FINALS NOTES

UNIT 2B
“Learning How to Learn”
Three Important Points About Learning:
1. Learning is a process whereby the learner builds meaning through making connections between past
and present experiences.
2. Learning is something that the student does and is not done unto him or her.
3. Learning concerns more than just content but must include thinking processes (e.g. problem- solving,
scientific inquiry) and other types of learning (e.g. motor skills, attitudes, and values).

3 MAJOR CATEGORIES OF LEARNIND THEORIES

 Behavioral Approach (5 theories)
 Humanistic Approach (1 theory)
 Cognitive Approach (4 theories)

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (5 theories)

1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan P. Pavlov)
 Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when
a neutral stimulus (e.g., a sound) becomes associated with
a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior.
 Before conditioning signifies that the food elicits a
response that is automatic, that is unconditioned.
 During conditioning
 After conditioning
 Unconditioned Stimulus
 Discrimination refers to eliciting different responses to
two different stimuli.
 Extinction responses that are no longer reinforced tend to disappear from the organism's repertoire of
behavior.
 Spontaneous recovery refers to the return of a conditioned response, following experimental
extinction, after periods of no reinforcements.
2. Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederic
Skinner)
 Burrhus Frederic Skinner identifies reinforcement as the
key element in this theory.
 A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired
response.
 Reinforcement can either be positive or negative.
 One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it
attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad
range of cognitive phenomena.
 For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms
of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. This theory was developed through Skinner's experiments
with rats wherein food pellets are presented to the rats once they press a lever.

3. Behaviorism (John B. Watson)

 In this case, stimuli from the environment lead an organism to respond
a certain way.
 Human beings are seen as like other animals who are devoid of choice.
 The theory considers the material world the ultimate reality, and
everything can be explained in natural laws.
 It views man as having no soul and no mind, only a brain that responds
to external stimuli.
 One writer has summarized behaviorism in this way: "The central tenet
of behaviorism is that thoughts, feelings, and intentions, mental
processes all, do not determine what we do. Our behavior is the
product of our conditioning. We are biological machines and do not
consciously act; rather we react to stimuli."
 Lastly, it must be said that behaviorism is manipulative. It seeks not
merely to understand human behavior, but to predict and control it.
Watson's main ideas include the following concepts:
1. The 'Blank State'- He opined that a person born into the world in a 'blank state, void of built-in mental
content prior to knowledge coming from experience.
2. The behavioral focus - He pushed for the adoption of the scientific method as psychologists ought to
study things that could be directly observed.
3. Environmental determinism - He operated in the belief that behavior is determined by a person's
experiences and the environment he or she is in.
4. Conditioning - He believed that people learn through the process of conditioning.
4. Connectionism (Edward L. Thorndike)
 Edward L. Thorndike designed the original Stimulus-
Response framework of behavioral psychology.
 The basic premise of his theory is that human activity is
based on association between stimulus (S) and response (R).
 In Thorndike's view, learning is the process of forming
associations or bonds, which he defined as "the connection
of a certain act with a certain situation and resultant
pleasure".
 Like all other behavioral theories, Connectionism presents
the idea that learning could be sufficiently explained without
referring to any unobservable internal states.
 Intelligence then is viewed as a function of the number of connections learned.
Law of Readiness
 when a person is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying. When someone is ready to perform
some act, not to do so would be annoying. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is
forced to do so, it is also annoying. The satisfying state strengthens the connection while the annoying
state weakens it.
Law of Exercise
 describes the conditions implied in the famous line, "Practice makes Perfect". This law states that S-R
connections are strengthened as they are used (Law of Use) and weakened when they are not used
(Law of Disuse).
Law of Effect
 based on the idea that if you get punished for an action, you'll be less likely to repeat it. But, if you get
rewarded for it, you'd more likely do it again.

5. Purposive Behaviorism (Edward C. Tolman)

 He proposes that an individual learns by pursuing signs to a
goal or that learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.
 Tolman emphasized the organized aspect of learning wherein
every individual has a cognitive map with routes, paths and
environmental relationships.
 When exposed to a stimulus, rather than directing to a specific
response, an individual uses this map to guide his or her choice
of response. He suggested these five types of learning: (1)
approach learning, (2) escape learning, (3) avoidance learning,
(4) choice- point learning, and (5) latent learning.
 Stimuli play a cognitive role as signals to the organism, leading to the formation of "cognitive maps"
and to "latent learning" in the absence of reinforcement.
 HUMANISTIC APPROACH (1 theory)
1. Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)
 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in
psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often
depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
 From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are
physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security), love and
belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-actualization.
The hierarchy of needs five-stage model:
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love and belongingness needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs

COGNIITVE APPROACH (4 theories)

1. Gestalt Insight Theory (Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka)
 The Gestalt Insight Theory focuses on the way the mind perceives processes in relation to the principle
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
 The proponents of this theory emphasized higher-order cognitive processes despite the dominant
focus on behavior.
 The primary factors that determine grouping were: (1) proximity; (2) similarity; (3) continuance; (4)
closure; and (5) figure and ground. These factors were called the laws of organization and are
explained in the context of perception and problem-solving.
2. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
 The observational learning theory or social learning theory by Albert
Bandura focuses on the significance of observing and modeling the
behaviors of others.
 Bandura is famous for his Bobo Doll experiments which sought to
explain aggression.
 The four processes underlying observational learning include attention,
retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. Attention refers to the
student's ability to focus on the modeled event which is affected by the
modeled event itself and the observer's characteristics. (2) Retention,
including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, and motor rehearsal), (3) Motor
Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback,
and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious, and self- reinforcement.
  Observational Learning (Bandura)
Observational learning conveys a particular response's consequence through physical demonstration, words,
or pictures. Being exposed to a model can have varying effects; namely:
1. Observational Learning Effect - an individual can recombine previously learned behavioral patterns
and produce new responses.
2. Inhibitory Effects - a model can strengthen or weaken the inhibition of responses already available to
the observer.
3. Social facilitation effect - where the model's behavior leads towards acting out a response already
available to the observer.

3. Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

 Constructivism by Jerome Bruner is a theory of learning and an
approach to education that centers on how people create
meaning in the world through a series of individual constructs.
 In this theory, learning is seen as an active process in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their
current/past knowledge.
 The learner is not seen merely as a receiver of what is being
taught but selects and transforms information, constructs
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.
 Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive representation to include:
1) enactive; 2) iconic and 3) symbolic

4. Condition of Learning (Robert Gagne)

 Robert Gagne's theory puts forward the different types of
learning which then puts forward the notion that each
different type requires different approaches of instruction.
 Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal
information (facts or knowledge), intellectual skills (problem-
solving, concepts, and principles), cognitive strategies
(metacognitive strategies for problem-solving), motor skills
(behavioral physical skills) and attitudes (actions that a person
chooses to complete).
 Gagne presents the learning tasks for intellectual skills in a
hierarchy from simple to complex.

 Gagne then proposes the nine events of instruction together with the involved cognitive processes
which are as follows: 1) gaining attention (reception); 2) informing learners of the objective
(expectancy); 3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval); 4) presenting the stimulus (selective
perception); 5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding); 6) eliciting performance
(responding); 7) providing feedback (reinforcement); 8) assessing performance (retrieval); and 9)
 enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). Each step should meet the necessary conditions for
learning as one relates to the other. This then serves as the basis for instructional decisions of the
teacher which include but are not limited to lesson planning and choice/design of instructional
materials.

 This theory suggests four key principles. First, different learning outcomes require different instruction.
Second, the events of instruction constitute the different conditions of learning that operate on the
learner. Third, the activities for each instructional event depend on the type of learning outcome
expected. Lastly, learning hierarchies dictate the sequence of instruction including the prerequisite
skills needed.

5. Multiple Intelligences Theory (Howard Gardner)

 The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are several
distinct forms of intelligence that everyone possesses in varying degrees. This intelligence includes linguistic,
musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body- kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and
interpersonal (e.g., social skills); naturalist and existentialist.
 Howard Gardner presented proposed the change of questions from "How smart are you?" to "How are you
smart?"
 Gardner's theory proposed the inclusion of the following principles in the promotion of holistic development: 1)
individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning: 2) instructional activities should
appeal to different forms of intelligence and 3) assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of
intelligence.
 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENT
Group 1

WHAT IS PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT?

 Physical and motor development is a process that begins in infancy and lasts through late adolescence,
with a focus on gross and fine motor skills as well as puberty.
 It involves controlling the body, particularly the muscles and physical coordination .

WHY PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW?

 Physical and motor development is important to everyone. These attributes are essential for us to
explore life and affects the well-being of a person. In addition, without physical and motor
development, other developmental domains will be affected as well.

EARLY CHILDHOOD
o PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD

Physical development in children follows a directional pattern.

1. The rapid increase in body size over the first two years tapers off into a slower growth pattern. On
average, children add 2 to 3 inches in height and about 5 pounds in weight each year. Boys continue to
be slightly larger than girls.
2. Large muscles develop before small muscles. Muscles in the body's core, legs, and arms develop before
those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how perform gross (or large) motor skills such as walking
before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor skills such as drawing.
3. The center of the body develops before the outer regions. Muscles located at the core of the body
become more assertive and develop sooner than those in the feet and hands.
4. Development goes from the top down, from the head to the toes. This is why babies learn to hold their
heads up before they know how to crawl.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD

As the child grows, his nervous system becomes more mature. As this happens, the child becomes more and more
capable of performing increasingly complex actions. Motor development may vary somewhat. However, nearly all
children begin to exhibit these motor skills at a fairly consistent rate unless some type of disability is present (Bayley,
1993). When a child is healthy, he strengthens all his muscles, establishes his coordination, acquires equilibrium, fine-
tunes the movement of his small muscles, and learns to move for specific purposes progressively (Gines, et al., 1998).
 There are two types of motor skills:

 Gross (or large) motor skills

Involve the larger muscles including the arms and legs. Actions requiring gross motor skills include walking,
running, balance and coordination. When evaluating gross motor skills, the factors that experts look at include
strength, muscle tone, movement quality, and range of movement.

 Fine (or small) motor skills

Involve the smaller muscles in the fingers, toes, eyes, and other areas. The actions that require fine motor
skills tend to be more intricate, such as drawing, writing, grasping objects, throwing, waving, and catching.

FINE MOTOR SKILLS ACTIVITIES

o Finger Painting
o Puzzles
o Playdough
o Video games- in moderation
o Building with blocks
o Tracing shapes
o Coloring
o Popping bubbles in plastic wraps
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
o PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
hange a lot during this development. Bones broaden and lengthen dramatically. In general, children will grow an average of 2-3
ear throughout this stage. As young children enter this period, boys are generally taller than girls, but at the end of middle
th trend in height will reverse. Furthermore, both boys and girls are building muscle. Generally, children will gain 6 to 7 pounds a
e period. Girls tend to retain more fatty tissue than boys in preparation for puberty.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

 Gross Motor Skills Development

During middle childhood, children can do large-scale body movements. Typically, boys develop these skills
slightly faster than girls, except for skills involving balance and precise movements such as skipping, jumping,
and hopping. Children in this stage also refine their control over gross motor skills. They are able to gain this
improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility, equilibrium, and agility. They also learn
how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing for the development of smoother,
more coordinated whole-body movement routines such as are needed for participating in organized sports.

 Fine Motor Skills Development

Children in middle childhood also continue to hone their fine motor skills. Contrary to gross motor skills
development, girls tend to develop fine motor skills slightly faster than boys. Specifically, middle-childhood-aged
children show dramatic improvements in their penmanship. Their artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this
period as they also develop the ability to draw complex and detailed pictures incorporating depth cues and 3D elements
and they become more imaginative.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
 During this stage, children also learn how to use their hands to successfully complete manual activities other
than drawing or writing. For example, they become capable of executing complex detail-oriented craft
projects involving beading, sewing, scrapbooking, and building models and are good at using simple tools.

ADOLESCENCE
o PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

During this developmental stage, adolescents experience two significant changes in physical development.
These are:

1. ADOLESCENT OR PUBERTAL GROWTH SPURT

apid acceleration in height and weight. Girls enter the rapid growth earlier than boys. Girls may begin as early as age 9
2, while boys may begin as early as 12 or as late as 16. Typically, the spurt for girls occurs two years earlier than for
rowing taller and heavier, the body assumes an adult-like appearance.

2. PUBERTY
 nce of primary and secondary sex characteristics and the point at which the individual becomes physically capable of
on.
SEX CHARACTERISTICS
 Primary sex characteristics
Include the development of gonads (testes for boys and ovaries for girls) and the production of sex hormones.
 Secondary sex characteristics
Include the development of body form (triangular for boys and hourglass for girls), growth of pubic hairs, and
menarche (first menstrual period for girls) and penis growth for boys. (Gines, et al., 1998)

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE

Gross Motor Skills Development & Fine Motor Skills Development

 Gross and fine motor skills improve continuously during adolescence. Adolescents can do more
complex and strenuous activities compare to when they were in their middle childhood.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Group 2
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Development
 How children think, explore, and figure things out.
 Process by which human beings acquire, organize, and learn to use knowledge.
 Development of knowledge, skills, problem-solving, and dispositions, that help children to think about
and understand the world around them.
 The growth of a child’s ability to think and reason.
 Fostering a child’s cognitive development as soon as he/she was born provides a foundation for the
child’s success in school and later in life.

Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

(1) sensorimotor intelligence
(2) preoperational thinking
(3) concrete operational thinking
(4) formal operational thinking

Sensorimotor Stage
NEONATE [BIRTH TO 1 MONTH]

 Start of the Sensorimotor Stage

 The first stage of the four stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. The stage when a child is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching and becomes more organized in his movement and
activity.
 Infant focuses on new interactions rather than those that have been previously encountered.
 Learning takes place through conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

 Getting a flu shot hurts and makes a child cry.  Whenever a child goes to bed on time, her
The child associates the needle with getting parents read her a bedtime story.
hurt and cries at the sight of the needle.

1-6 MONTHS
  Infants learn through the senses.
 Learning is strengthened through positive results of
 behaviors.
 Repetition is made possible when the infant is reminded of the original context.

Studies have shown that the developing brain thrives on repetition.

A child develops emotional security when their world is nurturing, consistent, and predictable.

EXAMPLE:
o When an infant experiences consistent care, he/she feels more secure because his/her basic needs are
being met. This will give the toddler more energy to explore and learn.

6-12 MONTHS
 Infants participate in goal-directed behaviors.
 Learning now includes the ability to tell the differences between small sets of objects.
 Imitation is deferred in consideration of learned behaviors.

Defer: postpone; putting off

Deferred imitation copying bodily action from another person

 It is when infants observe and replicate another’s behavior.

 Ability to reproduce a previously witnessed action or sequence of actions in the absence of current
perceptual support for the action.
EXAMPLE:
o Sylvia often observed her mother trim the ends off a ham before roasting it. Years later, Sylvia also
trimmed the ends off just like what her mother always did before cooking it. However, her mother only
trimmed the ends off a ham because it was too large to fit in the baking dish.

12-18 MONTHS
 Toddler builds cause-effect relations to actions. A toddler can make a sound by
banging something on the table.
 He/she understands that she can make things happen with simple
actions.
Learning is now made possible through constructive play.
CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY

 Start to manipulate objects to create something.

 Develop their conceptual knowledge by posing questions, testing ideas, and gathering information.
 Allows children to make sense of their world and have a sense of accomplishment by manipulating
their environment.
Toddler searches for objects in the last seen hiding place.
OBJECT EXPLORATION

 A toddler explores objects that are concealed within view. Hide an object once and then hide it again,
in a different location.
 Making a toddler choose where a coin is hidden from both of your hands.

Preoperational Stage
18-30 MONTHS [Preschool Years]
 The start of the Preoperational Stage.
 Capable of mental representations and symbols.
 Intelligence at this stage is intuitive.
 Can make mental representations, pretend, and now closer to the use of symbols.
Episodic memory begins and object permanence is achieved.

Object The ability to know that an object exists

Permanence even if it is out of sight.

 A memory of a specific event that is unique to each

Episodic person due to different perspectives and experiences.
Memory
 Also called autobiographical memory for it is the
memories of your life history.

30-36 MONTHS
 Children are able to count.
 Can identify basic color words among others.
 Children can explain familiar causal relations.

3 EXAMPLES OF CAUSAL LEARNING IN SOCIAL CONTEXT OF CHILDREN

o Consider children’s explanation-seeking behaviors in the form of “why” questions.

o Examine parents’ elaboration of meaning about causal relations.
o Consider parents’ interactive styles with children during free play, which constrains how children
explore.
3-4YEARS OLD
 Child engages in pretend play and symbolic function begins.
 Autobiographical memory may begin.
 Learning can now include pictorial calculations involving whole numbers and fractional quantities.

5-6YEARS OLD
 Children can differentiate between what is real and what is imaginary.
 The ability to encode, make generalizations, and strategize are honed.

Concrete Operational Stage

7-8 YEARS OLD
 A child is more logical and methodical manipulation of symbols. Less egocentric, and more aware of
the outside world and events.
 Child understands cause and effect, seriation, transitive inference, class inclusion, inductive reasoning,
and conservation.
 Multi-tasking becomes easier.

Characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage

Classification
 Grouping items into categories.

Conservation
 An understanding that something can stay the same in quantity even though it looks different.

Decentration
 Tied to conservation. It’s all about concentrating on several factors at the same time. Children need to
figure out decentration so that they can conserve correctly.

Reversibility
 An understanding that actions can be reversed. Sort of like mental gymnastics.

Seriation
 Mentally sorting a group of things into some sort of order.

Sociocentricity
 The child is no longer egocentric and fully focused on themselves.
  Create timelines, three-dimensional models, science experiments, and other ways to manipulate
abstract concepts.
 Use brain teasers and riddles to foster analytical thinking.
 Focus on open-ended questioning.

9-11 YEARS OLD

A child is better able to consider multiple perspectives.
ng from another’s perspective can help a child better understand their motives or intentions and allows them to alter
void hurting or offending other people.
Improved Memory Strategies.
r able to make use of memory strategies.
neous use of strategies for remembering undergoes a marked increase between early and middle childhood.

THREE MEMORY STRATEGIES

Rehearsal
 When a child uses repeated practice of information to learn it.

Organizational strategies
 Children are more likely to group items mentally into meaningful clusters of closely associated items (i.e.,
animal, color, food) than younger children.

Elaboration
 A process by which the learner builds an internal connection between what is being learned and previous
knowledge.

Formal Operational Stage

12-15EARS OLD
 Gain the ability to think abstractly by manipulating ideas in their heads without any dependence on
concrete manipulation.
 The use of abstractions and hypothetical deductive reasoning is possible.

16-20 YEARS OLD

 Increased ability to take in knowledge.
 Demonstrate hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which is developing hypotheses based on what might
logically occur.
 Think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand, and then test them systematically.
Are now able to: Empathise, Define, Ideate, Prototype, Test
o Understand abstract principles which have no physical reference.
 o Engage in true scientific thinking and accept hypothetical situations.

YOUNG ADULTHOOD
20-40 YEARS OLD
1. Young adults are capable of complex thinking.
 Uses more complex thinking focused on personal
decision-making in school and at home.
 Show the use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.
 Questions authority and society's standards.
 Forms and speaks his or her thoughts and views on many
topics. (e.g. what sports or groups he or she prefers)

20-40 YEARS OLD

2. Educational and vocational choices are made.
 Start to choose the path and pursue the education that is leaned to their vocational choice, where they
define their occupational goals to launch their chosen careers based on their passions.
 They already choose the course they want to pursue in the future.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD [40-65 YEARS OLD]

Mental abilities peak and can be manifested with increased expertise and better practical problem-solving
skills.
 Tacit knowledge, verbal memory, vocabulary, inductive reasoning, and other types of practical thought
and skills increase with age.
 The brain at midlife has been shown to not only maintain many of the abilities of young adults but also
gain new ones.

Intelligence
 refers to information processing abilities, such as logical
reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction
Fluid time Decreases
Intelligence  the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and with age
performing activities quickly and abstractly

 encompasses abilities that draw upon experience

and knowledge. Measures of crystallized intelligence include
Crystallized vocabulary tests, solving number problems, and understanding Increases with
Intelligence texts age
 the accumulated knowledge of the world we have
acquired throughout our lives
Creative output may decline but improve in quality.

 An individual seems to experience a decrease in the ability to The quantity of creative outputs
generate many novel ideas. However, it is not considered a may decline but not the quality.
decline but a qualitative change in the creative process because
with age comes an increase in crystallized intelligence.
Success in career, change of career or burnout may happen.

 In a workplace, middle-aged adults may either gain expertise, more likely to switch jobs as more
attractive opportunities appear, or unsuccessfully manage the stress caused by the workplace resulting
in burnout.

LATE ADULTHOOD [65 YEARS ONWARDS]

Most older adults are mentally alert.
o Cognitive development is affected by aging, especially in the areas of attention and memory. Cognition
changes in older adulthood and are often characterized by:
 processing things more slowly
 finding it harder to recall past events
 failing to recall information that was once known.

EXAMPLES:
 Forgetting names or appointments, but remembering later.
 Remember an event that happened in their childhood but can’t remember what they had for
breakfast.
 Repeating the same questions that have already been answered during a conversation.

There may be a deterioration of memory and intelligence in certain aspects but there are ways to
compensate.

 Making appointments and plans at the same time of the day.

 Keeping things in the same place when not in use.
 Making lists and using sticky notes.
 Keeping a calendar.
 Organizing everything and reducing clutters.
 Using assistive technology like phones.
Guide Questions;
1. What strategies of teaching do you consider most effective in teaching?
2. What are your assumptions of how learners understand the world, which has prompted your choice of
strategies?
3. What are the common gaps of learning you commonly encounter?
4. What interventions have you implemented to address the students' learning gaps?
 5. Why do you consider those interventions effective?

Conclusion

 Major factor that guides teachers in constructing strategies is the different gaps in the students'
learning.
 Common factor: knowledge gap
 Teachers teach students in a more simple but comprehensive way.
 Make interventions if there are still students who cannot follow.
APPLICATION

Grade Level Grade 9

Subject Mathematics

Topic Trigonometry

Grade 9 students are around 14-15. Hence, the

students are expected to acquire mathematical
Acquired Cognitive knowledge relevant to daily life that helps them
understand the world in which they live. They can
Skills most likely handle mathematical models and
geometrical representations.
The teacher will divide her students into groups.
These students will investigate the relationships
Learning Activity between angles and side lengths in right triangles
with the help of materials found in the classroom by
building right triangles. The teacher will then let her
students measure the angles and the sides of the
built right triangles.
If students still find the topic difficult, the teacher will
give her students a task that should be done in
Intervention groups. Each group will give a real-life example of
trigonometry, make their problem out of their
chosen example, and solve their problem. With this
method, the students will learn from their classmates
as well as impart their knowledge to their group
mates.
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Group 3
The process by which a child learns to interact with others around them.
o As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to
communicate with other people and process their actions.
Its Importance
 influences a child's self-confidence, empathy, the ability to develop meaningful and lasting friendships
and partnerships.
 sense of importance and value to those around him/her.
 impact many of the other forms of development of a child's experience

HEALTHY SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT that can help your child

1. Develop language skills
 ability to interact with other children allows for more opportunities to practice and learn speech
and language skills.
2. Build self esteem
 A healthy circle of friends reinforces a child’s comfort level with her own individuality.
3. Strengthen learning skills
 Having healthy relationships with peers (from preschool on up) allows for adjustment to
different school settings and challenges.
4. Resolve conflicts
 Stronger self-esteem and better language skills can ultimately lead to a better ability to resolve
differences with peers.
5. Establish positive attitude
 A positive attitude ultimately leads to better relationships with others and higher levels of self-
confidence.

HOW CAN PARENTS MAKE A DIFFERENCE WHEN IT COMES TO SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT?

 Studies show that everyday experiences with parents are fundamental to a child’s developing social
skill set. Parents provide a child with their very first opportunities to develop a relationship,
communicate and interact.
 INFANTS & TODDLERS:
During the first 2 years of life
 Smile and react positively to you and other caregivers
 Develop stranger anxiety—though it can be frustrating, this is a normal step in development
 Develop an attachment to a comfort object such as a blanket or animal
 Begin to show anxiety around other children
 Imitate adults and children—just as a child develops in other ways, many social skills are learned simply
through copying what a parent or sibling does
 Already be affected by emotions of parents and others around them

AS A PARENT, YOU CAN:

 Respond to your baby’s needs promptly
 Make eye contact with your baby
 Babble and talk to your baby, always pausing to allow them to respond
 Play copycat with words and actions
 Play “peekaboo”
 Involve your baby in daily activities such as running errands or visiting friends
 Begin to arrange playdates so that your child can interact with peers

PRESCHOOLERS:
By this age, the stage has been set in the earliest years for a child to branch out. As preschool begins your child
can:

 Explore independently
 Express affection openly, though not always accurately—there can still be much frustration for your
child as language development is still happening
 Still show some stranger anxiety
 Perfect the temper tantrum—it can be stressful, but tantrums are a normal part of child development
 Learn how to soothe themselves
 Be more aware of others’ emotions
 Cooperate with other children
 Express fear or anxiety before an upcoming event (such as a doctor visit)

AS A PARENT, YOU CAN:

 Demonstrate your own love through words and physical affection—which is a great way to begin
teaching a child how to express other emotions as well
 Help your child express their emotions by talking through what they are feeling
 Play with your child in a “peer-like” way to encourage cooperative play—this is helpful when they
are in a group environment and have to share toys and cooperate
 Continue to provide play dates and opportunities to interact with other children
 Provide examples of your trust in others, such as your own friendships or other relationships
 SCHOOL CHILDREN:
By 5 and older, a child’s social development begins to reach new levels. This is a point in time when most
children will spend more hours in a day with other children than with their parents. It is normal for them to:

 Thrive on friendships
 Want to please friends, as well as be more like their friends
 Begin to recognize power in relationships, as well as the larger community
 Recognize and fear bullies or display bully-like behavior themselves
 As early as 10, children may begin to reject parents’ opinion of friends and certain behaviors—this is a
normal step, but can be especially frustrating for parents visit)

AS A PARENT, YOU CAN:

 Talk with your child about social relationships and values by asking them about school and friends
every day
 Allow children the opportunity to discuss social conflicts and problem-solve their reactions/actions
 Discuss the subject of bullying and harassment, both in person and on the Internet
 Allow older children to work out everyday problems on their own
 Keep the lines of communication open—as a parent, you want to make yourself available to listen and
support your child in non-judgmental ways

Factors that Impact Social Development:

 Families
Sources of Socialization
 Peers
 Disabilities PRIMARY SOURCE OF SOCIALIZATION
 Culture
 Self-esteem  Socialization begins in our families, whoever you are living
 Self-concept with, that is your entire social world when you are very
young.
 Society and others
SECONDARY SOURCE OF SOCIALIZATION
 School and community are the secondary sources of
socialization.
 Socializing with a variety of people with different races,
religions, cultures etc.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
 Social development begins in infancy
 Social development starts from birth. Initially, the child has his first social interaction with his mother
and then with his other family members. Thereafter the social circle starts expanding at different
stages of life.
 Social development continues throughout life
 The development or changes in social behavior continue with our experiences of life.
 It is the result of interaction with the social environment
 It depends upon our attitude and understanding towards the society in which we live and the quality of
interaction we have with our social environment.
 It helps in the development of social qualities
 Accumulation of healthy social relations and social understanding of positive social traits and qualities
in one’s personality.
 Developing a positive self-concept
 Social aspect is important for self-concept. The quality and amount of social experiences affect the self-
concept.

SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept is how we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics.
COMPONENTS OF SELF-CONCEPT
Self-Image
o refers to how you see yourself at this moment in time. Attributes like physical characteristics,
personality traits, and social roles. All play a role in your self- image.
Self-Esteem
o Self-esteem can be affected by several factors—including how others see you, how you think you
compare to others, and your role in society.
Ideal Self
o The ideal self is the person you want to be. This person has the attributes or qualities you are either
working toward or want to possess. It's whom you envision yourself to be if you were exactly as you
wanted.
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory
Group 4
Moral development is the gradual development of an individual concept of right or wrong conscious,
religious values, social attitudes and certain behavior.

KOHLBERG'S Six Stages

Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality (0-9 years) Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

STAGE 1: OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT

 Especially common in young children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this
stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.

 Obeys rules in order to avoid punishment

 Determines a sense of right and wrong by what is punished and what is not punished
 Obeys superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules, especially if that authority has
the power to inflict pain
 Is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well-being
STAGE 2: NAIVELY EGOTISTICAL

 At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based
on how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves one's own interests.

 Is motivated by vengeance or “an eye for an eye” philosophy

 Is self-absorbed while assuming that he/she is generous
 Believes in equal sharing in that everyone gets the same, regardless of need
 Believes that the end justifies the means
 Will do a favor only to get a favor
 Expects to be rewarded for every non-selfish deed he/she does

STAGE 3: SOCIAL APPROVAL (“Good Boy- Good Girl”)

 This stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.

 Finds peer approval very important

 Feels that intentions are as important as deeds and expects others to accept intentions or promises in
place of deeds
 Begins to put himself/herself in another’s shoes and think from another perspective

STAGE 4: LAW AND SOCIAL ORDER

 At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting
authority.

 Is a duty-doer who believes in rigid rules that should not be changed

 Respects authority and obey it without question
 Supports the rights of the majority without concern for those in the minority
 Is part of about 80% of the population that does not progress past stage 4

STAGE 5: LEGALISTIC AND SOCIAL CONTRACT

 At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon
these standards.

 Is motivated by the belief in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people
 Believes in consensus (everyone agrees), rather than in majority rule
 Respects the rights of the minority especially the rights of the individual
 Believes that change in the law is possible but only through the system
 STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
 Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with
laws and rules.

 Believes that there are high moral principles than those represented by social rules and customs
 Is willing to accept the consequences for disobedience of the social rule he/she has rejected
 Believes that the dignity of humanity sacred and that all humans have value

UNIT 4
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Gender
 The differentiated social roles, behavior, capacities, and intellectual, emotional, and social
characteristics attributed by a given culture to women and men.
 The characteristics attributed to women are labeled as feminine and those attributed to men are
labeled as masculine as defined by our society.
 Definitions of masculine and feminine often vary from one race and culture to another.
 Variations in gender definitions are due to specific economic, political, and social conditions of each
class, culture, or era.
 Gender Roles are not inborn. They are learned.

GENDER ATTRIBUTES
Attributes of sex Attributes of Gender
Maleness Masculinity
Femaleness Femininity

Physical Social
Universal Cultural
Congenital Learned Behavior
Unchanging Changes over time
Unvarying Varies within a culture/ among cultures
 Sex: in the Realm of the Biological Context
SEX is a biological term: often referred to as the act of mating between two organisms (an act that is part of
the process of biological reproduction). A more technical term for this act is coitus.
This categorization is made according to reproductive function:
1. the female produces the egg cell or ovum
2. the male provides the sperm that fertilizes it
3. Intersex, a rare category that exists
Some people are born with both male and female organs and sometimes called incomplete genitalia. But
these form a very small proportion of the human population.

Besides the fact that the male produces sperm and female produces egg cells, male and female are different
from each other:
A. external genitalia (sex organs)
B. secondary sex characteristics
C. different chromosomal make-up
D. different quantities of various hormones

4. Primary Reproductive Organ

The male has a penis, testicles, and sperm, while the female has a vagina, clitoris, and ovum. The secondary
sex characteristics are body hair, voice pitch, muscular development, diseases (hemophilia, color blindness),
Adam's apple, and breasts.

First determinants of sex

1. Chromosomes
 It is the cell nucleus of all other unicellular or multicellular organisms that contain most or all the
DNA or RNA comprising the genes of the individual and are the first determinants of their sex.
 These elongated bodies of a cell nucleus contain the genes that parents pass on to their offspring.
Each cell of a female ovary or male testis contains twenty-three chromosomes; one of these is the
sex chromosome.
 There are two types of sex chromosomes: X and Y.
 Female egg cells contain only X
 Male sperm may have either X or Y
 An XX combination produces a female An XY combination, a male.
 Sex chromosomes present in the sperm determine whether the offspring are genetically male or
female.
 Some of the "intersex" is genetically male or female - that is, their chromosomal make-up is either
XX or XY and the confusion in their body structure is due to faulty embryonic (pre-birth)
development.
2. Hormones
 It is a product of living cells that circulates in body fluids or sap and produces a specific effect on
the activity of cells remote from its point of origin; especially; one exerting a stimulatory effect on
cellular activity.

Male Female
Testosterone Progesterone
Androgen Estrogen