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Ernest Hemingway

Ernest Miller Hemingway (/ˈɜːrnɪst ˈhɛmɪŋweɪ/; July 21,

1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer, Ernest Hemingway
and journalist. His economical and understated style—which
included his iceberg theory—had a strong influence on 20th-
century fiction, while his adventurous lifestyle and public image
brought him admiration from later generations. Hemingway
produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-
1950s, and he was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Literature. He
published seven novels, six short-story collections, and two
nonfiction works. Three of his novels, four short-story collections,
and three nonfiction works were published posthumously. Many
of his works are considered classics of American literature.

Hemingway was raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After high school, he

was a reporter for a few months for The Kansas City Star before
leaving for the Italian Front to enlist as an ambulance driver in
World War I. In 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned Hemingway working on
home. His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A For Whom the Bell Tolls at the Sun
Farewell to Arms (1929). Valley Lodge in 1939
In 1921, he married Hadley Richardson, the first of four wives. Born July 21, 1899
They moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent Oak Park, Illinois, U.S.
for the Toronto Star[1] and fell under the influence of the Died July 2, 1961 (aged 61)
modernist writers and artists of the 1920s' "Lost Generation" Ketchum, Idaho, U.S.
expatriate community. Hemingway's debut novel The Sun Also Notable The Sun Also Rises,
Rises was published in 1926. He divorced Richardson in 1927, and works A Farewell to Arms,
married Pauline Pfeiffer. They divorced after he returned from the
For Whom the Bell
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), which he covered as a journalist
Tolls,
and which was the basis for his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls
The Old Man and the
(1940). Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940. He and
Sea
Gellhorn separated after he met Mary Welsh in London during
World War II. Hemingway was present with Allied troops as a Notable Pulitzer Prize for Fiction
journalist at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris. awards (1953)
Nobel Prize in Literature
He maintained permanent residences in Key West, Florida in the (1954)
1930s and in Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s. On a 1954 trip to
Africa, he was seriously injured in two plane accidents on Spouses Hadley Richardson
​​(m. 1921; div. 1927)​

Pauline Pfeiffer
​​(m. 1927; div. 1940)​

Martha Gellhorn
​​(m. 1940; div. 1945)​

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successive days, leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the Mary Welsh ​(m. 1946)​
rest of his life. In 1959, he bought a house in Ketchum, Idaho,
Children Jack, Patrick, Gloria
where, in mid-1961, he died by suicide.
Signature

Life and career

Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park,
Illinois, an affluent suburb just west of Chicago,[2] to Clarence
Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a
musician. His parents were well-educated and well-respected in
Oak Park,[3] a conservative community about which resident
Frank Lloyd Wright said, "So many churches for so many good
people to go to."[4] When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married
in 1896, they lived with Grace's father, Ernest Miller Hall,[5] after
whom they named their first son, the second of their six
children.[3] His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898, followed
by Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and Leicester
in 1915.[3] Grace followed the Victorian convention of not
differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year
separating the two, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one-another
strongly. Grace wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first
three years she kept his hair long and dressed both children in
similarly frilly feminine clothing.[6] Hemingway was the second child
and first son born to Clarence and
Hemingway's mother, a well-known musician in the village,[7] Grace.
taught her son to play the cello despite his refusal to learn; though
later in life he admitted the music lessons contributed to his
writing style, evidenced for example in the "contrapuntal
structure" of For Whom the Bell Tolls.[8] As an adult Hemingway
professed to hate his mother, although biographer Michael S.
Reynolds points out that he shared similar energies and
enthusiasms.[7] Each summer the family traveled to Windemere
on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan. There young Ernest
joined his father and learned to hunt, fish, and camp in the woods
and lakes of Northern Michigan, early experiences that instilled a
life-long passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or
isolated areas.[9] The Hemingway family in 1905
(from the left to right): Marcelline,
Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School in Sunny, Clarence, Grace, Ursula,
Oak Park from 1913 until 1917. He was an accomplished athlete and Ernest
involved with a number of sports, including boxing, track and
field, water polo, and football. He performed in the school
orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English classes.[7]
During his last two years at high school he edited the Trapeze and Tabula (the school's newspaper
and yearbook), where he imitated the language of sportswriters and used the pen name Ring Lardner
Jr.—a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was "Line O'Type".[10] Like Mark
Twain, Stephen Crane, Theodore Dreiser, and Sinclair Lewis, Hemingway was a journalist before
becoming a novelist. After leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub

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reporter.[10]Although he stayed there for only six months, he relied on the Star's style guide as a
foundation for his writing, such as "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous
English. Be positive, not negative."[11]

World War I

In December 1917, after being rejected by the U.S. Army for poor
eyesight,[12] Hemingway responded to an International Red Cross
and Red Crescent Movement recruitment effort and signed on to
be an ambulance driver in Italy.[13] In May 1918, he sailed from
New York, and arrived in Paris as the city was under
bombardment from German artillery.[14] That June he arrived at
the Italian Front. On his first day in Milan, he was sent to the
scene of a munitions factory explosion to join rescuers retrieving
the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident
in his 1932 non-fiction book Death in the Afternoon: "I remember
that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we
collected fragments."[15] A few days later, he was stationed at
Fossalta di Piave.[15]

On July 8, he was seriously wounded by mortar fire, having just

returned from the canteen bringing chocolate and cigarettes for
the men at the front line.[15] Despite his wounds, Hemingway
assisted Italian soldiers to safety, for which he was decorated with
the Italian War Merit Cross, the Croce al Merito di
Guerra.[note 1][16] He was still only 18 at the time. Hemingway later Hemingway in uniform in Milan in
said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great 1918, where he drove ambulances
illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you ... Then for two months until he was
when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion wounded.
and you know it can happen to you."[17] He sustained severe
shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation
at a distribution center, and spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for
recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan.[18] He spent six months at the hospital, where he met
and formed a strong friendship with "Chink" Dorman-Smith that lasted for decades and shared a
room with future American foreign service officer, ambassador, and author Henry Serrano Villard.[19]

While recuperating he fell in love with Agnes von Kurowsky, a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior.
When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him
within months and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter in March with her
announcement that she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes Agnes's
rejection devastated and scarred the young man; in future relationships, Hemingway followed a
pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.[20]

Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had
gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need
for recuperation.[21] As Reynolds explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he
thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how scared he had been "in
another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."[22]

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In September, he took a fishing and camping trip with high school

friends to the back-country of Michigan's Upper Peninsula.[17] The
trip became the inspiration for his short story "Big Two-Hearted
River", in which the semi-autobiographical character Nick Adams
takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war.[23] A
family friend offered him a job in Toronto, and with nothing else to
do, he accepted. Late that year he began as a freelancer and staff
writer for the Toronto Star Weekly. He returned to Michigan the
following June[21] and then moved to Chicago in September 1920
to live with friends, while still filing stories for the Toronto
Star.[24] In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor of the
monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth, where he met
novelist Sherwood Anderson.[24]

When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit

the sister of Hemingway's roommate, Hemingway became
infatuated. He later claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going Hemingway in Red Cross Hospital
to marry."[25] Hadley, red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", was in July 1918
eight years older than Hemingway. [25] Despite the age difference,
Hadley, who had grown up with an overprotective mother, seemed
less mature than usual for a young woman her age.[26] Bernice Kert, author of The Hemingway
Women, claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes
lacked. The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to Europe.[25]
They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead, writing
letters of introduction for the young couple.[27] They were married on September 3, 1921; two months
later Hemingway was hired as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, and the couple left for
Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved
everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in
Europe."[28]

Paris

Carlos Baker, Hemingway's first biographer, believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because
"the monetary exchange rate" made it an inexpensive place to live, more importantly it was where "the
most interesting people in the world" lived. In Paris, Hemingway met American writer and art
collector Gertrude Stein, Irish novelist James Joyce, American poet Ezra Pound (who "could help a
young writer up the rungs of a career"[27]) and other writers.

The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-
eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."[29] He and Hadley lived in a small walk-
up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter, and he worked in a rented room in a nearby
building.[27] Stein, who was the bastion of modernism in Paris,[30] became Hemingway's mentor and
godmother to his son Jack;[31] she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the
Montparnasse Quarter, whom she referred to as the "Lost Generation"—a term Hemingway
popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises.[32] A regular at Stein's salon, Hemingway met
influential painters such as Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, and Juan Gris.[33] He eventually withdrew from
Stein's influence, and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.[34]
While living in Paris in 1922, Hemingway befriended artist Henry Strater who painted two portraits of
him.[35]
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Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach's bookshop

Shakespeare and Company in 1922. The two toured Italy in 1923
and lived on the same street in 1924.[29] They forged a strong
friendship, and in Hemingway, Pound recognized and fostered a
young talent.[33] Pound introduced Hemingway to James Joyce,
with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic
sprees".[36]

During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for

the Toronto Star newspaper.[37] He covered the Greco-Turkish
War, where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna, and wrote travel
pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All
Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany".[38]

Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a

suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was
traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922.[39] In the Hemingway's 1923 passport photo;
following September the couple returned to Toronto, where their at this time, he lived in Paris with
son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10, 1923. During his wife Hadley and worked as a
their absence, Hemingway's first book, Three Stories and Ten foreign correspondent for the
Poems, was published. Two of the stories it contained were all that Toronto Star Weekly.
remained after the loss of the suitcase, and the third had been
written early the previous year in Italy. Within months a second
volume, in our time (without capitals), was published. The small
volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had
written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where
he discovered the thrill of the corrida. He missed Paris, considered
Toronto boring, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather
than live the life of a journalist.[40]

Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned

to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the Ernest and Pauline Hemingway in
rue Notre-Dame des Champs.[40] Hemingway helped Ford Madox Paris in 1927
Ford edit The Transatlantic Review, which published works by
Pound, John Dos Passos, Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven,
and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "Indian Camp".[41] When In Our
Time was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.[42][43] "Indian Camp" received
considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,[44] and critics in the
United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use
of declarative sentences.[45] Six months earlier, Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald, and the pair
formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".[46] Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the
same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.[47]

With his wife Hadley, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona, Spain, in 1923,
where he became fascinated by bullfighting.[48] It is at this time that he began to be referred to as
"Papa", even by much older friends. Hadley would much later recall that Hemingway had his own
nicknames for everyone and that he often did things for his friends; she suggested that he liked to be
looked up to. She did not remember precisely how the nickname came into being; however, it
certainly stuck.[49][50][51][52] The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June
1925; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's

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Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith,

Donald Ogden Stewart, Lady Duff Twysden
(recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie,
and Harold Loeb.[53] A few days after the
fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he
began to write the draft of what would
become The Sun Also Rises, finishing eight
weeks later.[54] A few months later, in
December 1925, the Hemingways left to
spend the winter in Schruns, Austria, where
Hemingway began revising the manuscript
extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer, who was from
a wealthy Catholic family in Arkansas and
had moved to Paris to work for Vogue
Ernest, Hadley, and their son Ernest Hemingway with Lady
magazine where she met the Hemingways,
Jack ("Bumby") in Schruns,
joined them in January. Against Hadley's
Duff Twysden, Hadley, and
Austria, 1926, just months friends, during the July 1925 trip
advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a
before they separated to Spain that inspired The Sun
contract with Scribner's. He left Austria for
Also Rises
a quick trip to New York to meet with the
publishers and, on his return, began an
affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris,
before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.[55] The manuscript arrived in New York
in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in
October.[54][56][57]

The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,[58] received good reviews and is
"recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".[59] Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max
Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth
abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were
not lost.[60]

Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises.[57] In early
1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that
July.[61][62] On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally
requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the
proceeds from The Sun Also Rises.[63] The couple were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway
married Pfeiffer in May.[64]

Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.[65] They honeymooned in Le

Grau-du-Roi, where he contracted anthrax, and he planned his next collection of short stories,[66]
Men Without Women, which was published in October 1927,[67] and included his boxing story "Fifty
Grand". Cosmopolitan magazine editor-in-chief Ray Long praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of the
best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize-fight story I ever read ... a remarkable
piece of realism."[68]

By the end of the year Pauline, who was pregnant, wanted to move back to America. John Dos Passos
recommended Key West, and they left Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe injury in
their Paris bathroom when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet

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chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When
Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer.[69] After his departure from Paris,
Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".[70]

Key West and the Caribbean

Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City, Missouri, where

their son Patrick was born on June 28, 1928. Pauline had a
difficult delivery; Hemingway fictionalized a version of the event
as a part of A Farewell to Arms. After Patrick's birth, Pauline and
Hemingway traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New
York.[71] In the winter, he was in New York with Bumby, about to
board a train to Florida, when he received a cable telling him that
his father had killed himself.[note 2][72] Hemingway was The Hemingway House in Key
devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to West, Florida, where he lived
worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after between 1931 and 1939 and where
the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own he wrote To Have and Have Not
father's suicide in 1903, and he commented, "I'll probably go the
same way."[73]

Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on

the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in
January. He had finished it in August but delayed the revision. The
serialization in Scribner's Magazine was scheduled to begin in
May, but as late as April, Hemingway was still working on the
ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times.
The completed novel was published on September 27.[74]
Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established
Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a
level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises. (The story Ernest, Pauline, Bumby, Patrick,
was turned into a play by war veteran Laurence Stallings that was and Gloria Hemingway pose with
the basis for the film starring Gary Cooper.)[75] In Spain in mid- marlins after a fishing trip in Bimini
in 1935
1929, Hemingway researched his next work, Death in the
Afternoon. He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on
bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with
glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally
of life and death."[76]

During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where
he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and
grizzly bear.[77] He was joined there by Dos Passos, and in November 1930, after bringing Dos Passos
to the train station in Billings, Montana, Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. The surgeon
tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon. Hemingway was
hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him; the nerves in his writing hand took as long
as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.[78]

His third child, Gloria Hemingway, was born a year later on November 12, 1931, in Kansas City as
"Gregory Hancock Hemingway".[79][80] Pauline's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a
carriage house, the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio.[81] While in Key West,

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Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe's.[82] He invited friends—including Waldo Peirce,
Dos Passos, and Max Perkins[83]—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the Dry
Tortugas. Meanwhile, he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote
of Key West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly
restless".[84]

In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for
Green Hills of Africa, as well as for the short stories "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short
Happy Life of Francis Macomber".[85] The couple visited Mombasa, Nairobi, and Machakos in Kenya;
then moved on to Tanganyika Territory, where they hunted in the Serengeti, around Lake Manyara,
and west and southeast of present-day Tarangire National Park. Their guide was the noted "white
hunter" Philip Percival who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari. During these travels,
Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by
plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway's return to
Key West in early 1934, he began work on Green Hills of Africa, which he published in 1935 to mixed
reviews.[86]

Hemingway bought a boat in 1934, named it the Pilar, and began sailing the Caribbean.[87] In 1935 he
first arrived at Bimini, where he spent a considerable amount of time.[85] During this period he also
worked on To Have and Have Not, published in 1937 while he was in Spain, the only novel he wrote
during the 1930s.[88]

Spanish Civil War

In 1937, Hemingway left for Spain to cover the Spanish Civil War
for the North American Newspaper Alliance (NANA), despite
Pauline's reluctance to have him working in a war zone.[89] He and
Dos Passos both signed on to work with Dutch filmmaker Joris
Ivens as screenwriters for The Spanish Earth.[90] Dos Passos left
the project after the execution of José Robles, his friend and
Spanish translator,[91] which caused a rift between the two
writers.[92]
Hemingway (center) with Dutch
filmmaker Joris Ivens and German
Hemingway was joined in Spain by journalist and writer Martha
writer Ludwig Renn serving as an
Gellhorn, whom he had met in Key West a year earlier. Like
International Brigades officer during
Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, she had
the Spanish Civil War in Spain in
worked for Vogue in Paris. Of Martha, Kert explains, "she never
1937
catered to him the way other women did".[93] In July 1937 he
attended the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose
of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war, held in Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid
and attended by many writers including André Malraux, Stephen Spender and Pablo Neruda.[94] Late
in 1937, while in Madrid with Martha, Hemingway wrote his only play, The Fifth Column, as the city
was being bombarded by Francoist forces.[95] He returned to Key West for a few months, then back to

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Spain twice in 1938, where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro, the last republican stand, and he
was among the British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they
crossed the river.[96][97]

Cuba

In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana.
This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway
met Martha Gellhorn.[98] Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented "Finca Vigía" ("Lookout
Farm"), a 15-acre (61,000 m2) property 15 miles (24 km) from Havana. Pauline and the children left
Hemingway that summer, after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming; when his divorce
from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in Cheyenne,
Wyoming.[99]

Hemingway moved his primary summer

residence to Ketchum, Idaho, just outside
the newly built resort of Sun Valley, and
moved his winter residence to Cuba.[100]
He had been disgusted when a Parisian
friend allowed his cats to eat from the
table, but he became enamored of cats in
Cuba and kept dozens of them on the
property.[101] Descendants of his cats live
at his Key West home.
Hemingway with his third wife
Hemingway and children
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most Martha Gellhorn, posing with
Patrick (left) and Gloria, with
General Yu Hanmou, Chongqing,
famous novel, For Whom the Bell Tolls, three cats at Finca Vigía c.
China, 1941
which he began in March 1939 and mid-1942
finished in July 1940. It was published in
October 1940.[102] His pattern was to
move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba,
Wyoming, and Sun Valley.[98] It became a Book-of-the-Month Club choice, sold half a million copies
within months, was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and, in the words of Meyers, "triumphantly re-
established Hemingway's literary reputation".[103]

In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier's magazine.[104] Hemingway
went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM, but in general he disliked China.[104]

A 2009 book by former KGB officer Alexander Vassiliev suggests during that period he may have been
recruited to work for NKVD "on ideological grounds" under the code name "Argo".[105][106]

They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December, when he
convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar, which he intended to use to ambush
German submarines off the coast of Cuba.[17]

World War II

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Hemingway was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945. When

he arrived in London, he met Time magazine correspondent Mary
Welsh, with whom he became infatuated. Martha had been forced
to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because
Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and
she arrived in London to find him hospitalized with a concussion
from a car accident. She was unsympathetic to his plight; she
accused him of being a bully and told him that she was "through,
absolutely finished".[107] The last time that Hemingway saw
Martha was in March 1945 as he was preparing to return to
Cuba,[108] and their divorce was finalized later that year.[107]
Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third
meeting.[107]

Hemingway accompanied the troops to the Normandy Landings

wearing a large head bandage, according to Meyers, but he was
considered "precious cargo" and not allowed ashore.[109] The Hemingway with Col. Charles
landing craft came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming "Buck" Lanham in Germany during
under enemy fire and turning back. Hemingway later wrote in the fighting in Hürtgenwald in 1944,
Collier's that he could see "the first, second, third, fourth and fifth after which he became ill with
waves of [landing troops] lay where they had fallen, looking like so pneumonia
many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the
sea and first cover".[110] Mellow explains that, on that first day,
none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea
Dix.[111]

Late in July, he attached himself to "the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles "Buck"
Lanham, as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village
militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris.[112] Paul Fussell remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable
trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a
correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."[17] This was in fact in
contravention of the Geneva Convention, and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said
that he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only offered advice.[113]

On August 25, he was present at the liberation of Paris as a journalist; contrary to the Hemingway
legend, he was not the first into the city, nor did he liberate the Ritz.[114] In Paris, he visited Sylvia
Beach and Pablo Picasso with Mary Welsh, who joined him there; in a spirit of happiness, he forgave
Gertrude Stein.[115] Later that year, he observed heavy fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.[114] On
December 17, 1944, he had himself driven to Luxembourg in spite of illness to cover The Battle of the
Bulge. As soon as he arrived, however, Lanham handed him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with
pneumonia; he recovered a week later, but most of the fighting was over.[113]

In 1947, Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II. He was
recognized for having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of
conditions", with the commendation that "through his talent of expression, Mr. Hemingway enabled
readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front-line soldier and his
organization in combat".[17]

Cuba and the Nobel Prize

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Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to

1945 during his residence in Cuba.[116] In 1946 he married Mary,
who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later. The Hemingway
family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the
years following the war: in a 1945 car accident, he "smashed his
knee" and sustained another "deep wound on his forehead"; Mary
broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing
accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and
severely ill.[117] Hemingway sank into depression as his literary
friends began to die: in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox
Ford; in 1940 F. Scott Fitzgerald; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and
James Joyce; in 1946 Gertrude Stein; and the following year in
1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and Hemingway and Mary in Africa
friend.[118] During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, before the two plane accidents
high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—
much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years
of heavy drinking.[119] Nonetheless, in January 1946, he began
work on The Garden of Eden, finishing 800 pages by
June.[120][note 3] During the post-war years, he also began work on
a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air",
which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book.
However, both projects stalled, and Mellow says that Hemingway's
inability to continue was "a symptom of his troubles" during these
years.[121][note 4]

In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in

Venice for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love
with the then 19-year-old Adriana Ivancich. The platonic love Hemingway in the cabin of his boat
affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees, Pilar, off the coast of Cuba, c. 1950
written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in
1950 to negative reviews.[122] The following year, furious at the
critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees, he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the
Sea in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".[119] The Old Man and
the Sea became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won
the Pulitzer Prize in May 1953, a month before he left for his second trip to Africa.[123][124]

In January 1954, while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane
crashes. He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary. On
their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and
"crash landed in heavy brush". Hemingway's injuries included a head wound, while Mary broke two
ribs.[125] The next day, attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe, they boarded a second plane that
exploded at take-off, with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion, this one serious
enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid.[126] They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters
covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks
recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries.[127] Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied
Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible
and difficult to get along with.[128] When a bushfire broke out, he was again injured, sustaining
second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.[129] Months later in
Venice, Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked discs, a kidney
and liver rupture, a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull.[128] The accidents may have precipitated
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the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a
thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the
pain of his injuries."[130]

In October 1954, Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He modestly told the press that
Carl Sandburg, Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize,[131] but he gladly accepted the
prize money.[132] Mellow says Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months
after his plane accidents and the ensuing worldwide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering
suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's
decision."[133] Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents, he decided against traveling
to Stockholm.[134] Instead he sent a speech to be read, defining the writer's life:

Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness
but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his
loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good
enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day.[135][136]

From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956, Hemingway was bedridden.[137] He was told to stop
drinking to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but then disregarded.[138] In October
1956, he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja, who was seriously ill and died weeks
later. During the trip, Hemingway became sick again and was treated for "high blood pressure, liver
disease, and arteriosclerosis".[137]

In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was

1954 Nobel Acceptance Speech
reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in
1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and 0:19
opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were Opening statement of Nobel Prize
filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. acceptance speech, 1954 [recorded
Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba privately by Hemingway after the
in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work fact].
into his memoir A Moveable Feast. [139] By 1959 he
ended a period of intense activity: he finished A Problems playing this file? See media help.
Moveable Feast (scheduled to be released the
following year); brought True at First Light to 200,000 words; added chapters to The Garden of
Eden; and worked on Islands in the Stream. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in
Havana, as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast. Author Michael Reynolds
claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to
recover.[140]

The Finca Vigía became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway, beginning to become
unhappy with life there, considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959 he bought a home
overlooking the Big Wood River, outside Ketchum, and left Cuba—although he apparently remained
on easy terms with the Castro government, telling The New York Times he was "delighted" with
Castro's overthrow of Batista.[141][142] He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from
Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and the following year for his 61st birthday; however, that year
he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned
by Americans and other foreign nationals.[143] On July 25, 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the
last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion,
the Finca Vigía was expropriated by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of
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"four to six thousand books".[144]

President Kennedy arranged for Mary Hemingway to travel to Cuba
where she met Fidel Castro and obtained her husband's papers and painting in return for donating
Finca Vigía to Cuba.[145]

Idaho and suicide

Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published

as A Moveable Feast through the 1950s.[139] In mid-1959, he
visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles
commissioned by Life magazine.[146] Life wanted only
10,000 words, but the manuscript grew out of control.[147] He was
unable to organize his writing for the first time in his life, so he
asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner
helped him trim the Life piece down to 40,000 words, and
Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (The Dangerous Hemingway bird-hunting at Silver
Summer) of almost 130,000 words.[148] Hotchner found Creek, near Picabo, Idaho in
January 1959; with him are Gary
Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and
Cooper and Bobbie Peterson
confused",[149] and suffering badly from failing eyesight.[150]

Hemingway and Mary left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960.
He set up a small office in his New York City apartment and
attempted to work, but he left soon after. He then traveled alone to
Spain to be photographed for the front cover of Life magazine. A
few days later, the news reported that he was seriously ill and on
the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable
from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love
Papa."[151] He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be
on the verge of a breakdown.[148] Feeling lonely, he took to his bed
for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first
installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life in
September 1960 to good reviews.[152] In October, he left Spain for
New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming
that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where
physician George Saviers met them at the train.[148] The Hemingway Memorial in Sun
Valley, Idaho
Hemingway was constantly worried about money and his
safety.[150] He worried about his taxes and that he would never
return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault. He became paranoid,
thinking that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.[153][154] The FBI had
opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba, and J.
Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s.[155] Unable to care for her
husband, Mary had Saviers fly Hemingway to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota at the end of November
for hypertension treatments, as he told his patient.[153] The FBI knew that Hemingway was at the
Mayo Clinic, as an agent later documented in a letter written in January 1961.[156]

Hemingway was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.[152] Meyers writes that "an
aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that he was treated with
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as many as 15 times in December 1960 and was "released in ruins" in
January 1961.[157] Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document ten

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ECT sessions. The doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being
treated may have been caused by his long-term use of Reserpine and Ritalin.[158] Of the ECT therapy,
Hemingway told Hotchner, "What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is
my capital, and putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient."[159]

Hemingway was back in Ketchum in April 1961, three months after being released from the Mayo
Clinic, when Mary "found Hemingway holding a shotgun" in the kitchen one morning. She called
Saviers, who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley Hospital and once the weather cleared
Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient.[160] Hemingway underwent three electroshock
treatments during that visit.[161] He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on
June 30. Two days later he "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early
morning hours of July 2, 1961.[162] He had unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were
kept, gone upstairs to the front entrance foyer, and shot himself with the "double-barreled shotgun
that he had used so often it might have been a friend", which was purchased from Abercrombie &
Fitch.[163]

Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital, returning home the next day where she cleaned the house
and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her a
conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.[164] In a press interview five
years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.[165]

Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who
believed that the death had been accidental.[164] An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket during
the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved
of it all."[166] He is buried in the Ketchum cemetery.[167]

Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed
himself;[168] his father may have had hereditary hemochromatosis, whereby the excessive
accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical deterioration.[169] Medical records
made available in 1991 confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in
early 1961.[170] His sister Ursula and his brother Leicester also killed themselves.[171] Hemingway's
health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life.[119]

A memorial to Hemingway just north of Sun Valley is inscribed on the base with a eulogy Hemingway
had written for a friend several decades earlier:[172]

Best of all he loved the fall

the leaves yellow on cottonwoods
leaves floating on trout streams
and above the hills
the high blue windless skies
...Now he will be a part of them forever.

Writing style
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the
quality of The Sun Also Rises. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose
that puts more literary English to shame."[173] The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare, tight prose
that made Hemingway famous, and, according to James Nagel, "changed the nature of American

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writing".[174]In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his
mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea, and for the
influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."[175]

Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway's style was

fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of
If a writer of prose knows enough of
world war". After World War I, he and other modernists
what he is writing about he may
"lost faith in the central institutions of Western
omit things that he knows and the
civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of
reader, if the writer is writing truly
19th-century writers and by creating a style "in which
enough, will have a feeling of those
meaning is established through dialogue, through action,
things as strongly as though the
and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at
writer had stated them. The dignity
least very little—is stated explicitly."[17] of movement of an ice-berg is due to
Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker only one-eighth of it being above
believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the water. A writer who omits things
because he does not know them
least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities
only makes hollow places in his
and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that
writing.
allowed for telling more than the truth."[177] Hemingway
called his style the iceberg theory: the facts float above
water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate —Ernest Hemingway in Death in
out of sight.[177] The concept of the iceberg theory is the Afternoon[176]
sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission".
Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing
(such as Nick Adams fishing in "Big Two-Hearted
River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on
fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).[178] Paul Smith writes that
Hemingway's first stories, collected as In Our Time, showed he was still experimenting with his
writing style,[179] and when he wrote about Spain or other countries he incorporated foreign words
into the text, which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs in The Old
Man and the Sea) or in English as literal translations. He also often used bilingual puns and
crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.[180] In general, he avoided complicated syntax. About 70
percent of the sentences are simple sentences without subordination—a simple childlike grammar
structure.[181]

Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in
general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his
experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I
could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent
back to the front?"[182] Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I
have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is
strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless.
The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."[183]

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in
response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words". Hemingway offers a
"multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he
builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The
photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons,
semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences
build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story;
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an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting"
quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow
the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author and create three-
dimensional prose.[184]

Hemingway habitually used the word "and" in place of

commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey
In the late summer that year we
immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or
lived in a house in a village that
in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses
looked across the river and the plain
conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images.
to the mountains. In the bed of the
Benson compares them to haikus.[186][187] Many of river there were pebbles and
Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his lead and boulders, dry and white in the sun,
frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow and the water was clear and swiftly
satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle moving and blue in the channels.
them."[188] However, Hemingway's intent was not to Troops went by the house and down
eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. the road and the dust they raised
Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to powdered the trees.
describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in
order to grasp "the real thing, the sequence of motion
and fact which made the emotion and which would be as —Opening passage of A Farewell to
valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you Arms showing Hemingway's use of
[189]
stated it purely enough, always". This use of an the word and[185]
image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra
Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Marcel Proust.[190]
Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's Remembrance of
Things Past several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.[191]

Themes
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, wilderness, and loss.[192] Critic Leslie
Fiedler sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the American West—extended in
Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of
Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in The
Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls.[193] According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler, in Hemingway's
work, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; and it is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a
moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey.[194] Nature is where men exist without
women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.[193] Although Hemingway does write
about sports, such as fishing, Carlos Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the
sport.[195] At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American naturalism,
evident in detailed descriptions such as those in "Big Two-Hearted River".[9]

Hemingway often wrote about Americans abroad. In Hemingway’s Expatriate Nationalism, Jeffrey
Herlihy describes "Hemingway's Transnational Archetype" as one that involves characters who are
"multilingual and bicultural, and have integrated new cultural norms from the host community into
their daily lives by the time plots begin."[196] In this way, "foreign scenarios, far from being mere
exotic backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating factors in-character action."[197] Donald
Monk comments that Hemingway's use of "expatriation comes to be not so much a psychological as a
metaphysical reality. It guarantees his world-view of his heroes, based on a type of rootless
outsider."[198]

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Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the
good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises—is a goddess; the light
woman—Margot Macomber of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—is a murderess.[193]
Robert Scholes says early Hemingway stories, such as "A Very Short Story", present "a male character
favorably and a female unfavorably".[199] According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics
lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or
love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more
recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and
their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old
assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."[200] Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley
and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.' "[201]

The theme of women and death is evident in stories as

early as "Indian Camp". The theme of death permeates
The world breaks everyone and
Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis in
afterward many are strong in the
"Indian Camp" was not so much on the woman who
broken places. But those that will
gives birth or the father who kills himself, but on Nick
not break it kills. It kills the very
Adams who witnesses these events as a child, and
good and the very gentle and the
becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man".
very brave impartially. If you are
Hemingway sets the events in "Indian Camp" that shape
none of these you can be sure it will
the Adams persona. Young believes "Indian Camp" holds
kill you too but there will be no
the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some
special hurry.
thirty-five years of his writing career".[203] Stoltzfus
considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a
representation of the truth inherent in existentialism: if —Ernest Hemingway in A Farewell
"nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved to Arms[202]
at the moment of death. Those who face death with
dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis
Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life
are authentic; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with
authenticity.[194] In his paper The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, Timo
Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life",
and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in
modern literature".[204]

The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in God Rest You Merry,
Gentlemen and The Sun Also Rises. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of
wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation. This also
applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of The Sun Also
Rises. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel
but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of
times.[193] In God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen, the emasculation is literal, and related to religious
guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "An
Alpine Idyll" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against
the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed
during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for
redemption.[195]

Descriptions of food and drink feature prominently in many of Hemingway's works. In the short story
"Big Two-Hearted River" Hemingway describes a hungry Nick Adams cooking a can of pork and beans
and a can of spaghetti over a fire in a heavy cast iron pot. The primitive act of preparing the meal in
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solitude is a restorative act and one of Hemingway's narratives of post-war integration.[205]

Susan Beegel reports that Charles Stetler and Gerald Locklin read Hemingway's The Mother of a
Queen as both misogynistic and homophobic,[206] and Ernest Fontana thought that a "horror of
homosexuality" drove the short story "A Pursuit Race".[207][208] Beegel found that "despite the
academy's growing interest in multiculturalism ... during the 1980s ... critics interested in
multiculturalism tended to ignore the author as 'politically incorrect.' ", listing just two "apologetic
articles on [his] handling of race".[208] Barry Gross, comparing Jewish characters in literature of the
period, commented that "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an
unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a
Jew."[209]

Influence and legacy

Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who
came after him either emulated or avoided it.[210] After his
reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also
Rises, he became the spokesperson for the post-World War I
generation, having established a style to follow.[174] His books
were burned in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern
decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".[211] Reynolds
asserts the legacy is that "[Hemingway] left stories and novels so
starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural
A life-sized statue of Hemingway by
heritage."[212] José Villa Soberón at El Floridita, a
bar in Havana
Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a
"prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway
industry.[213] Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the "hard-
boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.[211] Benson agrees,
describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger, although Hemingway masked his nature
with braggadocio.[214] During World War II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom
he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given
him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the
Hemingway Fan Clubs".[215]

The extent of his influence is seen from the enduring and varied tributes to Hemingway and his works.
3656 Hemingway, a minor planet discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh, was
named for Hemingway,[216] and in 2009, a crater on Mercury was also named in his honor.[217] The
Kilimanjaro Device by Ray Bradbury featured Hemingway being transported to the top of Mount
Kilimanjaro,[79] while the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway explored the friendship
of two retired men, played by Robert Duvall and Richard Harris, in a seaside Florida town.[218] His
influence is further evident from the many restaurants bearing his name and the proliferation of bars
called "Harry's", a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees.[219] Hemingway's son Jack
(Bumby) promoted a line of furniture honoring his father,[220] Montblanc created a Hemingway
fountain pen,[221] and multiple lines of clothing inspired by Hemingway have been produced.[222] In
1977, the International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created to acknowledge his distinct
style and the comical efforts of amateur authors to imitate him; entrants are encouraged to submit
one "really good page of really bad Hemingway" and the winners are flown to Harry's Bar in Italy.[223]

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Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s she donated her
husband's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered
to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to
supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing The Hemingway
Review. [224][225][226][227] Numerous awards have been established in Hemingway's honor to
recognize significant achievement in the arts and culture, including the Hemingway Foundation/PEN
Award and the Hemingway Award.[228][229]

In 2012, he was inducted into the Chicago Literary Hall of Fame.[230]

Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway's death, on July 1, 1996, his granddaughter Margaux
Hemingway died in Santa Monica, California.[231] Margaux was a supermodel and actress, co-starring
with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick.[232] Her death was later ruled a death by
suicide.[233]

Three houses associated with Hemingway are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places:
the Ernest Hemingway Cottage on Walloon Lake, Michigan, designated in 1968; the Ernest
Hemingway House in Key West, designated in 1968; and the Ernest and Mary Hemingway House in
Ketchum, designated in 2015. Hemingway's childhood home in Oak Park and his Havana residence
were also converted into museums.[234][235]

On April 5, 2021, Hemingway, a three-episode, six-hour documentary, a recapitulation of

Hemingway's life, labors, and loves, debuted on PBS. It was co-produced and directed by Ken Burns
and Lynn Novick.[236]

Selected works
The following is the list of books that Ernest Hemingway completed during his lifetime. While much
of his work was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works
listed below.

Three Stories and Ten Poems (1923)

in our time (1924)
In Our Time (1925)
The Torrents of Spring (1926)
The Sun Also Rises (1926)
Men Without Women (1927)
A Farewell to Arms (1929)
Death in the Afternoon (1932)
Winner Take Nothing (1933)
Green Hills of Africa (1935)
To Have and Have Not (1937)
The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories (1938)
For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
Across the River and into the Trees (1950)

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The Old Man and the Sea (1952)

See also
Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren

Notes
1. On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerous pieces
of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before taking care of
himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more seriously wounded by the
same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere until after they had been
evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61
2. Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2
3. The Garden of Eden was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436
4. The manuscript for The Sea Book was published posthumously as Islands in the Stream in 1970.
See Mellow (1992), 552

References

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Young, Philip. (1964). Ernest Hemingway. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-
8166-0191-2

External links
Digital collections

Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://librivox.org/author/1543) at LibriVox (public domain

audiobooks)
Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/50533) at Project
Gutenberg
Works by Ernest Hemingway in eBook form (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/ernest-hemingwa
y) at Standard Ebooks
Works by Ernest Hemingway (https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=Hemingway%2C%20Er
nest) at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Ernest Hemingway (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3
A%22Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%22%2
0OR%20creator%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ernest%20
Hemingway%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20E%2E%22%20OR%20title%3
A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Hemingway%2C%20Ernest%2
2%20OR%20description%3A%22Ernest%20Hemingway%22%29%20OR%20%28%221899-196
1%22%20AND%20Hemingway%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet
Archive

Physical collections

Audre Hanneman was a biographer of Ernest Hemingway. Her papers can be found at the
University of Maryland Libraries.
Ernest Hemingway Collection (http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/The-Ernest-Hemingway-Collectio
n.aspx) at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
Ernest Hemingway collection (https://archives.lib.umd.edu/repositories/2/resources/107) at the
University of Maryland Libraries
Ernest Hemingway Collection. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and
Manuscript Library.
Ernest Hemingway's Collection (https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00
056) at The University of Texas at Austin
Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at Columbia
University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library. (https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldp
d_4079484)
Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971 (http://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollecti
ons/pdf/mss18572_1.pdf) Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and
Special Collections (https://archives.library.sc.edu/repositories/5/resources/869)

Journalism

"The Art of Fiction No. 21 (http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-no-21-er

nest-hemingway). The Paris Review. Spring 1958.
Ernest Hemingway's journalism at The Archive of American Journalism (http://www.historicjournali
sm.com/ernest-hemingway-1.html)

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11/12/23, 10:47 PM Ernest Hemingway - Wikipedia

Biographical and other information

Ernest Hemingway (https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/625) on Nobelprize.org

FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway (https://vault.fbi.gov/ernest-miller-hemingwa
y/ernest-hemingway-part-01-of-01/view)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Hemingway&oldid=1184007897"

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