to their own language and culture
in which Buddhism played a dominant role. The art of Gandhāra is therefore a by-
product of Buddhism representing an interesting medley of cultural flavours.
Viewed as a whole, it appears to have been the outcome of a kind of religious
propaganda which, in the form of sculptures and paintings, brought before the
eyes of the worshippers those aspects of the religion which lent themselves to
easy representation in pictures. This propaganda was primarily based upon
presenting selected events from the actual life of the Buddha and his earlier births
as Bodhisattva (i.e. Buddha-to-be) in sitting as well as standing positions. Initially
the Buddha was represented merely symbolically and not physically. A turban
placed upon his seat, for instance, symbolised his presence. But, whether the
panel reliefs with such symbols, or bearing the figure of the Buddha appeared
first or the independent image of the Buddha still remains a controversial point.
The drum of a stupa from Sikri re-erected in the Lahore Museum gives a good
idea of how sculptures were employed to propagate the Buddhist faith. Thus
Gandhāra art is, first and foremost, a Buddhist art and must be judged by its
 32

success in fulfilling its purpose as a sacred art, designed to illustrate the history
and legends of the Buddhist faith and to glorify the memory of its founder.
Materials chiefly employed by the sculptors consisted of a kind of bluish
stone or schist, clay and stucco. The use of wood has also been attested at some
places. The stone was evidently quarried from the hills of Swāt and Buner. Of
these, schist must have been an object of flourishing trade as selection of huge
stone blocks and their transportation to the open country involved considerable
effort. Whether the use of stucco and stone went side by side or one after the
other, opinions differ. Sir John Marshall (1973: 111) advocates in favour of a
later (Indo-Afghan) school of Gandhāra art in which clay and stucco played a
significant role. He remarks: “For by this time (AD 140 and the break-up of the
Kushān empire) the Buddha and Bodhisattva images had become supreme and
ubiquitous as objects of adoration, and were being endlessly multiplied on every
imaginable scale, from the tiny figures impressed on clay sealings and buried in
the heart of stupas to the colossal cult statues enshrined in chapels, 30 feet, and
more in height. And this kind of decoration, with its myriads of duplicated
figures, was of course, at once facilitated and encouraged by the use of clay and
stucco in place of stone”.
Specimens of Buddhist sculptures have been found in an area much wider
than the Peshāwar Valley. The boundaries of this vast area can only be loosely
determined. On the northwest it is marked by the Ghorband and Panjshir valleys
in Afghānistān with a northward extension in the Qunduz valley along the
traditional trade route (Zwalf 1996: 1, 11) North of the Peshāwar valley numerous
sites and sculptures have also been found in Swāt, Dīr and Bajaur. On the east
Taxila marks the sites of several stupas, monasteries and cities, though sculptures
and Buddhist monuments have been reported from areas much further a field such
as Mānikiāla and also from Rokhrī near Mianwali. Although the Kābul valley is
generally looked upon as the southern limit, sculptures have been found in the
excavations of Tapa Sardār near Ghazni as well. Several sites exist in the Kohāt
district of which sculptures have recently been illegally excavated and taken
away. These territories may be conveniently reffered to as the artistic province of
Gandhāra.
Within this artistic province territorial names other than Gandhāra were
 33

also known. The prosperous valley of the river Swāt (ancient Suvāstu) was
anciently known as Udyāna, variantly recorded Uḍḍiyāna, Uḍḍyāna and
Oḍḍiyāna. This valley was visited by several Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who
mention its numerous monasteries and its own government. A Kharoṣṭhi
inscription of the early Kushān time (Bailey 1980: 21-29) mentions a certain
Senavarma, an Oḍi king. The name closely corresponds with Hoḍi rājā of the
folklore, who was defeated by Maḥmūd of Ghāna early in the 11th century AD.
Several villages in Bajaur, Dīr, Swāt and the Peshāwar valleys still bear the name
Oḍigrām (Oḍi village). The term Uḍḍyāna/Oḑḑiyāna may therefore be translated
as the ‘Oḍi Land’ instead of ‘garden’ as it is usually translated (Abdur Rahman
2003: 3-9) .
Another group of Kharoṣṭhi inscriptions mention Apracha kings. This
name is almost identical with Piracha/Paracha—the name of an ethnic group now
scattered in the Peshāwar valley and the adjoining districts of the Panjāb.The
present Chach plain to the east of the river Indus above Attock was known as
Chukhsa. The territory of Kapiśa, with a city of the same name, may be
identoified with the Panjshīr-Ghorband valley in Afghānistān. The name Khavada
mentioned in a Kharoṣṭhi inscription is thought to correspond to modern Khāwāk
or Wardak about 65 km southwest of Kābul. On the road between Kābul and the
Khyber Pass were successively the districts of Lampāka (present Lamghān or
Laghmān) and Nāgarahāra (corrupted as Nangarehār), presently known as
Jalālābād (Beal 1884, repr. 1969: 91). The district of Hazāra to the east of the
Indus in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is mentioned by Xuang Zang (Beal 1884 repr.
1969: 111, 147) as Wu–La-Shi. This name has been identified with Uraśa
(Cunningham 1871, repr 1990; 87).
No detailed archaeological atlas or gazateer is available for this artistic
province. Drawing much upon Chinese sources, Fouche (1901:1, 322-69) carried
out a geographical survey of the Peshāwar valley and gave an early account of
sites and their locations. Stein’s survey (1930: ASI, Mem. No. 42) of Swāt was the
first of its kind in this region; it threw a flood of light on the archaeological and
geographical setup of the counry. Deydiers’s bibliography (1950) arranged by
regions and sites also includes Afghānistān. Tissot (1985) and E Errington (1987)
have published more detailed maps. The Surveys of India and Pakistan also give
 34

maps but these are uneven and incomplete.

Gandhāra art is not the only name for the Buddhist art of the Peshāwar
valley. Other names such as Greco-Buddhist, Aryans, Indo-Greek and Indo-
Bactrian (Grunwedel-Burgess 1901: 75) and Roman-Buddhist (Wheeler 1949: 9-
19) have also been suggested. But these names, as Grunwedel has rightly pointed
out, “are open to the objection of implying a theory respecting their origin.
Gandhāran sculptures are entirely connected with Buddhist iconography, though
many of them manifest some western or classical influence. Since they are found
almost exclusively, or at least, a great maJoṛity of them, in the country which
early writers named Gandhāra, they may be very properly characterized by the
area of their origin”. Gandhāra art is therefore the most appropriate name for
them.

Sculptures
Sculptures found in the artistic province of Gandhāra may be broadly
divided into three groups:
A. Independent cult images
B. Non-Buddhist deities
C. Relief panels
Which of these groups is earlier in date is difficult to say. But, since stupa
worship started earlier than image worship and relief panels were fixed in stupas,
the reliefs may be earlier than independent cult images.

Group-A: Independent Cult Images

i. Buddha
The cult images, seated or standing, are usually frontal and share certain
bOḍily signs called lakshaṇas. A cross-legged meditation pose is very common
for seated images of the Buddha, but, in some rare cases, he is also shown seated
in a chair with pendent legs in the so-called European fashion
(pralambapadāsana). With new developments in Buddhism which took
expression in the Mahāyāna (i.e. Great Vehicle) philosophy, the figure of the
Buddha received a transcendental and cosmic character. This we find remarkably
expressed in the art of Gandhāra where the Buddha image gained in height and
 35

even in the reliefs, where he is accompanied by his associates; his personality

towers over everything else. A fine example of this tendency may be seen in the
Peshāwar Museum. The Buddha stands to a height of 2.64m and is the tallest
statue known from Gandhāra. The great Buddhas of 38 to 55 m carved out of rock
at Bāmiān (blasted some years ago) in Afghānistān are an exceptional expression
of this tendency. The size of available stone blocks and the difficulty of
transporting them did put some restraint on the dimension of independent images.
But the zealous Buddhist artists found a way out: clay and stucco, the more
amenable materials, could address the problem of achieving greater height.
Among the thirty chapels at Takht-i-Bāhi in what was called the “court of
colossi”, between the main stupa and the monastery, some, when first seen were
still from 25 to 30 feet (8.375-10.05m) in height (Cunningham 1875: 29). The
Peshāwar Museum has recently aquired a stucco head 52 cm in height (Rhi 2007:
1-6). At the Dharmarājikā at Taxila, now incomplete stucco image housed in a
chapel of which the walls were evidently intended to support a considerable
weight, would, from its proportions, had reached a height of 10.675m (Marshall
1951; 1, 268).
The images of the Buddha show some special signs or symbols. The signs
for a transcendental being or a Universal Monarch as recorded in literary sources
are 32 principal and 80 secondary (Foucher 1905-51: 11, 284). But all of these do
not appear on the images of the Buddha. The most prominent among those that
appear are uṣniṣa, ūrṇa and wheel. The uṣniṣa is represented as a bun of curly
hair on top of the head, while ūrṇa is a tuft of hair between the eyebrows often
indicated by a depression meant obviously for a semiprecious stone. The wheel
appears on the palms and soles of the Buddha images. Except in the smaller
reliefs the Buddha is rarely without a halo which looks like a disc behind the
head. A whole-body or aureole which may be round or oval also appears in a few
late reliefs and bronzes.
According to the Vinaya (i.e. discipline books) the monastic robes are
mianly three. Each one is an unsewn oblong piece of cloth made of a variety of
materials. One of these is a lower undergarment round the middle (antaravāsaka).
The second is an upper underrobe over the left shoulder (uttarāṅga). The third is
an overrobe (saṃghāṭi) to cover only the left shoulder or both. The Buddha as a
 36

cult image wears these monastic robes. But it is difficult to be exactly sure how
these robes were worn in Gandhāra. Opinions differ regarding the exact position
of these robes.
The term mudrā (pose) is used to designate certain significant gestures
performed by the hands. In later Buddhism mudrās were very many but only a
few appear in Gandhāra art. The most common is abhyamudrā meaning “without
fear”. It is performed by the Buddha by raising the right hand almost to the height
of the shoulder.From the situations where it occurs in the narrative reliefs it
seems to have a wider range of meanings, not only the offer of security but also
instruction and assent (Zwalf1996: 1,39). Some of the seated figures show the
right hand lying above the left, palm upward, in the lap. This is known as
dhyānamudrā, i.e. meditation pose. Another pose called dharmacakramudrā, i.e.
preaching gesture, is expressed by bringing both the hands before the chest. The
bhumisparśamudrā meaning the “earth–touching pose” was performed by the
Bdhisattva before the Enlightenment, when he called upon the earth-goddess to
bear witness in the context of Māras’ Attack.
The problem concerning the origin of the Buddha image has not yet been
convincingly resolved. Assuming western inspiration for the form and origin of
the Buddha image, some scholars see it as adapted from the Graeco-Roman
Apollo (Grūnwedel-Burgess 1901:163-64). Others have suggested late Roman
Republican starting or the early imperial toga statue as the possible sources of
inspiration (Wheeler 195o:53). Another group of scholars suggest standing
Yaksha or seated Yogin of ancient Indian art as prototypes (Golubew 1924:438-
454; CooMāraswamy 1926: 165-70). It has also been argued that there was no
need for a European stimulus and that Gandhāra and Mathurā could have evolved
the image independently. Coins of Kanishka (c. AD 100 or little later) showing
well developed Buddha image are also cited as postulating an earlier and
established form.

ii. Bodhisattva
A manificent group of sculptures in Gandhāra art is represented by the
Bodhisattva figtures. The Jātaka stories which describe the previous forms of
existence of a Buddha naturally led to the creation of a being whose characteristic
 37

(stava, Pali satta) was enlightenment (bodhi) and who, while doing pious actions
in the presence of a Buddha expressed his desire to appear in the world in a later
incarnation. Gautama did the same before former Buddhas. Thus Bodhisattva is
the one who is on the way to Buddhahood. The sum total of his good actions
allows him at each re-incarnation to be born as a supior being in a constantly
ascending scale of goodness, till, in the Tusita heaven, he resolves to accept
another human existence so that he may show the confused and perplexed
humanity the way of salvation.
In theory the Bodhisattvas are innumerable and belong only to Mahāyāna
or northern school. Except Maitreya—the Buddha of the future—they are
unknown in the southern schools. Like the Buddha, the Bodhisattva usually shows
a halo, an ūrṇā and the three principal gestures, namely the abhya, dhyāna and
preaching mudrās. In common with kings and nobles of that time the
BhOḍisattvas are elaborately decorated and wear two garments one of which
called dhoti (in Sanskrit paridhāna), is draped around the waist so that one of the
shorter sides falls on the left in rounded or pointed ends. The other is an upper
garment called uttarīya and is worn in various ways.
Some of the Boddhisattvas are turbaned while others are bare-headed. The
turbaned show a fantail device forming the crest of the turban, whereas the bare-
headed are characterized by abundance of undulating hair on the head. Besides,
the Buddhist Messiah, the Maitreya, important Boddhisattvas in Gandhāra art
include Siddhārta, Avalokiteśvara (also called Padmmapāni (“lotus-in-hand”)),
and Mañjuśri. Of these Maitreya has been securely recognized. His usual
attributes are the right hand in abhaya and the pendent water pot (Kamaṇḍalu)
held by the neck in the left. Avalokisteśvra has a seated Buddha image in the crest
of his turban. But Siddhārta is problematical and is sometimes identified by a
ploughing scene. Mañjuśri holds an oblong palm-leaf manuscript.

Group-B: Non-Buddhist deities

As sculptures, coins and seals reveal non-Buddhist deities and spirits, they
must have been widespread in Gandhāra. Senavarma’s inscription (Bailey 1980:
21-29) mentions deities who were honoured by the Buddhists. A number of them
are found in sculptures. These are Brahmā and Indra (both high gods of the Hindu
 38

pantheon), the four mahārājas (or lokapālas, i.e. guardians of the cardinal points),
the twenty eight generals of the Yakshas or nature spirits, and Hāriti with her
retinue. One of the lokapālas, called Vairavaṇa or Kubera, has often been linked
with Pañcika—the only Yaksha general identified on the sculptures, who received
an independent cult. The most frequently occurring Yaksha, called Vajrapāṇi
(“vajra in hand”), the Buddha’s protector, is usually found on panel reliefs, and
never seems to have been worshipped independently. Another deity Māra occurs
in narrative reliefs connected with Renunciation and with his Assault before the
Enlightenment. A deity with spear and peacock has been identified with the
Hindu god Skanda-Kārttikeya whose classical parent, Śiva was also worshipped
in Gandhāra, as he is seen not only on coins but also on panel reliefs and rock-
carvings. On the coins again we find a moon and a sun deity. The goddess with
cornucopia is generally identified with Iranian Pharrro and Ardokhsha, goddess
of wealth.
The Yaksha has also been recognized in the amorino of garland bearing
freizes of which some nice specimens have been found at Butkara Ⅲ. Female
figures standing against framing pilaster are likewise interpreted as representing
yakshis. The human and bird figures may be Kiṃnaras. Indra’s harpist Pañcasikha
may be a gandharva, the heavenly musician. Co-existing with these were serpent
cults plenty of evidence for which may be found in panel reliefs. On his way to
the pipal tree under which the Enlightenment was to take place, Siddhārta passed
the abode of Kālika, king of the Nāgas. When Kālika (or Apalāla) and his wife
Elapatra saw the effulgence of his body, they prophesized in a hymn his
approaching Enlightenment. The serpent killing bird -deity or gāruḑa also finds
place in a few reliefs.
Of the deities having foreign origin Herakles may be mentioned first. His
influence on the Vajrapāṇi iconography is very evident. Beside this, a city-
goddess identified as Tyche (with turreted headdress), Athena, Dioscuri, Nanā
and possibly wind-god also occur on Gandhāran reliefs. There are numerous
examples of Atlas, Tritons, Hippocamp, Centaur, ichthyocentaur, marine bull and
winged dragon. Of our particular interest are donors and worshippers who display
a variety of costumes. Besides Apollo and Daphne, the toilet trays, of which a
considerable number was found in Sirkap, represent a non Buddhist element in
 39

Gandhāran sculpture.

Group-C: Relief Panels

A considerable Gandhāran sculptures consist of relief panels of various
forms and sizes. Very few of them have been found in situ, a circumstance which
makes it difficult to know the precise place where they were fixed in a stupa or
monastery. At Butkara Ⅲ a number of them were found in position but their
arrangement showed no sequential order. It is generally assumed that the curved
or flat oblong panels stood in a horizontal arrangement on a stupa drum or base.
At Butkara Ⅲ it was noticed that flat panels could form a harmikā and were also
used on chapel walls. One stone relief was found in the body of a much damaged
stucco image of a seated Buddha. Another showing garland -bearers was found in
front of the folded legs of a stucco image of large size possibly representing
Buddha.
The narratvive panels illustrate events in the life of the Buddha
Śākyamuni. Some show Jātakas or stories from his previous existence.
 40

Chapter 4

Architecture
Architecture is primarily the science and art of designing and building
structures; painting, sculpture and other associated decorative arts are its children.
It is the art with which we interact every day and through out our lives. From the
earliest time when man was overwhelmingly dominated by the forces of the
nature, he had been looking for a shelter to protect him from the extremes of
weather and his animal and human enemies. Caves and rock shelter for a while
supplied this need but they were not very many while human population was
rapidly on the increase and needed more of them. As nature failed to meet his
needs man was obliged to look for other means and devised shelters on his own.
The earliest attempts in this regard must have been taken in the form of primitive
huts of mud and tree branches plastered with mud. When such a hut was thought
of, designed and built for the first time architecture was born.
The Buddhist art of Gandhāra presents an impressive array of buildings
ranging from the most primitive hut to the highly sophisticated palaces and
citadels. But a vast maJoṛity of these sculptures reveal secular architecture,
though religious buildings such as stupas and shrines may also be occasionally
noticed. An outstanding feature of this architecture, both secular and religious, is
the employment of foreign elements. Hellenistic influence has in fact always been
the hallmark of Gandhāran civilization. Its impact on architecture may be noticed,
among other things, in the beautiful Indo-Corinthian columns and capitals.
Persepolitan capitals showing Iranian influence on the arts of Gandhāra may also
be noticed. Architecture therefore may conveniently be divided into two groups:
(1) Secular and (2) Religious buildings.

1. Secular
Secular buildings may be divided into following sub-groups:
i. Cities
ii. Forts and citadels
iii. Palaces

i. Cities
 41

The best examples of architecture in Gandhāra art depict gateways of

various cities identified as Kapilavastu, Rājagṛiha, Śrāvasti, KuśiNāgara
etc. It may be interesting to note that none of these is located in Gandhāra.
Why were then these cities depicted in Gandhāra sculptures? The reason is
not far to seek. Gandhāra art in spirit revolves around the story of Gautama, alias
Siddhārta, son of Śuddhodana, chief of the Śākya clan which had its capital at the
city known as Kapilavastu. It was here that Gautama was born at Lumbinivana
(literally Lumbini Forest) in c.563 BC. The site, later marked by the Rummindei
Pillar inscription of Aśoka, lies 5 to 6 km in the Nepalese Terai (85º 11´ N. Lat.,
25º 58´ E, long) near Padara (Majumdar 1965:87). Having become Buddha (i.e.
the enlightened), Gautama went around in the Ganges valley pursuing a rigorous
programme of mass conversion to his newly founded Order, leaving behind his
memories during the course of his peregrinations in the cities as mentioned above,
till he died c.486 BC, aged 80, at KuśiNāgara (Kuśinārā) (ibid:28), modern Kasiā
in the Gorakhpur district (India). He never visited Gandhāra. Even his religion did
not make much impact on this region before Aśoka (c.268 to 232 BC) who
dispatched Madhyantika to Gandhāra for the propagation of Buddhism (Smith
1957:44). And yet we find that Gautama’s life storey and the legends that
surround him are meticulously detailed in Gandhāra art.
It seems that in the two centuries preceding the rise of Gandhāra art early
in the Kushān period (1st cent. AD), Buddhism struck deeper roots in Gandhāra
and came to be looked upon as a native faith. Stories were then invented to show
how Buddha himself came flying in the air to this land on certain occasions. This
essentially Gandhāran form of Buddhism, dubbed as Mahāyāna by Buddhists, in
which, unlike earlier traditions, images of the Buddha could also be produced,
paved the way for the creation of a distinctive art, now called Gandhāra art,
reflecting contemporary architectural and artistic traditions in typically
Gandhāran morphology. It is this morphology that we come across in the stories
associated in reality with the Gangetic cities (mentioned above) but preseved in
Gandhāra art. Thus “Queen Māyā's Dream”, associated exclusively with
Kapilavastu—a Nepalese city, is, in Gandhāran reliefs, given an architectural
setting in which nicely carved Corinthian capitals, perhaps unknown at
Kapilavastu, play a significant role. Similarly the scenes “The Urn carried into
 42

KuśiNāgara” (Fig.1) and “Distribution of the Relics” (Fig.2) or “Buddha at city-

gate” from Shnaisha (Fig.3), all reflect cultural milieu of Gandhāran cities such as
Taxila, Pushkalāvati, Peshāwar, Gangudher, etc.
An idea of what a Gandhāran city externally looked like may be obtained
from their representations in our panel reliefs. But, unfortunately, the reliefs do
not throw much light on the internal lay-out. This deficiency is however amply
supplied by references to cities in ancient literature of which Milinda-Paňha
(Questions of Menander) composed in Gandhāra is very pertinent in that it gives a
graphic picture of an ancient city: “fine and regular, measured out into quarters,
with excavated moats and ramparts about it, with stout gate houses and towers,
with market places ,cross-roads, street corners and public squares, with clean and
even main roads, with regular lines of open shops, well provided with parks,
gardens, lakes, lotus ponds and wells, adorned with many kinds of temples of the
gods, free from every fault and standing in all its glory.” (Rhys Davids 1890: 208-
9).
This description appears to hold good for early Gandhāran cities and,
shorn of its superfluities, the standard plan of an early city may be summarised as
follows: it is surrounded by a moat or moats and further protected by a wall
(prākāra) running all around. The plan is rectangular, usually square, with gate
(dvāra) or gatehouses (dvārakoṭṭhaka) in the middle of each side, the gateway
being approached by a bridge across the moat. Four main streets from the four
gateways led to the centre of the city, which is laid out in quarters.
Ruins of ancient cities abound in Gandhāra; but no city, with the possible
exception of Taxila, has been fully exposed. For the requisite information
therefore we once again fall back on the sculptures. It may be kept in mind that no
Gandhāran sculpture gives a full view of any city, nor was there any need to do
so, for the sculptors never aimed at depicting an entire city. Only relevant
portions are shown. These include city walls, gateways, palaces, balconies,
towers, bastions, etc.

ii. Forts and Citadel

These are in general represented by crenellated walls, towering bastions,
and projected gateways. An interesting example of a projected gateway may be
 43

seen in the panel relief “Distribution of the Relics” (Fig. 2). The gateway is
flanked by two rectangular tapering towers. A broad horizontal band interrupted
only by the actual doorway runs across the whole faḉade of the gateway complex
dividing each of the towers into the upper and lower zones. The band consists of a
plain cordon in the middle flanked by notched narrow fillets. The lower has large
lotus petals (only three are visible) around the base in the lower zones and three
triangular holes (arrow-slits) so placed as to mark the angles of an inverted
triangle in the upper.
The doorway stands upon a stepped platform and opens under a projected
cornice supported by two semi-circular pilasters. It comprises a double moulded
wooden frame and is shut in this case. Each of the two leaves of the doorway is
divided in two large panels by a horizontal piece of wood. All this, i.e. the towers
and the doorway, is superimposed by a flat roof decorated on the front side with a
row of saw-tooth designs. The roof is supported by projected brackets—three
upon each of the towers, and twice as much upon the doorway. The overall plan
of the gateway shows a tripartite building. This plan became a model for all
sculptors.
Fig.1 shows an almost identical concept—a tripartite rendering of a
gateway complex. The relief depicts the scene of “The Urn Carried into
KuśiNāgara”. The concept of one doorway flanked by lofty towers having firing-
slits is further elaborated by the inclusion of two portions of the city wall and a
balcony overlooking the doorway in this relief. The actual doorway, open and
leafless in this case, stands upon a moulded base within a rectangular frame which
supports a broad cornice decorated with a row of acanthus leaves. Flanking the
doorway are two armed guards.
Each tower, square in section, rises from a lotus base and is divided into
three zones by incised pairs of horizontal lines. Of these the lowest zone is plain,
the middle one has two triangular slits, while the upper most zone shows traces of
a balcony in addition to an arrow-slit. The towers have battlements on the top,
similar battlements and triangular slits are visible in the city wall behind the
towers. Just behind the gateway, at a higher level, is a projected balcony
supported by seven brackets. On the front side the balcony is decorated by a
running pattern of diamonds in the lower and a row of sunk triangles in the upper
 44

register.
Fig. 4 shows an even more elaborate form of the tripartite scheme. It has
been suggested that the relief is incomplete. “This panel is perhaps to be
completed on the right with a city gate, another guard in a niche, followed by a
stretch of wall with two towers”, remarks Ingholt (1957:172). But neither is the
so-called “guard” holding a lance, as asserted by Ingholt, nor could the niche be
as tall as the city wall, taller in fact than even the towers, as the case undoubtedly
seems to be. But let us first of all see what the panel has got to tell us.
The panel shows that all the essential features of a tripartite gateway
complex—two towers and one gate are present, but the traditional pattern, in
which the gate is shown in the middle of two flanking towers, is so changed as to
place the towers on the left side and the gate on the right. The Torāṇa type gate is
very unusual in Gandhāra and must be the result of contacts with the interior parts
of India. Nor is this type of a gate suitable for defense purposes. The man
standing in the gate, who appears more like a donor holding a round object—
perhaps a flower basket—in both hands, looks inquisitively at somebody (not
shown in the panel) standing outside. A similar view may be seen in a panel found
at Shnaisha (Fig: 3). The right side of this relief is damaged but the subject matter
is quite clear.
On the right is Buddha (head damaged) in abhayamudrā standing close to
a round city tower. He is approached by a person wearing princely garments. The
posture adopted by this person, with his body slightly bent at knees and with a
scarf held in both hands making a loop on his front side (jholī phailānā in Urdu),
suggests that , in all humility, he is requesting the Buddha to enter the city.
Behind this person another man, probably an attendant stands in the doorway
holding in both hands something which looks more like a basket of flowers, to be
showered upon the Buddha or to be presented to him.
We can now turn to Fig. 4 and try to complete the scene. We have already
got a man scantily clothed in his dhoti holding perhaps a basket in his hand,
standing in the Torāṇa type gate. Apparently his position is that of an attendant.
He was evidently following his master—the princely figure of the Shnaisha relief.
This identification solves the problem regarding the reconstruction of the whole
scene. When complete the entire scene consisted of (from left to right) two
 45

towers, Torāṇa type gate and two more similar towers, an attendant, and a
princely figure making a humble request to the Buddha to enter the city. Thus the
addition (in the missing portion) of a suppliant princely figure, a Buddha in
abhayamudrā, and two towers in the background would complete the scene.
The most characteristic feature of this relief is its ornamentality. Not only
the Torāṇa type gate can not fulfill the purpose it is required to do, even the
chamfered corners of the towers, not to speak of the rest of them and also the city
wall, are filled with unnecessary arrow-slits and crosses, weakening thereby the
whole structure.
The square towers which were the hallmark of our reliefs so far are, in
some cases, found together with their round counterparts. Fig. 5 represents such a
case. The relief depicts the story ”Ᾱnanda a asks Casteless Girl for Water” and
shows a girl drawing water from a well situated outside the city wall. In the
background may be seen two towers standing side by side—square in the extreme
right—marked with one arrowhead. Similar arrow-heads may be noticed on the
heavily crenellated city wall and also on the round tower just behind the right
hand of the girl. The cornice above the gate shows a row of split acanthus leaves.
Above it and between crenellations are human heads as if watching the incident.
A similar gate with a decorated cornice may be seen in the relief depicting
“The Buddha Enters Rājagṛiha” (Fig: 6). Towers are missing. But the existence of
a double story building behind the gate is suggested in the balconies at a higher
level than the gate. Another relief “Sumāgadhā and the Naked Ascetic” (Fig: 7)
depicts the inner side of the entrance of the house. The roof is supported by
slender Corinthian columns. The most ornamental example of a city gate is to be
seen in another relief,”Chanḑaka and Kanṭhaka Return” (Fig: 8). Noteworthy is
the highly decorated plinth upon which the whole structure of the gate stands. It is
so high indeed as to make it inconvenient for the animal to smoothly pass through
the gate. Above the gateway is an unproportionately heavy balcony (or
balconies), almost half as much high as the door itself. The front side of this
structure is decorated by a frieze of four petalled flowers, while the roof, marked
by a chain pattern, is supported by five tiny Corinthian columns. A row of
rectangles marks the parapet above a wide empty zone. Between the columns are
four human busts, inquisitive ladies perhaps watching the incidence. Chanḑaka
 46

has returned bringing back with him the royal umbrella, the turban and the horse,
but not Siddhārta.

iii. Palaces
Literary sources speak of two, nine or innumerable storeys (bhūmika)
high buildings. But the tallest buildings found in Gandhāra are Buddhist
monasteries; and these are merely two-storeys (dvi-bhūmika) in height. Nor does
the evidence of the sculptures reveal any thing more than this. Evidently, royal
palaces, too, were no exception.
Gandhāran architects had a flair for tripartite designs and, as extant
evidences show, amply expressed themselves in trefoil arches, tripartite gateways,
tripartite palaces etc. Much later in the history the tripartite pattern found a fuller
expression at Mashatta in Western Asia (Creswell 1958:125-27).
In most Gandhāran reliefs architectural design of a palace follows the
tripartite pattern, i.e. a large hall flanked by two smaller rooms. But the roofing
systems vary greatly. In most cases the roof of the main hall is taller than that of
the flanking chambers. In such cases the roof is arcuate or tunnel vaulted. Some
examples show a high flat roof supported on sloping sides, often referred to as the
“trapezoidal” roof. In a few examples however this pattern is reversed so that the
flanking chambers have arcuate and taller roofs while the main hall has a flat one.
Very often elaborate balustrades and balconies, with human busts form a
significant feature of the roofing systems. Indo-Persepolitan columns with
addorsed bull capitals are preferred in such cases. Decorative motifs include saw-
tooth design, acanthus leaf patterns, bead-and-reel border, friezes of chequered
designs and laurel wreaths. Fluttering parakeets are sometimes shown perhaps to
put life in the otherwise lifeless and somber scenes. Some of these structures are
briefly described below.
A good example of the tripartite division of a palace is presented by the
panel “Life in the Palace” (Fig: 9).The middle portion of the main hall has a lofty
arcuate roof supported by simplified Indo-Persepolitan columns, while the
flanking chambers have low flat roofs. Above these roofs are galleries of which
only the one on left hand side has survived. The decoration consists of chequered
pattern on the front face of the galleries and a row of saw-tooth designs on the
 47

curve of the arch.

The hall looks quite spacious and this is precisely what is required by the
story depicted therein. Siddhārta, as a young prince, leisurely reclines upon his
couch in the company of his wife, and enjoys a lively moments. Musicians
(drummer, flutist, harpist and dancers, all around him, are performing to the best
of their ability. The placement of most of the musicians in the side chambers
indicates that these chambers were not separate units on the ground and in fact
formed two ends of the same hall. It may be relevant here to observe that the
construction of such a lofty arch (or vault) to cover the whole middle portion of
the hall required a different kind of technology—the knowledge of a true three
centred arch—from what was known at the time when this relief was carved ( 2nd
to 3rd cent, AD). Did the sculptor take this specimen from contemporary
architecture, or, from his own imagination? The extant Buddhist monuments
exhibit merely the knowledge of corbelled arch.
The same story, in almost the same setting, is depicted in another panel (Fig:
10). In this relief the middle portion of the hall and the side chambers are of the
same height. But, while the middle portion shows the same arch with its
characteristic saw-tooth decoration, the side chambers have trapezoidal roofs. The
space left vacant on both sides of the arch is filled up by chequered screens. The
trapezoidal roof, based probably upon wooden prototype, may be of local origin.
In the next example (Fig: 11) the arch of the middle portion is replaced by a
trapezoidal roof. The flat roof of the flanking chambers similarly gives place to
corbelled arches. In another example (Fig: 12), the middle portion has a triangular
and the flanking chambers flat roofs. The trapeze is turned into a triangle by
straightening the two sides which join each other at the top. However, the
characteristic saw-tooth ornamentation is still retained.
Ingholt 39 B (Fig: 13) unfolds an even more interesting example of playing
with the tripartite design. The middle portion now gets a long flat roof, while the
side chambers become arcuate. In other examples the side chambers are
represented merely by balconies (Fig: 14).
We have given above a few examples to show how in the sculptor's view a
royal palace, at least part of it such as a great hall, would have looked like. It must
be remarked that the depiction of architectural details was not the primary
 48

objective of Gandhāran sculptors who employed it only when it helped in the

illustration of a story or event. Commenting upon the architectural setting found
in the story “Conversion of Nanda” (Fig: 15), Marshall remarks “The
employment of architecture as a setting for dramatic scenes was, of course,
familiar in earlier Gandhāra art but in Fig. 121 (Conversion of Nanda) the
emphasis laid on the setting is out of all proportion to the scene as a whole. . . The
architecture is still an integral part of all proportion to the scene, providing an
imaginative and fanciful representation of the prince's palace. But it is much
overdone in relation to the rest of the picture and is already paving the way for
the use of architecture as the principal factor in composition of an outstanding
decorative character, countless examples of which are to be seen among the Early
Indian sculptures of Bhārhut, Bodh-Gayā, Sāňchi and Mathurā”(Marshall 1973:
94).
As to the question why Indian artists have been using architecture as a
principal decorative factor Marshall observes: “Indian artists have an instinctive
feelings for decorative which is a hallmark of art at all ages”. This decorative
handling, he further remarks, “became increasingly apparent in Gandhāra art in
the latter part of the second century AD”.
With regard to interior decoration of the royal palaces nothing much can be
collected from panel reliefs except the ample use of Indo-Persepolitan and
Corinthian columns, with exquisitely carved capitals, which alone must have
provided dignity and grace to the structures. In one case, already referred to (Fig:
13), we find coffered ceilings.
Fig. 15, in this respect, provides us with more information and therefore
needs to be described in detail. The relief depicts an indoor scene—an episode of
the story of Nanda's conversion of which three episodes are known from different
sculptures. Only in one instance all the three episodes are found in one sculpture
(Marshall No 116).
As the story goes Nanda was half-brother of the Buddha and custOḍian of
the latter’s begging blow. Being a man of this world and disinterested in what the
Buddha was preaching, he wanted to hand over the bolw to him. One day he
found an opportunity to do so when the Buddha perchance visited his house. The
Buddha was still in the doorway when Nanda picked up the bowl from his wife’s
 49

dressing room and humbly presented it to him. But he was peremptorily told to
accompany the Buddha to a monastery where, much against his will, the monk’s
barber shaved his head, and he was ordained into the Order. Then he was told to
stay in the monastery and close all the doors before going out. This he tried to do,
but, to his great surprise, had no sooner shut one door than another flew open. At
last he gave up trying and set out to his home. But in vain; for, as he made his
way stealthily through a wood, the Buddha suddenly appeared, advancing towards
him; and when Nanda tried to hide behind a tree, the tree arose up in the air,
leaving him face to face with the Master, who promptly marched him back to the
monastery.
In the relief under discussion Nanda is shown twice: first, departing from his
lovely wife, Sundari, and then requesting the Buddha to take back the bowl from
him. Sundari is sitting in a high legged chair facing a table. The legs of the chair
seem to be nicely turned over a lathe. Wealthy people in Gandhāra still like such
chairs. The table has a pedestalled mirror and a covered unguent box. Sundari is
attended upon by other ladies—a practice still in vogue among the rich. Within
the dressing room, at the back side wall hangs a wreath enclosing something
indistinct. Similar wreath may be seen in Zwalf No 170.
The superstructure of the palace (or the main hall) is supported by square
Corinthian columns, each marked on the shaft with recessed oblong panels. The
trapezoidal roof of the middle portion of the hall sits upon worn out lion headed
corbels. The flanking chambers have corbelled arches supporting a gallery with
four human heads, as if watching the event. The characteristic saw-tooth
decoration runs along the edge of the trapezoidal roof and also under the coping
of the galleries. A projected doorway on the left, in which Nanda is shown
kneeling before the Buddha, clearly suggests that the episode took place inside the
room with the doorway being the only entry and exit point. The doorway frame is
decorated with a running scroll and above the door frame are two capped
battlements with triangular loopholes.
Architectural setting in the relief and also in the others depicting dramatic
scenes such as “Māyā’s Dream” (Zwalf: No. 141), “Interpretation of the Dream”
(Ingholt: No. 11), “Life in the Palace” (Fig 10),”Renunciation or Flight of
Buddhisattva from Kapilavastu” (Ingholt: No. 39B), “Miracle of Śravasti”
 50

(Marshall: No.122) and other of this nature cannot be taken to represent real
architectural models. These are merely imaginative and fanciful representations
of palaces, courts, or sleeping rooms. Preference for a trapezoidal roof in the
rendering of stories related to Māyā or other ladies may be due to a common
idiosyncracy of the sculptors suggesting perhaps no more than a delicate handling
of a delicate subject. For the individual features of an architectural design such as
balconies, columns, capitals, shrine models, there is plenty of archaeological
evidence to show that these were taken from real life.

Ⅰ. Roofing Systems
Roofing systems in the Gandhāran reliefs may be divided into four
catagories: (1) Trabeate; (2) Arcuate; (3) Domical; (4) Trapezoidal.

1. Trabeate
Trabeation (from Latin trabs, “beam”, or “timber”) characterized by the use of
horizontal beams in an architectural construction, results in a flat roof. Of all the
systems, this is the simplest and, as it is still practiced, one can see that it consists
of beams and rafters. The beams cover the whole width of a room from wall to
wall and are placed parallel to each other leaving some space in between. This
space locally called ‘gavān’ is filled up by transverse rafters visible in the reliefs
projecting on the front side at the roof level. The projected ends of the rafters
support an eave (chhajja) to save the wall from rain water. In some cases the
rafter ends are replaced by brackets or mOḍillions serving the same function.
According to Ingholt (1957:37) “the employment of mOḍillion [was] the regular
bracket feature of the Corinthian cornice”.
The panel illustrating “the Distribution of Relics" (Fig. 2) shows the city gate
of KuśiNāgara. Looking from outside, the distribution scene seems to have taken
place on the city wall. But it would be difficult to accommodate a fairly large
table having eight relic caskets on the top facing Droṇa’s seat and leave enough
space for the nine chiefs (only seven are visible) to comfortably move around
without the fear of falling down. We must therefore necessarily assume that the
scene took place upon the flat roof. Infact, a flat roof supported by mOḍillions
and tapering square towers is clearly visible. It is interesting to note that, inspite
 51

of Ingholt’s remarks (given above) the mOḍillions in this case are not associated
with the Corinthian columns. This shows that use of brackets is older than the
arrival of such foreign elements as Corinthian, Doric or Persepolitan capitals.
2. Arcuate
The arched or vaulted roofs, although not very many in our reliefs, are, in
general, seen in combination with trapezoidal and flat roofs supported by Indo-
Corinthian or Indo-Persepolitan columns. The decorative nature of this type of
roof has already been pointed out. But the fact that the architectural settings in
which they occur help in illustrating the subject matter of relief makes them
integral part of the picture. However the particular shape they take is misleading
as they look more like three–centred true arch which they certainly are not. The
technique of a true arch, we know it for certain, reached Gandhāra much later in
history. Nor it is borne out by archaeological evidence. Numerous examples of
corbelled arches are known, but not a single example of a true arch has been
reported so far.
Arches of purely decorative nature with no story to illustrate are the chaitya
arches. They occur frequently in sculptures and their function seems to be just
filling up empty spaces for the sake of ornamentation.

3. Domical
Domical structures such as stupas are amply known not only from
sculptures (see Marshall 1973: pl.68; Rahman 1990:704), but also from a galaxy
of extant remains and countless rock carvings. But the domes of these stupas are
solid structures entirely different from the dome, in the sense of a rounded vault,
forming the roof of a building or structure, typically with a circular base. Such
domes are found only in a very few instances. The panel relief depicting the
“Miracle of Śrāvati” shows two domed shrines on the top (Fig: 16; Ingholt 1957:
Nos, 254-57). In both the cases the dome is constricted at the neck and shows a
pinnacle. Examples of such corbelled domes have survived in Gandhāra at several
places. The constricted neck, it is noteworthy, is not a decorative feature of the
dome; it is rather a constructural expedient. The wall of the dome, just above the
constriction, is externally thickened to provide a strong base for corbelling the
upper part of the dome. It is certainly not a “thatched roof”.
 52

4. Trapezoidal
The word trapezoidal is derived from the Greek Trapeze meaning “table”
which sounds more like the Urdu word Tepai/ Trepai. In architecture the term is
used for a roof resembling quadrilateral with no sides parallel. A trapezoidal roof
is generally found together with flat or arched roofs. The sculptures reveal that
this type of a roof, generally supported by exquisitely carved Indo-Corinthian
columns, is associated with palace scenes, be it “Māyā's Dream”, “ Interpretation
of Māyā’s Dream” or “Nanda's Conversion”, etc. In some cases it is also
associated with the Buddha (see Fig 16). Its model may be based upon a wooden
canopy.

Ⅱ. Balcony
The balcony, as an architectural feature appears in different settings.
Certain actions of Bodhisattva Siddhārta and the Buddha so excited the wonder of
the gods and men alike that they wished to watch them from a vantage point.
Balconies or roof tops served this purpose. There are three main types:
(1) Short cubical; (2) Long balustrated; (3) Roofed. All these types are invariably
associated with dramatic scenes.

1. Short cubical (Type 1)

It is not very common but may be seen in the relief “The Buddha Enters
Rājagṛiha” (Fig 6). The relief shows two projected balconies, separated from each
other by a blank space, each having two human busts, just above but placed at a
higher level than the door cornice. The bust may represent citizens of Rājagṛiha
or the gods looking with surprise at the marvellous event—entry into Rājagṛiha—
that was going to happen at the gateway.

2. Long balustrated (Type 2)

It is more common and is represented by several examples. The balcony now
takes the form of a long gallery usually fronted by a vedikā. It is spacious enough
to accommodate more than two human busts and may be divided into following
varieties:
a) Balcony still divided into two parts, rests Dīrectly upon the roof. Unlike
type one, it is not projected (Fig: 9).
 53

b) Long balustrated with two persons and resting upon the cavetto cornice
of the door way (Fig: 17).
c) Projected balcony flanked by three similar but receding examples on each
side (Fig: 18). All faced with a balustrade of vertical sloping uprights.
d) Balustraded balcony draped in a textile (Fig: 19)
e) Long balcony with vedikā railing. Looks more like a gallery (Fig: 13).
3. Roofed (type 3)
It is represented by a few examples. It is a roofed structure more
sophisticated than the rest. The roof is supported by tiny little Corinthian columns
(see Ingholt: No, 7 and fig. 6 above, and Kurita: No, 10).
Regarding the role of images found in these balconies, variety “e” is a
solitary example showing five divinities peering over the balustrade: in the centre
is the head of a bull, flanked on the left by the bust of the sun-god and on the right
by the bust of the moon-god. The bull probably symbolizes the zOḍiacal sign
Taurus and all five images no doubt indicate the position of heavenly bOḍies
when—in the artist’s view—the flight (i.e. Renunciation) took place. (Ingholt
1957: 59)

Ⅲ. Columns and Capitals

A cylindrical upright or column supporting an arch, entablature or other
structure, or standing free, plays an important role in architecture. The Gandhāran
panel reliefs abound with different varieties of columns. In the ancient past
(Mauryan period) free-standing column were amply known in the subcontinent,
but no such example has so far been found in Gandhāra. The panel reliefs
however have countless examples of free-standing columns in a narrow sense of
the word. In these cases the columns are not actually absolutely free, for, although
they do not support any structure, they are employed as terminating or framing
elements, and thus become an integral part of the picture. Moreover, as
terminating elements, they are always encased, i.e. placed within a rectangular
frame—a circumstance which puts constraints on their position as absolutely free-
standing columns.In our reliefs two main varieties are noteworthy: (1)
Persepolitan Columns; (2) Corinthian Columns
 54

A cursory glance at the published material shows that out of 260 panels (there
are many more but this is the total size of our sample), 50 (19.2%) show
Persepolitan and 210 (i.e. 80%) Corinthian columns. As their names indicate both
of these varieties have foreign origins. As a matter of fact neither the
Persepolitan, nor the Corinthian columns, or their capitals, hundred percent
correspond to their prototypes in Iran and Greece and are therefore generally
referred to as Indo-Persepolitan and Indo-Corinthian columns. Only for the sake
of brevity we have preferred to use, Persepolitan, for instance, instead of Indo-
Persepolitan, but it should be taken to mean the same thing, i.e. a mOḍified form
of the original Persepolitan column.

1. Persepolitan Columns
The Persepolitan columns, in detail, show numerous variant forms. A good
example may be seen in Fig.20. It shows a stupa drum framing element
containing an encased Persepolitan column, slightly overdone, but illustrating all
the essential parts of such a column. The bell-shaped part of the column in this
case is decorated with acanthus leaves spreading down to its projected portion.
The two hemispheres above it, separated by a plain cable, are enriched by
centrally grooved lotus petals. Addorsed humped bulls, and a rectangular lion’s
head die (cubical block) support a valuted double bracket showing saw-tooth
decoration. The pot base, with an everted rim and lotus petal enrichment under an
undulating border round the middle, rests on a stepped plinth. Against the shaft
and standing on the cover of the pot, a male musician in girt knee-length tunic,
collar and earring strikes a circular drum with both hands and, in a curious
twisted stance, he turns to his left above the waist, but below it, he turns in the
opposite Dīrection and is seen partly from behind. The appearance of a person—
be it musician, devotee, amorino or Buddha—very common to Corinthian square
column, is not very usual in the case of a round Persepolitan column. (For other
similar but more ornate examples see Figs. 21-22)
Thus, from the bottom pedestal to the top double bracket, with the pot-
base, shaft, ring, hemisphere, bulls and lion’s head, cubical block in between, we
have all the essential features of a Persepolitan column (Ghirshman 1954:No.62).
But all the Persepolitan columns found in our panels are not like this. In most
 55

instances, due perhaps to the narrowness of space, either the bulls or the stepped
pedestal is missed out entirely or is presented in a summary form.
The term “Persepolitan” is well known, but, for the sake of clarity, a brief
comment may not be out of place here, Persepolis (meaning Persian city or
capital) was the name given by the Greek invaders who destroyed it during
Alexander’s campaign in the east. The actual name is Istakhr—an ancient city
situated to the north-east of Shiraz in Iran. It was founded in the late 6th century
BC by Darius 1 as the ceremonial capital of Persia under the Achaemenid dynasty
(ibid: 231). The city’s impressive ruins include functional and ceremonial
buildings and cuneiform inscriptions in Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian. It is
here that addorsed bulls were first noticed.

2. Corinthian Columns
Corinth was the name of an ancient city on the north coast of the Peloponnese
(literally “island of Pelops”) the mountainous southern peninsula of Greece. It
was here that a particular type of column, different from the Dorian and Ionian
types, was first developed. The term Corinthian, therefore, means relating to or
denoting the lightest and more ornate of the classical orders of architecture (used
specially by the Romans), characterized by flared capitals with rows of acanthus
leaves. The vast maJoṛity of our panels show Corinthian columns. Their number
is almost equal. For the sake of clarity these may be classified into two sub-
groups:
(A) Round
(B) Square

(A) Round
Numerically round Corinthian Columns have a slight edge over the square
Corinthian columns. Out of 210, the round variety is presented by 106 examples
vis-a-vis the square having 104 specimens. Fig 23 is a stupa drum framing
element containing a column having two tiered Corinthian capital with
pronounced (but damaged) volutes and abacus above an astragal—a convex
moulding typically semi-circular in cross-section. The lower tier is represented as
circular, while the upper one is recessed and shows a slightly damaged
 56

rectangular central projection between volutes overlapping onto the frame within
which the column stands. The shaft tapers slightly and the base moulding has two
fillets above the torus—a large convex moulding—of the base. Fig-24 is a better
preserved example and shows a Corinthian capital in distinct upper and lower
parts, while the base mouldings are, as usual, of Attic type with a scotia, i.e. a
concave moulding (Gk Skotia from skottos meaning darkness). An ornate
example may be seen in Fig 25. The Corinthian capital with outer and inner
volutes is in two sections above an astragal and a fillet and with a lobe of acanthus
rising above the abacus—flat plate on top of a capital supporting the architrave.
The ends of this lobe meet four reels of bead-and-reel border of outer frame. The
base of the column has a plinth, torus, fillet and cavetto, while the circular shaft is
bound diagonally by two beaded bands crossing each other. In one case (Fig 17)
the shaft is decorated with a wreath (or garland).

(B) Square
The most impressive examples of the Corinthian columns belong to this
group. The square columns, or pilasters, may be divided into two sub-groups: (1)
plain and (2) decorated. Square columns with plain shafts are not very many. Fig
26 shows a damaged example with Corinthian capital in distinct upper and lower
parts, and the usual base mouldings. The decorated columns may be divided into
three varieties. Those having:
a) Geometrical design
b) Human figures
c) Columns garlands
a) Geometrical design
It shows a recessed oblong panel with curved top and bottom on the
column shaft carved or incised in outline (Fig: 27). No change occurs in this
design except in a few cases where it becomes narrow and elongated. It appears to
be a very common and popular device and therefore must be having some long
forgotten hidden meanings. In Fig. 28, it is replaced by a closely resembling
vertical floral band but without curved ends.
 57

b) Shaft figures
Seated Buddha in dhyanmudrā (literally meditation pose) usually
one for one column (Fig 29). But, although it is very common, it does not appear
to have been the rule, for, we also have occasional examples showing two seated
Buddhas in dhyanmudrā on one column, or a standing Buddha (hands damaged)
probably in abhayamudrā (literally ‘no fear pose’), i.e. ‘reassurance pose’ (Fig:
30). In this case the Buddha is flanked by two devotees. Other examples show:
i. Worshipping amorino, very often one for every column but two for
one column is also known (Fig: 31).
ii. Standing female holding a cauri or fly-wisk (Fig: 32).
iii. Standing female devotee with offering (Fig: 33).
iv. Standing male figure with long sleeves (Fig: 34).

C. Columns with garland

No less interesting are the columns decorated with garlands. Fig. 19 shows
two garland bearing pilasters. In both the cases the garlands have narrow ends and
they vertically hang In the middle of the shaft without any visible attachment.
Similar garlands may be seen suspended from a tree (Fig: 35) and canopies (Fig:
36). In another example (Fig: 37) they are suspended from the panel top. In the
relief depicting “Conversion of Nanda” a similar garland or wreath hangs on the
back wall of the chamber (Fig: 15). In Fig. 11, not only we find a garland hanging
on the back wall of the chamber where the Boddhisattva Siddhrāta is reclining
upon his couch, the Boddhisattva himself holds a garland in his left hand. An
ornamental example of this garland may be seen in Fig .38.
The best examples of Corinthian capitals belong to stupa pilasters. A number
of these were found in excavations at Shnaisha, (see Rahman 1993:XXV111 b),
although scattered examples were also known even earlier. These are made of
yellowish soapstone and some were found in a very good state of preservation.
The example illustrated on the frontispiece of Ancient Pakistan, Vol. V111 (1993)
(Fig: 39) shows distinct upper and lower tiers, although four drooping lobes of
acanthus arranged in two successive rows subdivide the lower tier into two
smaller parts. Originally there were three lobes with pointed ends in the upper
 58

row, but, the one on the left hand side is missing. The central part of the capital is
slightly projected and is entirely occupied by a seated Buddha in abhayamudrā
against the background of a large acanthus leaf. The two complete angles have
volutes and buds. The moulded abacus is relieved by a prominent fillet and one
full blown lotus on undulating stalk on each side of the central projection which
probably had rosettes hidden behind the acanthus leaves. There are three holes in
the capital to fix it on the top of a pilaster. An even more ornate example comes
from Jamālgarhi (Fig: 40).

Secular-11
Panels depicting any form of architecture of the country side, particularly
of the grāms (present gāon) or village, are hard to come by in the entire range of
Gandhāra art, except for huts, good enough for hermits but unsuitable for
families. The existence of numerous mounds, i.e. heaps of soil with cultural
debris, shows that mud or mud bricks was the main building material for walled
structures; wood being used for roofing. The process of building, destruction, and
rebuilding, over the centuries, every time adding thousand of tons of mud to the
already existing heaps, gave the mounds their present heights.
Reed huts are particularly associated with hermits, who give up every
comfort of worldly life in the course of their search for the ultimate truth, offer
only temporary shelter and in some parts of Pakistan are still raised by farmers
whenever there is need to stay near the field to look after a particular crop. The
technique they used is almost the same as we find in our panels.
A hut is generally built in two parts: lower and upper. The lower part consists
of thick stalks of leaf reed, though in some cases leaves are retained. These are
vertically fixed in a circle leaving some space for the entrance on the front side.
The upper portion, domical in shape, comprises overlapping wide circular bands
of reed leaves (or tree branches), cut to size, with a pinnacle, often showing a
parakeet on the top. Fig. 41 shows an interesting variant form fixed in a split
bamboo frame. Fig. 42 depicts another variant form—a straw covered domed hut.
Fig. 43 reveals a pair of huts which are identical in appearance and shape.
A more ornate example Fig. 44 shows the disc-shaped element on top of a leafy
dome resting upon wooden frame decorated on the outer face with two rows, one
 59

above the other, of four incised squares each subdivided into two triangles
marked in the centre by a triangular aperture—eight in all. In an even more
elaborate form (Fig: 45), the lower part is balustrated while the double thatched
roof is supported by square Corinthian columns.

Brackets
The primary function of a bracket—a right-angled support attached to and
projecting from a wall—is supporting the cornice above. But the love for the
stylization of from, so amply shown by the artists of Gandhāra, soon made the
bracket fully or partly disfunctional, replacing it with artistic forms even more
pleasing to the eye. The plain prototype wooden rafter-end projecting on the
front, and evidenced in Chaitya façades, were turned into a variety of forms as
mentioned below.
The rafter-end first took the form of a plain voluted bracket externally
decorated with a pair of incised parallel lines (Fig: 47). Zwalf: No 442 is a corner
bracket of the same design. The upper end of the bracket was then changed into a
Corinthian capital. Fig 48 shows a fragment of the harmikā cornice of this kind.
Below the chequered pattern and a fillet is a row of vertically grooved s-shaped
brackets with Corinthian capitals. They rise from a platform with carved soffits,
alternately showing an acanthus motif and panels bisected into triangular pattern
each containing an indented triangle.
More interesting in this context are the architectural members variously
referred to as brackets (Marshall 1951, 111: 702; Dani 1968: 79); false, that is,
non-supporting brackets (Faccenna-Taddei 1962, 2: 163-5; Ingholt1957-175); and
Nāgadanta or stupa peg (Zwalf, 1; 282). A similar bracket is also shown by Jane
Gaston Mahler (1966: 81). A number of such so-called brackets were found
during excavations at Taxila and Chatpat and show human figures in different
postures and activities. In these cases the delineation of different features reveals
a close study of the subject from actual life. The present example (Fig: 49) shows
a male figure with full fleshy face, open eyes and damaged nose. His turban has
broad twisted bands meeting at the front centre. He wears a large disc earring but,
curiously, the ear is missing. Below the middle of the figure is an acanthus with
 60

drooping side lobes. Zwalf No. 431 shows a figure emerging from the waist
upwards out of acanthus leaves. Ingholt has illustrated three examples:
i. False bracket with female bust
ii. False brackets with head of a princely figure
iii. False bracket with winged male figure
These examples show only one individual to every one bracket, but in some cases
in Kurita (Fig: 50) two individual—male and female—are also found. Marshall
(iii, Pl. 213, No. 19) shows a standing figure rising from the knees behind the
forepart of a bull. Fig. 51 has a Brāhman figure with the characteristic hair, sacred
thread and Kamaṇdalu. We have mentioned a few examples but there are many
more. Brackets with lion and elephant figures have also been found (Dani 1968,
pl 39, no 74; pl. 50, no: 97 and Zwalf: 436-37).

Public Well
The relief "Ānanda Asks a Castless Girl for Water” (Fig: 5) shows three
courses high square platform made of rectangular stone blocks having a well in
the centre. No other architectural feature of the well is visible.

(2) Religious Buildings

Religious buildings found in the panel reliefs may be divided into:
(A) Stupas,
(B) Vihāras and shrines,
(C) Chaityas
(D) Altars
The most prominent among these is stupa—a domical structure worshipped by
Buddhists. These are briefly mentioned below.

A. Stupas
The stupa played a highly significant and pivotal role in the Buddhist faith.
Having been cremated, the ashes of the body of a Buddha were not to be thrown
to the winds, but deposited in a sepulchral or memorial monument which at the
earliest stage must have looked like a prominent mound. In the panel reliefs we
 61

have several examples illustrating the events following the death of the Buddha.
For a while it seemed that the death of the Buddha was heading towards a deadly
clash. The Mallas of KuśiNāgara, who were in possession of the corporeal
remains of the Buddha, refused to share them with other tribes, among them were
the Sākyas of Kapilavastu and Licchavis of Vaisāli. Thereupon, these tribes,
seven in all marched against KuśiNāgara and war seemed imminent. It was
however wisely avoided by the timely intervention of a Brāhman named Droṇa,
who suggested that the Mallas agreed to a division of the relics into eight equal
parts. The proposal was accepted.
After the distribution the relics were taken to their final resting places in
the stupas especially built for them by the tribes. But with the spread of Buddhism
in different regions, demand for such relics increased enormously so that by the
time of Aśoka (c. 272 BC) the emperor was obliged to take some serious steps to
meet this challenge. As the legend goes, Aśoka opened seven out of the eight
earliest stupas in which the ashes of the Buddha had been enshrined, and
redistributed the relics amongst 8400 cities after mixing them with more ashes.
In making these gifts the emperor may have recognized the value of
providing the worshippers with some visible and tangible objects on which to
focus their thoughts and prayers. Whatever his purpose, the effect of these relics
was profound and lasting. Not only did the presence of the relics make them cult
objects of worship, but in after days the stupa itself, whether it contained a relic or
not, came to be regarded as a special symbol of Buddhism, worthy to be
worshipped for its own sake; so that the mere erection of the stupa, large or small
and in whatever material, became an act of merit, bringing its author a step nearer
salvation. The vast galaxy of ruined stupas in Gandhāra show how, with utmost
devotion, their authors tried to achieve this goal.
From that time onward, there was some kind of trade of supposed corporeal
relics of the Buddha. Even if they were not sold, they had to be procured at the
cost of much money: the monk or king supposed to possess such relics and
willing to part them freely, received a big gift in return. The relics had to be
conveyed home with proper care and honour, to be encased in a casket,
sometimes of gold, and put, with gold, silver and other precious offerings in a
stupa very often specially built for them. In one of our reliefs, a recipient of the
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relics is shown carrying the relics casket riding on a horse, another on a camel
and a third on an elephant (Figs. 52, 53).
The panel reliefs show two main types of the stupas: (1) plain, and (2)
ornate.

Type1.
It looks more like a solid dome-like (see Ingholt: No. 145) mass of masonry
raised on a square or circular plinth. A more evolved form may be seen in Fig 54.
It shows three stupas in a row. Three of them vary but little; one may note that the
base of the one on the extreme left shows an all-over pattern of discs only, where
as the others two are decorated by single rosettes in panels. It is to be seen that all
the essential parts of a stupa—plinth, base, two-tiered drum, dome, harmikā,
spacers and parasols—had already been worked out before the carving of this
panel was complete.

Type 2.
Fig. 55 represents the second ornate type mentioned above. The plain
rectangular base of this stupa stands upon a moulded stupa plinth. Above it is a
dentil and drop cornice. The lower part of the two-tiered drum has a diaper of
open flower. Above the plain upper tier is a moulded cornice supporting a vedikā.
The lower part of the dome shows an undulating garland with rosettes in the dips.
The top of the dome is decorated with grooved lotus petals. Each side of the
square harmikā, marked by the Corinthian pilasters—one in each corner—
contains an open flower under a bracket cornice of cyma reversa type. Above the
harmikā is chattrāvalī consisting of three parasols. This stupa panel has been the
subject of discussion since its discovery and is described in detail by several
scholars. We have entered into this detail just to show that it marks a
developmental stage in stupa architecture. Another example (Fig: 56) shows not
only an ornate stupa as seen above, but also new additions to its decoration such
as a false gable panel on the front side of its dome, columns—one at each corner
of its square base with plain shafts and horizontally grooved globular capitals, and
fluttering banners. In another interesting relief panel found in the excavations of
 63

Shnaisha (Fig: 57) each of the column has loin on top of the capitals and on the
front side the stupa a flight of steps which are very rare in our reliefs. The
addition of columns was probably inspired by Aśokan examples. Aśoka is known
to have erected tall pillars of stone crowned by lions or other symbolical animals
which, in the course of time, came to be looked upon as characteristic emblems of
the Buddhist Church (Brown 1959:7-12) and are frequently met with in early
Gandhāra art.
Although a staircase, in the sense of a set of stairs and its surrounding
structures, is hard to come by in our reliefs—even as great an event as the descent
of the Buddha from the Trayastrimsa heaven is indicated by a plain undecorated
ladder—yet stair–riser reliefs and other related relief panels found in the
excavations of actual stupas, are very well known. Another set of interesting
panels depicted a variety of subjects such as ichthyocentaur, winged triton,
marine bull, marine horse, winged monsters, winged monster with ram’s head,
winged monster with ducks head etc, has also been reported from various sites.
According to Marshall (1960: 37) the position held by these triangular panels was
under a raking cornice at the side of the steps leading up to a small stupa base.
Zwalf (I: Pl 251) refers to them as “string panels of a stair”.

1. Vihāras and Shrines

The vihāra or monastery (from the GK monazein, ‘live alone’; from
monos ‘alone’), residential building for a community of monks, is, on the ground,
represented by countless examples in Gandhāra but it is hard to come by in the
panel reliefs. Ingholt has however shown three examples (Nos, 468, 469, 471)
which, in his view, represents Vihāras. Now, monasteries or vihāras of Gandhāra
are all square or quadrangular in plan with an open courtyard in the centre and
living cells all around; none of them is domical.
The examples given by Ingholt all represent domical structures. His No.
471 (Fig. 58) shows merely the top of a dome with no evidence to determine the
kind of building it belonged to, whereas No. 469 (Fig. 59) has a tiny little, but
complete structure on the base of the statue. The most elaborately decorated of all
is No. 468 (Fig. 60) which, according to Ingholt, depicts the upper portion of a
 64

“monastery” in full detail, but we shall mention here only its salient features in as
much as they help in determining the true nature of this building.
The most prominent feature of this building is its two domes—one above
the other. The lower dome—the ovolo of Ingholt—is larger in size and supports
the smaller dome above. Both the domes show brackets and vedikā motif at their
bases. The upper dome has an-additional frieze of garland bearing amorini.
Standing upon the ovolo on each side of the base of the dome are two standing
devotees. At the front side of the upper dome are two niches—one above the
other—each having an enthroned Buddha in meditation. The main “entrance” of
the building is flanked by engaged Corinthian columns. The entrance itself is
missing and may in fact have merely been an opening.
Another similar building may be seen in Fig. 61. In this relief we find the
same overall concept—an opening flanked by Corinthian columns, two
elaborately decorated domes of which the lower has a vedikā motif at the base.
The upper dome supported on the brackets has two birds, instead of human
figures, perched—one on each side of the dome. The swollen surfaces on the top
may be intended to represent banners. In the opening sits a preaching Buddha.
A simplified version of this design may be seen in Zwalf No. 110 (Fig: 62).
In this relief we find a preaching Buddha sitting upon a large gynoecium of an
inverted lotus. Fortunately the seat of the Buddha, missing in the above example,
has survived in this relief. The salient features of the building in the panel, such as
the seated Buddha, Corinthian columns, two domes, fluttering banners, are the
same as in the above mentioned reliefs. It is noteworthy that the horror vacui, the
dislike for empty spaces, is common to all. Zwalf names these building as chapel
or shrines.
The same, above mentioned design, with all the essential features may also
be seen in the upper portion of the relief, “Miracle of Śrāvasti” in Fig. 16 above.
Besides this, at least one example of this kind of a structure has survived in
Gandhāra. It is the Balo Kile Gumbat (Rehman 1984:123-32) in the Kandāk-
Jahāngir valley near Barikot in lower Swāt (Fig: 63). This building was first
reported by A. Stein (1975: 32-33) in 1928 and excavated in 1938 by Barger and
Wright (Bargar at al 1941: 16) who refer to it as “a shrine with a high dome”. A.
Stein, who gives the very first photographs of the building, has more details:
 65

“An architecturally interesting structure known appropriately as Gumbat, ‘the

dome’ which rises on the hill-side near a spring some six miles from Bīr-Kot had
fortunately fared better. It consists of a cella nearly twelve feet square within,
surrounded on all sides by a narrow passage intended for the circumambulation of
sacred images that Buddhist worship, like Hindu cult to this day, prescribes.
Small windows piercing the massive walls for both cella and passage gave light to
the interior. This probably once contained a colossal standing image of the
Buddha; for it would be difficult otherwise to account for the great height, close
on fifty feet of the dome surrounding the cella” (Stein1975: 31-32).
Thus, there are reason to believe that Ingholts’ No. 468 shows nothing but a
shrine (from Latin schrinium, ‘chest for book’), that is, a place regarded as holy
because of its association with a divinity or a sacred person or relic, typically
marked by a building or other construction. Ingholt No. 469 gives a complete
example of the shrine. Similar shrine models of terracotta were very popular
during the Kushāna times, for, a number of them have been found in excavations
at Taxila and Gangudher. There is one at display at Taxila Museum, another in
the Peshāwar Museum and quite a few in the custody of the Dīrectorate of
Archaeology, NWFP. Ingholt No. 433, Hermit in Front of Fire Temple”, depicts
the same overall shrine.

(C) Chaityas
Chaitya (from chita, originally a tumulus, ‘burial mound’ but subsequently
a monastery) was a favourite decorative motif with the Gandhāran sculptors. But
the complete picture of a chaitya does not appear anywhere in the reliefs; it is
represented nearly in all cases by its façade (front face) comprising a pointed arch
with voluted ends, each having a pendant cone or pot. Within this arch a tapering
door (often occupied by standing human figures) of which the jambs show
different decorative motifs such as running vine-scroll, horizontal rows of
conjoined diamond patterns, four or five petalled flowers etc. (Fig: 64). One
example of chaitya hall of which the ruins have survived is known from the
excavated part of Sirkap (Taxila) (Marshall 1951: I, pl (a), 26). It has an apse
(from Greek apsis, ‘means arch or dome) at one end comparable to a semi-
circular or polygonal recess in church, or a Roman basilica (from Greek basilikos
 66

means ‘royal’, from basilius ‘king’)—a large oblong hall with double colonnades
and a semi-circular apse at one end.

(D) Altar
Fire-altar is not an infrequent motif in the panel reliefs. It is very often found
on the front face of pedestals of large statues. Like the fire-altar found on
Sāsānian coins, it consists of three main parts: base, shaft and top. It is in the
moulding of these three features that variation can be clearly seen. On the
Sāsānian coins, where it occurs more profusely than anywhere else, it has, in
general a stepped base and a similarly stepped but broad, or round top from which
flames spring. In the reliefs the base in some cases (Fig: 65) is three pointed; in
others (Fig: 66), it looks more like a square Corinthian columns with a recessed
oblong panel on the shaft. The more elaborate form may be seen in Fig. 67. We
have columnar fire-altar with a crowing bowl ringed with a pair of grooves
showing flames rising in the cornice. Beneath the bowl are two roughly domed
members likewise ringed with a pair of grooved lines. The shaft is also similarly
ringed. Forming the base is a plinth, a torus moulding and a fillet.
The fire-altar is very often flanked by worshippers including men and women
of high ranks and, curiously, also centaurs, one of whom is carrying a fire-altar in
his left hand (Fig: 68). Upon the coins of the Sāsānian ruler Varahrān Ⅱ (AD 275-
92), the fire-altar is attended by the king, on the left hand side, wearing a globed
diadem, and, on the right, by the queen who offers a chaplet (Smith 1906: 222;
Paruck 1924:331, No. 147; Göbl 1968: pl. 3, Nos. 48-53). Regarding the general
nature of this ritual object Ingholt remarks:
“The fire-altar before which…worshippers kneel in adoration…probably is to
be explained by the syncretism ripe at Gandhāra at this time. The usual design on
Sāsānian coins portrayed the fire-altar emblem of the chief Zoroastrian deity,
Ahuramazda—being worshipped by the reigning monarch. Here he may well
represent the Buddha, who in the minds of worshippers was the equal to
Ahuramazda” (Ingholt 1942:36).
 67

Chapter 5
Weapons, Tools, Implements and Garments:
Weapons, tools, implements and garments are human inventions and are as
told as mans’ first effort to exploit nature to his own benefit. Extremely plain and
simple in the beginning and greatly improved over the centuries, they have played
a significant role in quickening the pace of progress in every field of human
activity—be it peaceful or violent. Besides ideology it is indeed sophistication
brought about in weapons and tools that has often been a determining factor in
deciding the fate of nations.
In Pakistan the earliest examples of weapons and tools, besides the stone-
age hand-axes, come from Harpapa and Mohenjodaro (2600-1700 B C) (Mark
Kenoyer 1997: 25)—the well known twin capitals of the Indus Valley Civilization
(Piggot 1961:136). The major forms include spears, knives, leaf-shaped
spearheads, flat axes (without shaft hole) etc. Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1959: 58:
61) has drawn attention to two examples of axes having shaft holes on the pottery
of Mohenjodaro. Allchin (2003: 193) maintains that most of these forms set the
pattern for later Indian types for centuries to come. These weapons and tools were
made of copper and bronze with the occasional use of chert.
The discovery of chert blades on several Indus Valley sites shows that the
use of stone as a material for manufacturing weapons and tools continued side by
side with metals as the latter was a rare commOḍity and costly as well. Therefore,
the use of stone, particularly on the countryside, continued long after the
introduction of metal weapons. As a matter of fact, outside the main urban
centres, many people in Pakistan still had their bows and arrows as late as the
beginning of the 20th century. Keeping a gun, for instance, was looked upon as a
luxury which only the rich could afford. This is why we find occasional
representations of stone weapons in Gandhāran reliefs as well.

A. Weapons
A weapon is a thing or object designed or used for inflicting bOḍily harm
or physical damage such as, in modern terminology, a nuclear weapon. A weapon
may be used for crushing (or beating), piercing, throwing and cutting. The
 68

simplest form of a weapon, when used for the purpose of crushing or beating had
traditionally been that of a long bamboo stick now called dāṅg. On the country
side where people often come across snakes, it is still a very effective weapon.
Besides this, it is widely used by the elderly as a supporting stick and is
abundantly depicted as such in Gandhāran reliefs.
Another form of this weapon is a heavy’ stick or club (called Gorz in
Persian, and Bugdar in Prakrit), looking more like a mace with a thick end often
used as a tool in athletic exercises or as a weapon in war. Two varieties are found
in the reliefs.
Variety 1 (still in use) is a plain heavy piece of wood tapering to one end
for easy grasp. Ingholt (Nos. 2 and 3) has two examples. In these reliefs (Fig:69)
an athletic human figure is shown with a club in his right hand not unlike the
Heracles, except that the club found on the Bactrian Greeks coins, where it occurs
most profusely, has projected knobs all over.
Variety 2 is represented by two examples in Kurita (Nos. 627,629; Ingholt:
No.64). Fig.7o shows one of these. This example has a knobbed globular bottom
end, while the upper portion is decorated with circular bands in low relief.

a. Offensive weapons
Of the offensive weapons the most important are spear, sword and dagger.
These are amply depicted in Gandhāran reliefs. Bow and arrows and a kind of
battle-axe were also in use.

1. Spear (Sanskrit. Prāse; Prakrit. Barcchā)

It is a composite weapon consisting of a long wooden stick or shaft with a
pointed blade fixed or tied at one end; the other end is also pointed in some cases.
It is undoubted one of the oldest weapons invented by man. Spearheads of bone
have been found amongst the early remains of mans’ life (Harrison 1929: 30).
The discovery of a number of ‘spearheads’ in the Indus cities is very
significant. Unlike the stone spearheads of Egypt or Sumer, there are all metallic
specimens and are invariably tanged. “Most of them are thin, flat, leaf-shaped
blades which would buckle on impact and must have been stiffened by being set
back between the split ends of the shaft, which would serve as a mid-rib …
 69

Rarely, the blade has a slight median thickening, the section being diamond
shaped” (Wheeler 1993: 73). Such re-inforced blades are upto eighteen and a half
inches in length and may rather represent short swords or Dīrks. According to the
Wheeler (op, cit) spear-heads found in the Indus cities are invariably tanged and
cannot be clearly distinguished from knives. It is interesting to note that no barbed
blade has been found there, although, there is a clear illustration of a barbed spear
on a Mohenjodaro seal. Sir Mortimer Wheeler rejects the simple chert blades,
which occur abundantly on all Harappan sites, as implements of war and says that
chert and flint weapons are almost unknown in the Indus Valley: exceptions are
from Kot Diji (Khan 1956: ) and from Periano Ghundai (Fair Service 1971: 148-
49 ) in northern Baluchistan.
Gandhāran reliefs show three main varieties of spearheads:

(1) Leaf-shaped with mid-rib

(2) Conical
(3) Concave sided blade with conical tip
From their illustrations in the sculptures it is difficult to precisely tell the
materials they are made of, although from their shape and size one may make a
reasonable guess. Some of the examples, for instance, (Kurita: No, 470) show
disproportionately heavy blades, while others (Ingholt 1957: Nos. 10, 39, 40)
have long thin blade. Those having thick and heavy blades—thicker indeed even
than the shaft which supports them—in our view follow the tradition of stone
spearheads, whereas the lighter blades represent their counterpart in metals.
Spears with leaf-shaped heads (var.1) are in general held by Yavani guards
associated with palace scenes such as the Dream of Māyā (Fig: 71), Life in the
Palace, The Renunciation, The Great Departure etc. Male guards holding this
kind of spear may be seen in the reliefs’ Mārās’ Attack (Ingholt: 63), the Urn
Carried into KuśiNāgara (Fig: 1). Spears with conical heads are generally held by
warriors with or without scale armour (Figs: 72-73).
A good example of var.3 may be seen in Fig.74 showing seated Pāncika—
the semidivine war-lord of the yakshas—holding in his left hand a spear with a
bell attached near the top. The spearhead shows concave sides under a triangular
point. The bottom end of the spear in this case is hidden behind Pāncikas’ left
 70

foot, but in Fig.75, showing a standing Kāttikeya, the spear shows a lightly
pointed mount at the end. There are many other examples which, following the
Greek pattern, show a sharply pointed mount.
A sub-variety of the conical spearhead variety appears in a relief (Zwalf:
No: 315) showing a hunting scene. One of the hunters on the left hand side holds
a hafted spear with a short shaft. This obviously is meant for throwing at the
animal from a distance like a dart. In the left hand side top corner of the panel
showing the submission of Apalāla (Fig: 76), a half- length male figure holds a
similar short spear or javelin.

1. Triśūla
The Triśūla was probably another offensive weapon or a symbol of
peaceful authority. In Greek art it is held by Bacchus (Hope 1962: Pl. 50) and
Jupiter (Ibid: Pl. 115). It is one of the attributes of the Indian god Śiva and, in this
position it has countless illustrations on coins and sculptures.
Fig. 77 shows a standing Hāritī, originally a yakshi, and the personification
of the most dreaded of all infantile diseases, smallpox, holding a triśūla in her left
hand. Like the spear, it is also pointed at the nether end.

2. Swords
Swords and spears, amply illustrated in our reliefs, were favourite weapon of
the Kushāns. Typically Iranians are both the straight hilt of the sword and the way
it is attached to the body by its special sword-belt or baldric (Pope 1938-9: pl.
155; Roger 1962: pl.100). Characteristic of Iranian or Iranizing tribes is also the
manner in which the sword-belt passes through a loop or bridges half way down
the scabbard.
The sword is found mainly in the panels illustrating the hostile actions of
Māra, personification of the evil, against the Bodhisattva Siddhārta. The evil
Māra realized that his power in the world would be seriously jeopardized if
Siddhārta should obtain the supreme knowledge and subsequently lead other
people to salvation. He therefore used all possible means to persuade Siddhārta to
give up the quest. He first tempted him with promises of power and pleasure. But,
 71

when he saw that neither offer of power, nor feminine charms could change the
mind of Siddhārta he resorted to force and brought out an army of demons and
human warriors. These warriors were equipped with all sorts of weapons with
Māra himself carrying the sword.
Except in two cases (Ingholt: Nos. 64,118) where the sword is naked and
the blade can very well be seen, it is difficult to tell its precise shape when it
happens to be within a sheath, as is the case with the rest of our examples.
However, taking clue from the naked examples and the straight scabbards, one
may say for certain that the sword had a straight blade.
The scabbard shows three variant forms: (1) Rectangular, (2) with the
bottom end round off, (3) with the bottom end pointed. These varieties may
represent different but concurrent cultural traditions regarding the model of a
scabbard; in some cases (Kurita: Nos. 620-21) all the three occur together in one
and the same panel. In most cases the scabbard shows a margin fillet on all the
four sides. The area thus enclosed accommodates a loop or bridge for the baldric
to pass through, and is occasionally decorated.
Fig. 78 shows Māra ready to draw his sword from a rectangular scabbard
which hangs by a short, straight baldric from his left shoulder. A scabbard with
the bottom end rounded off may be seen in Fig. 79 which shows the figure of a
standing moustached Vajrapāṇї holding the pommel of his sword. A naked
pointed sword may be found illustrated in the panel “Host of Māra”. On the
extreme left, almost in the middle, is a demon holding a naked sword (Fig. 8o). It
is a short, double-edged and straight weapon with a clearly visible mid-rib. There
is a projection looking like a herring bone at the base of the hilt suggesting a
rudimentary form of a cross-guard. Similar iron swords are reported from Taxila
referred by Marshall (1951: 1, PL. 544) to the first century AD. The sword more
usually depicted in the carvings as well as Gandhāra reliefs is a short weapon like
the Roman gladius (op, cit).

3. Dagger
The dagger has a very distinctive shape in our reliefs and can easily be
distinguished from the sword. It has a short and broad blade almost triangular at
 72

the apex. This type of dagger has not been reported from Taxila. Except in the
matter of length, the daggers found at Taxila closely resemble the swords
(Marshall 1951: I, 545) and might well have answered to the term semispathium,
applied to the Roman pugio in later Imperial times. But the two examples found
in Gandhāra art (see Kurita: Nos. 624,871) look more like their Etruscan
counterparts (comp. Hope; Pl. 41). In both the cases the shape of the blade may
only be guessed from the shape of their sheaths (Fig. 81).

4. Archery
Archery was a favourite art of the nobility. Jotipāla, son of the royal
chaplain of Brahmādatta, king of Benares, was advised by his father to go to
Taxila to learn archery besides other arts. On his return to Benares he excelled at
an archery competition and was appointed commander-in-chief (Jātaka No. 522).
Mahāvastu relates the story how Siddhārata proved his excellence in martial arts,
archery in particular, in an open contest held at Kapilavastu. The contest was
prompted by the refusal of Mahānāma, Yośodhara’s father, to give the hand of his
daughter in marriage to Siddhārata on the ground that the latter was brought up
amongst women and therefore lacked manly qualities. To show the strength of his
arms Siddhārata brought out an extremely heavy bow of the time of his
grandfather and challenged others to string it; no body could perform this feat. He
then pierced all the targets with his arrows.
The archery kit consisted of three items: (1) Bow, (2) Arrow, and (3)
Quiver. The bow in a drawn position is abundantly depicted particularly in the
hunting scenes and a Jātaka story. But the arrow is very often missing and its
existence is suggested by the position of the archers’ flexed right arm. The bow
consists of a short but a straight middle portion held by the archer to keep the bow
in correct position, and curved sides (Fig: 82). Both ends are connected by a tight
string. The arrowhead looks barbed (Fig: 83) in some cases and conical in others.
Fig. 84 shows a three headed much damaged deity with a bow flung across his
body. A complete archery kit is visible in Fig. 85 in which a standing figure on
the extreme left of the panel holds a bow flung across his neck with his left hand
and an arrow in the outstretched right and, while the upper end of the quiver is
 73

visible at his back.

Accounts of the Bodhisattvas’ display of the skills to prove his fitness for
marriage agree on his superiority in archery and tell how only he could string an
ancestral and hugely difficult bow and pierce all the targets. Fig. 86 shows the
archery contest just outside the city gate of Kapilavastu. In the first scene (on the
right) is a projecting gateway with sloping jambs in a crenellated wall with
oblong loopholes, a farther line of crenellation behind, and on the left hand side
two archers draw thick bows at a target fixed on a branch of tree. No arrows are
visible but behind the second archer there exists a compound quiver suggesting
arrows.
Ancient Indian literature refers to arrow-head of many shapes, e.g.
ardhacandra (‘half-moon’), Kshurapra (with a razor edge), sūcīmukha (needle-
shaped), vats-danta (like a calfs’ tooth) ( cf.J.A.O.S.X111: 275-81). At Taxila in
the Śaka-Parthian period (first century BC to first century AD) the conical and
‘three bladed’ varieties make their first appearance (Marshall 1951:11, 547).
Strabo refers to arrows made of wood and hardened in fire (Majumdar 1960:96)
and Curtius to ‘two cubits long’ arrows (Ibid: 105).

5. Battle-axe
As with other arms and armour, the battle-axes is also associated with the
reliefs showing Māras’ Attack. But this weapons, it seems, was not very common.
We have only two examples in the entire range of our panels. A very clear
example may be seen in Fig. 78. It shows a warrior on the extreme right with
armour like that of Māra holding a battle-axe below its head, the end of the shaft
is resting on the ground. In the second relief (Ingholt: No. X3) Māra himself is
shown wielding an axe with both hands.

B: Defence armour
The defensive armour of Gandhāra consisted of a helmet, breast plate,
greaves, shield and scale armour. In the defensive equipment the helmet must
have played a very significant role in protecting the warrior against head injuries.
But, contrarily, its representation in Gandhāra art is scanty. Similarly meager is
 74

the evidence found at Taxila. Marshall (1951: Ⅱ, 550) uncovered only one iron
specimen in Sirkap (stratum 11). It is a “helmet with cheek piece on one side,
attached seemingly by pivot, enabling it to be raised or lowered. The other side of
the helmet is missing… the crown is of one piece beaten out like an oval bowl and
afterwards deepened by horizontal bands hammered on to it. It is large enough to
admit of a thick padded cap underneath, even on a big head. On the summit is a
boss intended for the attachment of a ring, spike, or crest. Grecian helmets appear
to be comparatively more developed. Of these there were two principal types: that
with an immoveable visor, projecting from it like mast ; and that with a movable
visor sliding over it in the shape of a mere slip of metal. In order to protect the
cheeks, two leather flaps were attached, which when not used, were tucked up
inwards (see Hope 1962: XXXVI).

Of the meager number of representations in the panel reliefs, one example

may be seen in Ingholt: No.64 (Fig. 79). Two of the warriors in the first row wear
scale armour. The warrior to the right shows a helmet on the head, recalling,
according to Ingholt, the so-called morion from Spain (1957:66), supposedly
brought from the East. The other example is to be seen in Zwalf: No. 186 (Fig.
87). On the right hand in this relief is a half length armed figure above the figure
of the discomfited Māra trying to steal away. He wears a helmet with a curved
brim rising to a point above the forehead.

The breast-plate as a separate piece of defensive equipment is equally rare

in archaeological remains as well as in panel reliefs. This may perhaps be due to
the use of cuirass which protected the breast as well as the back. Even the
eighteen armour plates along with three links of an iron chain found in Sirkap
(Taxila) are so heavy that they were unsuitable for a human warrior. The size and
weight of these plates, says Marshall (1951: 549), suggests that they served as
armour for horses or even for camels or elephants rather than men. Marshall also
refers to the Parthian camelry, which was also heavily armed and may have been
copied from the Roman dromedarii. Horses and riders clad in mail or plate
armour were from early times a feature of the Persian, Seleucid, Parthian and
Sarmatian armies.
 75

We have several examples of horses with breast plate in Gandhāra art but
they appear more like a decorative rather than a defensive feature. The horse
mounted by Siddhārtha, for instance, (Fig. 85) at the time of the Great Departure,
shows a breast plate. But it was a time of peace, not war. Therefore the breast-
plate in this case may be a defensive equipment whose use in peaceful times
would be unnecessary.

Greave—a piece of armour used to protect the shin—was commonly used

by the nobility and is abundantly depicted in the panel reliefs. Fig. 88 shows
standing figure wearing greaves. (See also Kurita: 620; Ingholt: 420, 64, and 65).
In some cases it may be confused with the long boots of Kushān emperors
(Rosenfield 1993:Fig.63).

The shield shows two main varieties: (1) round, and (2) rectangular. No
complete shield came to light in the Taxila excavation but its existence is amply
suggested by the discovery of a number of iron, copper and silver shield bosses
(see Marshall 1951: 111, PL. 177, No. 388-89; PL. 187, No.22). But
representations of complete shields may abundantly be seen in the panel reliefs.
Variety (1) has two sub-varieties: (a) Decorated with floral or other designs (see
Kurita: No. 624; Ingholt: No.63) and (b) Receding steps winding up to a central
boss (Ingholt: 64 and Kurita: 623). Fig. 89 shows a warrior with a dagger in the
right and a shield with lotus design, in the left hand. Variety 2 is represented by a
solitary example in Kurita: No. 627. The shield has grooved parallel lines on the
outer side and is slightly curved.
A curious type of shield looking like the numeral 8 appears in a panel
depicting a warrior wearing a double skirted cuirass (Fig. 90). In another panel
(Fig. 91), illustrating the story of “Conversion of Angulimāla”, Angulimāla is
depicted twice: first in the pose of attacking his mother and then the Buddha, his
sword being in the right and shield in the left hand. The shield he is holding has
the upper part like a cone or semi-circle and the lower part rectangular. The way
it is presented makes it difficult to determine its real shape. But its comparison
with the shield held by the figure standing in the middle in the bottom row in Fig.
83 makes the real form of the shield absolutely clear. This is the second case in
which we have a figure with sword in one hand and shield in the other.
 76

Armour
The metal coverings (i.e.armour) worn by soldiers or warriors to protect
the body in battle may be amply witnessed in Gandhāra art, particularly in the
scenes representing Māra and hosts. Fig. 80 in this context successfully portray
the terrifying and frightening effect that Māra wanted to create by the use of the
popularized figures of demons in frightful poses and human warriors to drive
Siddhārta from the ‘diamond seat’. Two of the standing warriors in the bottom
row wear armour comprising a half-sleeved jacket (coat of mail) covered with
scales with round ends upwards to protect the upper half of the body, and a skirt
of pendent plates of metal with the foundation fabric rolled at the bottom just
above the knees, perhaps to prevent metal chafing on the body. A similar pattern
but better delineated appears in Fig. 92 which also shows how the skirt was
secured round the waist overlapping the lowest part of the jacket. Fig. 75 has a
slightly different pattern in that the jacket, perhaps quilted, has a cross-hatched
design marking perhaps sewing lines. In another relief (Fig: 84) the jacket leaves
the abdomen naked. A yet another example (Fig: 93) shows each strip of the skirt
marked by a dimple in the centre. We have mentioned here just a few
representative examples, there are many others (see Kurita: Nos. 476-78,623,520;
Ingholt: Nos. 47, 63, 64, 561; Zwalf: Nos. 102,104,434 etc).

C: Tools and Implements

Although a fairly large variety of iron tools and implements was found in
the Taxila excavations which give a precise picture of the nature of these
equipments, there is not much in the panel reliefs except a few representations of
the plough (Ingholt: Nos. 36,284) and hoe (Ibid: No. 172). It is interesting to note
that exactly the same wooden plough with iron blade drawn by a pair of oxen is
still in use not only in Gandhāra but also all over of Pakistan and is now in the
process of being replaced by the more sophisticated devices such as tractors and
other agricultural machinery. In Gandhāra art the plough (Fig: 94) is the symbol
of the “First Sermon”.
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Garments
With a long history of foreign occupation behind them it is not surprising
that the people of Gandhāra were thoroughly cosmopolitan in their culture and
their outlook. This intimate fusion of largely divergent elements was as much
apparent in their religious life as in their clothing. Thus we have Indian dhoti,
Greek chiton and himation, Iranian caftan and Parthian pyjama, going together in
a harmonious blend.
As the founder of a religion which inspired the origin and growth of
Gandhāra art, the Buddha and his robes need to be mentioned first of all.
According to the Vinaya (the discipline books) the Buddhas’ robe consisted of
three unsewn pieces (i.e. sheets) of cloth made of a variety of materials, that is,
patches of different cloths sewn in one sheet. The same prescription applied to the
monks as well. A three piece robe may amply be witnessed in Gandhāra art on
standing images of the Buddha but it is in general free from patches as required
by the Vinaya. Indeed robes made of patches are exceedingly rare not commonly
represented in Indian art anywhere and exceptions are very few. In Mathurā art
the whole of the garment is so shown (Arawala 1936:14, pl. 1V, 9). In Gandhāra a
sculpture from Butkara No. 2524 (Faccenn-Taddei 1962-4:1, pl.CCXXX111b)
shows a patchy robe. Nos. 128 and 512 in Zwalf also show patches but these are
very few and do not appear to be an outstanding feature of these robes. Each of
these sheets was probably an oblong piece and draped lengthways. As a lower
under robe round the middle it is called antaravāsaka, as an upper under robe
over the left shoulder it is uttarāsāṅga, and as an overrobe it is saṅghāti. Ingholts’
remarks (1957:19) in this context add more information: “The costume of the
Buddha which his monks adopted likewise includes a dhoti, but it is of wool, as
are also the other two garments worn instead of shawl. One is the uttarāsāṅga,
corresponding to the sleeveless shirt or chiton, generally reaching down to just
above the knees, the other is a robe, the Indian saṅghāti”.
It is difficult to be exactly sure how the robes were worn in Gandhāra and
modern explanations slightly diverge. According to one opinion the antaravasāka
is the garment ending in a more or less horizontal edge above the ankles on
standing figures. The uttarāsāṅga is taken to be the upper garment revealed to
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more or less knee level, whereas the saṅghāti forms the prominent outer
garments. In Figs. 99-101, all the robes are distinctly visible in the standing as
well as the seated image of the Buddha. As the practice of using a long upper
garment in winter is still alive in Gandhāra, it is not difficult to tell how it was
draped in ancient times. The only difference that has taken place is in the shape of
the upper garment which is generally believed to have been oblong; at present it
is rectangular. A folded rectangular sheet is horizontally thrown across the back
with one shorter end in the left hand held in such a way that it passes under the
forearm and over the upper left arm. The sheet is then unfolded and thrown across
the body front with the right hand. In this way it covers both the shoulders and its
end falls over the left shoulder at the back. In case the sheet is too long and
unwieldy, the extra length is folded and placed at the left shoulder before
spreading the rest on the front side.

Bodhisattva
The Bodhisattvas, just like the chiefs, nobles, kings of Kapilavastu and
some gods wear two garments. One of these an oblong piece of cloth—is so
draped round the waist that one of its shorter ends falls on the left in the form of
round or sometimes pointed ends. Following the modern use of this piece, it is
generally referred to as the dhoti (Sanskrit. Paridhāna). It is kept in place by one
or two girdles covered in some cases but visible and` decorated in others. The
garment called uttariya, is an upper garment and consists of a long and wide
rectangular piece of cloth. It is worn in various ways. In general, it is first thrown
across the back with one end passing over the left upper arm where it entersthe
armpit and is held tight; the other, passing over the right forearm makes a wide
loop just under the waist before rising to the left shoulder where it is wound in
one or two loops round the arm pit. Fig. 98 shows the uttariya in much the same
way as described above. The drapery on the left arm runs with a thicker lower
edge under the shoulder loop while a taselled end hangs behind. The paridhāna is
held in place by a twisted, ornamented and knotted girdle with ends hanging
between the legs on the front side.
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The Royalty
The panel “Interpretation of Māyāas’ Dream” (Fig: 98) shows king
Śuddhodana and Māyā seated on a high rectangular draped seat marked on the
front by a row of herring fish bone design. Māyā shows the typical costume worn
by the ladies of high rank. In the present relief she wears a long tunic—a garment
worn next the skin known as chiton in Greek—made of a light tissue or wool
reaching down her feet, under a long overgarment which, draped from the left
shoulder, makes a wide loop in her lap. In another example (Zwalf: No. 302) the
lady standing in the middle of the relief wears a chiton lying spread over her feet
and tightened just under the breast by a girdle, and a mantle or himation. Two
other female figures similarly dressed are more tightly wrapped in their mantle.
Śuddhodana's costume may likewise be taken to represent drapery of the
nobility of Kapilavastu. In the present context he wears his uttariya in such a way
as to leave much of his muscular chest bare, but his paridhāna is worn in the
usual way as discussed above. Exceptions to this may be seen in the reliefs
“Distribution of the Relics” and “Transportation of Relics” in which the
paridhāna is replaced by a Partho-Scythian skirt. In the former case (Ingholt:
No.153) the prince standing to the right of the Brāhman Drona is clad in the
Partho-Scythian nomadic dress. Similarly the chiefs carrying relics on camels in
the latter case (Ingholt: No. 150) wear the Partho-Scythian costume comprising
trousers and caftan. This costume is eminently suited to riding, the caftan being
equally a forerunner of European redingote, originally ’riding coat’ (cf.Ingholt:
1957:97).

Priests, Ascetics, Monks

To the right of Śuddhodana in Fig. 98 sits the Brāhman Ᾱsita upon a
draped round cane stool wearing just an uttariya; nothing else is visible on his
body at least in this relief. Behind him stands a similarly dressed young Brāhman
who may be Ᾱsitas’ nephew Naradatta. Fig. 55 shows how the shaven headed
monks were dressed. On the left hand side in this relief are two monks, seen from
the back, with hands joined in adoration as they are about to walk round the back
of the stupa. Each one of them wears a long robe falling down to below the knees,
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leaving the right shoulder bare. If they had any loin cloth or any other
undergarment, it is not visible. Incidentally, the way the monks are going to go
around the stupa illustrates that in the course of circumambulation one has to keep
the right hand side towards the stupa.
The ascetics were the most meagerly dressed of all. In the panel relief
showing the Buddha performing a miracle before ascetics (Fig: 99), three ascetics
stands on the left hand of the Buddha beside a figure of the Vajrapāni. One of
these, with his back to the viewer, wears a short girt tunic over the left shoulder;
another, of emaciated appearance, wears only a short lower garment. On the
Buddha's right are two more bearded and similarly dressed ascetics.

Deities
By the time of the rise of Gandhāra art, Buddhism had come to terms with
the more ancient religious beliefs and practices otherwise not Dīrectly linked with
its quest for salvation. Chief among these Brahmā, Indra, the four lokapālas, the
twenty eight generals of the Yakshas or nature gods and Hāritī with her retinue.
Brahmā and Indra, chief gods of the Hindu pantheon are mainly found in
narrative reliefs, not in their own individual capacity, symbolizing perhaps their
subordination to the Buddha. Nor are they shown in the costume peculiar to the
Buddha and can only be distinguished from the nobility by their headgear: Indra's
cap in particular. In the relief (Fig. 100) showing the birth of Siddhārta, the god
Indra, wearing an uttarīya and a cylindrical cap may be seen approaching Māyā
with a long swaddled cloth to receive the baby. Māyā and her attendant, who is
her sister, Mahāprajāpati, represents women of high status and the costumes they
are wearing are therefore equally interesting. Māyā wears a draped garment from
the left shoulder, a paridhāna round it, a scarf which passes behind the back and
hangs from both upper arms. Mahāprajāpati wears a sleeved tunic over a
paridhāna. Another female figure behind her is dressed like Māyā.
The Buddha seated in the middle of the relief in Fig. 101 is flanked by the
guardians (Mahārājas or Lokapālas) of the four cardinal points. Two on each side
of the Buddha, they hold four bowls and wear, in each case, an uttarīya and
paridhāna illustrating the costume of the divinities of their class.
The most frequently occurring yaksha, Vajrapāni, the Buddha's protector
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acolyte usually found in narrative reliefs, is variously dressed. In Fig. 99 he

appears with long, bearded face, modelled muscles, genitals, a long draped-
overgarment from his left shoulder passing across the legs. A bare-backed
Vajrapāni with the uttarīya falling below the hips appears in Fig. 76.

A less frequent deity, Māra, is variously shown as an armoured figure (Fig. 78) or
in the dress of a nobleman (Fig. 87). Another armoured deity (Fig: 98) with spear
or bird—a form perhaps of the Hindu god Skanda-Kārttikeya—wears a paridhāna
under his armour skirt and sleeved tunic under a cross-hatched quilted shirt.

Miscellaneous
Incidentally represented in Gandhāra art are hunters, wrestlers, acrobats,
male and female worshippers, donors, grooms, palanquin-bearers, school boys,
teachers, farmers etc. None of these needed special care in the delineation of their
physical features for they appear merely as supporting characters or agents to
illustrate certain stories related to the previous lives or the last (i.e. worldly) life
of the Buddha. Nevertheless, one can have a good idea of the garments used by
the miscellaneous communities they belong to. The hunter shown in the relief
illustrating 'Siddhārta exchanges clothes with the hunter' wears merely a langoṭi
(see Ingholt: No. 46). In another example (Ibid: No. 1) a hunter is shown sawing
off the tusks of an elephant. He seems to be a little better off in the matter of
garment as, instead of langoti, he wears a long dhoti (paridhāna). The tight shorts
which the wrestlers wear, as represented in various reliefs, (Ingholt: Nos. 27, 28,
445) is the present Jānghia. A shorter form of this Jānghia is to be seen in the
Jamāl Garhi relief depicting a wresting match (Marshall 1973: Fig. 105). In this
case the width of the Jānghia is just good enough to cover the genitals. A kind of
athletic undergarment of acrobats (see Ingholt: No. 427) looks more like a short
dhoti tucked behind and held in place round the waist by a band.
There was no particular dress for worshippers, both male and female, as they
hailed from different segments of the society and represented in each case the
segment they belonged to. Thus we have worshippers, in most cases, wearing
uttarīya (chādar) and paridhāna (dhoti) (see Zwalf: Nos. 266; Inghlot: 304-05), in
some cases caftan (sleeved tunic) and trousers (Fig. 101). The Scytho-Parthian
 82

costume, also termed as Iranian, comprising nearly close-fitting trousers (present

shalwār) and riding caftan was eminently suited to riding; the caftan being
actually a forerunner of the European redingote—originally 'riding coat' (cf. Ibid:
97). In another variety (Fig. 102) the caftan is longer at the sides than at the centre
and has a beaded decoration around the neck down the front to the waist, and
down the front of the trouser legs. Around the waist (but visible only on the front)
is a nicely decorated belt of which the ends tied in the front terminate in a pendant
pommel. The two extant worshippers in a fragmentary panel (Fig. 103) wear
unusual costumes. The one on the left has a costume showing beaded decoration
as seen above, but instead of trousers, he wears a skirt, reaching to just above the
knee like a Scotsman combining the kilt with knee-length stockings. The skirt is
decorated with vertical rows of horizontal, curved lines. The other (standing on
the right hand side) is clad in a dhoti only; a floral garland draped over the
shoulder passes between the arms and the body and hangs down in front to the
knees. The donor standing to the Bodhisattva's right (see Ingholt; No. 287) also
wears caftan and trousers but his headdress appears to be an emblem of royalty
and resembles the crown of the Pharaoh of Upper Egypt (see Breasted 1944:
Fig.37). The pattern of lines decorating the tiara suggests a jewelled decoration.
The four female worshippers of Fig. 104 all show trailing robes. Of these
the two in the centre present a very significant stance. The weight of the body on
the right foot, the right hip thrusts forward, the trunk sways back, and the head
inclines slightly forward. Both costume and bearing, as Ingholt suggests, seem to
point to the tribes northeast of Gandhāra and may be compared to the frescoes
from Qizil in East Turkestan in which the ladies show the same posture. In
Chinese art the noble ladies are represented in a similar manner at least as early as
the Tang period (cf. Ingholt: 139-40)
The representations of grooms are not very many in Gandhāra art and we
depend merely on the representations of Siddhārta's groom, Chanḑaka, found in
stories of Sidddhārta's departure from his ancestral home to a nearby forest and
his exchange of clothes. In the penal relief No. 48 in Ingholt Chanḑaka can be
seen clad in uttarīya and paridhāna (dhoti). This may be the dress of the grooms
in general.
The farmer, (Ibid: No. 36), grass-cutter (Ibid: No. 59) and male servants
 83

(Ibid: No. 146) are meagerly dressed in a short dhoti which covers merely the
middle portion of the body from waist to just above the knees. The two litter
bearers (Ibid: No. 35) are also similarly dressed.
The dress of a teacher can be known from the relief (Ibid: No. 25)
illustrating 'Siddhārta in School'. The schoolmaster Viśvamitra clad in uttarīya
and dhoti is shown sitting on a wicker chair and writing on a board held in his lap.
In another relief (Ibid: No. 24) haloed Siddhārta is accompanied by three school
fellows standing to the right of the seated Viśvamitra. All are shown wearing
dhoti and uttarīya. Nearly seven of Siddhārta's school fellows are shown in the
panel 'the child Bodhisattva going to school in a ram cart'. Except for the
Bodhisattva, all are clad in sleeveless long tunics (Fig. 105).
An interesting example of the ultra-smart and fashionable dress is to be
seen in the dress of a Yakshī standing under the śāla tree (Fig. 106). The wreath
on her head was of course fashionable among the upper classes of Graeco-
Parthian society, but in other respects her dress and ornaments are Indian in
origin. The dress consists of a dhoti reaching down to the ankles, long sleeved
jacket or coat or scarf (visible on the right shoulder), while the ornaments she is
wearing comprise a forehead medallion, ear-rings, two necklaces, crossed breast-
chain (of which only the top is visible) hip-girdle of four pearl strings, wrist
bangles and anklets.
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Chapter 6
Jewellery and Headresses
The principal items of jewellery in gold and silver found by Marshall at
Taxila include ear-pendants of many different shapes, necklaces, girdles, breast
chains, belts, amulets, broaches, hair pins, bangles, bracelets, torques, anklets, and
finger rings ((see Marshall 1951:11, 616 ff). This contemporary material is very
significant and can help us in the identification of their very often clumsy
renderings in stone as found in Gandhāra art. The maJoṛity of the items of jewelry
(180 out of the total 213) found at Taxila comes from the later strata in the city of
Sirkap and belong with few exceptions to the first century AD. In style, Marshall
remarks “the jewellery is, for the most part, distinctly Greek, Graeco-Roman or
Scytho-Persian in character and fundamentally different from the contemporary
Indian jewellery, as we see it depicted in the reliefs of Sāňchi, Bhārhut and other
monuments of the Early Indian School”.
Much of the jewellery from Taxila was made with the help of moulds or
dies. An inherent disadvantage of an impression made in a mould is that only the
thinnest sheet-metal (gold or silver) can be used for pressing it into cavities of the
design. Even then it is not finally finished off, as it needs to be further retouched
with punches and engraver in order to be able to produce the desired effect. To
overcome this difficulty the jewellers of Taxila had recourse to copper or bronze
dies. It is significant also, Marshall says, that the technical process employed in
the manufacture of this Taxila jewellery is identical with those employed
throughtout the Greek and Graeco-Roman world. The technique of granulation,
that is, the decoration of a gold surface with fine granules (Lat. Pulvisculus
aureus) was known in Greece and the Near East almost from time immemorial
(Ibid) Another method of decorating gold and silver ornaments which India learnt
from the Graeco-Roman world, was that known as filigree (Ibid: 618). This was
effected by soldering fine wire to the surface of the metal, the wire being either
plain, twisted into a chain, or beaded.
If the art of granulation and filigree was a western one, it is certain that the
art of incrusting jewellery and other objects with gems was of eastern origin and
 85

it was rarely practiced in the Mediterranean area until the conquest of Alexander
opened up the Orient (Ibid: 619). What ever the source of origin, the design of
jewellery found at Taxila and the manner in which the design are applied show
that the vogue for incrustation which arose at Taxila in the first century AD was
the Dīrect outcome of the Parthian occupation (Ibid.). In the Taxila jewellery the
incrustation is of two kinds. In one, the gems or paste are enclosed in small
compartments or cloisons, contiguous to one another and covering the whole
surface; in the other they are studded here and there about the design either in
cloisons or in box-settings (Ibid.). The semi-precious stones used in jewellery at
Taxila were: carnelian or sard, chalcedony, agate, onyx, garnet, jasper, lapis-
lazuli, rock-crystal, turquoise paste, black marble and white orthoclase felspar.
These are much the same as used by Greeks, Graeco-Roman or Graeco-Scythic
jewellers.

A: Jewellery
The principal items of jewellery reflected in Gandhāra art comprises: (1) head
(2) ear (3) nose (4) arm (5) waist and (6) legs ornaments. From their
representations in stone it is not possible to tell the material or materials of which
they were made but their counterparts founds in Taxila indicate that the materials
much in use for jewellery were gold and silver.
Of all the parts of a human body the head seems to have received the best
attention, for, the head ornament, besides its role as an object of beautification
also served a very important utilitarian function, viz, holding the hair in position.
In its most simple form the head ornament consists of a single strip, band or fillet
of cloths or metal worn much like a diadem as depicted on Bacterian Greek coins
where it appears as a symbol of royalty. A good example of it may be seen in Fig.
107 showing a tutelary couple. The bands of curly hairs radiating perhaps from a
lost chignon and forming cockscrew points on the forehead of the god sitting on
the left hand side pass under a plain single fillet. But representations of this kind
of a fillet are not very many. The most recurrent form in Gandhāra art is a string
of jewels or beads worn in the hair above the forehead in many different ways.
The head-bands may consist of one, two (Zwalf 1996: No. 70) or three
strings (Ingholt 1957: No. 296)—all issuing from a clasp over the forehead (see
 86

Ibid: No. 293). The clasp is very often a square⁄ rectangular block or ring. Endless
are the ways in which the head-band is applied to the hair. In some cases the
strings are joined together forming a thick band (Fig. 108). In Fig. 109 the head-
band consists of two strings emamnating from a ring above the forehead, but the
strings instead of forming one thick band, fan out separately, while a third winds
round the top- knot apparently unconnected with the others. In the head dress of
Māyā the string of Jewels winds round the head with each turn of the turban (see
Fig. 110). Fig. 111 shows a sumptuously jewelled headdress of which the outer
diadem, passing horizontally just above the forehead locks, is connected to the
beaded band at the base of the uṣniṣā by strings of pearls that continue over the
top of the head. Of the three visible strings, the middle one issues from a
rectangular and the flanking ones from a round clasp provided in the diadem. It
may be parenthetically noted that the head under discussion is taken to be a good
example of the meeting of Eastern and Western influences in Gandhāra: the
superb decoration of the head being South Asian in spirit, while its precise
modelling reflects Greek influence. An even more ornate headdress may be
witnessed in Fig. 112. In this case the diadem and strings of pearls occur together
with an additional item: a round medallion showing a tapering tenon. Another
variety in this context may be seen in the headdress of the donor standing on
Siddhārta’s right in Fig. 113, which resembles the Pharaonic crown of Upper
Egypt (Breasted 1944: Fig. 37) and was no doubt an emblem of royalty. The
pattern of lines decorating the tiara suggests a jewelled ornamentation.
The proper placement of such items of jewellery as ear-pendants, amulets,
necklaces, bangles etc. on human body and the manner in which they were
displayed, is best illustrated in Boddhisattva images of which a large number of
complete examples has survived and is available for study so that we don’t have
to depend merely upon surmise and imaginary view points. Fig. 114 shows a
standing Maitreya wearing, in addition to a torque or collar, three bead necklaces
of varying size and thickness. The torque is decorated with engraved round and
square motifs placed within beaded borders. Each square is divided into two
triangles by a diagonal line connecting the two opposite angles.
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ⅰ. Necklaces
Of the three necklaces, the principal one is thicker than the rest. It consists
of three to four strands and falls in front of the chest. The terminals of this
necklace show cross-hatched cylinders ending in confronted horned monster
heads holding a globular bead in between. Necklaces terminating in monster
heads appear to have been fairly popular but, quite on the contrary, we also have
numerous examples which show no such device (see, for example, Zwalf 1996:
Nos. 55-58). The second necklace, again of multiple strands but smaller in size,
issues from under the collar, and passes under the principal necklace and over the
right upper arm. It is marked by metal sleeves at intervals. The third is an amulet
carrier chain which, in addition to metal sleeves, holds cylindrical boxes
containing amulets.
The number of necklaces was not fixed and may vary from merely one
(see Zwalf 1996: No. 62, 70, 71) to two (Zwalf: No. 61) or four (see Ingholt: No.
293; Zwalf: No. 64). The amulet carrier or talisman cord, although very popular
with Boddhisattva images, is missing in a number of cases (see Zwalf: No. 70,
71).

ⅱ. Earrings and Ear-pendants

The earrings with thick beaded (or plain) and rounded hoops, sometimes
having a small pendant, were fairly common. In some cases the hoop is set with a
band of stones (see Zwalf: No. 64). In a few cases the earrings are comparatively
large and globular (see Ibid: No. 60). In Fig. 114 the thick beaded and rounded
hoops of the earrings also have a small pendant. An exceedingly small number of
cases show large and heavy earrings having a lion’s head ornament at the pierced
lobe (Ingholt: No. 293; Fig. 1o8 above). Fig. 115 illustrates earrings having
winged lion protomes with short strings of beads falling from the head and the
paws of the animal. Similarly the lion protome earrings may in each case have a
swag of strung beads (zwalf: No. 76). Sir john Marshall (1951: ii, 621) says that
one end of the ‘ring-type’ earrings, very favourite in Hellenistic times, usually
terminated in an ornamental head (of a lion, bear, tiger etc.). Later examples, he
further remarks, are commonly without this ornament.
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ⅲ. Armlets
Fig. 116 shows a seated Maitreya wearing armlets of which the one on the
left upper arm is completely, while the other, on the right upper arm, is only
partly hidden under the uttariya. The armlet consists of a trilobed design—oval in
the centre and leaf-shaped at the sides. The trilobed design was very favourite and
is met with in most cases. Variations are there but these occur mostly in
decoration. Thus one may come across a three-lobed plate with cross hatched
pattern (Zwalf: No. 62), or set with round and rectangular stones below a round
floral ornament (Ibid: No. 57), or with a beaded semicircular plate enclosing an
inlaid floral motif (Ibid: No. 62), or it may look like a medallion of beaded outline
set with flat stones in a floral pattern (Ibid: No. 63). An unusual form (Fig. 115)
shows a three-lobed plate with beaded outline containing a damaged figure in
relief seated with spread legs on a lion and holding a spear or club.
In another variety of the armlet we have a disc, instead of a three-lobed
plate, with beaded edge and set with stones forming a flower. In Fig. 117 the
armlet worn by a sitting Boddhisattva is a double band supporting a floral disc
with a beaded edge.
In some cases the three-lobed device is replaced by a rectangular plate.
The visible armlet in Fig. 118 has a rectangular plate surmounted by a disc, both
set with an open flower motif and with beaded outline. The vertical sides of this
plate are very often curved in.

ⅳ. Bracllet
The word ‘brace’ in bracelet is derived from the Greek ‘brakhion’
meaning arm. It is the same as the Panjābi word ‘Bānhan’ and the Urdu word
(derived from Persian) Bāzu. The bracelet therefore must have originally stood
for an arm ornament. Literally it is closer to the Urdu ‘Bāzu-band’ (arm band) but
the later at present stands for an armlet. The bracelet in its present use is an
ornamental band, hoop or chain worn particularly on the wrist. In this sense it is
synonymous with the Panjābi word ‘Kaṛa’.
The bracelet was a popular ornament both for men and women alike. The
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Bodhisattvas, in general, wear double while the Hāriti, in a number of cases,

shows multiple bracelets on her wrist (Kurita: No. 487-95). Ordinary people, as
shown in panel reliefs, are depicted with one bracelet only, which looks more like
a bangle (Fig. 119). Fig. 114 shows a standing Maitreya wearing double bracellets
of which one ring or bangle is set with rectangular stones, some to a low point,
while other appears faceted. In Fig. 12o is illustrated the broken off hand of a
Bodhisattva wearing two bracelets. In this case the bracelets are not joined
together.
The double bracelet shows several forms and a variety of decorative
motifs all of which need not be considered here. Fig. 121 and 122 show different
varieties of the multiple bracelets. Female musicians wearing multiple bangles
may be seen in Zwalf: No. 174.

ⅴ. Anklet (Urdu Pāzeb)

This ornament is worn round an ankle and is particularly associated with
ladies, Queen Māyā and her attendant ladies (Zwalf: NoS. 1145-47), Yakṣis
standing under trees (Ibid: No. 349-353), Hāritī (Ibid: no. 93) winged Atlas (Ibid:
No., 355), garland bearing amorini (Ibid; No. 424-26), performing ladies (i.e.
female musicians) (Ibid: No. 522)—all are shown as wearing anklets. Fig. 121
shows a standing Hāritī wearing an extraordinarily heavy double anklet.

B: Headdresses
Except for the shaven headed monks, men and women wih long hair
overwhelmingly predominate in Gandhāran imagery. Unwashed for years and
unkempt disheveled hair have always been associated in the Indian society with
meditation and ascetic practices that are considered to be essential prerequisites
for the attainment of Supreme Knowledge capable of unfolding the secret of the
much desired nirvāṇa (i.e. Eternal Bliss). According to J. M. Banerjea (IHQ 2:
510-12), the wearing of long hair was a common custom among Indo-Aryan
males and it was a reflection of that custom that they endowed their gods with this
feature. The top-knots and coiled hair of various deities, in the view of some early
writers such as Coomaraswamy (1928: 828), Agrawala (1984: 37) etc., may be
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connected with the Vedic terms Kaparda and Opaśa. Kapardin is the term used to
designate an ascetic coiffeur in which long matted tresses are wrapped layer upon
layer over the head. Images of ascetics from Sāñchi and Buddhas from Mathurā
region amply show this kind of headdress. But, in Gandhāra, it could not achieve
any significant degree of success, for, except for the images of Brahmā and other
ascetic types, the most predominant number of Gandhāran imagery comprising
images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas remained out of the sphere of its imfluence.
In Gandhāra jaṭā (matted locks) and jaṭāmukuṭa, indicating hair styles of ascetic
people, have been important since the second century BC (Schmidt 1990: 219).

ⅰ. Buddha
Image of Śākymuni and Brahmā are the earliest sculptures to show the
jaṭāmukuṭa type of headdress. Of these, the images of Śākyamuni are no doubt the
most prevalent in Gandhāra art. But there is evidence to show that all these do not
represent Śākyamuni alone. Other Buddhas of the past such as Dīpamkara,
Amitābh and Maitreya have also been depicted. Whatever the nature of these
images the hair style follows one basic pattern: the hair is gathered on the head
into a bun (uṣnīṣa) which covers merely the top, not the whole head. The space
left vacant by the bun is occupied by hair showing simple or snail-shell curls.
Lohuizen-de Leeuw (1979: 377-400) in her study finds four evolutionary
stages in hair styles of Buddha images in the north-western and eastern
Afghānistān. These are:
a. The hair is drawn into a low flat bun or jaṭāmukuṭa tied by a band at the
base.
b. With the lapse of time this fashion developed into a high rising bulbous
topknot.
c. Subseqeunt development favoured a less prominent chignon fashioned
from a full head of wavy hair.
d. The less prominent bun (or uṣnīṣa) of wavy hair remained the primary
mode throughout the periods of florescence and decline although snail-
curl, introduced from Mathurā probably no later than the reign of
Huvinshka, was also used for images of the Buddha during these periods.
For Buddha images of Mathurā, this simple fashion was superceded by the
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Kapardin style jaṭāmukuṭa or uṣnīṣa, marking a new development in the

iconography of the Buddha image. But in Gandhāra this new development took an
altogether different course, as there is no evidence to show that the Kapardin style
was ever used for the images of the Buddha. The images of Brahmā however
present a different case.

ⅱ. Brahmā
Another group of images showing ascetics fashion in the headdress as well
as facial features compirses images of Brahmā who, although a great god of the
Aryan pantheon, appears as an attendant deity in relief carvings that depict events
in the life of Śākyamuni. This may be seen in Fig. 123 which depicts bath scene
of the newborn Siddhārta. Standing on a tripod under a canopy, the divine child is
held by two kneeling women while Indra and Brahmā, behind them, pour water
over him from two small globular flasks held in their right hands.
Brahmā’s hair styles are inherently archetypical of the jaṭāmukuṭa type
(Fig. 124). Like an ascetic he wears a dhoti and jaṭāmukuṭa and very often carries
a flask. In what appears to be the earliest phase Brahmā is adorned with the
kapardin type Jaṭāmukuṭa (Fig. 125, 126). The next stage of development is very
similar to the Buddha images sculpted in the early Kushān period. It is
characterized by a full and high rounded top-knot (Fig. 127). In the course of time
Brahmā is transformed from a wizened sage into a youthful beardless Brāhman
type (Fig. 128). In this example Brahmā is shown with free flowing locks and a
smaller bun. Later representations show him with free flowing locks both with
and without a bun (Fig. 129). In the present relief Brahmā, standing on the right
of the Buddha, with hands joined, has long hair under a chignon and a single-loop
jatāmukuṭa, i.e. a horizontal length of hair looped at one end. Fig. 130 shows
Brahmā and Maitreya wearing a single-loop jaṭāmukuṭa attesting the close
association of these types. In this relief Śākyamuni is shown seated on a lotus
beneath a leafy canopy. Of the four attending figures the pair at the back is to be
identified clearly as Indra and Brahmā, Indra by his high hat and the vajra he is
carrying; Brahmā by his headdress (single-loop jaṭāmukuṭa) and the flask in his
left hand. The Bodhisattva (appaertly Maitreya) on the Buddha’s left carryiong a
flask also shows a similar hair style.
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ⅲ. Bodhisattvas
The Buddha by example had stressed the importance of concentrating on
the individual’s own salvation by renouncing family and worldly ties in order to
obtain nirvāṇa (Eternal Bliss). The ideal was graduallty abandoned in favour of
the Bodhisattva concept: men are to continue to strive for the bodhi, the
enlightenment, but intead of renouncing the world and seeking one’s personal
nirvāṇa only, the individual is urged to stay in the world and work for the
salvation of the whole humanity.
The word Boddhisattva literally means ‘the one whose essence is bodhi or
knowledge. A Bodhisattva possesses both wisdom (prajnā) and copmpassion
(karuṇā) developed through compassionate views and deeds. In the visual arts a
Bodhisattva was presented as either a Kṣatriya (princely figure) or Brāhman (a
member of the priestly class). In both the cases he is adorned with jewellery that
distinguishes him from the images of Buddha. A large number of the Bodhisattva
images have not been identified. It is difficult therefore to give names to such
figures. Given this identification problem, the Bodhisattva images for our purpose
may be grouped into those:
(1) Wearing a turban and
2) Wearing a jaṭāmukuṭa.
We shall take up the turban type first.

1. The Turbaned Bodhisattvas

The turban, an aristocratic headdress of Indian origin, was incorporated by
the Buddhist school in Gandhāra at an early stage and it remained in use
throughout the period of its decline. In Vedic uage, this type of headdress was
worn by the king of Vājapeya and Rājasūya investiture ceremonies
(CooMāraswamy 1928: 818, 830). Investiture with the turban also marked the
successful completion of Vedic studies by Brāhmen students as well as the
transferal of authority from a deceased religious leader to his successor (Yusuf
Ali1900: 77). It may be noted that inspite of the lapse of centuries these two
traditions survived intact under the designation Rasm-i-dastar Bandi, i.e.
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ceremony of wearing the Turban. In a similar way the Buddhist literary

traditions emphasized the role of a turban in the society contemporary with the
compilation of the Jātaka stories. Myths developed around the earthly life of
Śākyamuni (Jātaka stories) mention him as divine young prince with a turbaned
head (CooMāraswamy 1928: 829-30). It is also probably that the turban headdress
held an important place in meditational cycles such as those recorded in the
Amitāyar-dhyāna-sūtra when it is stated that:
Whosoever will meditate on Boddhisattva Avalokiśvara should first
meditate on the turban of his head, and then on his heavenly crown.
(Max Muller 1985: 183-184).
As shown by numerous Gandhāran images, the turban was wrapped round
the head in a manner that creates a tripartite symmetrical appearence at the front
of the head just above the hairline where the layers of wrapping crisscrossed. It
was secured either by the manner of wrapping or more typically by the addition
of three restraining bands (Fig.131). Carolyn W. Schmidt’s observation in this
regard is worth quoting:
“Beginning with the early phase of development, Gandhāran turbans are
characterized by a high, symmetrically positioned frontal unit, usually
composed of pleated fabric, in front of which is shown some type of fabric
roll, loop or possibly an ornate emblem device. As the tradition developed,
the ornamentation of the restraining bands, the side portions and the crest
increased with the addition of a hairline jewel and restraining band
receptacles, the application of cut and set stones, bead tassels and of
plaques in the form of fantastic animals, devas and seated Buddhas”
(Schmidt 1990: 140).
Using the securing and restraining methods and the modes of
ornamentation of the turban, Carolyn Schmidt has divided the turbans into seven
categories. These are as follows:
{Style ⅰ: Secured with restraining bands} Saka-Parthian
{Style ⅱ: Unbanded self sustaining } 50 BC—A D 100
{Style ⅲ: Restraining bands with Jewels—Late Parthian
{Style ⅳ: Flower receptacles with cut Jewels (Early Kushān)
{Style ⅴ: Jewel and swmall lotus-flower receptacle ( Middle Kushān)
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{Style vi: Plain weave with ornamental plaques

{Style ⅶ: Jewel and plaque ornamentation

Turban Style ⅰ: Secured With Restraining Bands

In this style the wrapped fabric of the turban was secured by two to three
unornamented bands crossing over the upper, middle and lower sections of the
headdress (Fig. 131). The bands were simply criss-crossed (Fig. 132) or very
often knotted (Fig. 133) just above the hairline. This handling of the frontal
portion gave rise to a variety of conventions distinguished from each other by a
different treatment of the knots. In Fig. 134 the twisted bands pass through a pair
of knots. Fig. 135 shows three horizontal bands over the hairline on the forehead.
There are many other varieties in which the knots are substituted by a drilled and
faceted stone at the hairline or by a pair of receptacles through which the bands
pass.

Style ⅱ: Unbanded Self-Sustaining

In this style the turban is secured without the help of restraining bands.
The fabric bound around the head with successive wrappings crossed over the
centre front of the head just over the hailine creating a bilaterally symmetrical
appearance (Fig. 136). In the present example the turban consists of three plain
bands, one almost horizontal and two crossing each other just above the centre
forehead. In the back is a fantail with a tapering tenon in the centre.

Style ⅲ: Resraining Bands with Jewels

The third style shows that the fabric of the wrapped turban is held in place
by three resraining bands but the bands appears to pass behind or originate from
the ends of a drilled or faceted jewel without the ornamental terminals or
receptacles. The pattern is generally completed by a frontal element comprising a
pleated crest and a gourd-like object ornamented by a string of jewels (Fig. 137).

Style ⅵ: Flower Receptacles with Cut Jewels

The fabric of the turban in this style is also held by three restraining bands,
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but in this case they appear to originate from a pair of open-faced flowers
positioned to either side of a faceted jewel. This type of headdress shows a
pleated cockade with a crest ornament in the form of a conical fabric loop (Fig.
138). The addition of flower terminals appears to represent an initial step in the
developmental process that eventually led to the fully ornamented style of the
mature phase.

Style ⅴ: A Jewel and Small Lotus-Flower Receptacles

In this group of turbans the fabric is again held in place by the
restraining bands. The ends of the fabric used for this purpose are tucked up
beneath the middle restraining band. The bands in general appear to originate
from a cut jewel positioned between a pair of lotus-cup receptacles (Fig. 139). On
the top of the head in this illustration is a large fantail shaped cockade supported
by a fabric wrapped base resembling a lotus base. This frontal element is adorned
with a crest ornament in the form of tassel, faceted jewel or siṃha-mukha (Lions’
face). In many cases the side of the head shows open-faced flower ornaments.
Many of the images adorned with this type of headdress appear to have been
created during the period of florescence (ca. 2nd half of the 2nd cent. through 3rd
century AD (Schmidt 1990:174)).
Most images in this group are representations of Avalokiteśvra/
Padmapani and come from the Swāt region. It seems probable that there was a
cult of Avalokiteśvra in this region, although Fig. 140, displaying the same
features, was found at Taxila.

Style ⅳ: Plain Weave with Ornamental Plaque

Images in this group are not only unusual but also very rare. The finely
woven fabric of their headdresses do not have the the elaborate jewel
ornamentation which characterizes the period of time (ca. 2nd half of the 2nd or 3rd
cent.AD) into this group falls. Of the two sculptures assigned to this category, one
is very fragmentary. The other figure which is relatively undamaged, displays a
pair of ornaments, of known material, positioned to either side of a cut jewel
above which rises a high cockade (Fig. 141). Unusual also are the two broad
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ribbons with floating ends, secured under a restraining band, on either side of the
head.

Style ⅶ: Jewel and plaque Ornamented

The headdresses in this large grouping are characterized by a jewel
positioned between a pair of ornaments formed as lotus-flower and open-
mouthed-lion-headed terminals reminiscent of the repoussė, cast plaque or the
appliqué-like emblems (Schmidt: 189). Sculptures exhibiting ‘the style V11
turbans are mainly Boddhisattva images created during the period of florescence
(2nd to 3rd cent.AD). The turbans worn by images in this group are adorned with
elaborate jewel and plaque ornaments and emblems. The fabric matrix is wrapped
in the conventional symmetrical manner with the ends of the headdress looped
and apparently secured at the sides beneath the middle restraining band. Most of
the turbans show a wrapping style that creates a serpentine pattern running from
front to back across the top of the headdress at either side of a cockade which, in a
number of cases, is bound at the base by a wrapping of the fabric. In some cases
the wrapping is replaced by a lotus dais which supports either a faceted, tapering
jewel or an image of a seated Buddha (Fig. 142). Other crest emblems include a
garuḍa with nāga. In addition to the crest emblem and the set jewel
embellishments, the sides are frequently further enriched with appliqués or
plaques in the form of prancing winged lions. In Fig 109, the crest of the turban, a
thin, pleated and circular confection, has a round central motif of an undulating
line enclosing a worn lion’s head spewing out two diverging strands. Two
restraining bands go around the sides from well behind the ears to form knots
beside the large central faceted bead: the upper band also passes on each side over
a winged four legged monster in prominent relief whose jaws receive a strand
falling from a smaller and rectangular bead below the central crest and whose
long thin body, ribbed along the back to represent a spiky crest, curves upwards
to the hauches so that its hind legs are over the vertical loop of cloth with its
pendant pleated end at the sides (Zwalf 1996: 112).There are many other varieties
of the headdress in this style, which cannot be all included in this brief discussion.
The images in this group, evidently created during the 2 nd and 3rd centuries AD,
mark the full flowering of the Buddhist School in Gandhāra and related regions.
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The artistic evidence, as aptly remarked by Schmidt (1990: 200), attests not only
to the varieties of Mahāyāna Buddhism but to the vitality of the society as a
whole, which, through its wealth and patronage, must have contributed greatly to
the achievement of the high level of productivity and fine quality of the
craftsmanship characteristic of the Style V11 images.

2. Jaṭāmukuṭa Fashions
In Gandhāra art both turbanbed and jaṭāmukuṭa wearing Bodhisattva are
more frequently shown with princely accoutrements and garments. This
distinguishes them from the images of Buddha. The jewellery worn by both
turbaned and Jaṭāmukuṭa-type Bodhisattvas is identical in detail. However,
headdresses, hair fashions and other identifying attributes distinguish the two
types.
Several jaṭāmukuṭa styles were used. Schmidt (1990: 235) has classified
these styles into the following four conventions:
.Jaṭāmukuṭa Convention Ⅰ: The Rondure Style
In this style the hair was fashioned into a rounded bun-like top-knot
similar to the uṣniṣa worn by Śākyamuni (see above Figs. 111, 136).
Jaṭāmukuṭa Convention Ⅱ: The Double-looped Style
The top-knot in this style was formed by a pair of tresses looped and
symmetrically postioned to either side of centre (Fig. 142).
Jaṭāmukuṭa Convention Ⅲ: The Single-looped Style
The chignon in this style was formed by a single loop of hair with a
circular-knot (Fig. 109).
Jaṭāmukuṭa Convention Ⅳ: The Kapardin Style
The Kapardin jaṭmukuṭa is composed of long straight tresses twisted and
wrapped layer upon layer on the crown of the head. It was one of the earliest
styles preferred for images of Brahmā. Only a few Bodhisattva images are
adorned with a Kapardin jaṭāmukuṭa (Fig. 143).
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Chapter: 7
Miscellaneous
The cultural traits which occur only sparingly and cannot be expounded into
chapters are grouped here under this heading.

Ⅰ. Household Vessels etc.

Among the house-hold vessels the bowl occurs in the panel reliefs
representing “Offering of the Four-bowls to the Buddha” (Fig. 144), “Coversion
of Nanda” (Fig. 15 above), “Offering of the monkey” (Fig. 145), “Buddda and
Monks at the House of Srīgupta” (Fig. 146) and “Offering of the Dust” (Fig. 19
above).
The bowl is hemispherical in shape and devoid of any kind of decorative
features in most cases. In a late example (Fig. 147) however it is a little taller in
height and looks more like a beaker. In Fig. 148 the bowl held by the Buddha in
his lap has three while the two bowls being offered to him have one and two
grooves below the rim. The bowl held by the Buddha seems to be more in accord
with what was required by the following story. After the seven week’s meditation
and fasting that followed the Enlightenment, a caravan headed by the merchant
Trapusha and Bhallika, happen to pass close by the groove of trees under which
the Buddha had taken his seat. The bullock’s pulling the carts at the head of the
caravan suddenly refused to advance and the wheels stuck mysteriously in the
ground. The genius of the groove then appeared and told the merchants to bring
food to the Buddha. Merchants did so but the Buddha had no bowl of his own to
put the food offered by the merchants. Having realized the difficulty the four
lokapālas, the Guardians of the Heavenly Quarters, each brought a golden bowl.
But, that material was unacceptable to the Buddha, so the bowls were first
transformed into various other precious metals and finally into stone. Only these
last could the Buddha accept. At the same time he miraculously transformed them
into one bowl so that no individual lokapāla would be chagrined at having his
bowl rejected. As the Buddha caused the four bowls to become one, grooved lines
below the rim appeared showing that there had been more than one bowl. But
examples of bowls having no obvious connection with this event and yet showing
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grooved line blow the rim are also known. Fig. 149 shows an earthen plain
example of this kind of a bowl with a ring base.
Drinking vessels found in the reliefs, mostly associated with drinking
scenes as they are, comprise goblets, rhyton, mug and wine-cups. The goblets
found in the reliefs are of a peculiar distinctive shape, numerous specimens of
which were found by Marshall at Taxila in deposits dating from the Parthian
period alone. Some were of earthen ware, others of copper or bronze. An example
of the silver ones is shown in Fig. 15o. This Parthian period goblet is
characterized by its carinated body, deeply flared mouth, horizontal grooves on
the lower half and disproportionately small flared base, which was evidently
meant to support it only when empty. Its association with dignified sedate
drinking parties (Fig. 151 and 152), very different from the boisterous orgy
depicted on some toilet trays (Fig. 152) is noteworthy. Of the four men and two
women composing Fig. 151, the one on the extreme right carries a wine-skin
while the figure standing next to him is holding a pedestalled wine jar or crater.
The third from right is a female who, in an act of dancing, is trying to make a fine
move in consonance with the sound of the drum which is being played by the
frontally inclined male standing next to her. The female next to the drummer is
shown drinking wine from a goblet of the type (Fig. 150) mentioned above while
the male figure on the extreme left carries a wine jug and is standing poised to
refill the goblet.
Another good illustration of such scenes of a purely Hellenistic character
is afforded by Fig. 152. In this relief (from right to left) a nāgī holds a large
vessel, its rim marked by a groove; beside her a similar nāgī holds a bowl in her
left hand and a rather straight and plain rhyton in her right hand. To her right
another nāgī holds an almost similar bowl having a grooved rim. In the centre sits
a royal nāga couple consisting of a male and female figure. The male holds a
bowl in his palm and turns towards his consort who has a beaker in her right
hand. To the royal nāga’s right another nāgī offers a beaker to the couple; a male
carrying a wine-skin on his shoulders, stands beside a Krater (pedestalled wine
jar) as noticed above (Fig. 151). On the extreme left is an almost frontal nāgī
having a bunch of lotuses in her right hand.
Fig. 153 is the most elaborate of all. Although crowded, a characteristic
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typical of early Indian art, it is full of activity and shows a drinking scene. On the
top a man and woman are seated on a bench. The man is clasping his companion
with his left arm and holding a scepter with his right, while she offers him a cup
of wine. To the left of them is a draped woman, seated and playing on a triangular
musical instrument, and behind her a youth playing on the pan-pipes. To the right
a standing male figure is holding a staff in his left hand. In the middle register, to
the right, is a large winevat, rising from acanthus leaves, in which two men, one
on the back of the other, are treading grapes, while a lad in the centre draws off
the juice in a tall flagon. To the left another man is carrying a wineskin on his
back and emptying its contents into a Krater, while his companion on the left of
the vase is raising his bowl to his lips. Below, in the bottom register, two figures
are lying drunk. The style is typical of Hellenistic art of the first century AD.
Among other vessels associated with drinks mention must be made of a
tankard (or mug) of a very rare type which Marshall (1973: 34) thought was quite
familiar in Kashmir and north-west frontier, and a two-handled wine cup held by
Dionysus. The former may be seen in Fig. 154 which illustrates a drinking scene
in which some of the figures hold goblets, while the fifth from the right has a tall
handled mug. It is the only example of its kind in the entire range of Gandhāran
reliefs. The two-handled wine cup held by Dionysus is illutarated in Fig. 150. The
head of the god found in excavtions at Sirkap is in the silver repoussè. In his right
hand he holds a two-handled wine-cup (kantharos). A similar example appears in
the famous reliefs from Takht-i-Bāhi representing a Tutelary Couple (see above
Fig. 107).
All the three varieties of drinking vessels, except for the mug mentioned
above, appear together in Fig. 156. Reading from left to right, a bearded male
figure carries a plain bowl; the female figure standing next to him has a goblet.
The third figure, again a male, offers wine to the lady standing next to him in a
cup which, except that its handles are not visible, looks similar to the two-handled
wine cup held by Dionysus. Another variety may be seen in Fig. 157. In this relief
the bowl held by the elderly standing figure (third from right) is distinguished by
a scalloped turn-over rim. Its two vertical handles are the same as seen above in
Fig. 156.
Another vessel associated with drinking scene (Fig. 157) is known as
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amphora—a tall ancient Greek jar with two handles and narrow neck. It could
have served the purpose of a jug for pouring wine into bowls, goblets or rhytons.
In Gandhāra art it is very rare.
Spouted vessels found in the reliefs have two types. One of these (Fig.
158) has a globular body with a high neck and ring base. The hand is joined to the
body on one end and to the rim on the other. Type 11 (Fig. 159) has a squat
carinated body with the handle, in some cases, fixed on top of the rim and in other
caess on the side as in type 1. Both the types have survived in metal and are still
in use. Type 1 is generally made of iron sheet and type 2 of brass. Their present
name is kūza. The relief showing kūza type 1 presents a very popular Jātaka
story: “Viśvantra Gives Away the Choice Elephant”. The wonderful elephant can
be seen in the relief at the left, and in front of it are Viśvantra and Brāhman; the
former Is about to pour from the Kūza on the Brāhman’s hand. This old Indian
ritual was necessary in every act of property transfer to make it irrevocable (see
Ingholt 1957: 50). In the other example a woman standing behind Queen Māyā’s
sister Mahāprajāpati holds in one hand a plam branch and, in the other, a
waterpot, “indispensable on all occasions where consecrated water was needed”
(Ibid: 52) Kuza type11 (see above Fig. 78) may be seen in another property
transfer case: “Presentation of a mango groove by the Courtesan Āmrapāli” (see
above Fig. 30). Holding the ceremonial water vessel with handle on top of the
rim, Āmrapāli stands to the Buddha’s right in the act of making a gift. This type
of spouted vessel with handle on the top is at present used by Indian ascetics and
is called Kamaṇḍalu (Murthy 1977; 65). Brass Karamaṇḍala is now going out of
use in the Panjāb because of the sudden influx of the much cheaper plastic
crockery. It is charactertized by incurved rims, tapering body, flat base and open
mouth. Placed upside down on the top of milk jars, it is very often serves the
function of a lid. On the countryside where crows lose no opportunity in lifting
lids of milk-pots and putting their Dīrty beaks in to steal a mouthful of cream,
Karamaṇḍal, a lot more heavier than anything a crow can lift, effectively serve to
ward off this menace.
A conical type of water-pot, sometimes profusely decorated with lotus
petals (Fig. 160), very often accompanies ascetics, Brāhmans, Bodhisattva
Maitreya and god Brahmā. This apparently is a symbolic vessel indicating a high
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spititual status. It is merely a water-pot containing perhaps some consecrated

water. The name given to it in modern literature, Kamaṇḍalu, in the light of the
information given above; appears to be a misnomer. It may be anything, perhaps
merely a water-pot, the real name of which we don’t know, but it is unlikely to be
a Kamandalu.
Among other domestic vessels may be mentioned a curious winecup held
by Hārītī (Fig. 77), pitcher (Fig. 161), trough or basin (Fig. 162), wineskin (Fig.
152-53), winevat (Fig. 153).
The winecup held by the famous Hārītī of Sahri Bahlol “Mound C” in her
upper right hand, looks more like a tall tumbler having a disproportionatly small
solid pedestal base and lotus-petal decoration at the bottom-end. The body is
decorated by a framed and countersunk diamond band in the middle and by a pair
of simple grooves just under the rim. Fig. 161 shows a narrow-necked pitcher
with a globular body and externally grooved straight rim amply found in kushān
levels of archaeological sites. The trough for feeding the horse is an open-
mouthed vessel with slightly tapering plain sides and a clubbed rim. Under the
rim is a deep groove while the heavy base shows a rope design. The wineskin
made of the skin of an animal, most probably goat or ram, is still in abundant use
except that its function has changed. Instead of carrying wine it is now used for
carrying water. The winevat—a large tank or tub—is round in shape and shows
slightly tapering sides provided with a hole or spout for the juice to flow out. In
one case a man, carrying another man at his back to increase his weight, stands in
the middle of the tub crushing grapes under his feet (Fig. 153). In another case
(Fig. 163) a man on the extreme right is ready to jump into a vat externally
decorated by horizontal grooves at two places.
Among other household objects the reliefs also show baskets (Fig. 164-
69), toilet trays (Fig. 167-169), fan (Fig. 170), toilet objects such as mirror (Fig.
15), unguent casket (Fig. 15), razor (Fig. 171), fly whisks and incence altars (Fig.
172).

Ⅱ. Musical Instruments
Musical instruments as depicted in the reliefs fall under the following three
categories:
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(1) Percussion Instruments

(2) Stringed Instruments
(3) Wind Instruments

1. Percussion instruments
Musical instruments played by striking with the hand or with a hand-held
stick or beater, or by shaking such as drums, cymbals, gongs, bells, and rattles are
placed under this category. Chief amongst there is the drum.

a: Drum
The frequency with which it found a place in the reliefs clearly shows that
the drum held a very important place amongst at laeast the percussion
instruments. It has not changed much over the years, as its comparison with the
modern counterpart would leave us in no doubt. Typically, it is barrel-shaped
with a wooden hollow body and a taught membrane over one or both ends. The
membrane is tied to the body with strings that can be pulled further to keep it
taught. In a few cases the strings joining the membrane at both ends are straight,
but in others they make interesting patterns as they pass over the wooden frame of
the barrel.
The drum is sounded by being struck with the hands (see below) or with
sticks (Fig. 173). In the former case it is smaller in size and is now called dholak
(literally small drum). An even smaller form is called Ṭabla—a percussion
instruments which has become an essential element in all kinds of musical
concerts. It is the dholak or the Ṭabla which seems to have been depicted in all
palace scenes, although its size is incorrectly exaggerated. The drum in general is
played in comparatively larger gatherings such as festivals, sports, harversts etc.
and very often serves as an item of mass communication. In the reliefs it has three
main varieties; (Ⅰ) Cylindrical, (Ⅱ) barrel-shaped and (Ⅲ) bowl-shaped. In variety
Ⅰ, it has straight parallel sides and a circular section (Fig. 174). In variety Ⅱ, the
body bulges out in the middle (Fig. 175). Variety Ⅲ has membrane only on one
side and looks more like a large size carinated bowl held between the hights while
playing (see above Fig. 151).
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The drum is hung with a strap in front of the body of the player. The same
is also the case with the dholak, but the Ṭabla always appears in sets of two, like a
pair, one of which stands almost vertically while the other is shown lying
horizontally on the ground or in the lap of the player.
A small hand-drum, now called Duff, is very rare. The only example
known to the present writer comes from a family drinking scene (see above Fig.
157).

b. Cymbal
The cymbal consists of a slightly concave round brass plate which is either
struck against another or struck with a stick to make a ringing or clashing sound.
A good example of the instrument is found in Fig. 176 which illustrates a dance
scene accompanied by musicians. The figure standing second from right is a
cymbalist.

c. Gong
It is a metal disc with turned rim, giving a resonant note when struck. No
clear example of this instrument exists in our reliefs. For a doubtful example see
Fig. 176. The man standing at the extreme right holds a disc in both hands which
may represent a gong.

d. Bell
Typically made of copper, it looks like a deep inverted cup widening at the
lip. Inside the cup is a metal clapper. Only one example is known to the present
writer (see Fig. 173). In the illustration of Māra’s attack, the figure standing in the
right upper corner holds a bell.

2. Stringed Instruments
Stringed musical instruments are in general associated with scenes
depicting Indra’s visit to the Indraśāla cave and with merry-making scenes such
as wine drinking and dancing parties. Some solo examples also exist but these
must have had been originally part of some bigger compositions. Morphologically
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the stringed instruments may roughly be grouped under three heads: (a) harp, (b)
lyre and (c) lute. A stringed musical instrument was called veena (presently been)
in South Asia.

a.Harp
Nearly bow-shaped it consists of a frame supporting a graduated series of
parallel strings played by plucking with the fingers or plectrum. The number of
strings varies from three to five (Figs. 177-179). In one case it has ten strings
(Fig. 180), but, in this case, the bow is changed into an L-shaped instrument. This
necessitated a change in the position of the instrument as well. Thus, while the
bow-shaped harp has its strings towards the harpist, the L-shaped harp has its
strings towards the audience.
Fig. 179 shows a good example of the bow-shaped harp here carried by
Pancaśikh (‘literally 5-crested’)—the harpist who accompanied the god Indra at
the occasion of his visit to the Indraśāla cave. It consists of a slightly curved
board having an upstanding curved arm marked at regular intervals by keys meant
for tightening the strings which join them separately. From the board hangs a
leather strap apparently for suspending the instrument on a wall. Fig. 178 shows
that the curved arm terminates into a round thickened head. The board in this case
looks more like a gourd of abnormal size. In both examples, Pancaśikha holds the
harp with left hand; in the right hand, he has the plectrum.

b: Lyre
Typically, it is a stringed instrument like a small U-shaped harp with
strings fixed to a crossbar. A good but rare example may be seen in Fig. 181. It is
perhaps the only example in Gandhāra art that closely corresponds to the
description given above. Fig. 182 seems to be a variant form, unless of course it
does not represent something that in the ancient past went under a totally different
name. Similar is the case with another instrument (Figs. 176, 180) which occurs
twice in panel reliefs of distinctively Hellenistic style. Francine Tissot (1985: 234,
No. 4), with a question mark, calls it “psalterion” (psaltery, according to the New
Oxford Dictionary (2001: 1495) was an ancient and medieval instrument like a
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dulcimer but played by plucking the strings with the fingers or a plectrum). We
have already reffered to a woman playing on a triangular instrument in our
description of Fig. 153 (see Supra). Sir John Marshall names this instrument as
lyre.
According to K. k. Murthy (1977: 84) “the lyre is twice represented in
Gandhāra reliefs”. In support of this view he has cited two examples from Ingholt
(XVII, 1-2). In both the cases Orpheus is charmning the animals with music.
Apparently these examples do not belong to Gandhāra art. Ingholt (1957: 34)
refers to them as “two early Byzantine versions of this theme”, viz, charming the
animals with music.

C: Lute or Guitar
The word lute, derived from the Arabic al-‘ud (Oxford Dict.: 1102) is a
stringed instrument with a pear-shaped (Fig. 183) or scalloped resonator (Fig.
184), a long straight neck having pegs and two to three strings. The pegs are
meant for fine tuning the instrument by loosening or tightening the strings to
produce the required tunes. The guitar like the harp is amply attested in our reliefs
but, quite interestingly, while the harp has totally disappeared, the guitar, in a
simple form locally called ektārā when it is one-stringed and dotārā when two-
stringed, has survived the ravages of time and is still popular on the countryside
where remnants of the ancient culture are presently fighting a losing battle against
the onslaught of modernism. The dotārā or two-stringed lute is referred to by Sir
John Marshall (1973: 38) as mandoline.
The piriformed (or pear-shaped) and the scalloped (or shouldered)
varieties are almost identical except for a small difference in the shape of the
resonator. The evidence of the reliefs shows that the lute was played mostly by
female musicians.

3. Wind Instruments
The wind instruments are very simple devices and mainly comprise conch-
shell, flute and trumpet or shawn. The conch, now called nād, is the most simple
of all and is used by ascetics (faqirs) alone for giving a deep penetrating call to
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show their presence. The conch is picked up from nature and is played without
changing its shape. The shrill noise it produces makes it unfit for use in musical
concerts or entertainment parties. Its depiction in Gandhāra art seems to be
confined to reliefs showing Māra’s attack and his host (Fig. 173). In the upper
right hand corner of this relief in the second row, just in front of the upraised
trunk of an elephant, stands a young man with curly hair holding a conch in both
hands ready to blow. Fig. 185 shows a fragment of a similar relief depicting two
men standing in two rows, one behind the other. The young man standing in the
upper row holds a conch in both hands ready to produce a frightening noise. With
this evidence at hand it can be seen that K. K. Murthy’s statement (1977: 88) that
“the conch is conspicuously absent” from Gandhāra art is unfortunate.
The flute has two main varieties: (1) transverse or horizontal and (2)
vertical or slanting. In both the cases it is made from a bamboo tube having holes
that are stopped by finger tips. Bamboo is locally known as bāns. The transverse
variety is therefore called bānsrī or bānsurī. At present the bānsrī has seven to
eight holes in alignment with the sound holes provided separately at one end. It is
at this sound hole that wind is blown into the instrument from the mouth of the
player (Fig. 186) with the purpose of producing a sound. The wind escapes
through the holes and is regulated by the fingers to change the sound into a
required tune. According to K. K. Murthy (1977: 89) this variety of the flute
occurs merely five times in the reliefs. But the material now available was not
known to him. In fact we have many more examples.
Variety 2 is represented by several specimens. The real difference between
this and variety 1 is the position of the sound-hole. In variety 1 the sound-hole is
placed upon the lower tip, in variety 2 the entire end of the bamboo tube is turned
into a kind of mouthpiece which is placed between both the lips (see Fig. 187).
Variety 2 may be divided into two sub-varieties: (i) small sized and (ii) large
sized. Sub-variety i, in some cases, consist of only one tube (Fig. 187). In this
form it is now known as Murli. In some other cases it has two tubes (Fig. 188),
presently called Joṛi which literally means “a pair”. In sub-variety ii, the tube is
elongated and widened at the extreme end (Fig. 182). In this form it looks more
like a trumpet or shawn.
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ⅡⅠ. Transport
Means of transport as evidenced in the reliefs may be grouped under the
following heads.
1. Land transport
2. Water Transport

1. Land Transport
This includes (a) beasts of burden like donkeys, bulls, horses, elephants,
camels and, most curiously, lions and rams, and (b) wheeled vehicles such as
carts, carriages and wagons.

a. Beasts of Burden
A packed onager (wild ass), along with a packed bull appears in a much
damaged relief (Fig. 189). But such cases are not very many. The most abundant
amongst the beasts of burden are horses (Fig. 190) and horse-riders (Fig. 191).
Siddhārta used a horse at the occasion of the Great departure; having reached the
forest the same horse was sent back home; after the Buddha’s death and the
cremation of his bOḍily remains, tribal chiefs came in riding horses to collect
their share of the relics—these and some other stories related to the life of the
Buddha gave the sculptors such topics as could be translated into stone, showing
at the same time their skill in portraying the horse and its habiliments (Fig. 85,
192-198).
Similarly the elephant was also connected with the Buddha story at some
points. Firstly, there is the story of an elephant who appeared in Māyā’s dream.
Secondly, the Buddha in a previous life as prince Viśvantra gave away the
choicest elephant to an ascetic. Thirdly, when Siddhārta had won all the athletic
competitions, a state elephant was sent to bring him back. Fourthly, when a dead
elephant blocked his way, Siddhārta got hold of the dead animal and hurled it out
of the city wall. Fifthly, when a wild and raging elephant was let loose towards
the Buddha, he tamed him just by putting his hand on his forehead. These and
other stories must have given the Gandhāran sculptors sufficient inspiration and
food for thought to focus their attention on this animal. Ample presence of the
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elephant in our reliefs is the result. In some cases the elephant appears with a
howdah and mahout, in others it shows merely a riding outfit (Fig. 199-203). Fig.
53, in the lower section, shows an elephant rider carrying relics escorted by two
horsemen.
Two humped Barctrian camels were also used for the transportation of the
reilics as may be evidenced in the following two reliefs. Fig. 52 in the central
panel of the bottom row shows a camel rider followed by a horseman, both
carrying relic caskets in their hands. The same subject is illustrated in Fig. 204
where two camel riders are shown with relic caskets.
Some of the panels exhibit amorini sitting at the back of the lion. In one
case an amorini, while sitting at the back of the lion, is feeding him (Fig., 2o5). In
another case, he is not only riding but also teasing a lion (Fig. 206).
‘Siddhārta going to school’ was also a favourite subject which could be
illustrated in different ways. In Fig. 2o7, the child Siddhārta is going to school
riding a ram. In this case the ram is portrayed more realistically and looks like a
real male sheep. But in the next relief (Fig. 2o8) it looks, except for the head,
more like a horse. Siddhārta is also shown going to school in a ram-cart (see
infra).
In the present context mention may also be made of the palanquin, a very
popular means of transport for ladies (Fig. 209). It was carried by two to four men
and was considered to be a very effective means of transport for short distances.
At present it has gone out of use. In the present relief two men support the
palanquin by a pole resting on their shoulders and held by one hand; strangely no
corresponding pair is indicated for the other side.

Ⅱ. Wheeld Vehicles
Wheeled vehicles, mainly carts, are very simple devices. The cart was
employed both for transporting goods and passengers. It has low, in some cases
undulating sides, made by fixing vertical wooden planks in the frame along its
edges. The cart in Fig. 210 contains two seated figures, one behind trailing his
arm over the side and one in front who rests his feet on a short platform in front.
Pulling the cart by the pole or between shafts is a naked figure seen in three
quarters view from the back. All the figures look more like amorini.
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The two-wheeled covered timber wagon drawn by bullocks in Fig. 211,

designed evidently to transport merchandise, has a ribbed plain roof open on the
front. In another case (Fig. 212), with the same subject matter, the roof is all over
decorated by rosettes articulated in dense rows.
Chariots were drawn by horses. Fig. 213 in the third shows Māyā setting out
for the Lumbīnī Garden in a chariot drawn by two horses. A woman with wreath
headdress sits between the two high lobes of its side, which are decorated with
honey-suckle palmettes. A guard in front carries a spear and a patterned shield.
Fig. 214 shows another variety of a chariot with decorated side and densly spoked
wheel. The decorative pattern consists of diapers of square panels each containing
a blown flower. In another illustration of the same scene (Fig. 215) the chariot has
disappeared but the wheels, horses and charioteer are quite intact. A similar
chariot with complete body but different decoration may be seen in Fig. 216. In
the next two illustrations (Fig. 217-18) the subject is the same as above, but the
chariot is drawn by lions. In another interesting scene (Fig. 219) the child
Bodhisattva Siddhārta is shown going to school in a cart drawn by a pair of rams.
It is a small cart with disproportionately heavy wheels. In this relief the
Bodhisattva is accompanied by his school-fellows carrying their writing boards
and inkpots.
The Sūrya chariot is drawn by horses, but, most curiously, a chariot could also
be drawn and pushed by birds (Fig. 220). Elephants were also used for the same
purpose (Fig. 221).

2. Water Transport
I have not come across a real boat in the published material under my
study. But I faintly remember to have seen one in Gandhāra collection of the
Lahore Museum. In any case, from the existence of paddles held by six
watermen1 (Fig. 222) it transpires that boats must have been there. Gandhāra is a
riverine country in which boats are a necessity.

Ⅳ. Sports
The reliefs depicting sports such as wrestling, archery and ‘tug-of-war’ are
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not very many. Nor do they indicate any professional interest in such games. The
athletic contests depicted in the reliefs are in fact the events in which Siddhārta
had to take part to prove his superiority in martial and other arts over other suitors
for the hand of Yaśodhrā. Of these games wrestling and ‘tug-of-war’ are still
alive but archery has gone out of use because of the introduction of guns in the
last century. Starting from the right to left Fig. 223 shows three events: (i) hurling
the Elephant, (ii) archery, (iii) wrestling in the lower register of the relief. Fig.
224 adds one more, i.e. ‘tug-of-war’.
As Siddhārta grew up and the time came for him to marry, he chose for
wife the beautiful Yaśodhrā a kinswoman, but her father refused his consent on
account of Siddhārta’s notorious lack of interest in any athletic exercise. In order
to meet the challenge Siddhārta declared himself willing to compete with any
opponent in any athletic sport, and to the great surprise of all he easily defeated
all contestants. His father Śuddhodana then ordered the great elephant of state to
bring back the prince from the field.
But, as the elephant emerged from the city gate, Siddhārta’s jealous
cousin, Devadatta, struck the animal with one blow of his fist (Fig. 225),
demonstrating his great strength of the arms. In another show of strength (2 nd
panel of the same relief) Devadatta’s half-brother Sundarānanda or Nanda, getting
hold of the animal by the tail, dragged it away. Then came Siddhārta who picked
up the dead body of the elephant and hurled it out of the city wall. Our Fig. 223,
in the panel on the extreme right, depicts this last event.
This was the concluding event. Before this the Bodhisattva had to show his
skill in archery. The second panel of the same relief (Fig. 223) illutrates this
event. Fig. 226 gives more details. The Bodhisattva, one leg flexed forward,
draws back the string while the bow appears to touch a large, funnel shaped target
attached to a tree. A plump youth or boy with a small head holds a large guiver.
Another event in the Bodhisattvas trial of skills, having several
illustrations, was a wrestling match depicted in the third panel (on the extreme
left) of Fig. 223. Somewhat better representations of trhe wrestlers may be seen in
fig. 227-228.
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Ⅴ. Balance
As a simple weighing instrument, the balnce depicted in our reliefs has
two types: (i) with one scale pan, and (ii) with two sacle pans. Only one example,
even that relating to our type (i), was known to Murthy (1977: 93); now there are
three. Of these three one is represented by our type (ii).
Type (i) consists of a suspended bar with a pan attached by means of three
strings to one end. This kind of scale is found in illustrations of the ŚibiJātaka
(Fig. 229, 230). Type (ii) may also be related to the same Jātaka story but the
subject is not quite as clear as in type (i) (Fig. 231). Under what name or names
these balances went in Gandhāra is not known. According to Murthy (op. cit.)
“one-scaled balance is still in use in many parts of India and in Orissa, it is known
as Najrī”. Fouche called it steelyard. It no longer exists in Gandhāra, but type (ii)
still continues and is known as Talāh (Pashtu) and Trakrī (Hindko).
As the story goes the Bodhisattva, in one of his previous births, appeared
as king Śibi and vowed to protect all creatures. The god Indra wanted to test the
resolve of the king and therefore, disguised as a hawk, got hold of a pigeon
putting its life in danger. As the king came to know that a hawk was going to
devour a pigeon, he, in order to ransom the poor bird, offered his own flesh the
equivalent of the pigeon’s weight. Then, parts of the king’s body were one after
the other cut off and heaped into the pan of a balance, but the pigeon proved still
too heavy until the king, with what was left of himself, got into the pan.
Type (i) shows that flesh is being cut off from the king’s leg to be weighed
in the scale. Some flesh is already there in the pan which looks more like a leather
bag.

Ⅵ. Royal Insignia
The most important symbols of royalty included (i) Chhatra or chatra, (ii)
Throne, iii) Fly-whisk, (iv) crown and (v) scepter. Each one of them had initially
a useful function to perform.

(i). Chhatra or chatra

Chhatra (sanskrit.) and Chatra (Persian.) means a large umbrella or
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parasol. Among the ancient peoples of Iran and South Asia, it seems, it was
originally held over the king’s head to protect him from rain and sun, but, because
of its association with the king or with those who under the king wielded
authority, it came to be looked upon as a symbol of power. This may be seen in
the fact that its derivative forms such as Chatrapati (wielder of state power) and
Chaudhari (corrupted form of Chatradhari -meaning ‘Keeper of Chatra’, i.e. state
authority) are still very much in use as popular epithets for people having
landholdings in a vast area stretching from Panjāb to Bengal. At present some of
the people who do not even own any landed property add the title Chaudhari with
their name just because it implies respect and honour.
The parasol is copiously represented in our reliefs. Mostly convex in
shape, though a small number of flat topped examples also exist, it is supported
by a long wooden pole very often plain but also decorated in a few cases. In Fig.
232 the parasol is almost flat and shows a series of small festoons at the lower
edge and beaded border above. Fig. 36 shows that the convex top of the parasols
has small festoons at the edges linked by large garland festoons, except at the end
of the row where, instead, a garland is suspended. The parasol in Fig. 233 shows a
cross-hatched pattern above and a valance of tassels or bell-shaped pendents
unlikely to be confused with the festoons seen above. In another variety (Fig. 229)
the parasol above the king’s head is decorated with a trellised motif.

(ii) Throne
The throne as a ceremonial seat for a sovereign is, in the reliefs, clearly
distinguished from the Buddha’s seat, sofa and chair. The Buddha’s seat is in
general a rectangular platform very often strewn with grass on the top and
occasionally decorated with rosettes or lotuses (Fig. 234-226) or a variety of other
motifs (Figs. 237-238) on the front side. The Buddha’s seat in fact is no match for
the exquisitely decorated seat or throne of a monarch an excellent example of
which exists in the Peshāwar Museum (Fig. 239). Such a seat—a real throne—
would have been unacceptable to the Buddha because of the high level austerity
he practiced throughout his life, and is therefore never depicted in art. Another
good example of a throne may be seen in fig. 237.
Fig. 248 shows a worldly king—Śuddhodana—seated upon throne under a
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round canopy. The throne with elaborately decorated back and sides has a textile
drapery over the fronrt side. With upper side tucked under the cushion upon
which the King is seated, it flows down to the footstool and is decorated on the
margin with a band of scroll design. The legs of the throne are nicely turned upon
a lathe. The footstool upon which the King’s feet are resting is also decorated on
the front side with three rosettes in a row. The sage Asita and his nephew
Naradatta, each holding a flask characteristic of the Brāhmans, are seated upon
basketry stools showing an inferior status. In the background, leaning against the
back of the throne, two female attendants hold in their outer hands fly whisks,
another symbol of royalty.
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Chapter 8
Conclusion

It is generally thought that geographical location and physical set-up of a

country or a region plays a very vital role in the lives of its inhabitants. With this
view in mind it may well be perceived that, physical location of Gandhāra greatly
contributed toward the growth and development of the life pattern of its people. In
addition to it the natural potential of the land, which it still possesses, equally
shared in the evolution of its society. The land of Gandhāra marks the site of a
huge water reservoir (silted up in the course of centuries) with fortifications
thrown on three sides by low and high mountains, leaving only the eastern side
open, now demarcated by the river Sindhu, the Indus, as its natural boundary.
These mountains and rivers are its natural barriers as well as its limits which
separate it from neighbouring regions on the one hand and provide access to them
through darras (passes) on the other. Geographically, this fortified valley is
traversed by a number of rivers and perennial streams with a tendency to
converging on a point before debouching themselves into Sindhu near a place
called Kunḍ. In the course of millennia, obviously, these rivers greatly
contributed to the formation of alluvial plains of the valley and refreshed its
fertility after the exhaustion of seasonal cultivation.
This huge valley was remembered as Gandhāra (=the present valley of
Peshāwar) in ancient times. The name occurs in the native as well as foreign
sources. It literally means a great reservoir of water. At the time of the
composition of the earliest literature of South Asia (i.e. Rigveda) the country of
Gandhāra did exist and it was located in the north to the west of Sindhu. The
classical writers and Chinese pilgrims put the country of Gandhāra to the west of
Sindhu, particularly, in the lower valley of the river Kābul.
No connected account of the occupation of Gandhāra by Aryans has
survived to us. However, some of the later literary sources mention the names of
certain kings who ruled over Gandhāra before the Achaemenian occupation in the
sixth century BC Pushkarasarin seems to have been the last independent ruler
who had established diplomatic relation with distant states on the one hand, while,
on the other, he also waged war on the country like Avanti and defeated it.
 116

Nonetheless, it appears that he would not have survived the Achaemenians

invasion.
Achaemenians maintained their political hegemony over Gandhāra and
the Sindhu valley for about two centuries (c. 515 to 330 BC). Though, they
exacted a lot of revenue during this period they also left great cultural impact on
this land. For instace they introduced the first semi alphabetic script, now known
as Kharoṣṭhi and the coined money. In the field of art and architecture new
devices and techniques also began to appear. Long after the disintegration of
Harappan Civilization new urban centres such as Pushkalāvati (modern Chārsada)
and Taxila emerged for the first time. Due to the network of roads Gandhāra was
connected not only to other provinces of the Iranian empire but it also got access
to other countries of Southern Europe ,i.e., Greece and Rome. In the 2nd half of 4th
century BC the tide of Macedonian and Greek swept away whole of the
Achamenian Empire and their subject nations in which Gandhāra was also
included. Consequently, Gandhāra passed on into the hands of Alexander in 326
BC and remained under his governor’s control for about two years. During this
period no significant event happened.
After the departure of Alexander, Chandragupta Maurya (c. 322 BC)
cleared the Sindhu Valley of the Greek governors and laid down the foundation of
the Mauryan Empire. In 305 BC Seleucus Nikator, in vain, attempted to recover
the Sindhu Valley but he suffered a humiliating defeat. As a result, he had to
concede large territories from Sindhu to Hindu Kush to Chadragupta Maurya.
From one of the rock edicts of Aśoka we learn that a Buddhist monk was
despatched to Gandhāra for the propagation of the teachings of the Buddha. This
event transformed the whole outlook of the cultural life of Gandhāra in the
succeeding centuries. With the lapse of time Gandhāra emerged as a great centre
of Mahāyāna Buddhism which thrived here for centuries and also left far reaching
impact on the religion of neighbouring regions such as Afghānistān, Central Asia,
Tibet and China as well.
It was under the patronage of Aśoka that Buddhist artistic activities took
started as he is claimed to have built stupas almost everywhere in Gandhāra.
These stupas may be regarded as the earliest religious buildings ever built in
Gandhāra, which, in the course of time became centres of religious activities.
 117

The decline of the Mauryans once again invited Greeks, but this time from
Central Asia (ancient Bactria) instead of Greece and Macedonia. Discovery of
large number of coins of Bactrian Greek rulers in the length and breath of
Gandhāra certainly speak of their domination over it. Their first encroachment
started in the first decade of the 2nd century BC. In the field of numismatics they
introduced stylistic elements and new devices which were continued in
subsequent periods.
In the 2nd half of 1st century BC, the Scythians overpowered the Bactrian
Greeks (now Indo-Greeks) in Gandhāra and were in turn replaced by new
invaders from the northwest who are generally known as Parthians. The Parthians
ruled over Gandhāra till the invasion of the Yueh-chis (c. 50 AD). Thus, it seems
that both these tribes held political hegemony over Gandhāra for about one
hundred years. Sometimes, they are jointly termed as Scytho-Parthians. It was
during this period that real artistic activities under the auspices of Mahāyāna
Buddhism were initiated. It is generally believed that during this period (50 BC to
50 AD) the sculptors of Gandhāra had prepared the first image of the Buddha
besides carving the prominent events of his life in stone. Thus, the Buddhist art of
Gandhāra took its roots but it was destined to pass through many developmental
stages.
In the mid of first century AD the Kushāns established their rule in
Gandhāra and the rest of northwestern parts of South Asia. Under the Kushāns,
Gandhāra particularly enjoyed a great status of being the capital seat which was
fixed at Peshāwar (ancient Purushpura). It became the capital of their vast empire
for centuries. It was here that a great centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism flourished
under the patronage of the Kushān rulers. They kept their control over Gandhāra
for about four centuries, i.e., from the middle of 1st century to the mid 5th century
AD. These four countries witnessed artistic as well as cultural activities that filled
Gandhāra to its brims. Gandhāra art was a product of this period. Besides being
an object of art it carries a lot of information regarding the society in which it
took impression. Gandhāra art primarily served the cause of Buddhism. But it is
the only undeniable source of information regarding the society for about one
thousand years. During these one thousand years (c. 6th BC to 5th AD) Gandhāra
was repeatedly invaded by foreign powers who not only conquered it but also
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ruled it and greatly influenced its culture. This whole story of adoption and
assimilation of cultural norms and values of invading peoples is reflected in
Buddhist reliefs and sculptures. It is interesting to see that certain elements of that
Gandhāran culture still exist and may be observed even at present times. The
most prevalent among the glimpses of cultural traditions in Gandhāran reliefs is
architecture.
Architecture is defined as a “matrix of civilization” that has been evolved
and developed by man from crude shelters like skin tents and reed huts to the
highly sophisticated and complex buildings. It is fundamentally a science like
other disciplines and represents an expression of human aesthetics as well.
So far as the architecture of Gandhāra Civilization is concerned, it has not
survived the ravages of the time; for the remains of its urban centres are found in
the form of huge mounds such as marking the site of and others. But the relief
panels in stone present an impressive array of buildings―including the most
primitive huts and the sophisticated palaces and citadels. For the sake of
convenience architecture may be divided into two groups: (1) secular and (2)
religious buildings. The secular architecture mainly consists of cities, forts,
citadels and palaces. It is interesting to note that the cities depicted in our reliefs
represent Kapilavastu, Rājagriha, Śrarasvati and KuśiNāgara that do not belong to
Gandhāra. The presence of these cities in Gandhāra art is understandabale for
they had been associated with the Buddha from his birth to the death. Though
Gandhāra art revolves around the life of Buddha, it reflects the contemporary
architectural and artistic traditions in typically Gandhāran morphology.
What seems more surprising is that Gangetic cities, originally associated
with the Buddha, are shown in Gandhāran setting. For example, the finely carved
Corinthian capitals, perhaps unknown to the sculptors of Kapilavastu, play a
significant role. Gandhāran panel reliefs were not aimed to depict the full view of
the layout of a city. Nonetheless, an idea of its exterior may be obtained from the
panels. This deficiency may be supplied with literary evidence such as
Milindapanha which was composed in Gandhāra. Among the ruins of Gandhāran
cities, Taxila may be the possible exception that provides layout of a
contemporary city to some extent.
It appears that among the most important features of the lay-out of a city
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were forts and citadels which are represented by imposing gateways and
crenellated fortification walls in the panel reliefs (Figs. 1, 2). The depictions of
gateways reveal that they consisted of projected structures and their most
interesting feature is the scheme of tripartite complex, i.e., two towers and one
gateway. In most cases the towers are square in shape, however, circular ones
also occur. Thus, the whole building of a gateway shows a traditional pattern in
which the gateway is placed in the middle flanked on either side by square or
circular towers. The concept of tripartite division is predominantly maintained in
all the panels. The monotony of the plain surface of the gateway is generally
broken by providing different decorative schemes at various levels such as pairs
of horizontal lines, arrow-slits, and cross running pattern of diamonds, rows of
sunk triangles, lines of acanthus leaves, friezes of four-petalled flowers, etc. The
gateways were meant for defensive purposes and reflect the architecture of
Gandhāra. However, the torana in our panel reliefs indicates borrowing from
Indian morphology (Fig. 3).
The structural remains and sculptural evidence do not show more than
two-story buildings. In contrast, literary sources speak of two, nine or
innumerable stories. Similarly, the concept of tripartite division may be seen in
the palace buildings depicted in the panel reliefs (Fig. 9). According to this
arrangement the main hall of the palace structure is taller than that of the flanking
chambers and the roof is arcuate or tunnel vaulted. In certain cases this setting is
reversed as the flanking chambers have taller arcuate roofs while the main hall
has a flat one. The palace building is elaborated with balustrades, balconies and
Indo-Persepolitan columns with bull capitals. Along with this, numerous
decorative designs and motifs may be observed, which enhance the beauty of a
palace building. These include saw-tooth design, acanthus leaf pattern, bead and
reel border, friezes of chequered and laurel wreaths (Fig.15).
The most important feature of the palace structure is its lofty arch or vault
which technically may be termed as a true three centred arch. In the extant
architecture of South Asia, before the arrival of Muslims, corbelling technique
was predominantly applied in the building constructions both secular and
religious. So what was the source of this three centred true arch. It seems this
design was imaginary and was invented by Gandhāran sculptors. In one case, at
 120

least, the same setting is presented with equal height, i.e., the hall and the side
chambers are of same height. Now, the middle portion shows the same arch while
the side chambers have trapezoidal roofs. The description of palaces, courts or
sleeping rooms in our reliefs seems to be fanciful, imaginative works of the
Gandhāran sculptors. Nonetheless, individual architectural features and designs
such as balconies, columns, capitals, and shrine models are supported by
archaeological evidence and must have been taken from contemporary
architectural traditions (Figs. 11-14).
Among the roofing systems the trabeate, consisting of beam and rafters,
seems to be the simplest form depicted in the panels and is still practiced as such.
The arcuate or vaulted roofs are frequently illustrated by Gandhāran sculptors.
The depiction of arcuate form looks more like a three centred true arch and is
shown in combination with trapezoidal or flat roof. The matter of fact is that, the
technique of true arch, as an architectural device became known in Gandhāra
much later in history. Even its archaeological evidence is not found. For the
domical structures, we are amply supplied with archaeological evidences in the
form of solid stupas. The domes in our panel reliefs are constricted at the neck,
which appears as a constructional device rather than a decorative feature. Above
the constriction of the neck the walls of the dome are externally thickened to
provide a strong base for corbelling the upper part of the dome.
Another form of roofing system is termed as trapezoidal which may be
defined as a quadrilateral having no sides parallel (Fig.16). In panel reliefs it
occurs together with flat or arched roofs. So far as the origin of this particular
roofing is concerned it seems to have been based upon the model of a wooden
canopy. Gadhāran architecture depicted in panel reliefs also shows balconies as a
structural element which was added to buildings intended to serve some special
purposes. They are not of the same form and may therefore be divided into three
main types. What precisely was the cause of its origin is not known for certain.
But, it seems to have become an essential feature which lingered on long after the
extinction of Gandhāra art.
The earliest evidence of a free standing column of stone comes from the
Mauryan period. No such column has been found in Gandhāra. But columns of
many different forms are—supporting an arch, entablature or other structures or
 121

standing free—are abundantly depicted in our reliefs. They may be divided into
two groups: (1) Persepolitan and (2) Corinthian. The designations merely indicate
the places of their origin, i.e., Iran and Greece respectively. Some of the columns
depicted in the panel reliefs do not support any structure. These free standing
columns are generally placed within a rectangular frame and are absolutely fixed
in their positions. In their appearance both types do not hundred percent
correspond to their proto types in Iran and Greece and are therefore generally
referred to as Indo-Persopolitan and Indo-Corinthian columns (Fig. 20-24).
The humblest abode ever illustrated in the extant panel reliefs appears to
be a hut, made of reeds and leaves. By all means the hut represents a secular
architecture in nature, but, in the reliefs it is always depicted in association with
hermits instead of denoting a living unit in a gram or village (Fig. 41-43).
The bracket as an architectural device to support a structural element
above it—appears as an integral feature of Gandhāran architecture. From the
simplest form consisting of rafter ends projected on the front the brackets were
developed to highly stylized forms by the artists of Gandhāra. The rafter ends
assumed the form of plain voluted brackets which were externally decorated with
a pair of incised parallel lines. These brackets, however, in the course of time
were replaced by Corinthian capitals. Moreover the figural representations, both
of human and animal, representing a subject of actual life, were also used as
brackets (Fig. 50).
The depiction of a few domical structures is taken to indicate monastreries
or vihāras, although they differ from the typical ground plan of the Gandhāran
monasteries or vihāras. Such domical structures it seems, may represent a shrine
rather than a vihāra. Except for frontal representation, nowhere in the panel
reliefs appears the complete structure of a chaitya building. Fire altars, with rising
flames, surrounding by worshippers indicating foreign influence, repeatedly occur
on the reliefs (Figs. 54, 55).
In the course of millennia a variety of weapons and tools were invented by
people in Pakistan. They ranged from crude stone hand axes to sophisticated
copper, bronze and iron axes which certainly had great bearing on the cultural as
well as political life. Much earlier before the emergence of Gandhāran
Civilization a variety of weapons and tools were invented and developed by
 122

Harappan people in Pakistan. They mainly include spears, knives, leaf-shaped

spearheads flat axes, etc. Gandhāran reliefs illustrate various forms of weapons
and tools such as a long bamboo stick called daṇḍa continued to be used side by
side with the metal weapons and tools. Functionally the tools and weapons may
be divided into two main groups: (1) offensive and (2) defensive weapons.
Among the offensive weapons depicted in the panel reliefs are included spears,
triśūla, swords, daggers, bows and arrows, battle axes, while defensive tools
include helmets, breastplate, shields, cuirass, etc. Undoubtedly, the spears are the
oldest weapons consisting of a long wooden shaft with a pointed blade of bone or
of some metal which was fixed at one end. Three main varieties of the spears
occur in the reliefs. Some of spearheads are quite distinctive and were originally
perhaps meant for particular occasions or purposes. The spears are held mainly by
females (yavani) and male guards in the palaces, hunters, warriors and war-lords
or semi-divine or yakshas. Some of the spears clearly show Greek influence, they
were maintained by Gandhāran craftsmen. As an offensive weapon triśūla was
equally important. It probably had multiple functions as it was also held by gods
both of local and foreign origin. Elsewhere Greek gods such as Bacchus and
Jupiter are shown holding it (Figs. 70, 71).
Another offensive weapon amply shown in the reliefs is sword which was
a favourite weapon of the Kushāns. The style of its depiction and the way in
which it is attached to the human body in many cases, speaks of its Iranian origin.
In the panel reliefs Māra is in general shown wearing or holding it during hostile
actions. The blade of the sword is often shown hidden in scabbard, therefore, it is
difficult to tell its precise shape. Three variant forms or varieties occur which
may represent different but concurrent cultural traditions. The sword in our reliefs
may be compared with the Roman gladius. The dagger has a distinctive shape and
can easily be distinguished from the sword. Similarly, bow as a traditional
weapon is shown in the carvings. The popularity of the art of archery is attested
by literary sources. It was also taught as a discipline in the educational institutions
of Taxila. In addition to arms and armour the battle-axe is also seen in the panels
but, as compared to other weapons it is rare. In the defensive equipment are
included helmet, breast plate, greaves, shields and scale armour (Figs. 78-80).
It appears from the reliefs that the divergent cultural traditions were
 123

amalgamated in the cultural life of Gandhāra. The vast variety of garments

depicted in the reliefs speaks of the existence of a cosmopolitan society.
The standing Buddha is shown wearing a three-piece robe, namely
antaravāsak, uttarasāṅga and saṅghāti which were sanctioned by the Buddhist
canonical texts. The long upper garment is still worn by the old people on the
countryside and seems to have continued from ancient times. Along with the
typical Indian dhoti and uttarīya shawl, some of the royal figures such as
Mahāmāyā is shown wearing Greek chiton. Likewise some of the princes are clad
in the Partho-Sythian nomadic dress. Similarly, some of the chiefs wear Partho-
Sythian dresses such as trousers and caftans, suitable to riding. Partho-Sythian
caftan is sometimes regarded as a forerunner of the European redingote. The
dresses of the priests, ascetics and monks shown in the panel reliefs are
comparatively meager consisting of just uttrīya, a long robe, a short girt tunic or
only a short lower garment etc. Apart from the upper classes, the garments worn
by other members of the community such as hunters, wrestlers, acrobats, male
and female worshippers, donors, grooms, palanquin-bearers, school-boys,
teachers and farmers are occasionally illustrated. For instance, a hunter is shown
wearing merely a langoṭi while the wrestler is clad in a tight short which may be
compared with present jāngia. The worshippers are, however, presented in
special dresses as they belonged to different segments of the society. In most
cases they are wearing uttrīya (chādar) and paridhāna (dhoti). However, some of
them are seen in caftan and trousers. This Sytho-Parthian dress is also termed as
Iranian and seems to have been a forerunner of our shalwar (Figs. 95-97).
Besides garments human figures portrayed in the panel reliefs are
decorated with a variety of jewellery items. The prominent parts of the human
body suitable for ornamentation, includes head, ears, neck, arms, waist and legs.
The depiction of jewellery in Gandhāra art does not help in finding out the
material employed for its manufacture. However, the discovery of jewellery in
the Taxila excavations throws much useful light on this problem. Thus the Taxila
evidence tells that the jewellery in vogue in Gandhāra was of gold and silver.
Moreover, a variety of semi-precious stones were also exploited for
ornamentations. Similarly, the jewellery from Taxila throws much light on the
manufacturing technique as it seems that much of the jewellery was made with
 124

the help of moulds and dies. So far as the technical process employed in the
manufacturing of Taxila jewellery is concerned, it is identical with that employed
throughout the Greek and Graeco-Roman worlds. These techniques are termed as
‘granulation’ and ‘filigree’. The art of encrusting jewellery and other objects
originated in the East and was rarely practiced in the Mediterranean area until the
conquests of Alexander opened up the Orient (Figs. 107-110)
Among the parts of a human body the head received much attention to be
beautified, as is depicted in the panel reliefs. A more significant feature of the
jewellery is the fusion of foreign and local cultural traits. Thus, an amalgamation
of the eastern and western decorative traits are witnessed in Gandhāran panel
reliefs. Likewise, the headdress of one of the donors strikingly resembles
Pharaonic crown of the Upper Egypt. The necklace was equally appreciated by
Gandhāran people as a decorative element. Usually, necklaces consisted of three
strings. Of these the principal string is thicker than the others. These necklaces
show different devices. Those which reveal monster heads as terminating element
appear to have been fairly popular. Similarly, earrings and ear-pendants were also
used by the people of Gandhāra. These items show Hellenistic influences. In
addition to necklaces and earrings, a variety of armlets carrying various designs
and settings are depicted including a tri-lobed plate with cross-hatched pattern.
Tri-lobed design—oval in the centre and leaf-shaped at the sides—is repeadtedly
depicted which speaks of its popularity among the masses. The bracelet was a
popular ornament both for men and women alike. The bracelet seems to have
been a forerunner of the present ‘bāzu band’ or kaṛā. In the reliefs it appears
consisting of one, two, three, or multiple rings and is still used by the people.
Anklet is another decorative ornament but it seems to have been confined to
ladies only (Figs. 111-113).
The tradition or fashion of wearing long hair, irrespective of sex, is
regarded to have always been popular in Indian society since at least from Indo-
Aryans days. The same fashion must have been popular with the people of
Gandhāra where men and women, except for monks, are depicted with various
hairstyles. These variations in hairstyles are designated by different terms such as
Kapardin, Coiffeur, jaṭā and jatṭāmukuṭa, top-knot and coiled hair, bun or uṣniṣa,
chignon, curly snail and wavy hair etc. Even the images of the Buddha show a
 125

variety of hairstyles. Besides the Buddha imagery, Brahmā, the great god of
Indian pantheon sculpted in Gandhāra art as a subordinate deity, is also illustrated
with a variety of headdresses. In certain cases Brahmā also shares hairstyle with
the Buddha and Bodhisattva. The variety of hairstyles in which the god Brahmā
appears mainly comprises of archetypical jaṭāmukuṭa, Kapardin type of
jaṭāmukuṭa, rounded topknot, free flowing locks both with bun and without bun,
long hair under a chignon, etc (Figs.131-135).
Unlike the Buddha, the images of Bodhisattva are portrayed with turbans,
a typical Indian element in its origin. The turban was not confined only to
aristocratic or princely class, it was also known as a symbol of authority by the
religious people and a sign of the completion of educational tenure. Interestingly,
it still continues to be celebrated under the designation of Rasm-i-dastār Bandi.
Among the elderly turban still forms a popular headdress, particularly on the
country side.
Among the household objects the most predominant are drinking vessels
both of native and foreign origin. In some of the carvings, the Buddha is shown
with bowls of hemispherical shape which are devoid of any decorative schemes.
However, variants of bowls comprising tall, instead of hemispherical, beakers
with grooves below the rim also occur. Besides this, bowls with ring-base are also
seen. All these types represent native tradition. Some of the household vessels
depicted in the panel reliefs are of foreign origin such as goblet with carinated
body which appears to be the result of Parthian influence. Other foreign vessels
found in the reliefs are wine-jar, wine vat, flagon, tankard, handled-mug,
kantharos, amphora, etc. Their counterparts are found in both Greek and Roman
arts. The types of vessels, definitely indigenous, which are still in use, include
kūza, karamaṇdala or kamandalu, pitcher, tumbler, etc.The presence of this
variety of vessels point to the existence of different ethnic groups of people living
together at peace with each others.
 126

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 148

Fig. 1 The Urn Carried into KuśiNāgar

Fig. 2 Distribution of Relics

 149

Fig. 3 Buddha at City gate

Fig. 4 City wall

 150

Fig.5 Ᾱnand Askes a Casteless Girl for water

Fig. 6 The Buddha Enters Rājagŗiha

 151

Fig.7 Sumāgādha and the Naked Ascetic

Fig. 8 Chanḍaka and Kaṇṭhaka Return

 152

Fig. 9 Life in the Palace

Fig. 10 Life in the Palace

 153

Fig. 11 Life in the Palace

Fig. 12 Seated Buddha

 154

Fig. 13 The Renunciation

Fig. 14 Seated Buddha

 155

Fig. 15 Conversion of Nanda

Fig. 16 Miracle of Śrāvasti

 156

Fig. 17 The Dīpankara Jātaka

Fig. 18 Fragment of a false-gable

 157

Fig. 19 Offering of the Dust

Fig. 20 Persepolitan Column

 158

Fig. 21 Pesepolitan Column

Fig. 22 Persepolitan Column

 159

Fig. 23 Corinthian Column

Fig. 24 The Great Renunciation and Corinthian Columns

 160

Fig. 25 Corinthian Columns bound by bands

Fig. 26 Buddha and Worshippers

 161

Fig. 27 Square Column with long device.

Fig. 28 Square Column with vertical band

 162

Fig. 29 Viśvantara Jātaka: Two Buddha Figures—one for each column

Fig. 30 Presentation of mango groves

 163

Fig. 31 Corner panel

Fig. 32 Square Corinthian column with standing female

 164

Fig. 33 Standing male devotee with offering

Fig. 34 Standing male figure with long sleeves

 165

Fig. 35 Hanging garlands

Fig. 36 Hanging garlands

 166

Fig. 37. Hanging garland

Fig. 38 Ornamental garland

 167

Fig. 39 Corinthian capital

Fig. 40 Corinthian Capital

 168

Fig. 41Reed hut

Fig. 42 Reed hut

 169

Fig. 43. Pair of huts

Fig. 44 Reed hut

 170

Fig. 45 Hut with Parakeet

Fig. 46 Hut with double thatched roof

 171

Fig.47 Brackets.

Fig. 48 Bracket with hārmika cornice

 172

Fig. 49. False bracket

Fig. 50 False bracket

 173

Fig. 51 False bracket

Fig. 52 Transportation of the relics

 174

Fig. 53 Transportation of the relics

Fig. 54 Three stupas

 175

Fig. 55 Stupa worship

Fig. 56 Stupa worship

 176

Fig. 57 Stupa with columns having lion-shaped capitals

Fig. 58. Dome

 177

Fig. 59 Dome with worshippers

Fig. 60 Dome of vihār

 178

Fig. 61 A small chapel (shrine)

Fig. 62 Shrine with a preaching Buddha

 179

Fig. 63 The Balo Kile Gumbat

Fig. 64 a. Chaitya arches

 180

Fig. 64 b. Chaitya arches

Fig. 65 Fire altar

 181

Fig. 66 Fire altar

Fig. 67 Fire altar

 182

Fig. 68 Fire altar

Fig. 69 Adventure and punishment of Maitrakanyaka

 183

Fig. 70 Stucco

Fig. 71 Dream of Māyā

 184

Fig. 72 Guarding the Urn

Fig. 73 Seated figure

 185

Fig. 74 Paňciha

Fig. 75 Skanda Kārttikeya

 186

Fig. 76 Submission of Aplala

Fig. 77 Hāritī from Sahri Bahlol

 187

Fig. 78 Assult of Māra

Fig. 79 Panel showing Vajrapāni and figures

 188

Fig. 80 Host of Māra

Fig. 81 Private collection.

 189

Fig. 82 Hunting scene

Fig. 83. Hunting Scene

 190

Fig. 84 Private collection

Fig. 85 Private collection

 191

Fig. 86 Stupa drum panel

Fig. 87 Assault of Māra

 192

Fig. 88. Standing figure wearing greaves

Fig. 89 Warrior with dagger and Shield

 193

Fig. 90 Statuette of a warrior

Fig. 91 Coversion of Angulimāla

 194

Fig. 92 Standing figure in coat of mail

Fig. 93 The Great Departure

 195

Fig. 94 The First Meditation

Fig. 95 The standing Buddha

 196

Fig. 96 The Buddha

Fig. 97 Seated Buddha Preaching

 197

Fig. 98 Interpretation’s of Māyā’s Dream

Fig. 99 Buddha performing a miracle before his ascetics

 198

Fig. 100 Birth of the Bodhisattva

Fig. 101 Reassuring Maitreya flanked by worshippers

 199

Fig. 102 Donor in Iranian costume

Fig. 103 Worshippers in unusual costumes

 200

Fig. 104 Maitreya flanked by female worshippers

Fig. 105 The child Bodhisattva going to school in a ram cart

 201

Fig. 106 Yakshi standing under a Śāla tree

Fig. 107 Tutelary couple from Takht-i-Bāhi

 202

Fig. 108 Head-band of Maiterya

Fig. 109 Maiterya Bust

 203

Fig. 110 Panel showing Birth of Bodhisattva

Fig. 111 Head of Bodhisattva

 204

Fig. 112 Bdhisattva Siddhārta in meditation

Fig. 113 Bodhisattva Siddhārta in meditation

 205

Fig. 114 Standing Maiterya

Fig. 115 Standing Bodhisattva

 206

Fig. 116 Seated Maiterya

Fig. 117 Seated Bodhisattva

 207

Fig. 118 Seated Bodhisattva

Fig. 119 Panel relief showing Buddha and worshippers

 208

Fig. 120 Hand of a Bodhisattva

Fig. 121 Hāritī wearing braclet

 209

Fig.122 Hāritī wearing multiple Bracelet

Fig. 123 Bath of the Newborn Child

 210

Fig. 124 Relief depicting the great miracle of Śrāvasti

Fig 125 Relief depicting a seated Buddha in dhyānamudrā with Brahmā to his
right
 211

Fig. 126 Etreaty to preach the Doctrine

Fig. 127 Brahmā (proper left) and Idnra entreat the Buddha to preach
 212

Fig. 128 Indra and Brahmā entreat the Buddha to preach

Fig 129 Entreaty to preach the Doctrine

 213

Fig. 130 Miracle of Śrāvasti

Fig. 131 Cult of the turban

 214

Fig. 132 Bodhisattva in meditation

Fig. 133 Head of Bodhisattva

 215

Fig. 134 Head from an image of turbaned Bodhisattva

Fig. 135 Head from an image of a Turbaned Bodhisattva

 216

Fig. 136 Head of Bodhisattva in stucco

Fig. 137 Death of the Buddha

 217

Fig. 138 Head of a Bodhisattva

Fig. 139 Seated Bdhisattva

 218

Fig. 140 Head of a Bodhisattva

Fig. 141 Image of a Bodhisattva

 219

Fig. 142 a. Maiterya

Fig.142 b. Maiterya
 220

Fig. 143 Seated Bodhisattva

Fig. 144 Presentation of bowls

 221

Fig. 145 Offering of the Monkeys

Fig. 146 Buddha and Monks at the House of Srīgupta

 222

Fig. 147 Presentation of the four bowls

Fig. 148 Presentation of bowl

 223

Fig. 149 Terracotta bowl

Fig. 150 Silver goblet

 224

Fig. 151 Drinking scene

Fig. 152 Nāgis offering wine

 225

Fig. 153 Toilet Tray with crowded drinking scene

Fig. 154 Drinking party of nine figures

 226

Fig. 155 Head of Dionysus

Fig. 156 Drinking scene

 227

Fig 157 Drinking scene

Fig. 158 Viśvantra gives away his choice elephant

 228

Fig. 159 Birth of Siddhārta

Fig. 160 Hand holding a water pot

 229

Fig. 161 Panel showing a kneeling woman beside a pot

Fig. 162 Birth of Siddhārta’s Groom Chanḍaka and of his HorseKaṇṭhaka

 230

Fig. 163 Wine drinking scene

Fig.164 Bracket in the form of winged devi

 231

Fig. 165 Monk and Donors in Iranian costumes

Fig. 166 Basket carrier

 232

Fig. 167 Toilet Tray with pair of lovers

Fig. 168 Toilet Tray with drinking scene

 233

Fig. 169 Toilet Tray with hippocamp and rider

Fig. 170 Preparation for the First Sermon

 234

Fig. 171 Three scenes from the story of Nanda

Fig. 172 Coffin of the Buddha

 235

Fig. 73 Attack by Māra and His Host

Fig. 174 Panel showing musical instruments

 236

Fig. 175 Panel showing a musician and dancer

Fig. 176 Dancing scene

 237

Fig. 177 Indra and his Harpist visit the Buddha in the Indraśāla Cave

Fig. 178 Indra and his Harpist visit the Buddha in the Indrasśāla Cave
 238

Fig. 179 Visit of Indra

Fig. 180 Dancing scene

 239

Fig. 181 Fragment of a relief showing dancing scene

Fig. 182 Fragment of a relief showing music scene

 240

Fig. 183 Drinking, Dancing and Music

Fig. 184 Base ornamental with garland and Erotes

 241

Fig. 185 Fragment of a panel relief depicting “Māra’s Attack”

Fig. 186 Fragment of a relief depicting a drummer and flautist

 242

Fig. 187 Animal faced figure

Fig. 188 Stair-riser length showing musicians

 243

Fig. 189 Stair-riser length showing figures trees and beast of burden

Fig. 190 The Renunciation

 244

Fig. 191 The Great Departure

Fig. 192 The Great Departure

 245

Fig. 193 Retun to Kapilavastu

Fig. 194 Visit to the temple to thank Divinity for newborn child
 246

Fig. 195 Diddhārta meets with old man and the Great Departure

Fig. 196 The Great Departure

 247

Fig. 197 Farewell of Chanḍaka and Kaṇṭhaka

Fig. 198 Farewell of Chanḍaka and Kaṇṭhaka

 248

Fig. 199 The State elephant sent Siddhārta

Fig.200 Stupa drum panel showing the prediction of the Bodhisattvas destiny and
the arrival of elephant
 249

Fig. 201 Elephant and mahout

Fig. 202 Caprisoned elephant

 250

Fig. 203 Caprisoned elephant

Fig. 204 Transportation of the relics

 251

Fig. 205 Fragment of a panel with the Buddha beside an amorino feeding a lion

Fig. 206 Loin teased by amorino

 252

Fig. 207 Siddhārta rides to school

Fig. 208 Siddhārta rides to school

 253

Fig. 209 Return to Kapilavastu

Fig. 210 Panel showing dancers and a chariot

 254

Fig. 211 Two merchants offer food to the Buddha

Fig. 212 Caravan of merchants

 255

Fg. 213 Panel showing the dream of Māyā, the interpretation of the, and departure
of Kapilavastu

Fig. 214 Fragment of panel with a chariot

 256

Fig. 215 Māyā and Siddhārta return to Kapilavastu

Fig. 216 Unidentified

 257

Fig. 217 The birth of the Bodhisattva and the return to Kapilavastu

Fig. 218 The birth of Bodhisattva and the return to Kapilavastu

 258

Fig. 219 The child Bodhisattva going to school

Fig. 220 Wheeled chariot with three passengers pushed and drawned by the birds
 259

Fig. 221 Transportation of the relics

Fig. 222 Panel showing six watermen

 260

Fig. 223 Relief showing athletics contests

Fig. 224 Siddhārta competes in Wrestling and Tug-of-war

 261

Fig.225 Panel showing the archery contest

Fig.226 Stupa drum panel

 262

Fig. 227 Wrestling match

Fig. 228 Wrestling match

 263

Fig. 229 Panel showing the Bodhisattva as King Śibi ransoming a pigeon with his
own flesh

Fig. 230 Panel showing the Bodhisattva as King Śibi ransoming a pigeon
 264

Fig. 231 Panel showing ‘Sivi-jataka’

Fig. 232 Fragment of a Panel showing the Buddha preaching

 265

Fig 233. Stupa drum panel showing a Bodhisattva

Fig. 234 Attack by Māra and his Host

 266

Fig. 235 Offering of the four bowls

Fig. 136 Sanding Buddha

 267

Fig. 237 Fig Seated Buddha

Fig. 238 Standing Buddha

 268

Fig. 239 Interpretation of Māyā’s Dream