SEMINAR 2

1. The main language levels and their constants.

The morphological level has two level units:
1. the morpheme – the lowest meaningful unit (teach – teacher);
2. the word - the main naming (nominative) unit of language.
The syntactical level has two level units as well:
1. the word-group – the dependent syntactic unit;
2. the sentence – the main communicative unit.
The supersyntactical level has the text as its level unit.
All structural levels are subject matters of different levels of linguistic analysis. At different
levels of analysis we focus attention on different features of language. Generally speaking, the
larger the units we deal with, the closer we get to the actuality of people’s experience of
language.
To sum it up, each level has its own system. Therefore, language is regarded as a system of
systems. The level units are built up in the same way and that is why the units of a lower level
serve the building material for the units of a higher level. This similarity and likeness of
organization of linguistic units is called isomorphism. This is how language works – a small
number of elements at one level can enter into thousands of different combinations to form
units at the other level.
Constants:
The lexical level, like any other level of language stratification, is naturally represented by
some characteristic constants and their peculiar features as well. The principal constants of
this language level in the contrasted languages are the following:
1. Words, their semantic classes and word-forming means as well as their structural models
and stylistic peculiarities of use.
2. The second object of contrasting alongside of separate words and their classes present the
lexico-semantic groups (LSGs) of words which are pertained to the contrasted languages.
3. The third group of lexical units contrasted at this level are stable and idiomatic
expressions which are also of universal nature, though they always have some national
peculiarities in every single language.
It must be emphasised that regular lexemes and lexical units, despite their seemingly
chaotic mass of different words and stable expressions are, like units of other language levels,
systemically arranged. The systemic organisation of lexicon is conditioned in all languages by
lingual as well as by extralingual factors which are of universal nature. Among the
extralingual factors, predetermining the systemic organisation of lexicon, the following should
be pointed out as most important:
a) the physical and mental factors;
b) the environmental factors;
c) the social factors.
 2. Typological units of the morphological level (morpheme, word). The Word as a
unit of Morphology and Syntax.

The morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages are characterised by a
considerable number of isomorphic as well as of several allomorphic features. The isomorphic
features are due to the common Indo-European origin of the two languages, while
allomorphisms have been acquired by English and Ukrainian in the course of their historical
development and functioning as independent national languages.
The main typological constants that make the object of contrasting at the morphological
level of English and Ukrainian, and not only of these but also of many other languages, are
three. These are
1) the morpheme;
2) the parts of speech;
3) their morphological categories.
The principal typological constant of the morphological level is, of course, the morpheme
which is endowed in both contrasted languages with some minimal meaning. As to its
structure, the morpheme may be
 a) simple (one-phoneme): a-, -s, -t (alike, says, burnt) in English and -a, -u, -у, з-, c-, etc. in
Ukrainian (весна, хати, беру, з'їсти, сховати);
b) compound (-ment, -hood, -ward, -ство, -ський, -цький) as in man agement,
brotherhood, seaward, суспільство, сільський, ткацький. The complexity of its nature,
structure and meaning makes the morpheme one of the main objects of contrastive study at the
morphological level. Moreover, the morpheme in English and Ukrainian has some peculiar
features, which are characteristic of each of these contrasted languages.
Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of English and Ukrainian
Words The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit and it can be in the contrasted languages
either free or bound. Free or root morphemes are lexically and functionally not dependent on
other morphemes. They may be regular words (cf. boy, day, he, four, день, кінь, річ, він, три)
or they may constitute the lexical core of a word. Eg.: boyhood, daily, fourth, денна, нічний,
тричі, etc. In other words, root morphemes in English, Ukrainian and other languages are not
dependent on other morphemes in a word. Bound morphemes, on the other hand, can not
function independently: they are bound to the root or to the stem consisting of the root
morpheme and of one or more affixal morphemes. Cf.: days, spoken, fourteen, overcome,
government, дивно, розумом, дні, нашим), etc. Bound morphemes like -s, -en, - teen, over-,
-ment, -о, -ом, -і, ~им in either of the two languages can not exist independently, i.e. they are
not free but always dependent on roots or stems of their words.
Root morphemes. Due to its historical development, English has also a much larger
number of morphologically unmarked words, i.e. regular root morphemes, than Ukrainian.
Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories is much
smaller in English than in Ukrainian. Moreover, a lot of notionals in English lack even the
affixes which can identify their lexico-morphological nature.
Free root-morphemed words, though fewer in Ukrainian, are still rep-resented in all lexico-
morphological classes as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. of both contrasted languages. Cf. arm,
pen, boy, work, do, red, he, she, it, five, this, ten, here, far, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: ніс,
лоб, чуб, ти, варт, хто, три, тут, де, він, etc.

3. General principles of classifying words.

Like any other language aspect constituting a structural level, lexical units are
systematically arranged. The systemic organization of lexicon is predetermined by both
lingual and extralingual factors which are of universal nature.
Among the extralingual factors the following can be pointed out:
1) The physical and mental factors, which predetermine the existence of a great number
of common notions.
Due to the physical needs of human beings all languages have a great number of
common notions designated by words such as live, drink, eat, sleep, go, run, jump etc.
Due to the common mental activity of man every language of the world comprises
 the notions designated by such words as think, speak, read, ask, answer, comprehend
etc.;
2) The environmental factors, which explain the fact that we find the names of objects
and phenomena common to people all over the world. As a result of a common natural
environment, all languages have many common notions designated by the words
reflecting the many objects and phenomena surrounding people (the sun, the moon, the
stars, the sky, thunder, lightning, rain) and various species of living beings, plants,
trees, fruits, colours etc.;
3) The social factor. The social factors involve different social phenomena as well as
relationships and activities of a man. These come to being already at the family level
(mother, father, sister, brother, aunt, cousin etc.). To these words belong those
reflecting any other social activity of people (a teacher, a student, a passenger, a shop
assistant etc.).

LINGUAL FACTORS. The linguistic principles of typological classification of lexicon

are based on the following principles:
1) common lexico-grammatical nature
In accordance with their common general lexico-grammatical meaning all words are
grouped into
1) notionals
2) functional.
Notionals serve as principle means of nomination and constitue the bulk of the English
and the Ukrainian lexicons. They have different morphological, semantic, syntactic and
stylistic features, which are of not equal importance in the contrasted languages.
It is imposiible to define the part of speech of many English words as white, back
without a context.
Functionals are common in both languages, except for the article (the, a/an), which is
missing in Ukrainian.
2) belonging to the lexico-semantic group
The second isomorphic class can be understood as closely knit sectors of vocabulary,
each characterised by a common concept and formed on the basis of notionals as well
as on the basis of functionals:
e.g. LSG formed by adjectives denoting ‘‘size’’: big, large, great, huge, enormous,
small, little, tiny etc. The same in Ukrainian: великий, здоровий, гігантський, малий,
невеликий, дрібний, малесенький etc.
LSG formed by adjectives denoting ‘‘colour’’: red, yellow, green, blue, pink, brown,
violet,
LSG comprising verbs of speaking: say, tell, talk, speak, announce, declare, etc.:
говорити, балакати, розмовляти, шепотіти, промовляти etc.
LSG of prepositions denoting direction: to, into, from, towards, up, down; у, в, з,
вгору, вниз, від, до etc
Similar LSGs exist also among the English conjunctions, particles and other parts of
speech which have their corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian and in other
languages.
3) peculiar stylistic function and meaning
According to the stylistic principle the lexical meaning of words is predetermined by
their use in a speech style. Therefore, the lexicon in both languages can be of high,
neutral and low styles.

The main bulk of the vocabulary of a language is stylistically neutral. But on the
periphery of the lexicon various types of colloquialisms, jargonisms, slangisms,
vulgarisms and some others can be found.
Slang may be briefly defined as informal, nonstandard vocabulary composed chiefly
of a novel-sounding synonyms for standard words and phrases. Slang has a vital
social dimension; it is used mostly in the derisive speech play of youthful, raffish or
undignified persons or groups.
Often equivalent in English and Ukrainian are also low colloquialisms, which mostly
express disregarding or contemptuous attitude: бабiй, хапуга, вискочка, базiкало.
Functionally similar to them are vulgarisms: hell, shit, mug (морда), cad (тварюка),
hound (негiдник), bastard, чорт, прокляття, морда, вилупок, and jargonisms,
mostly used in oral speech by representatives of different groups (professional
groups, criminal communities etc).
4) denotative or connotative meaning
Denotative words constitute the bulk of the lexicon of any language and include the
so-called nomenclature. Most denotative words are stylistically neutral and may be
represented by the whole lexico-grammatical classes:
 pronouns (he, she, it, they, we, you etc.),
 numerals (five, ten, twenty etc.), most of verbs (live, love, be etc.),
 nouns,
 adjectives,
 adverbs.
Connotative words directly or indirectly correlate with their natural denotata. Many
words in English and Ukrainian may also have both denotative and connotative
meanings. For instance, the nouns bear, fox, pig, parrot and some others in their
stylistically neutral meaning designate definite animals and birds, but being
metonymically reinterpreted, they often acquire a vituperative (abusive) connotation,
thus becoming the connotative words. Correspondingly, in Ukrainian: свиня, собака,
папуга, лисиця designating people
4.Onomasiological and semasiological characteristics of words.
Irrespective of the lexico-grammatical class to which a word belongs, it may be
characterized in the contrasted languages from two sides:
a) onomasiological side, i.e. from its structure and nomination capacity;
b) semasiological or content side.
A. The onomasiological investigation of the lexicon solves the problem how
concepts (ideas) can be represented in the language. That is the structure of a
language unit is studied with respect to its expressive abilities or, in other words,
means of nomination. The latter can be inner and outer.
Inner means of nomination include: words, word-groups and sentences.
Words in both languages are the main means of nomination (75% In English and
Ukrainian).
Structurally they may be:
a) simple words (book, boy, new, ten, soon, книга, сам, там, п’ять);
b) derivative words (teacher, friendship, kitten, книжечка, дівчинка, знавець,
спатоньки);
c) compounds (blackboard, homework, schoolboy, railway, добродій, літописець,
книголюб, мовознавець, першочергово, перекотиполе, лиходій, Незовибатько,
Добридень, Панібудьласка тощо).
The onomasiological characteristics are displayed through morphological structure of
the word and its categorial meaning: e.g. goes = go (root) + es (inflexion), the
inflexion designates the categories of tense, mood, voice and person in the verb.
To outer means of nomination belong: borrowings and internationalisms.
Borrowings
Modern English; and certain elements of vocabulary, much of which is borrowed
from French. In fact, more than half of the words in English either come from the
French language or have a French cognate (words that have a common origin).
However, the most common root words are still of Germanic origin.
The Anglo-Saxon and French influence on the development of the English lexicon
can be illustrated by the parallel existence in the language of such lexical units as
pretty/beautiful, deed/act etc. There are also words borrowed from Italian
(umbrella), Spanish (cigar), Turkic (tulip) etc.

The amount of borrowings in the Ukrainian language is not large: бандура,

карета (from Italian), казан, торба, лапша, казна (from Turkic).
The general correlation of borrowed lexical units in the contrasted languages is not
 equal. It constitutes in English 70 %, while in Ukrainian 10 %.

Internationalisms maintain the complete identity of their semasiological and

onomasilogical structures in both languages: basis – базис, opera – опера, tabula
rasa – табула раса.

B. Semasiology studies which ideas are represented in the linguistic unit. That is
we study the semantic structure (scope of meaning) of words, expressions and
texts.
From the semasiological side words may be monosemantic and polysemantic.
The semantic structure of the bulk of the English nouns, for instance, can be
richer than that of the Ukrainian nouns. Thus, the English noun boat can mean
„човен, судно/корабель, шлюпка’; the noun coat can mean „верхній одяг,
пальто, піджак, кітель, хутро (у тварин), захисний шар фарби на предметі’.
Ukrainian words can also have a much more complicated semantic structure as
well, For example, the noun подорож can mean „cruise, journey, travel, trip, tour,
voyage’; or the word ще can mean „still, yet, more, again, else, but’.
Isomorphic if not universal is the existence of monosemantic words which are
sometimes represented by a whole lexico-grammatical class, as it is in case of all
pronouns, numerals, conjunctions and some nouns: we, she, nobody, ten, thirty,
and, or, sugar, today, він, вони, десять, перший, і, та, кисень, цукор, торік.
The onomasiological form and the semasiological structure may coincide in the
contrasted languages: e.g. to take part – брати участь.
A considerable number of semasiologically identical in both languages lexemes
have different onomasiological expression: to ski – ходити/ їздити на лижах, to
fall in love – закохатися, зрячий – one who can see/one who is not blind.
The onomasiological and semasiological status of words can be changed in the
contrasted languages by means of:
1) affixation: miss – dismiss, elect – reelect, relation – relationship; Київ –
киянин – київський, вибори – перевибори – довибори and
2) accentuation: 'conduct (n) – con'duct (v), 'present (n) – pre'sent (v), 'замок –
за'мок, 'вівці – вів'ці, 'руки – ру'ки.

5.Words as parts of idiomatic expressions.

Words are often integral parts of idiomatic expressions, which are phrases or sentences with
meanings that cannot be deduced from the individual words themselves. These expressions are
deeply rooted in a language's culture and may not follow the usual rules of grammar or
semantics.
Lexical constants are:
 words,
 LSG – lexico-semantic groups,
 idioms.
TYPOLOGY OF IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
Idiomatic/set expressions are lexically and often structurally stable units of lexicon.
There exist several criteria for classifying them:
1) semantic (according to the nature);
2) structural (according to the structure);
3) functional (according to the nuclear element and the function).
1. Semantically idiomatic expressions may be:
 Absolute/international equivalents:
a grass widow – солом’яна вдова,
the alfa and omega – альфа та омега (початок і кінець),
the Troyan horse – Троянський кінь,
the heel of Achilles – Ахіллесова п’ята,
the tree of knowledge – дерево знань,
Ten Commandments – Десять Заповідей;
 Near equivalents:
as pale as paper – блідий як стіна,
to kiss the post – поцілувати замок,
all this and heaven too – вагон і маленький возик,
all talk and cider – багато галасу даремно (багато розмов, а діла мало);
 National idioms:
Humpty-Dumpty – низенький товстун,
to cutt off with a shilling – позбавити спадщини;
in Ukrainian – замакітрити голову, гопки скакати, впіймати облизня,
клеїти дурня, утерти носа.
2. Structurally idiomatic expressions may be:
 Word idioms (metaphorical generalized names):
Dick and Harry – перший-ліпший,
a Romeo, a Don Juan, Mr. Big, Mr. Right etc.
 Word-group idioms:
Tom Pepper (a great lier),
Tom Thumb (a small man),
every Tom (the average person),
nosy Parker – людина, котра суне ніс не в свої справи,
to be or not ot be,
a skeleton in the cupboard, Ten Commandments;
in Ukrainian: Язиката Хвеська, як на сповіді, збити з пантелику,
накивати п’ятами, утерти носа, море по коліна, хоч до рани прикладай
тощо;
 Sentence idioms:
A drowning man catches at a straw;
a Jack of all trades and the master of none;
in Ukrainian: що буде, те й буде; далеко куцому до зайця;
3. Functionally (according to the nuclear element and the fuction)
idioms may be:
 Substantival:
the tree of knowledge,
a swan song ‘final appearance’,
the Troyan horse;
in Ukrainian: сім чудес світу, лебедина пісня, ласий шматок;
 Adjectival:
wishy-washy „having no definite opinion‟,
hot „stolen‟,
jam-packed „crowded‟;
in Ukrainian: нечистий на руку, одним миром мазані;
 Verbal:
to keep one’s nose clean „stay out of trouble‟,
to cook someone’s goose „to create big problems for someone‟;
in Ukrainian: накивати п’ятами, мотати на вус, бити себе в груди,
дерти носа, вскочити в халепу, товкти воду в ступі;
 Adverbial:
tit for tat „зуб за зуб‟,
by hook or by crook „by any means‟;
in Ukrainian: як на долоні, без керма і без вітрил, ні в зуб ногою;
 Interjectional: in Ukrainian: от тобі й на, хай йому грець, цур тобі,
не доведи Господи

6.Word-formation in the contrasted languages: isomorphic and allomorphic features.

Word-formation in the contrasted languages is represented by
a) affixation, b) compounding and c) non-affixation

4.1. AFFIXATION
Affixal or derivational word-formation in both languages includes:
1) suffixal word-formation,
2) prefixal word-formation and
 3) combined (suffixal and prefixal) word-formation.
1) Suffixal morphemes in the contrasted languages are used to produce parts of
speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.
Added to the root morpheme, suffixal morphemes may not cause any changes
in the place morphemes are joined, the so-called morphemic boundary/juncture: cf. friend +
ship = friendship, трактор + ист =тракторист.
In Germanic L., as in Turkic ones in this case, morphemic junctures are quite
transparent and the derivatives can be easily decomposed into its constituents.
It is not so in the Ukrainian language in which the boundary between the
components of a derivative word may not be so distinct, in most cases because
of fusion; слуга, but служба, and not слуг + ба; просити → прохання etc.
Allomorphic noun-forming suffixes: specifically Ukrainian are evaluative
augmentative and neuter gender forming suffixes while specifically English are
suffixes designating perception of action.
The derivative function of suffixes finds its realization in the existence of common
word-building models. The major models are as follows:
2) Prefixal morphemes have their main features in common in the contrasted
languages. But in Turkic languages, for instance, as well as in the Japanese one the
root morpheme is devoid of the possibility of joining prefixal morphemes.
The locating of affixal morphemes in postposition as well as in preposition to the
root morphemes is a typological feature of the English and the Ukrainian languages.
Prefixes can be international, semantically identical or nationally specific (Table
4.3. NON-AFFIXATION
This type of compounding is well represented in Germanic languages. But its word-
forming ability varies a great deal in languages. Non-affixal word-formation is mostly
productive in English, in which due to the loss of word-forming morphemeswords of different
parts of speech coincide in their phonemic structure. In other words, this type of compounding
is called conversion.
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word-class
without the addition of an affix. Conversion is particularly common in English because the
basic form of nouns and verbs is identical in many cases. It is a curious and attractive subject
because it has a wide field of action: all grammatical categories can undergo conversion to
more than one word-form, it is compatible with other word-formation processes, and it has no
demonstrated limitations. All these reasons make the scope of conversion nearly unlimited.
Conversion is extremely productive to increase the English lexicon because it provides an easy
way to create new words from existing ones.
The major cases of conversion in English are from nouns to verbs: a boss – to boss and
from verbs to nouns: to ride – a ride. Conversion from adjectives to nouns (an intellectual
person – an intellectual) is also common, but it has a lower ratio. In Ukrainain the most
common is the conversion of adjectives into nouns: кошовий, вартовий, Сагайдачний. There
can also be found cases of converting participles I into adjectives/nouns: вихована (людина),
наречена; adverbs into prepositions: довкола (будинку), назустріч (долі).

SUMMARY:
1) Word-formation in the contrasted languages is represented by
a) affixation, b) compounding and c) non-affixation;
2) Typologically distinct feature of the English language is juxtaposition with
quite transparent morphemic boundaries in words;
3) Apart from all Germanic languages, in Ukrainian typologically remarkable is
the combining of morphemes by means of linking morphemes; in the
subsystem of word-formation fusion is observed;
4) The maximal number of affixal morphemes, joined to root morphemes, does
not exceed two elements in the preposition to root morphemes and two
elements in the postposition to them, which constitutes the isomorphic
typological feature of the contrasted languages;
5) In the subsystem of word-formation in English monomorphemic words are
dominant, while in Ukrainian dimorphemic ones;
6) In compounds, consisting of two words, the bound morpheme is in most cases
in preposition to the main one in the typology of lexicon in both contrasted
languages;
7) More productive types of compounding in English are: juxtaposition,
shortening, blending, back-formation, reduplication; in Ukrainian –
wholophrasing compounding with interfixal elements, combined abbreviation.

POINTS FOR SELF-CONTROL

1) The four language levels are phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic.
2) The main language constants, also known as linguistic universals, include features or
elements that are common to most languages, such as phonemes, morphemes, syntax,
and a distinction between nouns and verbs.
3) The constants of the morphological level include morphemes (the smallest units of
meaning), inflectional and derivational affixes, and grammatical categories like tense,
number, gender, and case.
4) A word is a unit of language that can stand alone and carry meaning. It is typically
made up of one or more morphemes.
5) The word is studied by morphology to understand its internal structure and how it
changes grammatically, while syntax studies the word in context to understand its role
in constructing sentences and conveying meaning.
6) The main factors to classify the lexicon of any language include frequency of use,
concreteness vs. abstractness, morphological and syntactic features, and semantic
categories.
7) Extralingual factors cover parameters like historical, cultural, and social influences on
language.
8) Words are grouped according to the lingual factor based on their structural,
grammatical, or semantic similarities.
9) Notionals are content words that carry specific meanings (e.g., nouns, verbs), while
functionals are words that serve grammatical functions (e.g., articles, prepositions).
10) A lexico-semantic group (LSG) is a set of words related by a common semantic
meaning. Examples include the LSG for colors (red, blue, green) or animals (dog, cat,
bird).
11) Lexicon is differentiated according to the stylistic principle by categorizing words
as formal, informal, colloquial, or slang, depending on the level of formality.
12) Denotative meaning refers to the primary, literal meaning of a word, while
connotative meaning involves the associated emotions, values, or secondary meanings.
13) Onomasiology studies the process of naming and finding words for concepts,
while semasiology studies the meanings of words and how they change.
14) Means of nomination include onomasiological and semasiological forms, as well
as word formation processes like derivation and compounding.
15) Inner means of nomination involve the inherent properties of the object, while
outer means rely on cultural, historical, or arbitrary connections.
16) Onomasiological form and semasiological status can coincide in some cases, but
they can also differ in contrasted languages due to cultural or linguistic factors.
17) Onomasiological form and semasiological status can be changed in contrasted
languages through cultural shifts, borrowing, or changes in meaning.
18) Types of motivation in contrasted languages include phonetic motivation,
semantic motivation, and functional motivation. Phonetic motivation is the most
productive.
19) Phonetic motivation is the most productive in contrasted languages.
20) The basic structural types of compound words in English include endocentric
(head-initial) and exocentric (head-final) compounds. In Ukrainian, they can be
endocentric, exocentric, and bahatohrannyk (multiple-root) compounds.
21) Means of producing new words in contrasted languages include derivation,
compounding, blending, borrowing, and onomatopoeia.
22) Juxtaposition is a word formation process where two or more words are placed
next to each other to create a compound word. Examples include "toothbrush" and
"blackboard."
 23) Wholophrasing compounding involves combining whole phrases to form
compound words, as in "good-for-nothing."
24) Types of abbreviation include initialism (e.g., "NASA"), acronym (e.g.,
"UNESCO"), and truncation (e.g., "info" from "information").
25) Blending is a word formation process where parts of two or more words are
combined to create a new word, such as "brunch" (breakfast + lunch) or "smog" (smoke
+ fog).
26) Back formation is a word formation process where a new word is created by
removing an affix, as in "editor" from "editorial."
27) Reduplication is a word formation process where all or part of a word is repeated
for emphasis or to create new meanings, as in "super-duper" or "boo-boo."
28) Accentual word-formation is characterized by creating new words by changing
the stress pattern within a word, which can lead to a shift in meaning or category.
29) Derivation and compounding are often the most productive means of producing
new words in English and Ukrainian.
30) The means of enriching the vocabulary of any language include borrowing from
other languages, word formation processes, semantic shifts, and the creation of
neologisms.
31) Idioms can be classified based on principles like transparency (e.g., "kick the
bucket"), compositionality (e.g., "break the ice"), and degree of figurativeness (e.g.,
"cost an arm and a leg").
32) A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language, such as a word, prefix,
or suffix.
33) A morphological category is a grammatical feature or property that words can
have, such as tense, number, or gender.
34) The two ways of reflecting morphological categories are synthetic (through
inflectional affixes) and analytical (by using separate words or phrases).
35) The means of representing the synthetic way of reflecting morphological
categories include inflectional endings, prefixes, and suffixes.
36) The means of representing the analytical way of reflecting morphological
categories involve using auxiliary verbs, word order, or separate words to convey
grammatical information.
SECTION 2

EXERCISE 2
State whether the given pairs of words represent word-building or form-building
function of accentuation in the contrasted languages. Mark the accent where necessary
in accordance with the morphological properties of words:

A. conduct (n) – conduct (v)- word-building

 import (n) – import (v) - word-building
produce (n) – produce (v)- word-building
suspect (n) – suspect (v) - word-building
absent (a) – absent (v) - word-building
frequent (a) – frequent (v) - word-building
perfect (a) – perfect (v) - word-building

B. замок (n) – замок (n) - word-building

мука (n) – мука (n) - word-building
заняття (n) – заняття (n) – word-forming
левади (N pl) – левади (N gen., dual num) - word-forming
корови (N pl) – корови (N gen., dual num) - word-forming
голубці (N pl) – голубці (N dat) - word-forming
кленові (N pl) – кленові (N dat) - word-forming
говірка (n) – говірка (а) - word-forming

C. весна-вéсни-веснú - word-forming
Львів-Львів’яни - word-forming
око-очі-очей - word-forming
хлопець-хлопча-хлоп’ята - word-forming
батько-батьків - word-forming
любити-люблю - word-forming
високий-височенний - word-forming
сміх-посміховисько - word-building

 The word-building function can be observed in correlation of words, differentiated by an

affix only producing a new word with a slightly different meaning, like [t]::[∫] in act-action,
[s]::[∫] in confess-confession, [х] :: [ш] вухо-вушко, [к]::[ц] юнак - юнацтво, [ц]::[ч]
синиця - синичка or in words differentiating by the accent in lexico - grammatical meaning:
present-present, замок - замок.
 The word-forming function of the correlation of words may be illustrated in such pairs of
words which differ in categorial/grammatical meanings as yourself - yourselves (number),
man-men (number), foot-feet (number), wife-wives (number), knife-knives (number), wolf-
wolves (number), друг - друже (case), око-очі (number), ставок - ставка (case), садити-
саджу (person, number), писати-пишу (person, number), козак-козаче (case). In Ukrainian
the correlation of words representing different categorial meanings are much numerous than
those of English.
 EXERCISE 3
Identify a) words in which onomasiological form and semasiological structure of the
word coincide; b) words in which these notions do not coincide:

A. green, swim, two-fifths, boss, akimbo, fall in love, forget-me-not, merry-go-

round, examinee.
B. макітра, вечорниці, закохатися, посміхнутися, свататися,
господарювати, спатки, попоїсти, самотужки, вусики, вустонька,
ручище.

a) Words in which onomasiological form and semasiological structure of the word coincide:
green
swim
boss
akimbo
examinee
"Green": In this case, the onomasiological form (the word "green") and the semasiological
structure (the concept or meaning of the color green) perfectly coincide.
"Swim": Here, the word "swim" directly represents the action of swimming, so the form
and structure coincide.
""Examinee": The word "examinee" directly represents a person who is being examined or
tested.
b) Words in which these notions do not coincide:
two-fifths (onomasiological form: a fraction, semasiological structure: a numerical value)
fall in love (onomasiological form: a verb phrase, semasiological structure: the action of
falling in love)
forget-me-not (onomasiological form: a flower name, semasiological structure: the name of
a flower)
merry-go-round (onomasiological form: an amusement ride, semasiological structure: the
name of an amusement ride)
"Fall in love": The phrase "fall in love" is an idiomatic expression for experiencing
romantic feelings, and the words "fall" and "love" separately do not convey this complex
concept.
"Forget-me-not": This is a compound word, and its onomasiological form does not directly
represent its meaning, which is a small blue flower.
"Merry-go-round": Similar to "forget-me-not," "merry-go-round" is a compound word
referring to a type of amusement ride. The individual words "merry," "go," and "round" do not
directly represent the concept.
 In most of the provided Ukrainian words, there is a strong correlation between
onomasiological form and semasiological structure.
a) Words in which onomasiological form and semasiological structure of the word coincide:

макітра - a large, round pot used for cooking

вечорниці - a traditional Ukrainian folk holiday celebrated in the evening
кохатися - to fall in love
посміхнутися - to smile
свататися - to propose marriage
господарювати - to manage a household
спатки - to sleep
попоїсти - to eat
самотужки - by oneself
In these words, the onomasiological form is the direct expression of the semasiological
structure. For example, the onomasiological form of the word макітра is a combination of the
stem мак (which means "poppy") and the suffix -итра (which means "pot"). This
onomasiological form directly expresses the semasiological structure of the word, which is a
large, round pot used for cooking.

b) Words in which these notions do not coincide:

вусики - a mustache
вустонька - a small mouth
ручище - a small stream
In these words, the onomasiological form is not the direct expression of the semasiological
structure. For example, the onomasiological form of the word вусики is a diminutive of the
word вуса (which means "mustache"). This onomasiological form does not directly express
the semasiological structure of the word, which is a mustache that is small or thin.

Explanation:

In the case of вусики, the onomasiological form is a diminutive. Diminutives are often used
to express affection or tenderness. In this case, the diminutive form is used to express the idea
that the mustache is small or thin.

In the case of вустонька, the onomasiological form is a diminutive of the word уста (which
means "mouth"). This onomasiological form does not directly express the semasiological
structure of the word, which is a small mouth. The diminutive form is used to express the idea
that the mouth is small or cute.
 In the case of ручище, the onomasiological form is a diminutive of the word річка (which
means "river"). This onomasiological form does not directly express the semasiological
structure of the word, which is a small stream. The diminutive form is used to express the idea
that the stream is small or narrow.

EXERCISE 4
Point out to the еxistence or non-existence of isomorphism in the types of motivation in
the following words and word-groups:

A. soft, soften, large, enlarge, employee, rely, unreliable, suspect, unsuspicious;

B. сонце, травень, красень, прикрашати, вимога, вимогливий, знання, обізнаний,
кульбаба, кульбабовий, гейкати, сьорбати, дзеленчати, мукати, квакати.

Isomorphism is observed, firstly, in the existence of a group of similar monophthongs and,

secondly, of factors which predetermine their systemic organization.
Ізоморфі́зм — властивість, що виражає однаковість будови якихось сукупностей
елементів, незалежно від природи цих елементів.
A. English words: еxistence of isomorphism
soft
soften
large
enlarge
rely
unreliable
suspect
unsuspicious
There is some isomorphism in these words, particularly in the relationships between base
words and their derivations (e.g., "soft" and "soften," "large" and "enlarge"). However, the
isomorphism is not consistent throughout the group as there are unrelated words like
"employee," "rely," "unreliable," "suspect," and "unsuspicious" mixed in.
Ukrainian words: еxistence of isomorphism
красень
прикрашати
вимога
вимогливий
знання
обізнаний
кульбаба
кульбабовий
 There appears to be some isomorphism in this group, particularly in the morphological
structure of the words. Many of the words in this group share similar morphological elements,
suggesting some consistency in word formation. For example, you can see patterns such as
adjective-noun pairs, verb forms, and noun-verb pairs. However, there are also unrelated
words in the group, such as "кульбаба," "гейкати," "сьорбати," and "мукати," which do not
follow these patterns.
In summary, there is some isomorphism in both groups, but it is more consistent in the
Ukrainian words (group B), where many words share similar morphological features and
patterns. In contrast, the English words (group A) have less consistent isomorphism, with a
mix of related and unrelated words.

EXERCISE 5
Analyse the given English and Ukrainian words and word-groups. Allot them to the
corresponding layers of lexicon: internationalisms (terms), professionalisms, archaisms,
neologisms. State their national or universal typological nature:

A. grammar, pedagogical, modality, molecule, fantasy, complementation, predication,

company, jurisdiction, cab, to put one’s tongue in one’s cheek, penny wise and pound foolish.
B. хорунжий, гетьман, математика, вечорниці, героїзм, музика, поезія,
університет, присудок, лікар, накивати п’ятами, впіймати облизня, ловити ѓав,
журналіст, фонд, філософія, смартфон, вебінар.

A. English Words:
1. Grammar - Internationalism (Term)
2. Pedagogical - Internationalism (Term)
3. Modality - Internationalism (Term)
4. Molecule - Internationalism (Term)
5. Fantasy - Internationalism (Term)
6. Complementation - Internationalism (Term)
7. Predication - Internationalism (Term)
8. Company - Internationalism (Term)
9. Jurisdiction - Internationalism (Term)
10. Cab - Internationalism (Term)
11. To put one’s tongue in one’s cheek - Expression (Universal Typological Nature)
12. Penny wise and pound foolish - Expression (Universal Typological Nature)
B. Ukrainian Words:
1. Хорунжий - Archaisms (National Typological Nature)
2. Гетьман - Archaisms (National Typological Nature)
3. Математика - Internationalism (Term)
 4. Вечорниці - Archaisms (National Typological Nature)
5. Героїзм - Internationalism (Term)
6. Музика - Internationalism (Term)
7. Поезія - Internationalism (Term)
8. Університет - Internationalism (Term)
9. Присудок - Internationalism (Term)
10. Лікар - Internationalism (Term)
11. Накивати п’ятами - Expression (National Typological Nature)
12. Впіймати облизня - Expression (National Typological Nature)
13. Ловити ѓав - Expression (National Typological Nature)
14. Журналіст - Internationalism (Term)
15. Фонд - Internationalism (Term)
16. Філософія - Internationalism (Term)
17. Смартфон - Neologism (National Typological Nature)
18. Вебінар - Neologism (National Typological Nature)
In this analysis:
 Internationalisms are words that have a universal typological nature and are
commonly used across different languages or have been borrowed from one language to
another.
 Archaisms are words or expressions that are no longer in common use in modern
language and are often associated with a particular historical or national context.
 Neologisms are newly coined words or expressions, often specific to a particular
language or culture.
 Expressions refer to idiomatic phrases or sayings that may have a universal
typological nature, and they are typically not specific to any one language.
The classification of words may vary depending on the context and usage, but this
categorization provides a general overview of their nature.

Ukrainian words
The internationalisms are: математика, героїзм, музика, поезія, університет, присудок,
лікар, журналіст, фонд, філософія. These words are found in many languages and have a
common origin.

The archaisms are: хорунжий, гетьман. These words are no longer in common use in
Ukrainian.

The idioms are: накивати п’ятами, впіймати облизня, ловити ѓав. These are fixed
expressions that have a figurative meaning.
The neologisms are: смартфон, вебінар. These are newly coined words or word-groups.