CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY

 Pharmacognosy is basically derived from two words “pharmakon” that means drugs and
“gnosis” that means knowledge. So, simply it means knowledge of drugs.
 Pharmacognosy means the study of drugs obtained from the natural origins like plants, animals,
minerals etc.

HISTORY OF PHARMACOGNOSY:

 The Babylonians were aware of the medicinal effects of so many plants.

 Ancient Egyptians had a great knowledge of anatomy as well as knowledge of medicinal uses of
so many plants and animals.
 Papyrys Ebers – written in 1550 B.C. and discovered in tomb of a mummy, it contains more than
800 formula and 700 different drugs.
 In India, the study of the drugs was started about 5000 years ago at the time of Vedas.
Ayurvedic system (1200 B.C.) listed 127 plants of medicinal use, Charaka listed 50 groups of
herbs each for various illnesses. Sushruta listed 760 herbs that are of medicinal use.
 Hippocrates who is known as the father of medicine also gave importance to cure illnesses from
various plants.
 Theophrastus wrote about plants and described medicinal uses of plants.
 Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) classified the plant & introduced the system of naming the plant
known as binomial system.
 Galen, the first pharmacist, who described the method of preparing drugs from vegetable and
animal origin and also gave many formulas.
 Gregor Mendel also studied on plant hybrids.
 In Nepal “Chandra Nighantu” a herbal pharmacopoeia has 278 medicinal plants.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY:

1. Isolation of phytochemicals – certain phytochemicals are derived from the plants such as
glycosides from digitalis leaves, alkaloids from the plant Belladonna, Rauwolfia.
2. Biosynthetic pathways investigations – pharmacognosy helps in the investigation of
biosynthetic pathways of primary and secondary metabolites.
3. Preparation of herbal formulations – pharmacognosy helps in the formation of certain
herbal formulations like churnas, leha, aristas etc.
4. Drugs of direct therapeutic uses – example include steroids, antibiotics, vincristine etc
5. Formation of novel medicines – the formation of new drugs is totally dependent on the
pharmacognosy.
6. Remedies using plants – traditionally people use certain home remedies using plants in
order to cure minor ailments.
CHAPTER 2 – CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS

 Crude drugs may be derived from various natural sources like plants, animals, minerals and
micro-organisms etc.
 Due to their wide distribution the arrangement of classification in a definite sequence is
necessary to understand easily.
 Although each system of classification has its own merits and de-merits, but for the purpose of
study the drugs are classified into following different ways:
1. Alphabetical classification
2. Morphological classification
3. Taxonomical classification
4. Pharmacological classification
5. Chemical classification
6. Chemo-taxonomical classification

ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION

 The crude drugs are arranged according to the alphabetical order by their English or Latin
names.
 Some of the Pharmacopoeias and reference books which classify the drugs according to this
system are –
- Indian Pharmacopoeia
- British Pharmacopoeia
- United States Pharmacopoeia
- European Pharmacopoeia
 ADVANTAGES –
1. It is a simple method.
2. In this system location, tracing of drugs are very easy
3. No confusion as entries can’t appear repetitively.
 DISADVANTAGES –
1. Scientific nature of drugs are not revealed by this system.
2. Original sources of drugs are also not clear.
3. This system doesn’t show that which entries are new and which are old.
 EXAMPLES –
Agar, benzoin, cinchona, digitalis, ergot, fennel, ginger, isapagol, jalap, kino, linseed, mustard,
netmeg etc.

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

 In this classification, the drugs are arranged according to the parts of plants from which they are
obtained. They are classified into organized (cellular) drugs and unorganized (acellular) drugs.

ORGANIZED (CELLULAR)
It includes those drugs which are obtained from the direct parts of plants and are
divided into leaves, barks, root, rhizome, seed, fruit, flower, hairs etc.
 PLANT PARTS DRUGS
Leaves Datura, Digitalis
Barks Cinnamon, Cinchona
Wood Sandalwood
Roots Ipecac, Rauwolfia
Rhizomes Ginger, turmeric
Flowers Clove, Saffron
Fruits Fennel, Coriander
UNORGANIZED (ACELLULAR)

This include those drugs which are obtained from the products of the plants, mineral source and they
are divided into dried latex, dried juice, dried extracts, gums, resins, fats and waxes, volatile oils etc.

Plants, Animals, Minerals Drugs

Dried Latex Opium

Dried Juice Aloe, Kino

Dried Extracts Agar, Pectin

Gums Acacia

Volatile oils Coriander, clove

Fixed oils and fats Castor, cotton seed

Animal products Gelatin, liver oil

Advantages –

1. It is more convenient for practical study.

2. It is very useful in identifying the adulterants used.

Disadvantages –

1. It doesn’t give an idea about chemical constituents and uses.

2. Sometimes it is very difficult to classify the products.
CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION

In this type of classification, the drugs are classified according to the chemical nature of the drug.

Chemical constituents Drugs

Alkaloids Datura, vinea

Tannins Ashoka, myrobalan

Volatile oils Clove, cinnamon

Lipids Castor oil, beeswax

Carbohydrates and its derived Acacia, agar, honey

products
Resins Benjoin

Vitamins and hormones Yeast, shark liver oil, insulin

ADVANTAGES –

1. Through this classification, we get to know about the chemical constituents of the drugs.
2. And also it is helpful in knowing the medicinal uses of drugs.

DISADVANTAGES –

1. Drugs of different origin are grouped under same category due to similar chemical constituent.
2. There is no proper placement of drugs containing two or more chemical constituents.

TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION

 In this type of classification the drugs are classified according to taxonomical studies.
 The drugs are arranged according to the phylum, order, family, genus and species of their origin.
 It is a kind of botanical classification and is only for those drugs which are obtained from plant
source.
 PHYLUM ORDER FAMILY DRUG

Monocotyledons Liliflorae Liliaccae Asparagus, vanilla

Dicotyledons Papaverales Papaveraceae Opium

Rosales Rosales Almond, rose oil

Legumenaceae
Rutales Rutaceae Lemon, orange

Malvales Malvalecea Cotton

Umbelliflorae Umbelliferae Coriander, fennel

Rhamnales Rhamnaceae Cascara

ADVANTAGES –

1. It is an easy classification of drugs.

DISADVANTAGES –

1. This system is a failure in recognition of the nature of drugs in their morphological studies.
2. It does not provide relevant information about the chemical nature of the drugs.
3. They does not provide information about the medicinal uses of drugs.

PHARMACOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Here the drugs are classified based on their therapeutic actions.

 Carminatives – clove, fennel, coriander

 Emetics – ipecac
 Laxatives – agar, isapgol
 Purgative – castor oil
 Bronchodilator – ephedra, tea
 Anti-hypertensives – rauwolfia
 Central analgesics – opium
 Antispasmodics – belladonna
 Local anaesthetics – coca
ADVANTAGES –

1. The benefit of this classification is that we get to know about the medicinal uses of the
plants.

DISADVANTAGES-

1. The chemical nature of drugs are still unknown.

2. Different drugs categorized in single category due to their common therapeutic effect.

CHEMO-TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION

 In this type of classification, the drugs are classified based on the both chemical nature as well
as the taxonomical classification of the drugs.
 For example, volatile oils occur in the members of Umbelliferae.
CHAPTER 3 – QUALITY CONTROL OF CRUDE DRUGS

Drug evaluation may be defined as the determination of identity, purity and control of drugs.

IDENTITY – identification of biological source of the drug.

QUALITY – quality of active constituent present.

PURITY – the extent of foreign organic material present in the crude drug.

IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION OF DRUGS –

 Determination of biochemical variation of the drug.

 Identification of deterioration due to storage and other processes.
 To check the presence of any adulteration.

ADULTERATION OF CRUDE DRUGS –

Adulteration is the process of substituting the original crude drug partially or wholly with other similar
looking substances or with anything that has inferior quality than the original one.

Adulterant – it is that material which is added in anything to make it adulterated.

It can be done by –

1. Inferiority
2. Spoilage
3. Deterioration
4. Admixture
5. Substitution

TYPES OF ADULTERATION –

- UNINTENTIONAL – occurs due to

1. Similar morphology
2. Lack of knowledge
3. Confusion of names
4. Careless collection from the source
- INTENTIONAL –
1. Scarcity of drugs
2. High price in the market
3. To gain profit

METHODS OF DRUG EVALUATION

There are various methods of drug evaluation –

1. Organoleptic evaluation
2. Microscopic evaluation
 3. Physical evaluation
4. Chemical evaluation
5. Analytical evaluation
6. Biological evaluation

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION (MORPHOLOGICAL)

This refers to the drug evaluation by means of sense organs and this helps in the evaluation of color,
odor, taste, size, shape and texture.

- Flower parts
- Leaves – length, width, margins, venation
- Barks – flat, single quill, double quills.
- Odor – distinctive or indistinctive
- Taste – spicy, acidic, salty, alkaline, tasteless, bitter
- Color – white (starch), pale yellow (ginger), dark brown (cloves), red (cinnamon), etc.

MICROSCOPIC OR ANATOMICAL EVALUATION

This method allows a more detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify organized
drugs by their known histological characters. Before examination the material is prepared. This can be
done by powdering, cutting thin section of the drug and prepare it on slide.

PALISADE RATIO: it represents the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell. It is
determined from powdered drugs. Example – digitalis (2.5-6.5), belladonna (5-70).

STOMATAL NUMBER: the average number of stomata present per square millimeter of the epidermis.
For example – belladonna – upper epidermis (7-10), lower epidermis (77-115).

STOMATAL INDEX: it is the percentage proportion of the number of stomata to the number of
epidermal cells. It varies according to the age of leaf.

STOMATAL INDEX = NUMBER OF STOMATA PER UNIT AREA

NUMBER OF EPIDERMAL CELLS IN THE AREA
+ NUMBER OF STOMATA PER UNIT AREA

STOMATA: They are minute openings in the leaf which will help in the gaseous exchange of the plant.

Types of stomata –

- Paracytic or parallel-cell stomata – in this stomata is guarded by two guard cells which are
covered by two subsidiary cells.
- Diacytic or cross-celled stomata – in this, guard cells are covered by two subsidiary cells on right
angle to that of stomata.
- Anisocytic or unequal celled stomata – in this, number of guard cells are two but covered by
three subsidiary cells and in that one is small in size as compared to the other two.
- Anomocytic or irregular celled stomata – in this stomata is surrounded by varying numbers of
subsidiary cells.
 - Actinocytic or radiate celled stomata – two guard cells are surrounded by radiating subsidiary
cells.

Vein-islet number: It is defined as the number of vein-islets per sq.mm. of leaf surface.

1. Vein-termination number:
It is defined as the number of vein-islet terminations per.sq.mm of the leaf surface between
mid-rib and margin.
2. Trichomes:
They are tubular elongated outgrowth of the epidermal cells. They are also known as plant hairs.
There are two parts of trichomes one is root part (inside the epidermal cell) and one is body part
(outside the epidermal cell).

QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY

1. LYCOPODIUM SPORE METHOD – it is used when especially chemical and other methods of
evaluation of drugs fails to determine the quality of drugs. Lycopodium spores are very
characterized in shape and appearance and uniform in size.
It consist of –
- Well defined particles which can be counted.
- Single layered cells or tissues and we can easily calculate the area involved.
- Uniform thickness, the length of which can be measured.

The percentage purity of ginger powder is calculated by:

N x W x 94,000 x 100 = % purity of drug

SxMxP

N = number of characteristic structures

W = weight of lycopodium (mg)

S = number of lycopodium spores in the same 25 fields.

M = weight of sample (mg) calculated on the basis of sample dried at 1050C.

P = 2,86,000 in case of ginger starch grains powder

PHYSICAL EVALUATION

- Physical contents such as elasticity in fibers, viscosity of drugs containing gums, melting and
boiling points and water contents are some important parameters used in evaluation of drugs.
- UV light is also used for determining the fluorescence of extracts of some drugs.
Moisture Content – Presence of moisture in a crude drug can lead to its deterioration due to either
activation of certain enzymes or growth of microbes. Moisture content can be determined by heating
the drug at 150 degree Celsius in an oven to a constant weight and calculate the loss of weight.

Viscosity - viscosity of a liquid is constant at a given temperature and is an index of its composition.
Hence, it is used as a means of standardizing liquid drugs.

Melting point - it is one of the parameters to judge the purity of crude drugs containing lipids as
constituents. They may of animal or plant origin and contains fixed oils, fats and waxes. The purity of the
following crude drugs can be ascertained by determining their melting points in the range shown against
each of them.

 Beeswax - 75 to 85 degree Celsius melting point

 Wool fat - 34 to 44 degree Celsius melting point

Solubility - the presence of adulterants in a drug could be indicated by solubility. For example castor oil
is soluble in three volumes of alcohol.

Optical rotation - many substances of biological origin can rotate the plane of polarised light either to
the right (dextrorotatory) or to the left (levo rotatory). The extent of rotation is expressed in degrees,
plus indicated rotation to the right and minus indicated rotation to the left. Such compound are optically
active and hence called optical rotation.

Refractive index - when a Ray of light passes from one medium to another medium of different density,
it is bent from its original path. Thus, the rotation of velocity of light in vacuum to its velocity in the
substance is said to be refractive index of the second medium. It is measured by means of
refractometer.

Ash values - the Residue remaining after incineration is the Ash content of the drug. There are various
types of ash values like total Ash values, acid insoluble Ash value, sulphated Ash value, water soluble Ash
value. In order to determine total Ash value, we have to weight accurately about 3 Grams of the
Powder drug in a silica crucible. Then incinerator the Powder drug by gradually increasing the heat until
free from carbon and then cool it. Now weight the Ash and calculate the percentage of the total Ash
with reference to the air dried sample.

Extractive value- in crude drugs, sometimes the active chemical constituents cannot be determined by
normal procedures. In such cases, water, alcohol or ethers soluble extractive values are determined for
evaluation of such drugs.

Volatile Oil content - efficiency of several drugs is due to their odorous principle (volatile oil). Such
crude drugs are standardized on the basis of their volatile Oil content. Weight quantity of the drug and
then boil it with water in a round bottom flask fitted with clevenger apparatus. The distillate collected is
graduated into volatile oil. The amount thus obtained is recorded from the tube.
Foreign organic matter - the parts of the organ or organs other than those named in the definition and
description of the drug are defined as foreign organic matter. The maximum limit for the foreign organic
matter is defined in the monograph of crude drug. If it exceeds the limit, deterioration in quality of the
drug take place.

CHEMICAL EVALUATION

Determination of the active constituent in a drug by chemical test is referred to as chemical evaluation.
The following are the various methods of chemical evaluation -

 Instrumental methods - they make use of various instruments for evaluation like
spectrophotometry, colorimetry, etc.
 Chemical test - these are like acid values, iodine values and ester values that are used for
the identification of fixed oils and fats.
 Individual constituent chemical test - these are the test which are used for identifying
particular drugs.
 Micro-chemical test - these are the tests which are carried on slides.

Methods for chemical evaluation -

Extract obtained using petroleum Ether, chloroform, ethanol and water was prepared using the
respective solvent. These extracts along with positive and negative controls were tested for the
presence of active phytochemicals such as tannins, cardiac glycoside, saponins, carbohydrates, proteins,
amino acids, fats, etc.

1. Tannins -

Ferric chloride test: Add a few drops of 5 % ferric chloride solution to 2 ml of test solution. Formation of
blue colour indicate the presence of tannins.

Gelatin test: Add 5 drops of 1% gelatin containing 10 % sodium chloride to 1 ml of test solution.
Formation of white precipitate confirm the test.

2. Alkaloid-

Approximately 50 mg of extract was dissolved in in 5 ml of distilled water. Further hydrochloric acid was
added until an acid reaction occurred and filtered. The filtrate was tested for the presence of alkaloid by
various tests like mayer's test, hager test, etc.

3. Saponins –

Foam test: 5ml of test solution taken in the test tube was shaken well for 5 minutes. Formation of stable
foam confirmed the test.

Olive oil test: add few drops of olive oil to 2ml of test solution & shake well. The formation of the
soluble emulsion confirmed the test.
4. Carbohydrates –

Molisch’s test: To 1 ml of test solution added a few drops of 1% alpha naphthol and 2-3 ml concentrated
sulfuric acid. The reddish violet or purple ring formed at the junction of two liquids confirm the test.

Barfoed's test: 2 ml of reagent was added to 2 ml of the test solution, mixed and kept in a boiling water
bath for one minute. Red precipitate formed indicates the presence of monosaccharides.

Fehling's test: Dissolved 2mg dry extract in 1 ml of distilled water and add 1 ml of Fehling's solution,
shake it and heat on a water bath for 10 minutes. The brick red precipitate formed confirm the test.

5. Proteins –

Biuret test - to 2ml of the test solution add 5 drops of 1% copper sulphate solution and 2 ml of 10%
NaOH. Mix thoroughly. Formation of purple colour confirmed proteins.

ANALYTICAL EVALUATION

In this method, we use various chromatographic techniques, such as:

 Thin layer chromatography

 High performance thin layer chromatography
 High performance liquid chromatography
 Gas chromatography
 Column chromatography
 Permeation chromatography
 Affinity chromatography

And also we use various spectrophotometric methods, such as:

 Ultraviolet spectroscopy
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Fluorescence analysis
 Mass spectroscopy
 X-ray diffraction
 Radio immuno assay

BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION

 It is employed when the drug cannot be evaluated satisfactorily by chemical and physical
method.
 In this method, the response produced by the test drug on a living system is compared with that
of the standard preparation.
 Such an activity is represented in units as International units (I.U.).

Evaluation of hepatoprotectivity -
 - Animals used: Male and female Albino rats
- Hepatotoxicity induced by- chemicals and drugs.

Evaluation of hyperglycemic activity -

- Various plant extracts like fenugreek, karela, have been used for evaluation of their
hypoglycemic activity.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity -

- Various plant originated drugs are used in the treatment of inflammatory processes like
arthritis. And it's studies are conducted on rats by injecting the chemical into the rat paw.

Quality control of herbal drugs -

Botanical - Sensory evaluation, foreign matter, microscopy.

Physicochemical - TLC, ash value, water content, volatile oil.

Pharmacological - Bitterness value, hemolytic activity, swelling index, foaming index.

CHAPTER 4 – SECONDARY METABOLITES

ALKALOIDS - The term “alkaloid” basically represents the heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds that are
of plant origin that are physiologically active. They are like alkali having nitrogen in them. And they are
derived from amino acids.

The mankind has been using alkaloid for various purposes like poisons, medicines, teas, etc.

DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE:

 Rarely found in lower plants and abundant in higher plants (angiosperms).

 Dicots are more rich in alkaloids than monocots.
 Families which are rich in alkaloids – Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, and Papaveracea.
 Families which are free from alkaloids – Rosaceae, Labiatae.

DISTRIBUTION IN PLANTS:

 Every part – Datura

 Bark – cinchona
 Seeds – nux vomica
 Roots – aconite
 Fruits – black pepper
 Leaves – tobacco
 Latex – opium

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS:

 TRUE ALKALOIDS – they contain the Nitrogen inside the heterocyclic rings and they are derived
from amino acids. They are basic in nature.
 PROTO ALKALOIDS – they contain the nitrogen outside the heterocyclic rings and they are also
derived from amino acids. They are also basic in nature.
 PSEUDO ALKALOIDS – they contain the nitrogen inside the heterocyclic ring but they are not
obtained from amino acids. They are weakly basic in nature.

Extraction of alkaloids –

1. sample preparation

2. liberation of free alkaloid base

3. extraction with organic solvent

4. purification of crude alkaloid extract

5. fractionation of crude alkaloid

PURIFICATION OF EXTRACTED ALKALOID:

 STEAM DISTILLATION – this technique is used for volatile alkaloids such as nicotine. Others
alkaloids are not purified by this method.
 CHROMATOGRAPHY – this is used for the majority of the alkaloids. It is done by various
techniques such as thin layer, gas, liquid, column, etc.
 GRADIENT PH TECHNIQUE – alkaloids are basic in nature but they have different basicity like few
are strong base, few are weak bases. So this method is useful for purification of those alkaloids.

IDENTIFICATION TESTS –

 MAYER’S TEST – by adding mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide solution) to the mixture,
if we get creamy-white precipitate, this will confirm the presence of alkaloids.
 DRAGENDORFF’S TEST – if we add the dragendorff reagent (potassium iodide + bismuth nitrate),
orange red color indicate the presence of alkaloid.
 WAGNER’S TEST – by adding wagner’s reagent (iodine solution) to the mixture, if we get brown
color precipitate, it will indicate the presence of alkaloid.
 HAGER’S TEST – by adding saturated solution of picric acid to mixture, if precipitation occurs in
crystal forms, then the test is positive.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY – They can be used as analgesics, for eye examination, to diagnose diseases, as
anti-malarial agent, and also as an effective anti-cancerous drug.
PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION –

- Morphine – analgesics
- Codeine – analgesics
- Ergotamine – uterine muscle contraction
- Atropine – mydriatic
- Pilocarpine – miotic
- Quinine – antimalarial
- Caffeine – CNS stimulant
- Colchicine – anti-gout
- Vinblastine – anti-neoplastic
- Vincristine – anti-neoplastic
- Theophylline – smooth muscle relaxant

TERPENOIDS

 They are naturally occurring compounds. They are volatile substances which give plants and
flowers their fragrance. They occur widely in leaves and fruits of higher plants, conifers, citrus,
etc.
 The term “terpene” was given to compounds isolated from turpentine, a volatile liquid isolated
from pine trees.
 They are colorless liquid or solid in nature.

THERAPEUTIC USES:

 Perfumes, cosmetic, soaps, foods, beverage industry.

 Antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, diuretic, antihelmintic, analgesics, aromatic.
 Insect repellent, insecticides, pesticides, dedodrants.

CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENOIDS:
Each class can be further sub-divided into subclasses according to the number of rings present in the
structure:

 ACYCLIC TERPENOIDS: they contain open structure.

 MONOCYCLIC TERPENOIDS: they contain 1 ring in the structure.
 BICYCLIC TERPENOIDS: they contain 2 rings in the structure.
 TRICYCLIC TERPENOIDS: they contain 3 rings in the structure.
 TETRACYCLIC TERPENOIDS: they contain 4 rings in the structure.

DISTRIBUTION & OCCURRENCE –

 Widely distributed in certain plant families, example, Pinaceae, Rutaceae, Umbelliferae,

Compositae, etc.
 Petals – rose
 Bark and leaves – cinnamon
 Pericarp – umbelliferae
 Glandular hairs of the stem and leaves – mints
 Flower petals – orange.
 They are found in the gymnosperms, angiosperms and concentrated in the above mentioned
families.

ISOLATION:

A. ISOLATION OF ESSENTIAL OILS: the amount of essential oil in any plant vary depending on time of the
day, so the isolation of essential oils are to be done on certain time of the day. Example, jasmine is
extracted at sunset.

 EXPRESSION METHODS – this method is old and out dated. In this method, basically we take the
plant and crush it and then squeeze the juice out of it. Then we find any large particles in the
juice and then put it up on a centrifugal machine until we get the half of its original quantity and
at final step we distill the remaining oil.
 STEAM DISTILLATION METHOD – in this method, we first soften the plant by putting it any
liquid and then we provide steam to it in order to get the distillate. Then we provide low
pressure to it in order to get the essential oil. This is widely used method.
 EXTRACTION BY USING VOLATILE SOLVENTS -This method is widely used in perfume making. In
this method, the plant is treated using light petrol at 50 degree Celsius, this temperature helps
in dissolving the colouring material and oil. Later on the solvent is removed via distillation
process and at the end we get Essential oil in pure state.

B. SEPERATION OF TERPENOIDS FROM ESSENTIAL OIL:

 Chemical method - we can treat the Essential oil which contain alcohol with phthalic anhydride
and a rapid reaction will occur. Now extract it with Sodium Bicarbonate and we will get
terpenoids.
  Physical method (fractional distillation) - first we will distillate the mixture, then the product is
distilled again under reduced pressure to gain terpenoids which are separated by fractional
distillation.

C. CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHOD:

Adsorption chromatography on silica gel is the simplest and most effective method for separation of
terpenoids and GLC is used commonly for identification as well as isolation of the monoterpenoids.
Column chromatography is also a valid method for fractionation of monoterpenoids

IDENTIFICATION TEST:

 SALKOWSKI’S TEST – 5ml of extract is mixed in 2ml of chloroform and concentrate sulphuric acid
to form a layer. A red brown color of the interface will be formed if there is presence of
terpenoids.
 COPPER ACETATE TEST – extract were dissolved in water and treated with 3-4 drops of copper
acetate solution. Formation of green color indicate the presence of terpenoids.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY: It acts as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, bronchodilator, mosquito

repellent, antifungal, anti-cancer agent.

PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS:

 Plant terpenoids are used for their aromatic qualities.

 They are used in perfumery, cosmetics, soaps, foods, beverage industries.
 Sometimes terpenoids are added to proteins, example, to enhance their attachment to the cell
membrane. This is known as “isoprenylation”.
 They play a role in traditional herbal remedies.
 They perform wide spectrum of activities such as antiseptic, diuretic, carminative, analgesic,
insect repellent, pesticides, deodrants, etc.

GLYCOSIDES

They are organic natural compounds present in a lot of plants and some animals, these compounds
upon hydrolysis give one or more sugars molecules and non-sugar molecules.

Glycoside = sugar group (glycone) + non sugar group (aglycone)

Glycone & aglycone are linked by glycosidic linkage.

OCCURRENCE & DISTRIBUTION

They are majorly found in plants and also found in animals. They are abundant in nature.

Some plant families containing glycosides are:

 Scrophulareaceae – Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanta

 Liliacea – Urgenea indica, Aloe vera
  Leguminocae – Cassia acutefolia, Glycyrrhiza glabra
 Cruciferae – Brassica sp
 Gentianaceae – Gentian
 Acanthaceae – Kalmegh
 Polygonaceae – Fagopyrum sp

ISOLATION OR EXTRACTION OF GLYCOSIDES

A. STA-OTTO METHOD

 The drug containing glycoside is finely powdered and subjected to successive extraction in
apparatus with alcohol or suitable solvent.
 After extraction, collect the extract and treat with lead acetate to precipitate tannins, this will
indicate presence of non-glycosidic impurities.
 After that filter it and to the filtrate pass hydrogen sulphide gas, to precipitate excess of lead
acetate and this will convert the lead acetate into lead sulphide.
 Now again filter it.
 Then the filtrate is subjected to fractional crystallization, distillation or chromatography to yield
pure component.

IDENTIFICATION:

They are colorless, solid, non-volatile. They are water soluble compounds, insoluble in organic solvents.
Most of them have bitter taste.

A. CHEMICAL TESTS FOR ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDES

Anthraquinone Glycosides Anthraquinone are glycosides which possess anthracene or their derivatives
as aglycon.

 BORNTRAGER’S TEST – 1gm of drug is boiled with 5-10 ml of dil HCl for 10 mins. Then filter it
and the filtrate is extracted with benzene. Then shake the filtrate with equal amount of
ammonia solution. Pink or red color presence in ammonia layer confirm the presence of
anthraquinone glycosides.
 MODIFIED BORNTRAGER’S TEST – 1gm of drug is mixed with 5ml of each dilute HCl and ferric
chloride. Boil the mixture for 10 mins, cool it and then filter it. The filtrate is extracted with
benzene. The extract is shaken with equal amount of ammonia solution. Pink or red color
presence confirms this test.

B. CHEMICAL TESTS FOR SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES

Saponins on hydrolysis give sugars (glucose, galactose, rhamnose or xylose, etc.) and aglycones
(sapogenin).

 HEMOLYSIS TEST – a drop of blood is taken on slide with few drops of saponin solution. RBCs will
get rupture by this saponin solution.
  FOAM TEST – 1gm of drug is shaken for few minutes with 10-20ml water. Formation of froth
which remains for 60-120 seconds confirm the presence of saponins.

C. CHEMICAL TESTS FOR STEROID AND TRITERPENOID GLYCOSIDES

 LIBERMANN-BURCHARD TEST – the drug is extracted using alcohol. Then evaporate it to dry. The
residue is extracted with CHCl3. To this, add a few drops of acetic anhydride and conc. H2SO4. A
ring of purple color appears at the junction of two liquids that confirms the presence of steroid
glycosides.
 ANTIMONY TRICHLORIDE TEST – the alcoholic extract of drug is evaporated to dryness. The
residue is extracted with CHCl3. To this, add 20% acetic anhydride and saturated solution of
SbCl3. A pink color forms on heating confirm the presence of steroids and triterpenoids.

D. CHEMICAL TESTS FOR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES

 LEGAL TEST – extract the drug with alcohol and then shake this extract with equal amount of
water and 0.5ml of strong lead acetate solution. The resultant is filtered and then it is extracted
with CHCl3 in equal parts. The obtained extract is evaporated to dryness, the remain is dissolved
in 2ml each of pyridine and sodium nitroprusside. The solution is made alkaline by adding NaOH
solution. A pink color indicate the presence of cardiac glycosides.
 BALJET TEST – take a leaf or thick section of leaf or other parts of cardiac glycoside. Dip it into
sodium picrate solution. If yellow color or orange color is appeared then the test is positive.

E. CHEMICAL TESTS FOR FLAVONOID GLYCOSIDES

 AMMONIA TEST – make alcoholic solution of the drug and then take a filter paper and dip in it
and then expose it to ammonia vapors. A yellow spot appears on the filter paper confirms the
presence of flavonoids.
 VANILLIN HCL TEST – make alcoholic solution of the drug then add vanillin HCl. Pink color
appearance confirm this test.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY:

They are used to treat various disorders like dropsy (edema) or many other cardiac problems.

PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS:

GLYCOSIDES SOURCES USES

CARDIOTONIC Digitalis purpurae, cactus, Cardiac diseases treatment

onion
ANTHROCYANINS Cornflower, rose, carnberry Anti-rheumatic, antiseptic,
anti-inflammatory
ANTHRAQUINONES Aloe, lyceum bark Laxative, purgative

FLAVONOIDS Horsetail, orange, Strengthen the blood

elderberry, hawthorn capillaries
SAPONINS Acacia leaf, horse chestnut, Relaxes the bowel, diuretic,
ginseng, saponaria root analgesic, tissue healing
COUMARIN Horse chestnut, clover, Antispasmodic, antibiotic,
hawkweed cosmetics, perfumes, inks

VOLATILE OILS:

Volatile oils are natural odourous substances obtained from plants. They provide aromatic essence or
fragrance of various organs of some plants. These oil evaporate freely on exposure to air that is why
they are known as volatile oils. They do not leave permanent grease spot on paper.

Occurrence and distribution -

There are various secretory structures present within the plant and they generate volatile oils:

 Glandular hairs in in lamiaceae family.

 Modified parenchyma cells in family piperaceae.
 Oil tubes in pericarp of roots of umbelliferae family.
 Petals of rose
 Bark of cinnamon
 Fruit of coriander
 Leaves of peppermint

They are lighter than water and have high refractive index. They are present in entire plant or in any part
of the plant. They should be stored in a cool, dry place in tightly packed container. They are insoluble
with water and soluble in organic solvents like Ether, alcohol, chloroform.

Isolation and extraction -

A. Distillation by water:

It is applied to plants which are not injured upon boiling. Crude material is introduced into the
distillation chamber along with the water and subjected to heat below 40 degree Celsius. A mixture of
oil and water is obtained as a distillate which is further collected in a flask. The distillate is separated
into two layers, then we withdraw the oil through the upper outlet of the condenser and water from the
lower outlet or vice versa. Example include, turpentine oil and clove oil.

B. Water and steam distillation:

This is used for those substances which are harmed by direct heat. Dried drug is covered with layer of
water, steam is passed through the mixture that is generated by another chamber and piped into
container having the drug. The vapour contain volatile oils that is condensed and cooled and collected.
For example, cinnamon oil.

C. Destructive distillation without air:

Tough materials such as barks, seeds and roots are placed in a chamber and heated with water without
air in the vacuum condition. The decomposition of these materials occur and volatile oil is generated
and then it is collected through the condenser.

D. Eculle Method:

It is used for the extraction of citrus oils and the oil is collected by rupturing the fruit skin using a device
having many pointed projections with the rotatory movement.

E. Enfleurage:

This method is used for extraction of delicate perfumes. In this method, layer of fat is spread over a glass
plate and flower Petal are placed over fat layer which will absorb the volatile oils from these petals. The
used petals are replaced by fresh Petals. This process continues till the fatty layer is saturated. And then
it is extracted with liquid solvent.

Identification test -

 Take a thin section of the drug. Mixed with alcoholic solution of Sudan III. If a red colour appears
that confirms the presence of volatile oil.
 Take a thin section of the drug. Add ad few drops of tincture of alkane. If a red colour appears
that confirms this test.

Therapeutic activity -

1. Biochemical: They interact with the hormones and enzymes present in the blood.

2. Physiological: They perform various physiological function in the body such as volatile oil in fennel
contains oestrogen like compounds.

3. Psychological: On inhalation of the volatile oil molecules, the olfactory area of brain get stimulated
and releases neurotransmitters that will cause mental and emotional behavioural changes.

Pharmaceutical application -

 Carminative
 Diuretic
 Antiseptic
 Local anaesthetic
 Sedative
 Insect repellent
 Anti-helminthic, etc.
TANNINS

They are polyphenolic substances found in many plants. They are water soluble that is why they have
easy extraction and they are useful in various applications in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry.
They are complex, organic, non-nitrogenous, polyphenolic substances of higher molecular weight.

True tannins - these are complex phenolic compounds of high molecular weight ranging from about
1000 to 5000. They display the general property of tannins and precipitated by gelatin in 1% solution.
They can be sub classified into three types -

 Hydrolysable tannins
 Condensed tannins
 Complex tannins

Hydrolysable tannins - they can be hydrolysed by acids or enzymes and produce gallic or egallic acid.
Gallic acids are present in clove. Egallic acid is present in eucalyptus leaf, pomegranate bark.

Condensed tannins - they are resistant to hydrolysis. They are found in Cinchona bark, tea leaves and
Wild Cherry bark, amla, etc. When these are condensed they are converted into insoluble red colour
complexes. And they also produce green colour with ferric chloride.

Complex tannins - they represent a group of tannins that are biosynthesized from both hydrolysable
tannins and condensed tannins.

Pseudo-tannins - they are polyphenolic compounds of low molecular weight than the true ones. They do
not respond to the goldbeater's skin test and may under certain conditions give precipitate with gelatin.
Examples are gallic acid and chorogenic acid.

Occurrence and distribution -

They are distributed in Species throughout the plant Kingdom they are commonly found in both
gymnosperms and angiosperms. They are found commonly in the bark of trees, wood, leaves, bud,
stems, fruits, seeds, roots and plant galls.

Following parts of plants are rich in condensed tannins:

 Barks- cinnamon, willow, oak, wild Cherry

 Roots and rhizomes- male fern
 Flowers- lime
 Seeds- cocoa, areca
 Leaves- tea

Following families have high content of tannins: Leguminosae, combrectacea, polinaceae, myrtaceae,
pinus, oak, sorghum, etc.

Isolation and extraction -

 Take hundred gram of the sample and Reflux it for 15 minutes in a 500 ml flask.
 Cover the sample with 70% Acetone during this reflux process.
 The flask is removed from the hot plate and filter in another flask.
 Wash off the Residue on the filter paper using 70% acetone.
 Then combine the washed solution with the filtrate and the resultant mixture is subjected to
extraction using diethyl Ether.
 Repeat this process 5 times till the diethyl Ether and tannins separate out completely as upper
and lower layer.
 Separate out the tannin layer via separatory funnel. Then evaporate it till the residue is obtained
which is the final product.

Identification test -

 Gelatin test: To a solution of tannin, aqua solution of gelatin and sodium chloride are added. A
white buff coloured precipitate is formed this confirms that the test is positive.
 Goldbeater's skin test: Goldbeater skin is a membrane prepared from the intestine of the ox.
Small piece of goldbeater skin is soaked in 20% hydrochloric acid, rinse it with distilled water
and place it on the solution of tannins for 5 minutes. The skin piece is washed with distilled
water and kept in a solution of ferrous sulphate. A brown or black colour is produced on the skin
due to presence of tannins.
 Phenazone test: Add 0.5 sodium acid phosphate to about 5 ml of an aqueous extract of the
drug. Warm it, cool it and then filter it. To the filtrate, add 2% of phenazone solution. A bulky
coloured precipitate is formed.
 Matchstick test: A matchstick is dipped in aqueous plant extract, dried near the burner, and
moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid. On warming it near the flame, the matchstick
would turns pink in colour or red due to formation of phloroglucinol.

Therapeutic activity -
  They are able to precipitate the proteins hence they can easily stop the bleeding once applied
on any wound.
 They can also act as antidiarrheal drug.
 They also possess some antitumor activity
 And they can also be used as an antidote in alkaloid poisoning.

Pharmaceutical applications -

A. Hydrolysable tannins:

 Myrobalan (HARDE): Astringent, purgative, ingredient of Triphala Churan.

 Bahera: Astringent and ingredient of Triphala Churna
 Arjuna: Cardiotonic and hypotensive
 Amla: Diuretic, laxative and ingredient of Triphala Churan and chyawanprash.

B. Condensed tannins:

 Ashoka: Uterine tonic and oxytocic

 Pterocarpus: Hypoglycemic and powerful astringent

RESINS

They are amorphous products of complex chemical nature. They are transparent or translucent solids,
semi-solids or liquid substances containing large amount of carbon atoms. Most of them are heavier
than water. They are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, volatile oils, fixed oils and nonpolar
organic solvents like benzene and Ether.

CLASSIFICATION:

A. Based on occurrence, it is classified into following types:

 OLEO RESIN – resin + volatile oil, example, ginger, copaiba.

 GUM RESIN – resin + gum, example, ammoniacum.
 OLEOGUM RESIN – resin + volatile oil + gum, example, asafetida, gamboges.
 BALSAM – contains aromatic acids like benzoin and cinnamic, example, Tolu balsam, storax.

B. Based on chemical constituents, it is classified as:

 RESIN ACID – carboxylic acid groups containing resinous substances, example, abietic acid
(colophony).
 RESIN ESTER – ester of resin acids or the other aromatic acids like benzoic, cinnamic, salicylic
acid, example, dragon’s blood, benzoin.
 INERT RESINS – stable, neutral, unaffected by most chemical reagents or by exposure to
moisture produced a hard film. Example, asafetida.

OCCURRENCE & DISTRIBUTION:

In the plants resins usually occur in different secretory structures.

  Resin cells – ginger
 Schizogenous ducts – Pine wood
 Glandular hairs – cannabis

It is found in the vessels, fibers, medullary ray cells and wood parenchyma.

 They are found in plant kingdom, specifically the spermatophyte i.e. the seed plants.
 They are very rarely present in Pteridophyta i.e. the ferns.
 They are not found in Thallophyta, i.e. sea-weeds, fungi.

ISOLATION:

 NATURAL RESINS – to obtain resins, they are collected by making punctures in the trunk of the
plant, or by doing hammering and scorching.
 PREPARED RESINS – First make powder of the mixture, then extract it using ethanol. It is
repeated many times until the drug is exhausted completely. The extract then either evaporated
or do cold distillation of it. The resin will be precipitated and collect it and wash with cold water.
And it is then dried under shade.

IDENTIFICATION TEST –

 COLOPHONY TEST – this is used to detect colophony resins. 100mg of resin powder is dissolved
in 10ml acetic anhydride. To this, add few drops of sulphuric acid which forms purple color if the
test is positive.
 GUAIACUM RESIN – make solution of resin with ethanol and to this add ferric chloride. If deep
blue color appears then test is positive.

THERAPEUTIC ACTIVITY –

They act as purgative, laxative, sedative, anti-helminthic, expectorant, antiseptic, etc.

PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION –

 They are used as herbal medicines for several diseases.

 They work as anti-hypertensives, analgesics, cardioactive.
 The roots and rhizomes of podophyllum species give podophyllotoxin which acts as anti-
neoplastic agent.
CHAPTER 5A – STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS

LAXATIVES

They are used in the treatment of constipation, hemorrhoids, and also to prepare the bowel for any kind
of procedure. There are variety of laxatives found in the market such as, stimulant, saline, bulk-forming,
stool softeners and lubricants.

ALOE

It is also known as Aloe Vera. It belongs to the genus Aloe. It has variety of medicinal value.

Biological source – Aloe is obtained from the dried juice of the leaves of –

 Aloe barbadensis
 Aloe perryi
 Aloe ferox

Family – Asphodelaceae (earlier it was assigned to Liliaceae)

Chemical constituents –

 They are made up of aloin which is a combination of barbaloin, β-barbaloin and isobarbaloin.
They are of glycosidic nature.
 Barbaloin is crystalline in nature and bitter in taste.
 β-barbaloin is obtained by heating barbaloin.
 Isobarbaloin is a mixture of barbaloin and polyphenols.

Therapeutic Activity –

 Can be used to treat mouth ulcers and stomach ulcers.

 Can be used to soothe out the skin irritations.
 Helps in treating burns.
 It also has few antibacterial and antioxidant properties.
 It can be used as lotion or gel to apply on skin.
 It has moisturizing effect.
 It can also used to reduce symptoms of psoriasis.

CASTOR OIL

It is also known as ricinus oil, it is a type of vegetable oil.

Other names – castor bean oil, ricinus oil, oil of palma, oleum ricini

Biological source – it is a fixed oil obtained by cold expression of the seeds of Ricinus communis.

Family – Euphorbiaceae
Chemical constituents –

 It contains triglyceride or ricinoleic acid – 80%

 The viscosity of castor oil is due to ricinoleic acid.
 Other glycerides that are found in castor oil are isoricinoleic, linoleic, stearic and isostearic acid.
 Castor seed has two main things kernel (75%) and hull (25%).
 Hull contain minerals, alkaloids, pigments, etc.
 Kernel has oil part.
 It also contain various enzymes like lipase, maltase, etc.

Therapeutic activity –

 It is used as cathartic (stimulate defecation).

 It is used as lubricant.
 It can be used as grease, polish, printing ink.
 It can be in the form of capsules or in the form of paste.
 They can be used in creams, jellies, lipsticks, perfumed hair oils, soap, etc.
 Castor seed cake is used as manure

ISPAGHULA

It is hygroscopic in nature that means it can absorb moisture from the air.

Other names – ispagol, ishabgula, spongel seeds, flea seed, plantago seed, psyllium husk.

Biological source – it consist of dried seeds of Plantago ovata

Family – Plantaginaecae

Chemical constituents –

 It contains about 10% mucilage which is present in epidermis of testa.

 Mucilage consist of two complex polysaccharides, one is soluble in cold water and other one is
soluble in hot water.
 Chemically it is pentosane and aldobionic acid.
 Pentosane on hydrolysis give xylose and arabinose.
 Aldobionic acid on hydrolysis give galactouronic acid and rhamnose.
 Protein and fixed oils are present in endosperm and embryo.

Therapeutic uses –

 They are used as an excellent demulcent and bulk laxative in chronic constipation.
 They are also useful in dysentery, chronic diarrhea, in case of duodenal ulcers and piles.
 It also works as soothing agent.

SENNA

It is an ancient herb that are used for various purposes.

Other names – folia senna, cassia senna, tinnevelly senna

Biological source – senna leaf consist of dried leaflets of Cassia acutifolia.

Family – Leguminosae

Chemical constituents –

 Senna contains sennosides A and B (2.5%).

 Senna also contain free chryso phenol, emodin and their glycosides.
 Mucilage is present in the epidermis of the leaf and gives red color with ruthenium red.

 Sennosides are dimeric glycosidic.

 Sugar part of these glycosides has transporting function for the aglycone up to large intestine.
 Senna leaf also contain small amount of sennosides C and D.

Therapeutic activity –

 They are used as laxative.

 They can cause irritation of large intestine, so they are prescribed along with carminatives.
 They are also cathartic.

CARDIOTONICS

These are those drugs which help in lowering down the heart rate, hence showing ionotropic effect on
heart. Digoxin is the major cardiac glycoside.

DIGITALIS

Other names – foxglove, finger flower, lady’s glove, folia digitalis

Biological source – it consist of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurae

Family – Scrophulariaceae

Chemical constituents –

 Digitalis leaves contain around 0.2-0.45% of both primary and secondary glycosides.
 Purpurae glycosides A and B and glucogitoloxin are primary glycosides.
  Because of greater stability of secondary glycosides and lesser absorption of primary glycosides,
a higher amount of primary one are not considered ideal and therefore secondary glycosides are
used.
 Purpurae glycosides A and B are present in fresh leaves and by their hydrolysis digitoxin and
glucose are obtained respectively.
 Hydrolysis of these glycosides can take place by enzyme that is present in the leaves.
 Digitoxin yields digitoxigenin and 3 digitoxose on hydrolysis.
 Digitalis leaves also contain glycosides like gitaloxin, verodoxin etc.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used as herbal medicine and has stimulatory effect on heart.

 It is also used in allopathic medicine in the treatment of heart complaints.
 It enable heart to beat more slowly, powerfully and regularly.
 It also stimulate the flow of urine which lowers the volume of blood and hence reduces overall
load on the heart.
 Sometimes it can also be used in treatment of hemorrhage, inflammatory conditions, epilepsy,
mania, etc.

ARJUNA

It is widely used in ayurvedic treatments of heart.

Other names – Arjun

Biological source – it consist of dried stem bark of the plant, Terminalia arjuna.

Family – Combretaceae

Chemical constituents –

 Dry bark from the stem contains about 20-24% of tannin, whereas that of the bark obtained
from the lower branches is upto 15-18%.
 The tannins present in the bark are of mixed type consisting of both hydrolysable and
condensed tannins.
  The tannins which are present are catechol, gallocatechol, epicatechol and ellgic acid.
 There are flavonoids also present like arjunolone, arjunone.
 The root contains number of triterpenoids such as arjunoside I and II, terminic acid, oleanolic
acid, etc.
 The fruits also contain 7-20% of tannins.

Therapeutic uses –

 They are used as diuretic and astringent.

 They help in lowering down the blood pressure and heart rate.
 They can be used in treatment of various cardiac diseases.
 It can also maintain cholesterol level in the blood.
 It can also be used to treat asthma.

CARMINATIVES AND G.I REGULATORS

Carminatives are the soothing medications that act by relieving pain in the stomach and intestine and
expel flatulence and gas from the GIT by increasing peristalsis. For example, fennel, coriander,
cardamom, clove, cinnamon.

Gastrointestinal regulators regulate GIT activity as stimulants, cholagogues, antiemetics, appetizers,

stomachic, etc.

CORIANDER

It is a kind of herb. It can also be used for cooking purposes.

Other names - coriander fruits, fructus coriandri, chinese parsley.

Biological source - it consists of dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum.

Family - Umbelliferae

Chemical constituent -

 It consists of one percent of volatile oil.

 It is also constituted buy fixed oils and proteins.
 It is also very rich in vitamin A.
 It has certain components such as coriandrol, camphor, geraniol, limonene, borneol, etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It has anti spasmodic effect so can be used to treat various gut disorder and to ease digestive
discomfort.
 It has diuretic effect so help in in reducing the blood volume and hence can be used to treat high
blood pressure.
  Its volatile oil can be used in lowering down the blood sugar level so it can be easily included in
the diet of diabetic patient.
 It also has some antimicrobial properties, so it is also helpful in preventing the food poisoning
and also used to kill foodborne pathogens.
 It also helps in lowering down the cholesterol level in the blood.
 It also helps in reducing the pain and discomfort during urinary tract infection.
 They also maintain the normal healthy menstrual flow in females.
 It also improve neurological function so it can be used to treat various neurodegenerative
diseases.

FENNEL

It is a kind of herb and can also be used as a Spice for cooking purposes.

Other names - large fennel, wild fennel, sweet fennel, fennel fruit

Biological source - it consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare

Family – Umbelliferae

Chemical constituents -

 It consists of around 4 to 5% of volatile oil.

 It also has 20% fixed oil and 20% proteins.
 The volatile oil contains phenolic Ether and fenchone.

Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as diuretic and carminative.

 It can also be used as flavouring agent.
 It also inhibits spasms in smooth muscles.
 It can increase production of bile so therefore can be used to treat certain problems.
 It is helpful in promoting Menstruation in women.
 It can also increase lactation.
 It also has some antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.

CARDAMOM

It is a kind of Spice that is used for cooking purposes.

Other names - cardamom fruit, cardamom seed, malabar cardamom, ilayachi.

Biological source - it consists of the dried ripe seeds of Elettaria cardamomum.

Family - Zingiberaceae

Chemical constituents -
  The seed contain 3 to 6 percent of volatile oil along with fixed oil, salt of potassium, starch, ash,
etc.
 The active constituent of the volatile oil is cineole.
 It also contain some aromatic compounds.
 Oil is colourless when fresh, but becomes thicker and more yellow and less aromatic on storage.
 It is soluble in alcohol.

Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as carminative, stimulant, digestive, appetizer and flavouring agent.

 It can be used in the treatment of various respiratory disorders like asthma, cough, nausea,
vomiting, headache, diarrhoea.
 It can also be used as spice in cooking.
 It can also be used as antidote for snake venom.
 It can also be used as breath freshener.

GINGER

It is in use since ancient times in many countries.

Other names - rhizoma zingiberis, zingibere

Biological source - It consists of dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale

Family - Zingiberaceae

Chemical constituents-

 It contains 1 to 2% of volatile oil, 5 to 8% pungent resinous mass and starch.

 The volatile oil is responsible for the aromatic order and the pungency of the drug is due to the
yellowish oily body called gingerol which is odorless.
 Volatile oil is composed of sesquiterpene hydrocarbon like alpha-zingibrol, alpha-farnesene,
alpha-bisabolene, etc.
 Less pungent components like gingerone and shogaol are also present.
Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as antiemetic.

 It can also be used as spasmolytic, carminative stimulant.
 It can also be used as condiment and flavouring agent.
 It is prescribed in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, painful stomach, cold, cough, and asthma.
 Loss of voice, sore throat can also be treated by using this.

BLACK PEPPER

It is the fruit of black pepper plant. It can be used as spices as well as medicine.

Other names - pepper, maricha

Biological source - it is dried unripe fruit of Piper nigrum.

Chemical constituents -

 It contains piperine. (C17H19NO3)

 It also has beta carotene, lauric acid, palmitic acid.
 Piperine is responsible for its pungency.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as an analgesic, antipyretic, and antioxidant.

 It can also be used as preservative.
 It can be also used in cosmetic industries and also in the preparation of insecticides.
 It improve the appetite, increase the digestive power.
 It also has antimicrobial properties and anti-inflammatory properties.
 It can also be used as a cure of cold, cough and dyspnoea.

ASAFOETIDA

It is also very important hub and can be used as condiment for cooking purposes.

Other names - hing,ferula

Biological source - it is an oleo gum resin obtained from the roots of Ferul afoetida

Family - Umbelliferae

Chemical constituent -

 The main constituent of asafoetida is volatile oil, resin, and gum.

 Resin consists of resene of and volatile oil. It also contain free ferulic acid.
 Volatile oil contains pinene and various disulfides.
 Ferulic acid on treatment with hydrochloric acid give umbellic acid.
 Umbellic acid and water together give Umbelliferone
  It does not contain free umbelliferone.

Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as bowel stimulant, expel flatulence.

 It helps in relieving constipation.
 It can be used as flavouring agent.
 It can also be used in veterinary as it is applied over the bandage of the dogs so that they do not
chew them.

NUTMEG

It is a kind of Spice that performs various functions in our body.

Other names - jayfal, Myristica, semen myristicae

Biological source - it is kernel of the dried ripe seed of Myristica fragrans

Family - Myristicaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It consists of 5 to 15% volatile oil, lignin, starch, Gum, colouring matter and acidic substance.
 The volatile oil contains clemicin, geraniol, borneol, pinene, camphene, etc.
 It also contains eugenol, safrol in small quantities.
 It contains fat that is also known as nutmeg butter.

Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as carminative and flavouring agent.

 They can be used to treat flatulence.
 It can also be used as an ointment for piles.
 It can also produce an aesthetic action.
 Oil of nutmeg can be used to hide the taste of various drugs.

CLOVE

They are a kind of Spice that are available throughout the year.

Other names - clove buds, clove flowers

Biological source - they consists of dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus

Family - Myrtaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contain 15 to 20% of volatile oil.

  It also has eugenol, acetyl eugenol, galotannic acid and two crystalline principles - alpha and
beta caryophyllenes.
 Caryophyllin is odorless component.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as an antiseptic, carminative, aromatic, and flavouring agent.

 It also has antiemetic properties.
 Dentist use clove oil as an oral and aesthetic and to disinfect the root canal.
 It kill intestinal parasites.
 It can be used in the treatment of diarrhoea, intestinal worms, and other digestive disorders.
 It can also stop tooth ache.
 It also have local anesthetics effect.
 The clove oil also stimulates peristalsis.
 It also helps in improving the appetite.
 It can also be used as an expectorant.

ASTRINGENT

These are those substances which causes contraction of the body tissue and also causes the dryness of
the body secretions.

MYROBALAN

It is a kind of sacred tree in India. It is edible in nature and has many health benefits.

Other names - emblic, indian gooseberry, malacca tree, amla

Biological source - it consists of dried fruits of Emblica officinalis

Family - Euphorbiaceae

Chemical constituents -

 They are very rich in vitamin C, fats, phyllemblin, and tannins.

 They also contain some minerals like Phosphorus, Iron and Calcium.

Therapeutic uses -

 They are helpful for glowing skin and also prevent skin loosening.
 They prevent premature greying of hair.
 They can also prevent the occurrence of dandruff.
 They improve the functioning of the liver.
 It also helps in lowering down the cholesterol and blood sugar level.
 It promote the growth of the hair.
 It can be used to treat in digestion, constipation, flatulence.
 It is helpful in certain paralytic conditions.
  It also has some antibacterial and antifungal properties.
 It can also be useful in allergic asthma, tuberculosis.
 Also used to treat hemorrhage, diarrhoea.
 It also maintains our immunity.

BLACK CATECHU

They occur in black shining pieces and grows in trees up to a height of 9 to 12 metre.

Other names - catechu nigrum, katha, cashoo

Biological source - it is dried aquous extract prepared from the heartwood of Acacia catechu.

Family - Leguminosae

Chemical constituents -

 It resembles pale catechu in its composition.

 It contains about to 12% of catechin and also it has catechutannic acid.
 It also has 20-30% gummy matter, catechin red.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used in medicine as astringent.

 It cures troubles of mouth, diseases of the throat and diarrhoea.
 It also increases appetite.
 It is also used to treat cough and diarrhoea.

PALE CATECHU

It is pale brown in color and in cube form and also present in form of lozenges.

Other names – catechu, gambier, terra japonica

Biological source – it is dried aqueous extract product from the leaves and young twigs of Uncaria
gambier.

Family – Rubiaceae
Chemical constituents –

 It contain about 7-30% of pseudotannin catechin and 22-55% of catechutannic acid.

 It also contain catechu red, gambier fluorescin and quercetin.
 Gambirtannin gives a strong fluorescence under UV light.
 Catechin forms white, needle like crystals which dissolve in alcohol and hot water.
 Catechutannic acid gives green color with ferric chloride.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used as an astringent.
 It can also be used to treat diarrhea.
 It can also be used in skin lotions.
 Also used for gargling in sore throat.
CHAPTER 5B – STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS

DRUGS ACTING ON NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system include two major classification and that is:

 Central nervous system that include brain and spinal cord.

 Peripheral nervous system that include parts of nervous system other than brain and spinal
cord.

PNS is further divided into two types:

- Somatic nervous system: controlling voluntary actions of our body.

- Autonomic nervous system: controlling involuntary actions of the body.

Autonomic nervous system further divides into two types:

- Sympathetic nervous system: works when body is active.

- Parasympathetic nervous system: works when body is at rest.

There are various drugs present that affect the overall nervous system like anaesthetic, narcotics,
analgesics, sedatives, anticonvulsions, etc.

HYOSCYAMUS

Other names - common henbane, hog's bean, jupiter's bean, symphonica, cassilago.

Biological source - it consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus niger.

Family - Solanaceae

Chemical constituents -

 The chief constituent of this is the alkaloid hyoscyamine.

 It also has smaller quantities of atropine and hyoscine.
 The proportion of alkaloid in the dried drug varies from 0.045% to 0.14%.
 It get its bitter taste from hyoscytricin, mucilage, albumin, calcium oxalate and potassium
nitrate.
 On incineration, the leaves give about 12% of the Ash.
 The seed also contain about 20% of fixed oil.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as antispasmodic, hypnotic and mild diuretic.

 It can also be used as a narcotic medicine.
 It also relieve pain in cystitis.
 It also used to control salivary secretion.

BELLADONA
It is herbaceous plant which is also known as deadly nightshade.

Other names - belladonna herb, belladonna leaf, deadly nightshade, death herb, poison black Cherry

Biological source - it consists of dried leaves and flowering talks of Atropa belladonna.

Family - Solanaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains 0.3-1% total alkaloids.

 The prominent base in this is 1-hyoscyamine.
 It also has other components such as atropine, apoatropine, belladonine, leucatropic acid,
homatropine, calcium oxalate, etc.
 Leaves of belladonna have a fluorescent substance which is known as beta- methylaesculetin.

Therapeutic uses -

- It is used as an adjunctive therapy in the treatment of peptic ulcer.

- It can cure various digestive disorders such as diarrhoea, ulcerative colitis, pancreatitis.
- It has anticholinergic properties.
- It can be used as narcotic and sedative.
- It relieves spasm of gut or respiratory tract.
- It acts as a parasympathetic depressant.
- It controls excessive perspiration of patients suffering from tuberculosis.
- It can also reduce symptoms of migraine.
- It can also use to dilate pupil.
- It can also be used as antidote in poisoning of opioids.
- It can be used in tonsillitis, meningitis, whooping cough, and epilepsy.

EPHEDRA

It is an Evergreen Shrub. It can be very useful for our heart and nervous system.

Other names - Ma Huang.

Biological source - it consists of dried aerial parts of Ephedra gerardiana, Ephedra sinica, Ephedra
equisetina.

Family - Ephadreaceae.

Chemical constituent -

 It contains alkaloid ephedrine which is a water soluble salt of an alkaloid.

 IT also has pseudo-ephedrine which is an analogue of ephedrine.
 It also has norpseudo-ephedrine.
 The leaves and stem of ephedra also contain many potentially active compounds such as
tannins, saponin, flavone and volatile oils.
Therapeutic uses -

 It is an anti-allergen, anti-asthmatic, antispasmodic, decongestant, cough suppressant,

vasoconstrictor.
 It also reduce the symptoms of hay fever.
 It can also used to treat low blood pressure.
 Can cause mydriasis in eye.
 It can also reduce symptoms of fever and cold, reduces aches, increased sweating, open sinuses.

OPIUM

It is the dried latex which is obtained from the poppy plant.

Other names - poppy latex, gum opium, afeem.

Biological source - Raw opium is the dried milky exudation obtained by incising unripe but fully grown
capsules of Papaver somniferum.

Family - papaveraceae.

Chemical constituent -

 Different alkaloids are derived from the opium and are categorised under two groups:
 Benzylisoquinoline - narcotin, narceine, papaverine.
 Phenanthrene - morphin, codeine, thebaine.
 Narcotine - it is weak base, insoluble in water and in some polar organic solvent. It is soluble in
acetone, benzene.
 Papaverine - it is weak base, insoluble in water, slightly soluble in organic solvent.
 Morphine - it is alkaloid, soluble in alkali hydroxides, heroine is a derivative of morphine.
 Codeine - it is soluble in water and organic solvents.
 Opium also contain sugar, wax, calcium, potassium and magnesium.

Therapeutic uses -

Morphine:

 Most powerful analgesic used in case of severe pain.

 Remedy in epilepsy.
 Also used as an aesthetic.

Codeine:

 Weaker in intensity than morphine.

 Produces less tendency to addiction.
 Depresses the cough.
 Causes constipation and hypnosis.

Heroine:
  It is five times more potent than morphine.
 It is smooth muscle relaxant.

TEA LEAVES

Evergreen shrub which are edible.

Other names - folia thea.

Biological source - it contains the prepared leaves and leaf Buds of Thea sinesis.

Family - Theaceae.

Chemical constituent -

 It is a rich source of caffeine.

 It also contain theobromine and theophylline in minor quantities.
 The colour of tea leaves is due to tannin.
 The odor is due to presence of a yellow volatile oil.
 It also contain protein, wax, resin, and ash.

Therapeutic uses -

 It produce stimulatory effect on the heart and nervous system.

 It is also used as astringent.
 It can also be used as diuretic.
 It lowers the risk of ischemic heart disease in geriatrics.
 They have antioxidant properties.

COFFEE SEEDS

It is obtained from Coffee Bean. Caffeine quantity is more than that of the tea. The larger plantation of
coffee is seen in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu.

Other names - coffee Bean, coffee seed, arabica coffee, arabian coffee.

Biological source - it is the dried ripe seed of Coffea arabica.

Family - Rubiaceae.

Chemical constituent -

 The main constituent of coffee are caffeine, tannin, fixed oil and proteins.
 It contains 2 to 3% of caffeine, 3 to 5% tannins, 13% proteins and 10 to 15% fixed oil.
 Caffeine is present as a salt of chlorogenic acid.
 It also contain oils and waxes.
Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as flavouring agent in ice cream, pastries, candies and liquor.

 It act on CNS, kidney, heart and muscles and stimulate them.
 It is very useful in case of snake bite.
 It prevent too rapid wasting of tissues of the body.

COCA

It is a kind of plant whose leaves are illegal drug.

Other names - cocaine, folium cocae, java coca

Biological source - it consists of dried leaves of various species of Erythmxylon coca.

Family - Erythroxylaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains the alkaloid cocaine.

 Java coca contain high percentage of alkaloid but low amount of cocaine.

Therapeutic uses -

 The action of Coca depend principally on the alkaloid cocaine.

 Cocaine has stimulant action on CNS.
 The leaves are chewed to relieve hunger and fatigue.
 They can be used to treat epilepsy.
 They can be used treat nausea, vomiting, and pains of stomach.
  They can also be used as local anaesthetic.
 They can be used in surgery of eye, ear, nose and throat.

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE

These are those drugs which help in reducing the blood pressure. High blood pressure is simply known
as hypertension. This is the pressure that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels. Prolonged
hypertensive condition can lead to organ damage so therefore it must be treated. Prolonged
hypertension can lead to various conditions like myocardial infarction, renal failure, stroke.

RAUWOLFIA

It is an evergreen plant which is used in ayurvedic, unani, homeopathy.

Other names - sarpagandha, chandrika, indian snakeroot

Biological source - it consists of dried roots of Rauwolfia serpentina.

Family - Apocynaceae.

Chemical constituents -

 It contains about 0.7- 2.4% alkaloid base, from which more than 80 alkaloids have been isolated.
 The prominent alkaloids isolated from the drug are reserpine, rescidine, rescinnamine,
deserpidine.
 The Other alkaloids are serpentine, serpentinin, reserpinine, yohambinin, etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as hypnotic, sedative and hypertensive.

 It cure pain due to problem in bowels.
 It is given in labour to increase uterine contractions.
 It can also be used to treat neuro psychiatric disorder.
 It is helpful in lowering down the anxiety.
 It induces sleep and cause relief in many disorders.
 In Ayurveda, it is best known for reducing the fever.
 It decreases muscular spasms.
 It also reduces symptoms of hangover.

ANTITUSSIVES

They are helpful in reducing the cough. They also help in expelling out the respiratory secretions from
the Airway passage.

VASAKA

It is a herb that is useful in treating various diseases.

Other names - malabar nut, adhatoda, adulsa.

Biological source - it consists of dried and fresh leaves of Adhatoda vasica.

Family - Acanthaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains alkaloid, tannins, flavonoids, terpenes, sugar, and glucosides.

 The major chemical constituent of this is vasicine.
 Its leaves contain high amount of Vitamin C.
 They also have carotene and Essential oil in large amount.
 The roots of this plant contain vascinolone, vasicol, peganine, sitosterol.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used in the treatment of various diseases.

 The leaves of this is used to treat cough, asthma, fever, tuberculosis, piles, jaundice, bleeding
gums.
 It can also be used as expectorant.
 It is also used as bronchodilator.
 It can also be used to treat cold.
 It has property of speed in the delivery during childbirth.
 It can also be used to treat leprosy, blood disorders, heart problems, vomiting.
 It has also be beneficial to treat loss of memory, tumors, gonorrhea.

TOLU BALSAM

It can be used as flavouring agent and also it provide fragrance to various Pharmaceutical products. It
also has healing properties.

Other names - thomas balsam, resin tolu

Biological source - it is obtained by incision of stem of Myroxylon balsamum.

Family - Papilionaceae.

Chemical constituents -

 It contains resin 80%.

 This resin is a mixture of cinnamic and benzoic acid.
 The aromatic acids are also present in this.
 The Other constituent include benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate, vannilin, styrene, ferulic acid,
alcohols, triterpenoids, etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as an expectorant, stimulant and antiseptic.

  It is also used as a pleasant flavouring agent in medicinal syrups, confectionery, chewing gum,
and perfumeries.
 It is also used for skin rashes, head lice, wound, lung congestion.

ANTIRHEUMATIC

These are used to treat inflammatory conditions such as arthritis, spondylitis.

COLCHICUM

These are globular seeds of dark red and brown colour. They are odourless, bitter in taste.

Other names - autumn Crocus, wild saffron, meadow saffron, meadow crocus.

Biological source - it consists of dried ripe seeds of Colchicum autumnale

Family - Liliaceae

Chemical constituents -

 Active principle is the alkaline substance of very poisonous nature called colchicine.
 Demeclocine and other alkaloids are also present.
 They also contain resin, fixed oil, glucose and starch.
 Colchicine is pale yellow crystal or may be present in powder form.
 It darken on exposure to air.

Therapeutic uses -

 They can be used as analgesic, antirheumatic, cathartic, and emetic.

 They are used mainly in treatment of gout, and rheumatic arthritis.
 It can also be used in the treatment of leukaemia.

ANTITUMOUR

These are those drugs which are helpful in treatment of cancer. It include various classes such as
alkylating agents, antimetabolites, some hormones, etc.

VINCA

It is very common in India and has many therapeutic uses.

Other names - sadabahar, madagascar periwinkle

Biological source - it is dried entire plant of Catharanthus roseus.

Family - Apocynaceae.

Chemical constituents -
  Alkaloids are present in entire shrub but leaves and roots contain more alkaloids.
 About 90 alkaloids have been isolated from vinca.
 The important alkaloid vinblastine and vincristine.
 It also contain monoterpenes, indole, indoline glycoside, sesquiterpene.

Therapeutic uses -

 Vinblastine is an anti-tumor alkaloid used in the treatment of hodgkin disease.

 Vincristine is cytotoxic compound and used in the treatment of leukaemia.
 They can also be helpful in treating menorrhagia and hemorrhages.
 It can also be given in case of scurvy, tonsillitis, sore throat.
 It is also used in the treatment of diabetes.
 It also has purgative properties.
 It can also be used as laxative and in the treatment of constipation.

PODOPHYLLUM

It is dried rhizome and rootlet.

Other names - indian podophyllum, himalayan mayapple.

Biological source - it consists of dried rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum

Family - Berberidaceae.

Chemical constituents -

 Its rhizome contain 2-8% resinous material known as podophyllin.

 The major constituent of this are alpha and beta-peltatin.
 It also contain desmethyl podophyllotoxin, desoxy- podophyllotoxin, podophyllotoxone, starch,
etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It has cytotoxic activity.

 It is used in treatment of veneral diseases.
 It can also be used as purgative.

ANTIDIABETICS

These are those drugs which are helpful in in regulating and controlling the blood sugar level. These are
given to lower down the high Glucose level in the blood.

PTEROCARPUS

It is obtained from pantropical trees.

Other names - bijasal, indian kino tree, malbar kino.

Biological source - it consists of dried juice obtained by making vertical incison to the stem bark of the
plant Pterocarpus marsupium

Family - leguminosae.

Chemical constituents -

 It contains about 70 to 80% of kinotannic acid, kino red, catechol, resin, gallic acid.
 Kinotannic acid is glucosidal tannin.
 Kinoin is an insoluble product which is produced when acted upon by the oxidase enzyme.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is a powerful astringent and also used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery.
 It is also used to treat hemorrhage, tooth ache, diabetes.
 It is used in Dyeing, tanning and printing.

GYMNEMA

Other names - gurmarbooti, gurmani, madhunashini

Biological source - it consists of dried leaves of Gymnema sylvestre.

Family - Asclepiadacea

Chemical constituent -

 It consists of pantriacontane, hentriacontane, phytin, resin, chlorophyll, tartaric acid, formic

acid, butyric acid, etc.
 They also contain alkaloid, choline.
 Gymnemic acid can be obtained by successive extraction using different solvents.

Therapeutic uses -

 It can be used as diuretic and laxative.

 It also removes dental plaque.
 It can be used as antidiabetic agent.
 It can also helpful in reducing weight.

DIURETICS

They are those drugs which increases the urinary output by acting on kidney. They reduces overall
reabsorption of water by the kidney, so hence more and more urine is excreted out of the body and
hence lowering the overall blood volume.

GOKHRU

Other names - gokshura, puncture vine, caltrops

Biological source - in Ayurveda, two types of gokhru is used that is bada and Chhota gokhru.

Chota gokhru is the dried ripe seeds of Tribulus terrestris. Bada gokhru is the dried ripe fruit of the same
plant.

Family - Zygophyllaceae.

Chemical constituent -

 The dried fruits consist of saponins as the major constituent.

 It also include terestrosins A, B, C, D and E.
 In fruits, flavonoid derivatives are also present including some glycoside.
 The drug extract contain sapogenins such as diosgenin, chlorogenin, hecogenin, neotigogenin.

Therapeutic uses -

 It has cooling, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, diuretic properties.

 It is also used to support our immune system.
 It can be given in painful micturition, impotency.
 It has stimulatory effect on reproductive organs
 It can also promote lactation.
 It can also treat cystitis, urinary incontinence.

PUNARNAVA

It has various medicinal properties and used in Ayurveda medicine.

Other names - hogweed, santha, khatan, vishkhapara

Biological source - it consists of dried Herb of the whole plant Boerhaavia diffusa

Family - Nyctaginaceae

Chemical constituent -

 It contains alkaloid Punarnavine and also anti-fibrinolytic agent such as punernavoside.

 It also contains postassium nitrate, ursolic acid.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is helpful in treating hypersensitivity reactions.

 It is also used as anti-diabetic agent
 It also has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
 It is used to treat various viral and bacterial diseases.
 It is helpful in preventing any liver harm.
CHAPTER – 5C – STUDY OF CRUDE DRUGS

ANTIDYSENTRIC

These are those drugs which are helpful in the treatment of dysentery. Dysentery is caused due to any
infection by bacteria or parasite which can lead to diarrhoea with blood and mucus.

IPECACUANHA

It is commonly known as ipecac solution. It is a very powerful emetic agent which is very commonly used
in hospitals and homes.

Other names - ipecac, radix ipecacuanha.

Biological source - it consists of dried roots or rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha.

Family - Rubiaceae

Chemical constituents-

 It contains two to three percent of total alkaloids.

 Alkaloids include emitin, cephaelin, psychotrin, etc.
 All these alkaloids have isoquinoline ring system and are present in the bark of the plant.
 Emetin is the active alkaloid and it does not contain a free phenolic group.
 The drug also has citric acid, malic acid, resins.
 It also contain calcium oxalate and starch granules.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is emetic.
 It is also used as an expectorant and diaphoretic.
 It is used in the treatment of dysentery.
 It is used in the treatment of cough and cold.
 It also has amoebicidal properties.

ANTISEPTICS & DISINFECTANTS

Antiseptics are those agents that are used on living surfaces to sterilize them.

Disinfectants are those agents which are used on non-living objects to sterilize them.

BENZOIN

There are many varieties of benzoin and these are sumatra, palembang, penang and siam benzoin.

Other names - gum benjamin, benzonium, luban.

Biological source - it is obtained from the incised stem of Styrax benzoin.

Family - Styraceae

Chemical constituent -

 It consists of balsamic acid and their esters.

 Balsamic acid contains cinnamic acid and benzoic acid.
 The amount of cinnamic acid is usually double than that of benzoic acid.
 It also contain triterpenic acids, traces of vanillin, cinnamyl cinnamate and phenylethylene.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as expectorant, antiseptic, carminative, stimulant and diuretic.

 It is also used in Cosmetic lotions, perfumeries and also used to prepare compound benzoin.
 It is also used to fix the odor of skin soaps, perfumes and other cosmetics.
 It is also used to fix the taste of certain Pharmaceutical preparations.
 It retards rancification of fats so therefore used in foods, drinks.

MYRRH

It is a resin which is obtained by making incision on bark of the plant.

Other names - gum, bol, myrrha

Biological source - it is an oleo gum resin obtained from the stem of Commiphora molmol or other
species.

Family - Burscraceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains resin (25 to 40%), gum (57 to 60%) and volatile oil (7 to 17%).
 The volatile oil is a mixture of cuminic aldehyde, eugenol, cresol, limonene, dipentene.
 The disagreeable odor of the oil is due to disulfide.
 The gum contains proteins and carbohydrates which is a mixture of galactose, arabinose,
glucuronic acid, and an oxidase enzyme.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as carminative.
 Also used in perfumes.
 It is a local stimulant and have antiseptic properties.
 Therefore can be used in tooth powder and in mouthwashes.
 It is used in a tincture, paint, gargle.
 It is used to treat inflammatory conditions of the mouth and throat.
NEEM

It is a medicinal herb which is very common and very frequently used in traditional medicine. Other
names - nimba, margosa, arishth.

Biological source - it consists of the aerial parts of Azadirachta indica.

Family - Meliaceae

Chemical constituents -

 Neem is bitter due to the presence of nimbidin.

 Its seed contain 45% of oil.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as astringent.
 It can be used to treat various skin disorders.
 It can be given in malarial fever.
 It has anti-rheumatic properties.
 It also has insecticidal properties.
 It is helpful in cleaning of teeth.

TURMERIC

It is a very popular Indian spice and also has few medicinal properties.

Other names - saffron indian, haldi, curcuma.

Biological source - it is dried rhizome of Curcuma longa

Family - Zingiberaceae.

Chemical constituents -

 It contains yellow colouring matter known as curcuminoids.

 It also has Essential oil.
 The chief constituent of the colouring matter is curcumin I and in addition with small quantities
of curcumin II, and curcumin III.
 The volatile oil contains mono and sesquiterpenes.
 The volatile oil also contains alpha and beta pinene, limonene, isoborneol, camphor, eugenol,
etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as aromatic, anti-inflammatory, stimulant, tonic, carminative, blood purifier, spice,

colouring agent for ointments.
 It is also used to treat cold and cough at home.
  It is also useful in menstrual pain.
 It can also be given during liver diseases.
 It also has anti-venomic activity.
 It is also used in the form of a cream to improve complexion.

ANTI-MALARIALS

These are those drugs which can be used in the treatment of Malaria.

CINCHONA

It is an evergreen tree with variety of medicinal value.

Other names - cortex cinchonae, calisaya bark

Biological source - it is the dried bark of the stem or of the root of Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona
ledgeriana, Cinchona officinalis

Family - Rubiaceae

Chemical constituents -

 More than 30 alkaloids are present in this.

 The chief alkaloids are quinidine, quinine, cinchonine.
 The Other constituent available are quiniarnine, cinchonitine, hydroquinine, cinchotannic acid,
etc.
 Quinine and quinidine has a methoxy group but cinchonine and cinchonidine do not have a
methoxy group.
 It also contain bitter glycoside, calcium oxalate crystals, starch, crystalline acid.

Therapeutic uses-

 It is used in the treatment of Malaria.

 It can also be used as analgesic, antipyretic.
 Quinidine is cardiac depressant.
 Cinchonidine is used in rheumatic disorders.
 It also has some antiarrhythmic activities.
 It is also used as antiseptic.
 It is used in the treatment of whooping cough, hay fever, pneumonia, tonsillitis.
 It is helpful in preventing leg cramps.

ARTEMISIA

It belongs to Daisy family.

Other names - mugwort, wormwood, sagebrush

Biological source - it is obtained from un-expanded flower head of the plant Artemisia cina, Artemisia
maritima

Family - Asteraceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains santonin and artemisin.

 It also has Essential oil in it.
 The oil contains pinene, resin.

Therapeutic uses -

 It has anti helminthic properties.

 It can be used in the treatment of Malaria.

OXYTOCIC

These are those drugs which stimulate the contraction of muscles of uterus. These can be given to
fasten the labour process. They are helpful in induction and augmentation of labour, also they are
helpful to control postpartum hemorrhage, and they can also induce therapeutic abortion.

ERGOT

Ergot is an alkaloid containing dried sclerotium of a fungus.

Other names - rye ergot, ergota, secale cornutum.

Biological source - ergot is that dried sclerotium of a fungus claviceps purpurea

Family - Poaceae.

Chemical constituents -

 Large number of alkaloids have been isolated from this.

 The most important alkaloids are ergonovine and ergotamine.
 On the basis of solubility in water, the alkaloids are divided into two groups: Water soluble
ergometrine group or water insoluble group –
  Only the first group, ergometrine group, belongs to water soluble compound.
 Alkaloids of group 2 and group 3 are polypeptides in which lysergic acid or iso lysergic acid is
linked to amino acid.
 Alkaloids obtained from lysergic acid are physiological active compounds.

Therapeutic uses -

 It acts as oxytocic, vasoconstrictor.

 It is used to reduce postpartum hemorrhage.
 It is used to stimulate the uterine contractions.
 It is used to treat menstrual disorders such as menorrhagia, menopausal bleeding.
 It is used in geriatric patient for migraine.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are those substances which your body needs for the growth and development. In order of
healthy functioning of the body, vitamins are essential. Their deficiency can cause various types of
diseases in the body.

There are 13 vitamins that are needed by the body and they are classified into two categories:

 Fat soluble vitamins - which include Vitamin A, D, E and K. These vitamins are stored in liver and
are not excreted out of the body.
 Water soluble vitamins - these include Vitamin B complex and Vitamin C. They are not stored in
the body hence they are required daily in our diet.

Deficiency of Vitamins can lead to-

 Vitamin A - night blindness, keratosis

 Vitamin B1 – Beri-Beri
 Vitamin B2 - digestive disorders, skin disorders, cheilosis
 Vitamin B3 - pellagra
 Vitamin B6 - conjunctivitis, convulsion, neurological disorders
 Vitamin B7 - dermatitis
 Vitamin B9 - neural tube defects
 Vitamin B12 - megaloblastic anaemia
 Vitamin C - scurvy
 Vitamin D - rickets and osteomalacia
 Vitamin E - mild hemolytic anaemia in newborns, infertility
 Vitamin K - bleeding disorders

SHARK LIVER OIL

It is obtained from the livers of shark and has many medicinal properties.

Other names - oleum selachoide

Biological source - it is the fixed oil obtained from the fresh and healthy liver of Shark fish Hypoprion
brevirostris

Family - Carcharhinidae

Chemical constituents -

 The active principle of shark oil is vitamin A which varies from 15000 to 30000 I.U. Per gram of
the oil.
 It also contains glycerides of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used in the treatment of xerophthalmia.

 It is a nutritive oil.
 It can be used in sunburn ointments.

COD LIVER OIL

It is very rich source of Omega 3 fatty acid.

Other names - oleum morrhi.

Biological source - it is processed from fresh liver of cod fish, Gadus morrhua

Family - Gadidae

Chemical constituents -

 The cod liver oil contains glycerides esters of saturated acids of linoleic, oleic, gadoleic, palmitic
and other acids.
 It has vitamin A and Vitamin D.
 It also contains about 1% of unsaponifiable matter like cholesterol, fatty acid.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as source of vitamins in treatment of rickets, tuberculosis.

 It reduces pain and stiffness in the body.
 It is used as dietary supplement.
ENZYMES

Enzymes are proteins that help in catalysing or speed up metabolism or chemical reactions. They build
some substances and break others down. They bind to various molecules and alter them in specific
ways. They do not alter themselves.

Properties of enzymes -

 Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.

 They catalyse biochemical reactions in a Cell.
 They do not initiate a reaction.
 Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction of the reaction.
 Most of the enzymes have high turnover number.
 They are required in very minute quantity. They are not consumed in the overall reaction.
 They are very specific in nature.
 They are proteinaceous.

PAPAYA

It is an edible fruit and contains various enzymes which have medicinal values.

Other name - papayotin, vegetable pepsin, arbuz.

Biological source - Papain is the dried and purified latex of the green fruits and leaves of Carica papaya.

Family - Caricaceae

Chemical constituents -

 Papain contains several enzymes such as proteolytic enzymes peptidase I which is capable of
converting proteins into di-peptides and polypeptides.
 The enzymes have been isolated in crystalline form from the latex.
 Papain is a protein of 212 amino acids having a molecular weight of about 23000 daltons.
 It is resistant to heat, inactivated by metal ions.
 The leaves also has fatty acids, carotenoids.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used to prevent adhesion in infected wounds.

 Internally it acts as a protein digester.
 It also relieve the symptoms of episiotomy.
 It is useful in the treatment of dyspepsia, intestinal and gastric disorders, diphtheria.
 It reduces incidence of blood clots.
 It is useful in the treatment of buccal, pharyngeal, laryngeal disorders.
 It also reduces enlarged tonsil.
 It is used in the manufacture of preparations of meat.
  It is also used in making chill proof beer, in preparation of toothpaste and cosmetics, also used
in making the solution for contact lenses.

DIASTASE

It is an enzyme found in the malt. This is helpful in converting starch into maltose and then into glucose.

Other names - amylase, malt extract, maltin.

Biological source - it is an amylolytic enzyme present in the saliva found in the digestive tract of animals
and also in the malt extract. Malt extract is obtained from the dried Barley grains of one or more
varieties of Hordeum vulgare.

Family - Poaceae

Chemical constituents -

 It contains dextrin, traces of glucose, maltose, etc.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as a digestant.
 It is used in the production of predigested starchy food.
 Also helpful in fermentation of sugars.
 They are also useful in bulk production of laxatives.

PANCREATIN

It is a digestive enzyme that is extracted from the pancreas of certain animals.

Other names - pancreatic acid, pandriotanone, diastase vera

Biological source - it is obtained from the pancreas of certain animals like hog, Sus scrofa.

Chemical constituents -

 It is made up of pancreatic enzymes trypsin, amylase and lipase.

Therapeutic uses -

 They are helpful in digestion of foods.

 They maintain the overall health of the body.
 They are essential in the treatment of certain disorders like pancreatic cancer, pancreatitis,
cystic fibrosis.

YEAST

It is a kind of unicellular fungus. It has around 350 species. They are very helpful in pharmaceutical
industry.
Other names – brewer’s yeast, baker’s yeast.

Biological source - they are obtained from saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Family - Saccharhomycetaceae

Chemical constituents -

 They contain moisture, proteins, glycogen, fat, vitamins, ash, and enzymes.

Therapeutic uses -

 They are helpful in making or raising dough.

 They are helpful in manufacturing of alcohol, beer.
 It is a good source of protein.

PHARMACEUTICAL AIDS

These are those substances which have zero therapeutic value but are essential for the manufacturing
of various Pharmaceutical compounds.

Various Pharmaceutical Aids -

 Obtained from animals: Gelatin, honey, beeswax, lactose.

 Obtained from vegetables - starch, vanilla, peppermint, cardamom, balsam of Tolu.
 Obtained from minerals - paraffin, talc, chalk, calamine, asbestos
 Obtained synthetically - acetic acid, citric acid, dextrose, lactic acid, boric acid.

KAOLIN

It is a white colour matter with fine particle size.

Other names - china clay

Biological source - it is purified hydrated aluminium silicate free from gritty particles. It is obtained by
powdering the kaolin. The native clay is derived from the composition of potassium aluminium silicate.

Chemical constituents -

 It is anhydrous aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O.

 It contains silicon dioxide, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, aluminium oxide, magnesium oxide,
calcium oxide, sodium oxide, potassium oxide and water.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as an adsorbent by oral administration.

 It is used in the treatment of dysentery and in food poisoning.
 It is applied externally as a dusting powder.
 It is also used as a clarifying agent during the filtration.
  It is used as filler in paper, rubber, cement and Fertilizer industry.
 It is also used in cosmetic, insecticides, paint.

LANOLIN

It is a kind of wax that is obtained from animals bearing wool.

Other names – wool fat, agnin, laniol, alapurin

Biological source – lanolin is the fat like purified secretion of the sebaceous glands which is deposited
into the wool fibers of sheep, Ovis aries.

Family – Bovidae.

Chemical constituents –

 Lanolin is a complex mixture of esters and polyesters of 33 high molecular weight alcohols, and
36 fatty acids.
 The alcohols are of 3 types – aliphatic alcohols, steroid alcohols and triterpenoid alcohols.
 The acids are also of 3 types – saturated non-hydroxylated acids, unsaturated non-hydroxylated
acids and hydroxylated acids.
 Liquid lanolin is low molecular weight, aliphatic acids, alcohols whereas waxy lanolin is high
molecular weight, straight chain acids and alcohols.
 The chief constituent of lanolin are cholesterol, iso-cholesterol.
 Lanolin also has esters of oleic and myristic acids, etc.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used as an emollient.
 It is used as water absorbable base in many skin creams and cosmetics.
 It is used to treat dry and cracked nipples that are caused due to breast feeding.

BEESWAX

It is wax that is obtained by the honey bees.

Other names – white beeswax, yellow beeswax, cera alba and cera flava.

Biological source – it is the purified wax obtained from honeycomb of hive bee, Apis mellifera

Family – Apidae.

Chemical constituents –

 Beeswax contains myricin, which is a palmitate.

 Its melting point is 64 degree Celsius.
 It also has few hydrocarbons, alcohols, oleic acids, etc.

Therapeutic uses – They are used in preparation of ointments, plaster and polishes.
ACACIA

Other names – acacia gum, Acacia vera, Egyptian thorn, Gum Senegal, kher, somali gum, yellow thorn,
indian gum and gum Arabic.

Biological source – acacia is the dries gummy Exudation obtained from the stems and branches of
Acacia senegal. In India, it is found as dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of
Acacia arabica.

Family - Leguminosae.

Chemical constituents -

 Consist of Arabin, which is a complex mixture of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of
Arabic acid.
 Arabic acid is a branched polysaccharide.
 Contains 12 to 15% of water and many enzymes such as oxidase, peroxidase, and pectinase.
 The total Ash content of this is 3 to 4%.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as demulcent.
 It is used for emulsification or as thickening agent in pharmaceutical preparations.
 It is helpful in binding the tablets for example cough lozenges.
 It is used in making of Candy and other food products.
 It can be given during hemodialysis as well.
 It is used in manufacturing of ink, and adhesives.

TRAGACANTH

It is dried gummy exudate that is obtained from stems and branches of certain species of plants
belonging to the family leguminosae.

Other names - goat thorn, gum Dragon, hog gum.

Biological source - it is the air dried gummy exudate, flowing naturally obtained by incison, from the
stems and branches of Astra-galus gummifer

Family - leguminosae.

Chemical constituents -

 It consists of two vital fractions - first being water soluble known as "tragacanthin" and the
second being water insoluble known as "bassorin".
 Both are not soluble in alcohol.
 Both components may be separated by carrying out the simple filtration and are found to be
present in concentration ranging from 60 to 70% for bassorin and 30 to 40% for tragacanthin.
  Tragacanth gum is composed mainly of sugar and uronic acid.

Therapeutic uses -

 It is used as demulcent in cough and cold preparations.

 It is also used to manage diarrhoea.
 It is used as an emollient in cosmetics.
 It is also used as emulsifying agent.
 It is also used as binding agent in tablets.
 It is also used in lotions for external use.
 It is also used as a stabilizer for ice cream.

SODIUM ALGINATE

It is the sodium salt of alginic acid.

Other names – algin, alginic acid, kelgin, minus, protanal.

Biological source – it is a polyuronic acid composed of reduced mannuronic and glucuronic acid which is
obtained from the algal growth of the species Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminaria hyperborean, etc.

Family – Phaeophyceae.

Chemical constituents –

 It consist of the sodium salt of alginic acid.

 Alginic acid is mainly composed of mannuronic acid and glucuronic acid.
 Mannuronic acid is the major component of it.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used in the preparation of paste, creams and for thickening and stabilizing emulsions.
 It is used as binding agent in tablets.
 It is used in preparation of jellies, ice creams.
 It is also used in textile industry.

AGAR

It is the dried gelatinous substance obtained from algae.

Other names – agaragar, vegetable gelatin.

Biological source – it is the dried gelatinous substance obtained by extraction with water from Gelidium
amansii or various species of red algae like Gracilaria

Family – Gelidaceae.

Chemical constituents –
  Agar is a complex of heterosaccharide and contain 2 different polysaccharides known as agarose
and agaropectin.
 Agarose is neutral galactose polymer and is responsible for gel like property of agar.
 The structure of agaropectin is not completely known, but it is believed that it consist of
sulphonated polysaccharide in which galactose and uronic acid are present.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used in treatment of chronic constipation.

 Also used as laxative.
 It is used as emulsifier, suspending agent.
 It is used as gel in nutrient media for bacterial cultures.
 It is used as gel in cosmetics, as thickening agent in food products.
 It is used in dying and printing of fabrics and textiles.

GUAR GUM

It is a seed gum produced by the seeds of Cyamopsis.

Other names – jaguar gum, guar flour and decorpa.

Biological source – guar gum is a seed gum produced from the powdered endosperm of the seeds of
Cyamopsis tetragonolobus.

Family – Leguminosae.

Chemical constituents –

 Water soluble part of guar gum contains mainly of a high molecular weight polysaccharide that
is galactomannan, also known as guaran.
 It also contains about 5-7% of proteins.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used as binding agent, emulsifying agent.

 It is used as bulk laxative, and also be given in peptic ulcer therapy.
 It is used in paper manufacturing, textiles, polishing and cosmetic industries.
 It is helpful in reducing serum cholesterol levels.
 It is also used in preparation of jellies, toothpaste, creams, lotions.

GELATIN

It is a protein derivative that is obtained from domestic animals.

Other names – gelfoam, puragel, gelatinum.

Biological source – gelatin is a protein derivative obtained by evaporating an aqueous extract made
from bones, skin and tendons of various domestic animals. Some important sources are Ox, Bos tarus,
and sheep, Ovis aries.

Family – bovidae.

Chemical constituents –

 It consist of protein glutin which on hydrolysis gives mixture of amino acids.

 Amino acids include glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, aspartic acid,
histidine, lysine, etc.
 It lacks tryptophan.
 The gelatinizing compound is known as chondrin and the adhesive nature is given by glutin.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used to prepare pastes, suppositories, capsules.

 It is also used as tablet binder, coating agent and stabilizer.
 It can be used in manufacturing of cements, printing inks, lamps, textiles.
 It is also used for preparing cultures.

MISCELLANEOUS

SQUILL

It is the dried slice of bulb of a plant that can be used for various purposes.

Other names – scillae bulbus, scilla bulb, white squill, jangali pyaz

Biological source – it consist of dried slices of the bulb of white variety of Urginea maritima.

Family – Liliaceae.

Chemical constituents –

 It contains cardiac glycosides.

 It also has flavonoids, volatile substances, mucilage, etc.
 The cardiac glycosides on hydrolysis give 3 glucose molecules, 2 molecules of glucose and 1
molecule of rhamnose along with scillarenin.
 Scillaren A is crystalline and responsible for the activity of drug.
 Scillaren B is amorphous in nature.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used as expectorant.
 It also has diuretic properties.
 It is helpful in slowing down the heart rate.
 It is useful in chronic bronchitis, asthma.
GALLS

They are pathological outgrowth or they are like benign tumors.

Other names – nutgalls, blue galls, Turkish galls.

Biological source – they are pathological outgrowth obtained from the young twigs of the dyers oak,
Quercus infectoria

Family – Cynipidae.

Chemical constituents –

 Nutgalls contains 50-70% tannin mainly gallotannic acid.

 It also has 2-4% of gallic acid, ellagic acid, methyl belulate, etc.
 It also has starch in it.
 It is obtained by fermentation and subsequent extraction of galls with water-saturated ether.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used in tanning and dyeing industries.

 It is also used in manufacturing of inks.
 It acts as local astringent.
 It is also used as suppositories.

ASHWAGANDHA

They have roots which smell like horse, so given the name Ashwagandha.

Other names – withania root, clustered wintercherry.

Biological source – it consist of dried roots and stem bases of Withania somnifera.

Family – Solanaceae.

Chemical constituents –

 It contain the alkaloid withanine which is its main constituents.

 The leaves of this contain steroid lactone, known as withanolides.
 It also contain somniferine, tropine and psuedotropine, etc.

Therapeutic uses –

 It is used to treat nervous disorders.

 It is also used to treat intestinal infections and leprosy.
 It is also used as tranquilizers.
 It is helpful in treating various chronic disorders.
 It is useful in treating infertility.
  It is helpful in reducing swelling and body aches.

TULSI

It is herbaceous plant which is the holy plant of Hindus. It has many medicinal properties.

Other names – sacred basil, holy basil.

Biological source – it consist of fresh or dried leaves of Ocimum sanctum.

Family – Labiatae.

Chemical constituents –

 The leaves contain bright, yellow coloured and pleasant volatile oil.
 The oil is collected by steam distillation method from the leaves and the flowering tops.
 It contains approximately 70% eugenol, carvacrol 3% and eugenol-methyl-ether 20%.
 The plant also has alkaloids, glycosides, saponin, tannins, vitamin C, tartaric acid.
 Seeds of this plant contain fixed oil with good drying properties.

Therapeutic uses –

 The oil of this has antibacterial and insecticidal properties.

 The leaves are used as spasmolytic and diaphoretic.
 It is also good for our immune system.
 It is helpful in the treatment of respiratory tract infections.

GUGGUL

It is a gum resin that is very commonly used in Ayurvedic treatments.

Other names – gumgugul, salai-gogil

Biological source – guggul is a gum resin obtained by incision of the bark of Commiphora mukul

Family – Burseraceae

Chemical constituents –

 It contains gum, essential oil, sterols, cholesterol, sugars, amino acids, flavonoids, aliphatic acids,
ellagic acid, etc.

Therapeutic uses –

 It helps in lowering down the serum cholesterol levels.

 It inhibits platelet aggregation.
 It is helpful in weight loss.
 It can also used as astringent, anti-rheumatic, antiseptic, expectorant, demulcent.
 It can also be used in teeth disorders, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, throat ulcers.
CHAPTER 6 – PLANT FIBRES USED AS SURGICAL DRESSING

Fibres are the thick walled cells with pointed ends and their cell wall is constituted by cellulose. They can
be obtained from the plants.

CLASSIFICATION –

 Plant sources – jute, banana, cotton, hemp.

 Animal sources – wool, silk.
 Mineral sources – glass, asbestos.
 Regenerated and synthetic fibres – nylon, orlon, terylene.

COTTON

They are soft fibres and world’s leading agricultural crops.

Other names – raw cotton, cotton wool, purified cotton, absorbent cotton.

Biological source – it consists of epidermal trichomes of the seeds of Gossypium herbuceum, Gossypium
hirsutum, etc.

Family – Malvaceae.

Method of preparation –

 Seeds are covered with the hairs are known as bolls.

 When ripe, the bolls are collected, dried and subjected to a ginning process to separate the hairs
from the seed.
 Various devices are used to separate the hairs.
 The short and long hairs are separated from each other.
 The hairs with short length are known as Linters and used for the manufacture of absorbent
cotton while long hairs are used for the preparation of cloth.
 The raw cotton obtained by this way is full of impurities like wax, fat, coloring matter, vegetable
debris, etc.
 It is processed to get rid of most of the impurities.
 It is taken to the machine known as cotton opener and followed by treatment with dilute soda
solution or soda ash solution under pressure for about 10-15 hours.
 The wax, fatty material and coloring matter are removed by this treatment.
 It is then washed with water and treated with suitable bleaching agent.
 It is again washed with water, dried and carded into flat sheets.
 It is finally packed in wrappers and sterilized by means of gamma radiations.

Morphology –

 Color: white (due to bleaching), slightly off white if sterilized.

 Odor: odorless.
 Taste: tasteless
  Shape: cylindrical when young, but becomes flattened and twisted as it matures.

Size – 2.5-4.5 cm in length and 25-35µ in diameter.

Chemical constituents –

 Raw cotton contains about 90% of cellulose, 7-8% of moisture, wax, fat and remain of
protoplasm.
 Purified cotton or absorbent cotton is entirely cellulose with 6-7% of moisture and 0.2-0.3% ash.

Uses –

 They are used as filtering medium and as surgical dressing.

 It is insulating in nature.
 They prevent the wounds from infections
 It helps in absorbing various body secretions.

SILK

It is a natural fibre which is used in textile industry.

Other names – Mantua, Pongee, Samite and Sendal.

Biological source - it is obtained from the cocoons of Bombyx mori.

Family – Bombycidae.

Preparation –

 First cultivation of silkworm is done.

 Eggs of silkworm are warmed up for hatching in winter by spreading them over the trays and
chopped leaves of mulberry trees are spread on the perforated paper. Worm climb up through
the holes to eat the leaves.
 After 35 days of hatching, worm becomes 10,000 times heavy than before. Worm become
caterpillar and start the spinning and silkworm built its cocoon to settle down in it.
 From the silkworm’s head, liquid silk comes from the two glands known as spinneret. As the
liquid comes out, it becomes hard, and converted into thin filaments.
 These thin filaments are coated in a gummy substance known as sericin.
 The cocoons are put through a series of hot and cold immersions. So the sericin become soften
and it will allow the unwinding of the filaments.
 The unwinding of the filaments is known as reeling.

Morphology –

 Color – yellow
 Length – 1200m long
 Diameter – 5-25µ.
Chemical constituents –

 It consist of a protein known as fibroin which on hydrolysis give glycine, alanine, serine, tyrosine,
etc.
 They have chain like structure which will provide them overall length.

Uses –

 It is used in making sutures.

 It is used to make sieve
 It is helpful in making ligatures.

WOOL

Wool is the hairs of the mammals.

Other names – sheep wool

Biological source – obtained from the sheep Ovis aries.

Family – Bovidae.

Preparation –

 Wool is removed from the body of the sheep.

 Wool sorter separate out the various qualities of sheep.
 Beat the wool so that all the dust and dirt is removed.
 Wash the wool with warm soapy water.
 Squeeze it in between rollers
 Dry the wool.
 Then they are spun into yarns.

Morphology –

 Appearance – smooth, slippery, elastic in nature.

 Size – 2-50cm long, 5-100µ wide.

Chemical constituents –

 They are made up of keratin.

 It is elastic due to reversible intramolecular transformation of the fibres.
 It also has amino acid residues.

Uses –

 It is helpful in making of crepe bandages.

 It also act as filtering medium.
RAYON (REGENERATED FIBRES)

Other names – regenerated cellulose, viscose rayon.

Biological source – it is an artificial fibre, it consist of regenerated cellulose.

Preparation –

 First take the pulp of cellulose and process it into viscous rayon. Pulp contains about 80-90% of
cellulose & hemicellulose.
 Treat the cellulose with sodium hydroxide and we’ll get sodium cellulosate and treat it again
with carbon disulphide and sodium hydroxide and we will get solution of sodium cellulose
xanthate.
 When this solution ripens, pass it through nozzles and pour it into the bath of sodium sulphate
and sulphuric acid to form filaments.
 These filaments put up together to form yarn.
 Then de-sulphurised it, bleach it, wash it, twist it and then dry it.

Uses –

 It is helpful in fabric making.

 It is used in making of surgical dressings.

SUTURES AND LIGATURES

They are threads that help in repairing of lacerations, they will help in closing up the wound.

CLASSIFICATION:

A. TYPES OF ABSORBABLE SUTURES –

 GUT: this is an absorbable suture which is obtained from the gut or intestine of sheep or goat.
They have strongest reaction in the body.
 POLYDIOXANONE (PDS): it is monofilament and helpful in repairing of many wounds.
 POLIGLECAPRONE (MONOCRYL): this is also a monofilament and helpful in closing various
lacerations but not used in repairing of cardiovascular wounds.
 VICRYL: this is braided suture. Helpful in closing hand and facial lacerations.

B. TYPES OF NON-ABSORBABLE SUTURES –

 SILK SUTURES: they are braided in nature and are non-absorbable.

 COTTON SUTURES: they provide strength upto a long time.
 NYLON SUTURES: they are braided, strong, water resistant.
 LINEN SUTURES: it is cheap, strong suture.
 METALLIC SUTURE: they are wires of silver, or stainless steel, and are braided in nature.

PROPERTIES OF SUTURES AND LIGATURES:

  They must have adequate strength.
 They must be sterile.
 Non-irritant.
 Have adequate tensile strength.
 Good handling.
 Evoke little tissue reaction.

SUTURE TECHNIQUES –

SIMPLE INTERRUPTED SUTURE: most common technique. Insert the needle perpendicular to the
epidermis layer. Once given the suture, the thread is cut down and a knot is applied.

CONTINUOUS SUTURE: it is also known as running suture. It is without interruption. It is started by

giving an interrupted suture which is tied but not cut down. And after suturing the complete area, the
knot is placed at the end.

DEEP SUTURE: in this the needle is inserted deep into the skin.

BURIED SUTURE: it is a kind of technique in which the knot is found inside not outside, they are mostly
absorbable.

SUBCUTICULAR SUTURE: they are given in the subcutaneous layer of the body, in this short stitches are
given, parallel to the wound.

SURGICAL CATGUT

Other names – Kit gut, violin gut, surgical gut, collagen fibre.

Biological source – it is obtained from small intestine of the cattle, sheep, goats.

Properties –

 Absorbed within 60-90 days if it is chromic catgut.

 Absorbed within 60-70 days if it is plain gut.
 It provide sufficient support to the wound and tissue.

Preparation –

 When the above mentioned animals are slaughtered, they are brought to the cold brim where
their intestines are recovered.
 Wash the intestine with water.
 They are splitted longitudinally.
 Intestine has 4 layers – mesenteric, muscular, submucosa and mucosa. Scrap them.
 During scrapping, fibres of intestine arrange in a parallel way.
 Soak the fibres or ribbon in chromic salts.
 Tie the ribbons at the ends, spun them.
 Dry them.
 Then rub them against an abrasive surface to produce sutures.
Advantages –

 If they are causing tissue reactions, we can use its chromic version.
 It is absorbable in nature.
 It can use for suturing various body surfaces.
CHAPTER 7 -TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE AND AYURVEDIC PREPARATIONS

TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE

In world, there are different civilizations. They created different medicines systems, it was very
popularly called as Alternative systems of medicine. The philosophy and principles are different from
other types. They served the humankind in the treatments and management of different diseases by
proper maintenance of good health.

It is also called as Traditional systems of medicines. Still now nearly 80% of populations are following it
and they are Unani system, Chinese medicine system, Amachi, Ayurvedic system and homeopathy
followed by Greece, China, Tibet, India and Germany only in the ancient times but now worldwide they
are following it.

MAJOR SYSTEMS OF MEDICINES:

Ayurveda System of Medicine

This system of medicine was established in INDIA by HINDUS several thousand years back. The period of
Vedic was started by Aryans. It mainly composed of four holy books with divine inspiration and it
included with VEDAS, which called as WISDOM. In older days, Vedas were taught to the students in the
verbal manner, later it was in written form on bark in the year of 2500-1500 BC after that now it was
available written on papers.

RIG VEDA, it was oldest Veda and contains information regarding diseases and drugs in it.

ATHARVA VEDA it is the fourth Veda and is ideal for maintaining good health and medicinal effect of
various things.

HISTORY

Indian medicine systems are oldest form of system.

1) Its primitive concepts are mentioned in the Vedas.

2) God of medicine is dhanvantari, and he received the system of medicine from Brahma.
3) During Ancient period, knowledge was verbally transmitted in Sanskrit. Sushruta samhita carries all
authentic collections of teachings and work of Dhanvantari. It contains nearly 184 chapters, 1120
illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 mineral sources preparations, 57 animal sources preparation.

4) The 1st physician SUSHRUTA performed cataract surgery in 1st millennium B.C. After the surgical
procedure he soaked the eye with butter and then applied bandages on it.

5) Another book of Ayurveda was CHARAKA.

6) Simhagupta was a senior doctor whose son was Vagbhata, he compiled his works on traditional
medicine system.

7) In early days, they had separate schools for physicians and surgeons.

8) The person Fa hsien (Chinese traveller) wrote about the heath-care system of Gupta Empire and the
instructional medicine of Indian medicine. And it was available in Charaka.

9) Later on, the works of Sushruta and Charaka were translated into Arabic language.

10) Foreigners also started to utilize the practices of Sushruta.

Basic Principles Involved

There are 5 pharmacological principles of drug which is used for development of ayurvedic medicine
system. i.e., Panchsheel

1) Rasa: it denotes the taste of the drug, action of the drug and properties of drug.

There are 6 types of Rasa:

Sweet Solid +Liquid Pitta↑ Kapha↓

Sour Solid+Energy Pitta↑
Saline Liquid +Energy Kapha and pitta ↑
Pungent Air + Energy Vata↑
Bitter Air + Space Vata Pitta↑
Astringent Air + Solid Vata↑

2) Guna: It mainly shows the physical properties of drugs. Guna consists of 2 pairs, and each has the
opposite activity.

There are 10 types of guna:

Guru (Heavy) Laghu (Light)

Sukshma (Subtle) Sthula (Gross)
Sthira (Stable) Sara (Unstable)
Snigdha (Unctuous) Rooksha (Ununctuous)
 Sandra (Dense) Drava (Liquid)
Sheetal (Cold) Ushna(Hot)
Manda (Dull) Tikshna (Sharp)
Mridu (soft) Kathina (Hard)
Visuda (Non - Slime) Picula (Slime)
Slakshan (Smooth) Khara (Rough)

3) Virya: It mainly shows potency of drugs and two intrinsic properties,

i) Sheeta virya (kapha group)

ii) Ushna virya (pitta group)

4) Vipaka: It is called as nishthapak, it is the end product of digestion.

Three types of VIPAKA

1 Kapha Madhur
2 Pitta Amla
3 Vata Katu

5) Prabhava: It mainly denote of power of drug.

Five Elements

Sankhya theory of cosmology stated that world is made up of combination of these 5 elements -

Some them believes it was from European medicine, but it was originated from Ayurvedic medicine
system.

Human body is example for this, because we are complex and multicellular organisms.

1) Akasha: It denotes the spaces within the body i.e., mouth, nostrils, abdomen etc.

2) Vayu: It denotes the muscular movement.

3) Tejas or Agni: it denotes the functions of enzymes, i.e., digestion, metabolism, intelligence.

4) Apa or jala: It denotes the fluids. i.e., saliva, digestive juices and plasma.

5) Prithvi: it denotes the structure, i.e., hair, teeth, bones, saliva.

Doshas

All processes occurring within a body is balance of 3 types of doshas. The dosha which dominates a
person’s body and behaviour is called his Constitution type. It has particular strengths and
susceptibilities.

3 Types of doshas

1) Vata: Composition of air and space. Mind and body movement are controlled by it, and it maintain
the good balance. Too much of vata will cause worries, insomnia, cramps, constipation. Breathing,
movements of thoughts, blood flow and waste elimination is controlled by vata. Pitta and Kapha are
controlled by Vata and Vata is the first cause of disease.

2) Pitta: Composition of fire and water. Pitta was controlling all the Metabolism, heat, transformation
within the mind and body. Food digestion, metabolism of sensory perceptions and judgement of right
and wrong is controlled by pitta. Good balance also maintained by pitta. Too much of pitta causes
ulcers, anger, criticism, rashes and thinning of hair.

3) Kapha: Composition of earth and water. Resistance of body was maintained by Kapha, it will cause
moisture to the skin, helps in wound healing and joint lubrication, provides biological strength, vigour
and stability , fills the spaces in body, provides energy to heart and lungs, immunity maintenance. It also
control the greed, envy and emotions of attachment. Calmness, forgiveness and love are expression of
Kapha. Too much of Kapha cause allergies, congestion, weight gain.

The ayurveda system is state of mind and body for diagnosis and treatment. In Ayurveda, illness was
mainly caused by foreign agents and small organisms and it need aggressive intervention.

Diagnosis process

Doshas imbalance and its progression causing disease called as Samprapti (pathogenesis). Knowledge of
disease helps for early detection before it comes.
DISEASE PATHOGENESIS STAGES -

i) Sanchaya (ACCUMULATION)- If there is improper digestion, it can cause accumulation of toxins in the
body, and presence of toxins will cause mild to moderate symptoms. They must not be ignored and
must be identified and removed.

ii) Prakopa – provocation. The accumulated toxins can get provoked by seasons, time, etc.

iii) Prasara – spread or migration. The accumulated toxins migrate to various organs in the body.

iv) Sthana samshraya – deposition or augmentation. The migrated toxins will cause malfunction and
structural damages. And can now cause serious infections.

v) Vyaki – manifestation. Person starts to get the serious symptoms of the disease.

vi) Bhed – complications. Now if left untreated can result into chronic disease which can cause serious
complications.

Qualities of Ayurvedic System

Every material of world possesses a combination of 20 qualities. In Ayurveda we assumes that each
material can get benefit or harm by influencing the original constitution (prakrti).

Before the treatment for the particular patient, the practitioner of Ayurveda assess the qualities of
disorder, person’s unique prakrti and the influencing factors.The treatment is mainly based on the
therapies, herbs, etc.

Unani system of medicine

Unani medicine was mainly used in India and its subcontinent and it was one of the traditional medicine
of system.

Unani was formed by 4 humours -

i) Phlegm (Balgham)

ii) Blood (dam)

iii) Yellow bile (safra)

iv) Black bile (sauda)

History

 Healing of unani was started in 2nd century.

 Avicenna was the first to introduce healing medicine in west. Medical encyclopaedia was
described by Hakim Ibn Sina.
  Many emperor in the history also had hakims or unanis physicians.

Basic principles Involved

According to Hippocrates the “Disease is the natural process, symptoms are the reactions that body
produces towards the disease and physician’s role is to help the natural process of the body”. Checking
the patient medical history was formed by Hippocrates. And he was the person who formed the
HUMORAL THEORY.

The components whose loss in human body will leads to disease or even death -

Al-Arkan Element
Al-Mizaj Body fluids
Al-Akhalt Body fluid
Al-A'za' Organ
Al-Arwah Pneuma
Al- quwa Power
Al-Atal Function

Humoral theory

It contains four humours -

1) Dam blood

2) Balgham – phlegm

3) Safra – yellow bile

4) Sauda – black bile

Diagnosis

Disease diagnosis of Unani system was by Nabz (pulse) checking by touching the fingers. Pulse is
rhythmic expansion of arteries. The diagnostic techniques like examination of Baul (urine) and Baraz
(stool).

Treatment

1) Ilajbil Tadbeer: It is called as Regimental therapy. This therapy includes diaphoresis, cupping,
venesection, Turkish bath, Massage, diuresis, cauterization, exercise, leeching, emesis, purging etc.

2) Ilajbil Ghiza: It is called Dietotherapy. It mainly focuses on the quantity and quality of food for the
particular disease and proper diet.

3) Ilajbil dawa: It is called pharmacotherapy. Drugs are originated from the plant origin, animal origin
and minerals also.
4) Ilajbil yad or jarahad: It is called surgery. It was formed by ancient physician using surgical
instruments and techniques.

Siddha Medicine of system

It is oldest system and it is founded from Dravidian culture of pre Vedic period. In this, drugs are
extracted from vegetables.

History

It is ancient traditional system and it was practiced in India. Siddha was derived from word siddhi
(perfection of heavenly bliss). The siddhi signifies 8 supernatural power.

Basic principles Involved

The universe is made up of universal entities which is matter and earth.

Siddha call the male siva and female as sakthi.

Matter cannot exist without Earth and vice versa. Both of them coexist and it cannot be separated.

There are 5 primitive elements and they are - Munn (solid), neer (fluid), thee (radiance), vayu (gas)
and aakasam (ether). Different proportion of them are present in every substance.

Different proportion of human body consists of three elements they are Vatham, pitham, karpam
which facilitate the physiological functions.

Tridoshas system of medicine

Body functions such as physical, mental, emotional sides are controlled by Tridoshas.

1) Vatham

I) It is light, dry, cold and motile.

II) Formed by aakasam and vayu.

III) Controls nervous system.

IV) Dominates the 1st one third of life, it sharpness of function of sense.

2) Pitham

I) Indicated by heat.

II) Formed by thee.

III) Control Digestion, assimilation, metabolic activity of body, warmth, intellect etc.

IV) Tissue blood is predominated by pitham.

V) Second one third phase of life is dominated by pitham.

3) Karpam

I) It is firm, smooth and heavy.

II) Formed by munn and neer

III) Controls the stability of body potency, strength and smooth working of joints.

IV) Other body tissues are predominated by karpam.

V) Last one third phase of life is dominates by karpam.

7 dhatus are –

1) Rasa - lymph

2) Kuruthi – blood

3) Tasai - muscle

4) Kozhuppu – adipose tissue

5) Elumbu – bone

6) Majjai – marrow

7) Sukkilam and artavam – male and female hormones

Diagnosis

8 types of Examinations: Patient tongue, speech, complexion, eyes, stool, urine, palpitation and lastly
pulse.

Treatment

The drugs contain 5 elements which is used for treating the imbalance of tridoshas. Drugs with opposite
reaction are submitted to the correct the imbalance.

For example: cold and dry will occur due to the imbalance of Vadam. Apply warm oil as treatment for
the inactivity of limbs, movement and activities are prescribed.
Materia Medica

Siddha obtained the intelligence from yoga. Based on this knowledge, they will explore nature and
natural resources to serve the humanity. They obtain the characteristic from animals, plants, metals and
minerals. Sridhar’s wrote all the things as poem for future use for children. Siddha Medicine students
gets the knowledge regarding purification, processing, drugs, heat application, fixing dosages, toxicity,
antidote, and the clinical application form Gurus and vast knowledge in the modern world.

Therapeutic Mercury

Mercury acts as the catalytic agent and play important role in siddha Medicine of system.

Sulphur is combined with Mercury and it will form mercuric sulphite (insoluble in mineral acid). Sulphur
will remove fluidity from mercury.

Mercury used in 5 forms in the siddha system of medicine.

1) Rasam –Mercury metal.

2) Lingam - red sulphide of mercy.

3) Veeram – Mercury chloride

4) Pooram - Mercury subchloride

5) Rasa chenduram -Red oxide of mercury is poison, it was processed as poora chandrodayam.

Preparation of siddha Medicine:

1) Bhasma: calcined metals and minerals

2) Churna: Powders

3) Chunna: metallic preparation which became alkaline

4) Ghrita: ghee preparation

5) Kashaya: decoctions

6) Lehya: confections

7) Mezhugu: waxy preparation

8) Taila: oil preparation

Homeopathy System of Medicines

This type is prepared by dilutions with forcefully shaking and stirring. The process of preparation is
called as potentisation. Medicines Dilution are carried on till the original substance of medicine
completely go away.

Homeopaths collect detailed history of the patients about their symptoms, physical and psychological
state before prescribing the medicine. After the history collection, they refer the homeopathic reference
books, based on the Symptoms only they select medicines. They advise them not to take conventional
medicine like vaccinations, anti-malarial drugs, and antibiotics it will put patients on the risk.

History

This medicine is based on the principle of Similia Similibus Curanter, i.e., like cures like. Founder of this
medicine system is Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (a German physician), which is a complete healing system.
Homeopathy medicine system is different for different countries based on regulations and prevalence.
Homeopathic system practicing in some countries does not require any legal regulations.

Basic Principles Involved

Hahnemann discuss fundamental principles in this medicine system –

1) Law of Similia: let likes be cured by likes. Medicine is given to the patient by matching the symptoms
of the diseases.

2) Law of Simplex: According to this, simple, single drugs should be given to the patient at a time. This
will cause no addiction in the patient.

3) Law of Minimum: administer the drugs in small or minimum quantity. If we give in large dose it will
cause undesirable effects.

4) Drug Proving: Healing power of drug is known when it used therapeutically. Ability to produce
disease symptoms when given to a healthy individual is healing power of drug. Curative properties and
healing power of drug is known by its pathogenesis and can be determine by effect alone on a healthy
individual.

5) Drug Dynamisation or Potentisation: In the normal harmonious flow of dynamics of life forces, of any
disturbance or deviation arise it is termed as a disease. The drugs must have a dynamic action.

6) Vital Force: The disordered vital force should be normalised by process of restoration. The two
quantitative states of this vital force of living being is health and disease and cure is to be affected here.
Vital force is autocratic, automatic, dynamic, instinctive, unintelligent and spiritual.

7) Acute and Chronic Diseases: Based on their onset, progression, and termination the disease can be
classified into acute or chronic.
8) Individualisation: In world, two individuals are not the same, to that like diseases affecting them are
also never same and it assumes the unique individual picture in each disease. The prescribing medicines
not merely based on the disease name, but by individuality of each disease case.

9) Direction of Cure: 'Cure takes place within outward form above to downward and the symptoms
disappear in the reverse of their appearance’ is stated by Dr. Hering. If the occurs in reverse direction to
that stated, then it is not cure but only suppression.

Homeopathic Remedies

Specific procedure are used for preparing the substance that are used for remedy. The remedy is used
for curing disease or reducing the pain.

Preparations - In preparation, grinding of insoluble solids are done and preparing the medication is
mainly done Potentisation or dynamisation. After that mainly dilutions of preparation is done mainly
with distilled water or alcohol by vigorous shaking for 10 times is called Succussion.

According to Hahnemann, substance that used for the treatment are producing the symptoms are same
in the both healthy and diseased individuals. Sometimes it will cause worse of the symptoms and it will
produce the toxic effects. Dilution of substances in the vital energy activates by process of Succussion.

Dilutions

The medicines are mainly follows the 3 LOGARITHMIC SCALES. For diluting the substances Centesimal
(C) was used by Hahnemann. Substance is diluted with one in one hundred, after that a portion is taken
from it is diluted solution by factor 100 in case 2C Dilution.

After the process the original substance one part is diluted in the solution of 10,000 parts. This process
will takes place for 6 times it will be diluted by a factor of 100-6= 10-¹2 (one part in one trillion).

METHOD OF AYURVEDIC FORMULA PREPARATIONS

Introduction

Based on the Ayurveda, the Indian system of medicine was founded and it is science of life it was
developed by Brahma. Ayurvedic medicine are formed during ancient time itself and it contains more
knowledge and art of healing and drugs are derived from the vegetables used for many purposes with
different doses.

In the developing India, they are mainly taking allopathic and modern medicine for all treatments. But
pharmacist should be aware of all the medicines and the manufacturing and usages. Rural population
depends on the Ayurvedic medicine and also mainly for cosmetics and herbal drugs.

CLASSIFICATION OF AYURVEDIC DOSAGE FORMS:

SOLIDS -
  CHURNA (POWDERS)
 VATIKA (PILLS)
 MODAKA (BOLUSES)
 GUGGULU (PLANT EXUDATIONS)
 NETRANJAN (COLLYRIA)
 NASYA (SNUFFS)
 PHALAVARTI (SUPPOSITORIES)
 DHUMAPANA (INHALATIONS)
 KSHARA (ALKALIS)

SEMI-SOLIDS -

 Kalka (ointments and pastes)

 Avaleha (extracts)
 Khandapaka (confections)
 Yavagu (gruels)

LIQUIDS -

1) Aqueous

i) Swarasa (self-juice)

ii) Kasaya (extracts):

 shita –kasaya (cold infusions)

 Phanta –kasaya (hot infusions)
 Kwatha (decoction) and
 Paniya (weak decoctions)

iii) Kshira-paka (milk decoctions)

iv) Vasti (enemas) and

v) Sugandhita jala (perfumed waters)

2) Oily

i) Taila (medicated oils)

ii) Ghrita (medicated clarified butter)

iii) Mantha (a kind of emulsions)

3) Acetus

i) kanjika (vinegars)
ii) samkhadrav (mineral acids)

iii) Swalpadravaka (mineral acids)

4) Spirituous

I) sura (wines)

ii) asava (tinctures)

iii) arishta (tinctures)

Classification of Ayurvedic formulas:

The preparation and standardization of Ayurvedic formulations are:

1) ARISHYA

2) ASAVA

3) GUTIKA

4) TAILA

5) CHURNA

6) LEHYA

7) BHASMA

1) ARISHTA: It is one of the ancient medicinal preparation. Main substances and other ingredients are
added in boiling water for fermentation process for specific time period.

Method of Preparation

Powder drugs are make into kasaya and it was transfer into fermentation vessel after the straining
process, and add required amount honey or jaggery or sugar is added to the kasaya after it dissolves and
pour into container.

The mouth cover was closed with lid and it was sealed with clay smeared cloth and winding is used to
seal the edges of the container, it should repeated for 7 days for fermentation, temperature is constant
it was placed in room in underground cellar. After the time period jar was opened and check the
contents are fermented or not and it was decanted and straining for 2-3 days for particles are settled
bottom. All the process is over the product is filtered thoroughly and placed in bottle it has a
characteristic of aromatic, and alcoholic odour.

Examples: Abhyarista, Balarista, Khadirarishta, Dasmularista, Vidangarishta, etc.

2) ASAVA

It was prepared by fermentation process with special ingredients in un-boiled water for the particular
time.

Method of Preparation

For prolonged period, drugs are soaked with solution like jaggery or sugar. Vessel should closed with lid
and clay is used to seal. After that fermentation occurs and it produce alcohol. The final product should
be stored in the container after the filtration. It was free of froth and clear. Well stored for long period
of time and it was alcoholic and aromatic odour.

Examples: Kumaryasava, Arvindasava, Vasakasava, Punarnavasava, Madhukasava, etc.

Difference between Arishtas and Asavas

ARISHTAS ASAVAS
Method of preparation is decoction Method of preparation is infusion
Smaller fermentation period Compare with arishtas, time period was
longer

2) GUTIKA

It was prepared by combination of minerals, vegetables, and animals used within 2 years. Medicated
pills are also available.

Method of Preparation

It was obtained from plants which was dried and powdered. Gandhaka (sulphur) are stated, and
bhasmas or sindura is made by adding kajjali with other mineral drugs. Based on the formula parada
(mercury) was given at one time. Made the mixture into soft paste by proper grounding of khalva and
prescribed amount of fluids. After the process add sugandha dravyas (flavouring agents) like kasturi and
final mass was produced without sticking on the fingers and made the pills as many, dried it in sun shade
and add the jaggery or sugar. Vatakas are rolled and dried in the warm state. Pills are stored in the air
tight container it will be consumed within the 2years in plant origin and mineral origin it was used for
long period of time.

Its colour, odour, and taste after formulation will be original not detriorate. Prevention from moisture
and added with salt or sugar.

Examples: Lasunadi gutika, Marma gutika, Pranda gutika, Bilvadi gutika, Marma gutika Mritsanjivni
gutika, etc.

4) TAILA
It is made up of with juice or decoction and also from cooking oil form the paste of drugs. This is also
known as PAKA/ SNEHA KALPA. Taila contains 1/4 part of both oil and liquid (dravya) in it but liquid is 4
times of oil.

Method of Preparation: 3 Essential components of tailas.

For the preparation of the Talia - it contains of Dravya taken as sixteen parts, Kalika taken as one part
and finally take Snehadravya is four parts. Both Dravya and Kalika mixed well, Snehadravya is boiled and
added it and mixed well so that Kalika was not stick to vessel.

Both the Dravyas and Kalika start evaporating. After that it should stirred carefully to prevent the Kalika
sticking in the vessels. And Kalika should test from time to time to find the condition and preparation.

Sarkara is added to the final product after the Snehadravya. In preparation they added lavans (salt) and
ksharas (alkali) and strained. Colour, odour, taste in drugs of Talia and it has oil consistency. The quality
of milk is added to the preparation of taila. Due the Ghrita, oil is used in preparation and it was
condense in cold season. It has potency about 60 months and it is used both internally and topically. For
internal consumption it was taken with warm water or milk.

Examples of Taila -

1) Asanabilvadi taila:

Ingredients: Asana,Amurata, Bala, bilva, yestimadhu, shunti.

It was used in ear and eye healthiness and it was used in treating the migraine and neuralagia. In
external used for skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis etc.

2) Aswagandhabalalakshadi Taila:

Ingredients: aswagandha, Bala,haridra, laksha

Uses of taila are very different and it was helpful for various disease like lumbago. Arthritis and external
application for the paralysis and acts as mucolytic agents for respiratory disorder like pneumonia,
tuberculosis, pleurisy, asthma etc.
3) Bhringamalaka Taila

Ingredients: Amruta, bilva, Bhringaraja, Deodar, Amruta, Kumari.

It is used for reducing the heat in head and protect brain and it was continuously used as bathing oil and
reduce the burning sensation of eyes, ears and head.

4) Bramhi Taila

Ingredients: Amruta, Amalaka, Mandukaparni, Shatavari, Vacha.

It is useful to the individual with disorders like epilepsy, insanity, loss of memory, nervous disability and
irritability and acts as the brain good tonic.

5) Ksheerabala Taila

Ingredients: Bala, Ksheera.

It is useful to treating the problems like epistaxis, vertigo, tremors, hemiplegia, paraplegia, tremors,
hypertension, burning extremities and Gout. It softens the skin.

6) Ksheera Bala Taila (Avartita)

Ingredients: Ksheera, BalAval

It is used for treating the nervous disorders like sciatica, nervous disability, rheumatoid arthritis, Gout
and hemiplegia. This medicine can taken via oral route.

7) Kumkumadi Taila

Ingredients: Laksha, Kumkuma kesara, Manjista, Raktachandana, Gorochana.

It is useful for reducing pimples, black heads improve complexion and lustre.

8) Manjishtadi Taila

Ingredients: Kumari, Manjista, Sariva, Chandana.

It is useful in skin disorders like psoriasis, ringworm and types of headache.

5) CHURNA

It is powder form of drug. The drugs was placed in patha in the cleaned manner and dried air tight
container for the potency for year.

Method of Preparation
Drugs were dried, cleaned and finely powdered. For many condition the drugs are separately powdered
and it was mixture together. In large scale production, all the drugs are cleaned, dried, powdered
together. The powder particles are screened through mechanical filters. The powder should be moist.
The therapeutic effect of powder is comparatively better.

Examples
Names of medicine Active Ingredients Therapeutic uses
Agnimukhchurna Sonth, jirak, Marich, Menthol, Bid, Expectorant, diuretic, and
Lavan, Saindhavan, Lemon juice, etc. aperints, indicated in dyspepsia
and loss of appetite
Ashwagandhadichurna Ashwagandha and Bidhara Alternative tonic, aphrodisiac,
and anti-reheumatic,
indicated,in impotency,
spermatorrhoea, old age,
disability, and leucorrhoea

Bilwadichurna Bael, Mochras, sonth, bhang, Astringent and also indicated in

Dhaiphpool, Dhania, and Saunf diarrhoea, and dysentery

Chandanadichurna Chandan, Gum acacia, priyangu, Stimulant, demulcent and

jamunguthli, Aamguthli, urinary antiseptic; indicated in
Nagarmotha, Ajwain, Giloy, Indrajav, gonorrhoea, cystitis,
and Mocharas. genitourinary infections, thirst,
extreme heat, and coma
Eladichurna Ela, keshar, Bhringaraj, Bansalochan, Carminative and antiemetic
Munakka, Anardana, Dhania, jeera, indicated in vomiting,
pipalmool, chitrak, Trikatu, Ajwain, indigestion and anorexia.
and Amalbet

Haritakichurna Harad (Terminalischebula) Internal cleanser and detoxifier

support body tissues, improves
and digestive function
Jatiphaladichurna Jaiphal,lavang, ela,Tekpatra, Sedative, antispasmodic, and
cinnamon, Tagar, Amla, citrak, astringent; indicated in
camphor, Bansalochan, Bidang, diarrhoea sprue, spasmodic
Harre, Trikatu etc. cough, migraines, mania,
menorrhagia, spasmodic cough,
dysmenorrhoea, etc.
Mahasudarshanchurna Triphala, Trikatu, Chiraita, Bidang, Diaphoretic and diuretic;
Lavang, katerikachur, Daruhaldi, indicated in fever, intermittent
Giloy and other 40 items fever, liver and spleen
enlargement, fatigue, and
nausea
Panchasakarchurna Sanai, Harre, sonth, Anisi, Purgative, carminative, and
andSaindhava. stimulant; indicated in
constipation colic, indigestion,
and other intestinal disorders.
Sitopaladichurna Sugar candy, Dalchini, Ela, pipal, and Stimulant, laxative, and
Bansalochan. expectorant indicated in
bronchitis, cough, excessive
thirst, burning sensation and
respiratory complains.
Triphalachurna Harre, Bahera, and Amla. Alternative, astringent, laxative,
aperient; indicated in dyspepsia
diarrhoea, piles, blood impurity,
eye irrigation, and
haemorrhage.

6) LEHYA
It was also called as leha or aveleha.

Method of Preparation

For the preparation of drugs the candy, jaggery or sugar was diluted with liquid and boiling the liquid in
moderate manner after impurity of the preparation was removed. The boiling was stopped after it
becomes in thread. It was checked by liquid pouring into water it sinks without dissolved or pressing the
2 fingers. For homogenous mass, the small quantities of powdered drugs was added. After the
preparation it was mixed with ghee or oil. After cooling the preparation, add honey.

The following components:

Examples: Kutajavaleha, Draksavaleha, Vasavaleha, Bilvadileha, Surnavaleha, etc.

7) BHASMA

It is in powder form and yellowish, whitish, grey and black in colour. In the process of calcination it was
obtained from the metals, minerals and animals in closed manner. It is stored in glass containers. It was
stable in manner and long period of potency.

Method of Preparation

The process was time consuming and need attention.

1) First Stage (Sodhana): It was extracted by 2 steps, they are sodhana and marana. These are minerals,
metals, marine, and animal products.

2) Second Stage (Marana): It was the second stage of preparation.

i) The drugs was grounded for specific period of time with juices from the particular plants and kasayas
of drugs.

ii) Small cakes (cakrikas) are prepared from the mixture.

iii) The preparation of cakes mainly done with sun dried and it was arranged in single layer in shallow
earthern plate.
iv) The plate is closed with another plate, winding clay is used for coverings the edges, smeared cloth in
seven consecutive layers, and dried.

v) In open space a pit is formed, filling done with cow dung cakes up to the half level.

vi) In pit the sealed earthen container is kept and more to fill up the remaining space with cow dung
cakes.

vii) Middle of pit and four sides are put on fire.

viii) The complete burning done in pit is cooled, container is taken out; opened, contents are removed.

ix) The powder is again grounded with juice in a khalva.

Examples: Tamrabhasma, Godantibhasma, Pravalabhasma, Muktabhasma, Lauhabhasma, etc.

Chapter 8 – MEDICINAL & AROMATIC PLANTS

ROLE OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS IN NATIONAL ECONOMY AND THEIR EXPORT POTENTIAL

 Plants have been used for therapeutic, religious, cosmetic, nutritional, and beautification
purposes since ancient times and humanity of all civilizations and culture are familiar with their
usage. Herbs have been used prevalently as home remedies to treat diseases seasonal like
cough, cold, stomach-ache etc. in several countries of Asia, Africa and Europe.
 Production of medicines that are of plant origin has been a major part of Indian Pharmaceutical
sector in recent years. Example include morphine, quinine, digoxin, caffeine, colchicine,
vincristine, vinblastine, etc.
 Aromatic plants products are widely used as flavouring agents, spices, perfume and also used as
medicines. Example include ajowain, lemongrass, celery seeds, mentha, etc.
 Many medicinal and aromatic plants are found in India due to variety of climates. India has
around 2200 species of medicinal and essential oil producing plants.

EXAMPLES OF SOME EXPORTED MEDICINAL & AROMATIC PLANTS

 Seeds of isabgol
 Quinine
 Celery seeds
 Mehndi leaves
 Rauwolfia
 Guar gum
 Senna
 Opium alkaloids
 Ipecac
 Menthol and mint oil
 Sindura fruits
 Podophyllum
 Sandal wood oil
 Agar wood oil, etc.

SOME HIGHLY CONSUMED MEDICINAL PLANTS WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR TURNOVER –

PLANT NAMES COMMON NAMES PLANT PART ESTIMATED

CONSUMPTION
(TONNES)
ALOE VERA ALOES LEAF 200

ACORUS CALAMUS VACHA RHIZOME 150

ACONITUM ATIS ROOT 20

HETEROPHYLLUM
ANDROGRAPHIS KALMEGH AERIAL PART 250
PANICULATA
CEDRUS DEODARA DEODAR HEART WOOD 200

CINNAMOMUM DALCHINI BARK 200-300

ZEYLANICUM
BERBERIS ARISTATA DARU HALDI ROOT 500

ROLE IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

A. MEDICINAL PLANTS

India has variety of medicinal plants. They form crucial part of our ancient history. The Charak Samhita is
one of the earliest treatises of Indian Medicine. It has over 340 herbs that are still being used for their
medicinal properties.

Based on the composition of plants, they are categorized into alkaloids, glycosides, corticosteroids,
essential oils etc.

 Alkaloids – they include morphine, codeine, quinine, ergotamine, belladonna, Datura, ipecac,
cocaine, caffeine, santonin, etc.
 Glycosides – it include digoxin, senna, aloe, glycyrrhizin, etc.
 Corticosteroids – it include diosgenin, solasodin, etc.
 Essential oils – peppermint, valerian, etc.

B. AROMATIC PLANTS

They are those substances which produce odor and are volatile in nature. They can be used for various
purposes like perfumes, spices, anti-bacterials, germicides, etc. From the plants, these aromatic
products or essential oils can be extracted by various methods such as –

 Distillation
 Steam distillation
 Solvent extraction

Essential oils can be used for various purposes such as –

 Insecticide industry – sprays, repellant, disinfectant

 Cosmetic and toiletries – perfumes, spray, soap, detergents, creams, powder, etc.
 Dental preparations – toothpaste, mouthwash, tooth powder.
 Medical – pharmaceutical preparations
 Food beverages – liquor, flavoring agents, preparation of sauces, preservatives,
 Tobacco industry – tobacco, cigarettes
 Paper & printing industry – carbon paper, ribbon ink, labels, wrappers
 Textile industry
 Petroleum industry – oil, waxes, lubricant creams
  Paint industry – paints, vanishes, distemper, diluents
 Motor industry – polish, plastic goods, etc.

INDIAN SCENARIO –

 Kerala is top producer for cardamom, long pepper, turmeric and ginger.
 Half of the country’s turmeric and chillies production is done by Andhra Pradesh.
 During April – December, 2008, the spices export was 334150 tonnes (Rs. 3810.95 crore).
 Most of the spices export has been raised during April – December, 2008.
 India has exported 141000 tonnes of chillies and its products (Rs. 793.18 crore) during the
period.
 The spice oils and oleoresins export has been rised up by 42% in value and 15% in volume during
April-December, 2008.
 So overall we can conclude by the data that India export majority of medicinal and aromatic
plants around the globe.
CHAPTER 9 – HERBS AS HEALTH FOODS

NUTRACEUTICALS

Nutraceutical is a term used to classify foods that provide medical or health benefits. Dr. Stephen
Defelice discovered the term from 2 words – nutrition and pharmaceuticals.

It include isolated nutrients, dietary supplements, and specific diets that are genetically engineered and
herbal products.

Classification –

NUTRACEUTICALS ACCORDING TO FOOD SOURCE:

 Plants source – ascorbic acid, ellegic acid, curcumin, cellulose, pectin, lycopene, etc.
 Animals source – conjugated linoleic acid, choline, lecithene, sphingolipids.
 Microbial source – yeast, lactobacillus acidophilus, etc.

NUTRACEUTICALS ACCORDING TO MECHANISM OF ACTION

It include anti-oxidant, antibacterial, antihypertensive, anti-hypercholesterolemia, anti-aggregate, anti-

inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, etc.

 Anticancer – capsaicin, lactobacillus acidophilus, ellagic acid, curcumin, etc.

 Antioxidant – ascorbic acid, tocopherols, ellagic acid, tannins, gingerol, lutocolin, lycopene, beta-
carotene, etc.
 Anti-inflammatory – linoleic acid, curcumin, etc.
 Osteogenic – soy protein, calcium, inulin, etc.

NUTRACEUTICALS ACCORDING TO THEIR CHEMICAL NATURE

- ISOPRENOIDS: carotenoids, saponins, simple terpenes, tocopherols.

- PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS – tannins, lignin, anthrocyanins, flavonols, flavonones.
- AMINO-ACID BASE – indoles, folate, choline, etc.
- CARBOHYDRATE DERIVATIVES – ascorbic acid, oligosaccharides
- MINERALS – calcium, selenium, potassium, copper, zinc.
- MICROBIALS – probiotics, prebiotics

NUTRACEUTICALS ACCORDING TO THEIR HIGHER CONTENT IN SPECIFIED FOOD ITEMS

 Allyl Sulphur compounds - onions and garlic.

 Isoflavones - soya beans and other legumes
 Lycopene - tomatoes and its products
 Beta glucan - oat bran
 Indoles - cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
 Curcumin - turmeric
 Cellulose - most of the plants
  Adenosine - garlic and onion
 Ellagic acid - grapes, strawberries, walnut
 Mono saturated fatty acids - olive oil
 Lactobacilli - yoghurt and other dairy products
 Inulin - whole grains, onion, garlic.

CATEGORIES OF NUTRACEUTICALS –

A. TRADITIONAL NUTRACEUTICALS:

 Chemical constituents –
1. Nutrients
2. Herbs
3. Phytochemicals
 Probiotic micro-organisms
 Nutraceutical enzymes

B. NON-TRADITIONAL NUTRACEUTICALS:

 Fortified nutraceuticals
 Recombinant nutraceuticals

TRADITIONAL NUTRACEUTICALS

They are natural and they bring no change in the food. But they provide certain benefits to the food.
Following are the few nutraceuticals with its application -

 Allenic carotenoid fucoxanthin (brown seaweeds) - improves insulin resistance and decreases
blood glucose level.
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids - prevents disorder affecting lungs and Airway.
 Conjugated linoleic acid - improve Airway responsiveness in case of asthma.
 Fermented papaya preparation - helps in the treatment of liver cirrhosis.
 Calcitriol - help in the tumor suppressor genes.
 Fortified wheat flour - reduces possibility of neural tube defects at birth.

NON-TRADITIONAL NUTRACEUTICALS

Artificial foods that are produced from biotechnology. They are formed to produce benefits to the
human beings. They can be divided into two categories -

 Fortified nutraceutical: They include fortified food from agricultural breeding or added
nutrients. Examples, orange juice fortified with calcium, flour fortified with folic acid.
 Recombinant nutraceutical: Include energy providing foods and also helps in the production of
probiotics.

Few products produced by Recombinant microorganism, plants and animals –

1. Recombinant Micro-organisms
 SOURCES ENZYMES PRODUCTS

E. Coli Chymosin Milk-coagulated products

Spirulina pacifica Indoleamine 2,3- dioxygenase Increased hemoglobin

Acetobacter xylinum Beta-glucornidase Kombucha beverage

2. Recombinant plants

RECOMBINANTS DEFICIENCY GENE FOR RECOMBINATION

Gold kiwifruit Iron High level of ascorbic acid,

carotenoids
Potatoes Protein Amaranth albumin 1

Golden mustard Vitamin A Soyabean ferritin gene

Golden rice Vitamin A 2 daffodil gene and 1 bacterial

gene

3. Recombinant animals

RECOMBINANTS DEFICIENCY GENE FOR RECOMBINATION

FERMENTED SOYA MILK CALCIUM Lactobacillus acidophilus

America type culture
collection 4962
Yogurt Probiotic micro-organisms Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12
and lactobacillus acidophilus
LA-5.

Therapeutic applications -

 They provide medicinal benefit.

 They do not have any side effect.
 They increase health benefits.
 They are helpful in the treatment of various disease.
 They can be used as cardiovascular agents, antidiabetic agents, immune boosters, etc.
  They can cure eye problems, mental health problems.
 They are helpful in the sleep enhancement.
 Prevent cancer.
 They are beneficial for bone health.

ANTI-OXIDANTS

They are natural or synthetic substance prevent cell damage. Vegetable and fruits are good sources of
antioxidants.

CLASSIFICATION:

They can be classified as follows:

A. ENZYMATIC ANTIOXIDANTS

 Primary antioxidants
 Secondary enzymes

B. NON-ENZYMATIC ANTIOXIDANTS

 Endogenous
 Exogenous

SOURCES OF ANTI-OXIDANTS:

They are abundantly found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, meat, poultry, etc.
 Allium sulphur compounds - obtained from onions and garlic
 Beta carotene - obtained from pumpkin, mangoes, carrot.
 Flavonoids - obtained from tea, citrus fruits, red wine, onion
 Indoles - obtained from cabbage, broccoli.
 Manganese - obtained from seafood, milk, nuts
 Copper - obtained from seafood.
 Vitamin A - obtained from liver, sweet potatoes, carrot.
 Vitamin C - obtained from oranges, Kiwi, mangoes
Therapeutic applications -
 Cardiovascular diseases: they are used in the treatment of various cardiovascular disorders such
as atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction.
 Cancer -, beta carotene, Vitamin C they can be used in the treatment of cancer.
 Brain injury - certain antioxidants also prevent from brain injury.
 Apoptosis - they can prevent cell death.
  Liver damage - they may prevent liver damage that can be caused due to excessive alcohol.
PROBIOTICS
They are good bacteria that enhance healthy digestion and absorption of nutrients. They are
adventitious to us. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are mostly used as probiotics.
SELECTION CRITERIA
 Separate from the host colony.
 Beneficial for humans
 Doesn’t cause any disease.
 Capacity to survive in GIT conditions.
MECHANISM OF ACTION
Exact mechanism is unknown, but it is thought that –
 They adhere & colonize in the gut.
 Suppress the activity of pathogenic micro-organisms.
 Control exchange of dietary antigens.
 Stimulate host’s immunity.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 They are beneficial for the digestive system.
 They have many health benefits.
 Prevent diarrhoea
 Improve mental health conditions.
 Reduce blood pressure
 Reduce bad cholesterol
 Reduce severity of eczema
 Boost immune system
 Help in weight loss.
PREBIOTICS
They are indigestible carbohydrates that promote growth of good bacteria of large intestine. Bacteria
present in large intestine break down the prebiotics and form gases & short-chain fatty acids, which
bacteria will feed upon.
MODE OF ACTION –
- They are broken down in large intestine.
 - Stop intestinal bleeding
- Inhibit the growth of certain toxins.
- Provide energy to the bacteria.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS –
 Improve immunity of the host
 Promote regular bowel movement
 Reduce risk of intestinal infections.
 Increases bone density and increase calcium absorption
 Provide many health benefits.
DIETARY FIBRES
They are edible, non-digestible plant carbohydrates. They remain undigested and reaches the large
intestine where it may or may not broken down into absorbable substances by intestinal bacteria.
CLASSIFICATION –
1. SOLUBLE FIBRES – it include pectins, gums, mucilage, fruits, vegetables, barley, flaxseed, lentils,
peas, sweet potatoes, soy milk, etc.
2. INSOLUBLE FIBRES – it include cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. It mainly increases the bulk of
faeces. Example – skins of fruits, cereals, strawberries, apple, avocado, wholegrain foods, etc.
DIETARY INTAKE OF FIBRES –
 Age 2-5 years – 15g/day.
 Age 5-11 years – 20g/day
 Age 11-16 years – 25g/day
 17 and above age – 30g/day.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 Reduces risk of TYPE-2 diabetes mellitus – they delay glucose absorption, increasing insulin
sensitivity at cellular level.
 Reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases – lower the blood cholesterol level.
 Reduces risk of cancer – they modify the metabolism of colon carcinogenesis.
 Reduce risk of breast cancer
 Maintain a healthy weight
 Prevent constipation
 Prevent hemorrohoids.
OMEGA-3-FATTY ACIDS
They are found in fish, flaxseeds, and dietary supplements. 3 major omega-3-fatty acids are –
 ALA – Alpha-Linoleic Acid
 EPA – Eicosapentaenoic Acid
 DHA – Docosahexaenoic Acid
They are important component of cell membranes. They also provide energy to the body.
TYPES OF FOOD PROVIDING OMEGA-3-FATTY ACIDS
 Fish and other sea foods
 Nuts and seeds
 Plant oils
 Fortified foods – eggs, juices, milk, soy beverages
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 Reduces the risk of cardiovascular disorders
 Reduces the risk of blood clots
 Keeps the body vessels smooth and damage free
 Lower triglycerides level
 Slows down the formation of inflammatory substances
 Lower down the blood pressure.
 Increases good cholesterol level.
SPIRULINA
It is blue-green algae, Spirulina maxima. It include lipids, essential fatty acids, fats, and proteins.
 Lipid content – 5-6%
 Carbohydrates in the form of glycogen
 Vitamins – beta-carotene, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12.
 Minerals – 3-6%
 Enzymes – in the form of Super Oxide Dismutase (SOD).
 Crude fibres – 0.8%
 Ash – 6%
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 Immuno-stimulant activities
 Enhances the function of spleen and thymus gland.
  Helps in DNA repair
 Shows anti-HIV activities
 Reduces cholesterol level and suppress appetite.
CAROTENOIDS
They are the fat soluble pigments that contain more than 700 compounds imparting red, orange, yellow
colours.
CLASSIFICATION –
 CAROTENES – (Beta-carotene)
 OXYGENATED DERIVATIVES OF CAROTENES
EXAMPLES –
 Beta-carotene: orange colour pigment, which is sensitive to light and oxygen. It provide
protection against heart diseases and cancer.
 Lycopene – most effective antioxidant, belongs to subgroup of non-oxygenated carotenoids.
 Astaxanthin – found in aquatic animals.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS –
 Vision benefits – helpful in age related vision loss, and treat various eye disorders.
 Cardiovascular benefits – reduces risk of atherosclerosis, hypertension.
 Skin aging protection – protect from UV rays and reduces skin redness.
 Skin cancer protection – inhibit cell cycle of carcinogenic cells.
 Bone health – improves bone health.
 Slowing rate of mental decline
 Boosting immunity
 Reduces risk of breast and prostate cancer.
SOYA
It is a complete source of protein, belongs to legume family. Soyabean is grown from their seeds and is
the second largest oil seed after groundnut in India. It contains –
 40-50% of protein
 20-22% of oil
 5% amino acids
 Carbohydrates
 Vitamins
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS –
 Soyabean oil is used in cooking
 Soyabean milk is very nutritious
 Soyabean flour is good for health
 Rich source of proteins
 Low in fat
 Excellent source of calcium
 Reduces heart diseases, cancer and osteoporosis.
GARLIC
It is bulbous structure of Allium sativum. It is used in cooking purposes as well as used as medicine from
ancient time. It has minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, amino acids, volatile oils. It has sulphur content in
it. The sulphur compound found in it are –
 Diallyldisulphide
 Diallyltrisulphide
 Alliin
 Ajoene, etc
It also has minerals in it such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, etc. and also it has few vitamins
like A, C, B1.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 It has analgesic properties, carminative, gastric stimulant, anticonvulsant, antibacterial, diuretic.
 It helps in digestion and absorption of food.
 It prevents clotting of blood.
 Used in the treatment of tumors, hypertension, atherosclerosis, tuberculosis, piles, epilepsy,
diabetes, bronchial asthma, etc.
 Its oil can also be used as insecticide.
Chapter 10 - HERBAL COSMETICS

Herbal cosmetics are the products prepared by various cosmetic ingredients having cosmetic benefits.
Herbs do not provide instant cures. They just make the body in proper tune. Many toiletry and Cosmetic
items have been produced by Indian herbs.

ALOVERA GEL

Aloe Vera Gel is derived from aloe plant.

SOURCES

 Aloe is the juice of the leaves of various aloe species, i.e., Aloe ferox, Aloe vera.
 The other names of Aloe vera Linn are Aloe barbadensis Mil, Aloe vulgairis Lamerek. At the
beginning of 16th Century, it was largely produced on the islands of Barbados. Aloe from this
species are called as Barbados aloe.

FAMILY - Liliaceae

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The three most important isomers of aloins are:

1. Barbaloin
2. β-barboloin
3. Isobarbaloin
 Barbaloin is yellow in color and is bitter in taste. Isobarbaloin is present in Curacao aloe from
Cape aloe.
 OTHER CONSTITUENTS – amorphous aloin, emodin, resin.

COMERCIAL PREPARATIONS

1. Firstly, washing of the plants takes place in the factory. Two methods of processing are Whole leaf
Method in which entire leaf is processed and the second method is Separation Method in which both
leaf and the gel is been separated.

2. Leaf breaks off from the bottom and left to bleed in the Separation Method. Aloin outflows from the
leaves.

3. The gel is then filtered after its removal from the plant. Then the process of homogenization,
pasteurization and stablisation takes place. The gel is concentrated in the last step. The whole process
takes maximum of 2 days to complete.

4. Now, the end users or the industries buy the concentrated aloe vera gel.

Marketed Products - Diabecon, Mensonorm (Chirayu Pharma), Evecare (Himalaya Drug Company),
Kumari Asava (Baidyanath)
THERAPEUTIC AND COSMETIC USES

1. It helps in the treatment of dry skin.

2. It is used for helminthiasis in children.

3. It conditions the hair.

4. Acne and stretch marks can also be treated using aloe vera gel.

5. It contains anti-aging properties, helps in eradication of blemishes.

6. Sunburn can also be treated because of its anti-inflammatory nature.

7. It can be used in both ways; Externally and Internally. Externally, it can used for the treatment of
burns, wounds. On the other hand, Aloe vera gel can be used internally for the treatment of coughs,
ulcers, constipation.

8. Amino acids in the gel softens the hardened skin cells.

9. It reduces erythema and improves the skin.

10. It can be used as a moisturizer because its non-greasy in texture.

ALMOND OIL

Almond Oil has large amount of nutrients, making it useful. The two types of Almond Oils are:

- Bitter Almond Oil – Strong smell, useful in massage therapy

- Sweet Almond Oil – Produced from sweet almonds, Safe for internal use, useful for skin and
hair.

SOURCES

- Sweet almond oil is produced by an almond tree known as Prunus amygdalus var. Dulcis whose
seeds are poison free.
- Bitter almond oils are produced by various almond trees known as Prunus amygdalus var.
Amara. It is used in medicines.
- Italy, Iran, France, Spain and Syria are some of the countries producing the almonds from which
the oil is prepared.

FAMILY - Rosaceae

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

 Fixed Oil, Proteins, Emulsin and mucilage are present in all the almonds.
 The oil is light yellow in color and nutty in taste. Glycosides of linoleic and other acids are
present in very small quantity.
  Benzaldehyde and Hydrocyanic acids are present in Bitter almond oil. Overall, the oil is the
mixture of 62-86% of glycerides of oleic, 1% of myristic, arachidic, gadoleic, behenic and
linolenic.

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS

Sample Preparations

Sorting of collected seeds happen to separate the mesocarp. Then, it takes them 2 days to get naturally
dried under the sun and then converted in flour in blending machine.

Almond Oil Extraction Method from the Seed Flour

100gm of the prepared sample flour is shifted to a Soxhlet thimble, which is fixed. The flask is filled with
300ml of hexane and heated in a thermostatically controlled heating mantle until the hexane boils. It
takes 4 hours for the oil to be extracted by refluxing.

Almond Oil Production

The oil can be drawn from both varieties of almonds. Almonds can be pressed warmly to obtain oil,
however, oil is usually obtained by cold pressing. Firstly, the almonds are cleaned and the shells are
removed.

A screw press is fed with pre-cleaned seeds that have been warmed to the press temperature.
Immediately after pressing, almond oil and almond press cakes are further processed.

Before further processing or storing, press cakes are crushed and cooled. After several stages of
purification, oil becomes pure oil. If the oil is not disturbed for a few days after pressing, the
mucilaginous components can settle and then be removed using a filter press. Whether the oil is
refined or unrefined, it can be used after being cold pressed.

Marketed Products

Himcolin gel, Mentat, Baidyanath lal tail (Baidyanath Company), Sage badam roghan (Sage Herbals) and
Tentex Royal (Himalaya Drug Company)

THERAPEUTIC AND COSMETIC USES

1. It prevents colon cancer.

2. An antioxidant is present in the oil which prevents the hair from environmental stress.
3. It is anti-inflammatory in nature.
4. It can be used as a moisturizer as it gets completely soaked in the skin.
5. It heals the acne and stretch marks.
6. Eczema and Psoriasis can also be treated using the oil.
7. It controls the hair damage problem because of its lubricating properties.
8. It is beneficial to heal the injuries using almond oil.
 9. It open the clogged pores.
10. Blood sugar level can also be maintained by including the almond oil in the diet.

LAVENDER OIL

Certain species of Lavender produce essential oil by distilling the flower spikes, the oil is known as
Lavender oil. There are two forms of lavender oil:

1. Lavender Flour oil which is colorless, insoluble in water

2. Lavender Spike oil derived from the plant lavandula latifolia

SOURCES

Freshly cut flowering tops and stalks of Lavandula Officinalis are steam distilled to obtain lavender oil.
Mediterranean countries are home to the lavender plant.

FAMILY - Lamiaceae

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

 Lavender essential oil contains over 150 active constituents that are chemically complex. Esters,
which are aromatic molecules with antispasmodic properties, are abundant in it.
 In lavender oil, linalyl acetate, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, and camphor are the four main botanical
components responsible for its antibacterial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties.

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS

Lavender Oil Extraction

By steam distillation of the fresh or partly dried lavender leaves, lavender essential oil is obtained.
Compared to other techniques, this technique produces more oil due to a reduction in polar compound
loss. Typically, lavender blooms are harvested in June. Lavender flowers are pressed together in a still.
The bottom of the still loaded with lavender flower is then steamed at low pressure using a boiler. This
heating method breaks the lavender flower pockets containing oil, and a pipe of cold water is run into
the still's centre. The heated lavender oil vapour condenses with the cold water on the cold pipe and is
then collected in a holding tank to settle. Because of the polarity and densities of the oil and water, they
will separate in the holding tank, with the water being piped out and only lavender essential oil
remaining.

Lavender Oil Distillation

Steam distillation is used to create essential lavender oil. After the dew has gone, lavender is gathered
for the distillation process in the morning. Lavender is often harvested for oil distillation in September,
when the plant is fully bloomed and beginning to wither. The distillation of lavender oil takes place in
two 100 gallon food-grade stainless steel pots. Stems and flowers are loaded into the pots, which are
then sealed, and low-pressure steam is started to flow through the tank.
Throughout the procedure, the temperature is monitored to guarantee that the best grade of oil and
hydrosol is achieved. The steam induces the plant's oil glands to erupt, and the oil evaporates into the
steam during this action. The steam is then sent through copper tubing to the condenser, where it is
cooled by cold water passing through the coils, which condenses it back into a high-grade liquid of oil
and hydosol. Steaming through copper tubing aids in the production of sweeter, higher-quality oils. The
lavender water and lavender oil are now separated and placed in their appropriate containers. Because
essential oils are lighter than water, they rise to the top of the condensate and are collected in a
separator-attached beaker.

THERAPEUTIC AND COSMETIC USES

1. It reduces itching and redness on the skin.

2. It aids in the reduction of high blood pressure and may be used to treat hypertension.
3. It boosts collagen formation and promotes skin tissue regeneration.
4. It contains antibacterial ingredients that help the skin heal faster and prevent infections.
5. Sore or tense muscles, joint pain and rheumatism, sprains, backache, and lumbago can all
benefit from lavender oil.
6. It controls the moisture barrier in such a way that the skin does not feel oily or dry.

OLIVE OIL

Olive oil is a versatile component that may be utilised for a variety of purposes, including nourishment,
health, and skin and hair. It's good for skincare because of its unique composition and qualities.

SOURCES

Olive oil is a fixed oil made from the ripe fruits of the olive tree Olea europoea Linn. or Olea ferruginea
(Indian olive).

FAMILY - Oleaceae

The olive tree is a Palestinian native that is widely grown in nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea.
The major producer is Spain. It's also grown in the southwest of the United States and other subtropical
areas.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Glycerides of oleic, palmitic, linoleic, stearic, arachidic, palmitoleic, linolenic, and lingnoceric acids are
found in olive oil. Squalene, phytosterol, and tocopherols are minor components.

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS

Collecting and Grading the Olives

The plumpness, stage of maturity, and quality of the ripe olives are split after they are collected. The
olives are then transported to the press and stored for a few hours to several days to allow them to
warm up and release their oil more easily.

Washing and Milling the Olives

The olives are next washed in cold water and conveyed between rollers or continuous hammers on a
conveyer belt. This technology de-stones the olives and breaks down the cells.

Creating an Olive Paste through Malaxation

The milled olives are transferred to vats where they are mashed into a homogenised paste by slowly
rotating blades.

Cold- Pressing the olive paste to extract the oil

The olive paste is loaded into a hydraulic press to extract the oil. The paste is evenly placed over
synthetic fiber-covered hemp pressing bags or discs. On a press plate, 25 to 50 bags or discs are placed.
Plate guides are installed every 5-6 bags to keep the stack balanced and equally distribute the strain. The
oil leaks slowly through the pressing bags to connecting tubes when a piston presses up against the
stack. Inside the pressing bags, the solid substance remains.

Without heating the paste, the oil is extracted. The resulting oil is a reddish blend of oil and the natural
vegetable water. To get lower grades of oil, the paste is taken from the bags and run through numerous
additional presses.

Separating the oil from the vegetable water

Pumping the mixture into a centrifuge, which consists of a rotating drum and a high-speed auger
spinning on the axis, separates it. The centrifuge drives the oil and vegetable water apart into separate
receptacles due to their distinct densities.

Storing and Packaging the oil

Until the oil is ready to ship, it is kept in subterranean vats. The oil is then canned or bottled on a
production line. The deep-green colour of the oilve oli is preserved in cans or dark-colored bottles.

Marketed Products - Figaro oil

THERAPEUTIC AND COSMETIC USES

1. It works well as a parenteral preparation solvent.

2. As an emollient and calming agent, it is applied externally to inflamed skin.
3. It's utilised as a nutrition, demulcent, emollient, chalagogue, and mild laxative when taken
internally.
4. It serves as a vehicle for injecting greasy suspensions.
5. It keeps dry lips moisturised.
 6. Its high Vitamin E concentration can aid to moisturize, nourish, strengthen, and mend nails.
7. It slows down the ageing process.
8. Its consistent use can help lessen pigmentation and regulate the underlying edema that causes
dark circles and eye bags.

ROSEMARY OIL

Rosemary gets its name from the Latin meaning Dew of the Sea, because it grows on the Mediterranean
sea cliffs. The energizing, relaxing, and pain-relieving effects of its essential oil are well-known.

SOURCES

It is obtained by distillation of the flowering tops of leafy twigs of Rosmarinus officinalis.

FAMILY - Lamiaceac

The oil is primarily produced in Spain and North Africa, and the plant is endemic to southern Europe.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

About 1-2 percent volatile oil containing esters and alcohols is produced from fresh material. 1,8-
cineole, borneol, camphor, bornyl acetate, and monoterpene hydrocarbons are the main components.
Triterpene alcohols, rosmarinic acid, rofficerone caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, luteolin and diosmetin
glycosides, carnosolic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, epirosmanol, and isorosmanol are also found in
rosemary leaves.

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS

Preparations of the Plant Material

The flowering stems are chosen for distillation, with the woody sections removed. If the branches are
too long, they can be cut down to make loading into the boiler easier.

It's best to keep the stems and leaves intact during distillation to ensure a smooth flow of steam and
avoid the damaging "cork effect" caused by packing the leaves too tightly. Rosemary oil is derived by
steam distillation from fresh Rosemary flowering tops.

Steam Distillation

Steam distillation is done in a still with fresh or sometimes dried plant material inserted in one of the
chambers. Steam is circulated through the plant material under pressure. The steam's heat forces open
the tiny intercellular spaces that house the rosemary essential oil, allowing the oil to escape. As the
essential oil is released, it evaporates, combines with the steam, and travels through the pipe to the
condenser. After that, the steam and essential oil vapour are condensed into a liquid mixture.
Because oil and water are immiscible at low temperatures, rosemary essential oil can be separated from
the water by decanting the water or skimming the oil off the top. The floral water amount or distillate
obtained as a by-product of distillation maintains many medicinal qualities of the plant.

Marketed Products

Anti-dandruff shampoo, Protein shampoo for oil/greasy hair, Anti-dandruff hair oil and Erina Plus
(Himalaya Drug Company)

THERAPEUTICS AND COSMETIC USES

1. It promotes the growth of hair.

2. It calms an itchy, dry scalp.
3. It combats dandruff-related issues.
4. It provides gloss and softness to hair.
5. It revitalises drab hair.
6. It revitalises tired skin and offers it a new lease on life.
7. It helps to regulate sebum production.
8. It soothes the skin by acting as an astringent.
9. Acne is helped by its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects.
10. It relieves dermatitis and eczema-related skin irritation.
11. It moisturises the skin deeply and can be used as a moisturiser.

SANDAL WOOD OIL

Sandalwood Oil is a precious essential oil produced from the heart wood and roots of the sandalwood
tree. It is widely utilised in beauty, health, and rituals. It has a characteristic mild earthy odour and is
used to treat a variety of skin ailments.

SOURCES

Sandalwood oil is made by distilling Santalum album Linn, a type of sandalwood.

FAMILY - Santalaceae

The sandal tree grows in the dry regions of peninsular India, particularly in Mysore and Tamil Nadu, from
the Vindhya Mountains southwards. Rajasthan, sections of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa
have all adopted it.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

The isomeric sesquiterpene alcohols α-santalol and β-santalol make up 95 percent of sandalwood oil.
Aldehydesantalol, santene, santenone, teresantol, and santalene are the other components.

COMMERCIAL PREPARATIONS
Santalum trees must be at least 15 years old to produce commercially valuable sandalwood oil with high
levels of smell. The heartwood of the sandalwood tree contains the valuable sandalwood oil. The higher
the quantity of heartwood, the older the tree. Because the oil is securely bound within the wood, it
must be distilled, which begins with the wood being ground to powder.

Steam Distillation

Steam heated to extremely high temperatures is passed through powdered wood in the steam
distillation process. As a result, the sandalwood essential oil, which had been trapped within the wood's
cellular structure, is liberated.

The steam and oil mixture passes through a condenser and cools, separating into two layers of oil and
water. The essential oil of sandalwood separates from the hydrosol, rises to the surface, and is then
collected.

Marketed Products

Lukol, Evecare, Abana, Brahma rasayan (Dabur), Antiwrinkle cream (Himalaya Drug Company),
Mahamarichadi tail.

THERAPEUTIC AND COSMETIC USES

1. Even when applied externally, it works to reduce blood pressure.

2. Its antioxidant properties are beneficial to skin health.
3. It effectively scavenges free radicals and reduces oxidative damage on the skin.
4. Sandalwood oil is an excellent antibacterial that may be used both physically and inwardly. It
can be used externally to treat acne, ulcers, boils, and pimples before they become infected or
septic.
5. The oil's warm and soothing woody aroma helps to calm and soothe the mind. To relieve stress
and anxiety, the oil is massaged on the wrists, ankles, or inhaled directly.
Chapter 11 – PHYTOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF DRUGS

INTRODUCTION

Phytochemistry involves study of chemicals that plant produce as a measure to protect themselves from
insects, pests, pathogens, herbivores, and other environmental hazards.

Phytochemicals are naturally occurring and biologically active compounds present in the plants.

EXTRACTION OF DRUGS

Extraction is simply the process of separating the medicinal active compounds of plants and animals
tissues with the help of selective solvents and procedures. Extracted preparations include decoction,
infusions, fluid extracts, tinctures, or powder extracts, these preparations are called as galenicals.
Extraction procedure involved treatment with a selective solvent (menstruum) to gain the
therapeutically active constituents of drugs removing the inactive ones. The undissolved Residue left
behind is known as marc.

The extraction of drug is divided into following four steps -

 The solvent penetrates the drug.

 The drug constituent dissolve in the solvent.
 The solution within the cells diffuses out.
 The dissolved portion separates from the exhausted drug.

Modern methods of extraction -

There are various modern methods or processes that we use to extract the drugs and these are:

 Maceration
 Digestion
 Percolation
 Continuous hot extraction
 Supercritical fluid extraction
 Counter current extraction
 Microwave-assisted extraction
 Ultrasonic assisted extraction
 Infusion and decoction
 Pressure cooker extraction

MACERATION

It means softening. It produces tinctures, extracts and concentrated infusions. It is the simplest method
of drug extraction.

DIGESTION
It is a modified maceration process. It involves extraction at such a high temperature which does not put
adverse effects on the active ingredient. Higher temperature enhances the solvent action of menstruum
and constant mechanical agitation of the system speed up the attainment of equilibrium. If at the given
temperature, the menstruum gets volatile easily, to fix a condenser to the vessel.

PERCOLATION

Percolation means to pass through. It involves extracting the constituent of granulated or powder drug
by slowly passing down through a suitable menstruum. The menstruum while traveling down the drug
under the influence of gravity extract the drug particle layer-wise.

CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION (SOXHLET EXTRACTION)

The apparatus involve flask, soxhlet extractor and a reflux condenser. Raw material is placed in a
thimble inserted in a wide central tube. The drug after getting moistened with the menstruum is packed
into the extractor in a way that the extract outlet present at the bottom is bot blocked.

Menstruum is placed in the flask and boiled at its boiling point. The resultant vapours rise up the larger
right tube and then enter the condenser, where it condenses and drops back on to the drug. When the
extract reaches at the top level of syphon tube, the complete percolate syphons over into the flask. The
suction effect of syphoning allows the menstruum to penetrate the drug. This process is continued till
the drug gets extracted and the final extract obtained in the flask is further processed.
SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION (SFE)

Process of SFE involve separating one component (extractant) from another (matrix) using supercritical
fluid (extracting solvent). Supercritical fluid is a substance at temperature and pressure above its critical
point. It can diffuse through solids like a gas and dissolve materials like a liquid. Most commonly used
supercritical fluids are CO2, and water.

 Mixture to be fractionated is passed in the extraction column having a heater along its length.
 CO2 is purged through the column.
 Once the extraction column is pressurized, the supercritical fluid moving along the column
lengths saturates the drug material.
 The operating conditions are selected.
 In pressure controlled extraction, solution is expanded in the separation stage to precipitate the
extract and the gas is again recompressed for recycling.
 In temperature controlled extraction, solution is heated which lowers the solvent density and
precipitates the extract.
 Working of supercritical fluid extraction system is controlled from a computer which sets the
operating conditions.
 The PC is programmed to shut down the unit in case of overpressure or over temperature.

Advantages –

 SFE completes within 20-60 minutes.

 It will determine the rate at which the extraction is performed.
 It will produce less waste solvents.
 It is easily controlled.
 Offers selective extraction by selecting the fluid density and polarity.

Disadvantages –

 Presence of water in this process can lead to issues.

 The matrix effect is unpredictable.
 It require expensive equipment.

COUNTER CURRENT EXTRACTION (CCE)

Disintegrators are used to crush the wet raw material to be extracted. Fine slurry is obtained which is
moved in one direction within a cylindrical extractor. Here the slurry gets in contact with the extraction
solvent. Farther the slurry moves, more concentrated the extract becomes. Lastly, an appropriately
concentrated extract is received at one end of the extractor while the marc falls out from the other end.

MICROWAVE ASSISTED EXTRACTION

Microwaves are non-ionising electromagnetic waves. They are made up of electric and magnetic field.
Closed extraction vessels and focused microwave ovens are the two types of commercially available
MAE system. They are available as multi-mode and single-mode systems. In single-mode, the microwave
radiation is focused on restricted zone wherein sample is subjected to stronger electric field. In the
multimode system, microwave radiation randomly disperses.

Advantages –

 Less time consuming

 Improves extraction yield.
 Require less solvent
 Better accuracy and precision.
 Extractions are attractive in appearance.

ULTRASONIC ASSISTED EXTRACTION (UAE)

Ultrasound is the sound waves whose frequencies are higher than those to which the human ear can
respond. Ultrasound wave passing through a liquid causes the expansion cycles to exert negative
pressure on the liquid, thus pulling the molecules apart. If the ultrasound wave is of sufficient intensity,
the expansion cycle even creates cavities or micro bubbles in the liquid. Micro-bubbles formed absorb
the energy from the sound waves, grow during the expansion cycle and re-compress during the
compression cycle.

INFUSION & DECOCTION

They are now rarely used. Infusions are prepared from vegetables with water-soluble constituents. And
decoction is used for extracting vegetable drugs with water soluble and heat soluble constituents. In
infusion, drug was moistened with water, macerated with boiling water, the liquid was strained and
desired volume was made. In decoction, drug was boiled with water, cooled, expressed, the liquid was
strained and desired volume was made.

PRESSURE COOKER EXTRACTION

Initially the drug is macerated with the menstruum and then held for 5-15minutes in a pressure cooker
at 15lb/sq inch pressure. Cool the cooker and the extract is removed by the straining and pressing the
marc. It cannot be used for drugs with thermolabile constituents.

ISOLATION, PURIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF DRUGS

Isolation processes depend on the nature of active constituents present in the drug. Identification
depends on measuring properties such as boiling point, melting point, optical rotation and comparing
the data with those of the standard values with techniques of Ultraviolet (UV), Infrared (IR), Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Mass Spectral (MS) measurements.

SPECTROSCOPY

It involves study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. It include various methods-
Ultraviolet (UV) & Visible Spectroscopy

These techniques involve the analytical methods which measure the light absorption lying in the
wavelength region from 190-900nm by different substances.

Spectral ranges of some important groups of plants:

Classes of compounds UV range Visible Range

Anthocyanins 275-330 475-555

Betacyanins 250-275 540-554

Carotenes 400-500 400-525

Flavonoids 250-275 350-390

Chlorophylls Very short range 430-470 and 650-660

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy

It is used for the identification of functional groups present in the compound as different functional
groups have specific absorbance in the electromagnetic spectrum. The IR spectrum is divided into 3
regions –

- Near region ranging from 1250-4000 cm-1.

- Mild region ranging from 4000-400 cm-1.
- Far region ranging from 400-20 cm-1.

IR Frequencies of some important group of plants:

Group of constituents Characteristics bands (approx.)

Alkanes 2860 cm-1

Alcohols 3600 cm-1

Ketones 1420 cm-1

Amines 3400 cm-1

Phenols 1410 cm-1

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)

It involves absorption of radioactive constituents at desired radio frequency in a particular magnetic

field and it vary from compound to compound. For NMR analysis, compound is dissolved in a standard
inert solvent known as TMS (Trimethylsilane) which is subjected to very strong magnetic field and is
used for the identification of pharmaceutical product.

Mass Spectroscopy (MS)

It measures the mass-to-charge ratio to identify the amount and type of chemicals a sample contain. It
basically generate ions, then separating these ions on the basis of mass-to-charge ratio and finally
detecting them quantitatively and qualitatively by their respective mass-to-charge ratio and amount of
ions.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatography is an important biophysical technique that enables the separation, identification, and
purification of the components of a mixture for qualitative and quantitative analysis.
In this process, we apply the mixture to be separated on a stationary phase (solid or liquid) and a pure
solvent such as water or any gas is allowed to move slowly over the stationary phase, carrying the
components separately as per their solubility in the pure solvent

TYPES –

Column (Adsorption) Chromatography

 The stationary phase consists of a solid packed in a glass tube. Alumina, activated charcoal,
silica gel, magnesia, calcium carbonate, starch, etc., can be used as a stationary phase.
 The mixture to be separated is dissolved in a suitable solvent like petroleum ether. The
mixture to be separated is allowed to run through the stationary phase.
 The constituents of the moving phase all adsorbed at different parts of the adsorbent column
depending upon their nature. This is called selective or differential absorption.
 The adsorbed components are recovered by dissolving the components in suitable solvents,
and this process is called elution. The commonly used eluent are petroleum, ether, benzene,
chloroform, etc. The eluent act as a moving phase. The eluent dissolves the components and
tries to take them down the column. The weekly adsorb component is eluted more rapidly
than the more strongly absorbed components. The components thus get separated from one
another and come out of column one by one. They are collected in separate receivers.
 The components from the eluent are recovered by evaporation or distillation.
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

 Adsorption chromatography, or thin-layer chromatography, is a form of adsorption

chromatography. With the use of an applicator, a thin layer of an adsorbent, such as silica gel
formed from a slurry in a suitable solvent, is spread across a glass plate of size 5×2cm.
 The separated mixture is dissolved in a suitable solvent and placed on a glass plate using a
fine capillary at a distance of about 2cm from the bottom. The dry plate is then placed in a
development chamber containing a suitable solvent or a mixture of solvents in a vertical
position.
 It is important to keep in mind that the spot marked on it should not be dipped in the solvent
during the operation. The solvent will progressively increase due to capillary action once the
compartment is closed.
 A number of fine spots form when the mixture separates. Finally, the plate is removed and
dried. Colored components can be found using the naked eye, while colourless components
can be found using UV light, iodine, sulfuric acid mixed with an oxidising agent such as
potassium permanganate, nitric acid, and other methods. The components can be identified
using the Rf value or by using a suitable procedure to elute each component separately.
 The relative adsorption of each component of a mixture is expressed by a retention factor
known as the Rf value.
 Rf value is defined as the ratio of the rate of movement of a substance under the
investigation to that of the solvent.
 Rf = Distance moved by the substance from baseline / Distance moved by solvent from
baseline.
 The Rf value of a substance depends upon the nature of the substance, solvent, adsorbents,
and temperature.
Paper Chromatography
 In paper chromatography, a strip of specially designed filter paper is known as
chromatography. Here paper acts as a stationary phase and a pure solvent or a mixture of
solvent is used to act as the mobile phase.
 The mobile phase is also called an irrigant or developing solvent. The mobile phase travels
through the filter paper by the capillary action. Paper chromatography is based on a
mechanism that is partly partition and partly adsorption.
 The stationary phase, i.e., filter paper, is made up of cellulose fibre with molecules of water
adsorbed on them. Drops of solution of the mixture to be separated are placed on the strip
of filter paper, and the solvent is allowed to travel along the strip.
 The mixture undergoes partly adsorption on the filter paper and partly partition between the
water molecule attached to the cellulose fibre and the solvent. Based on the amount of
adsorption and partition, the components in the mixture travel at different rates on the filter
paper and get separated from one another.
 After some time, the paper strip is taken out, dried, and the position of the di fferent
components is noted. If the position of different components is not visible on the filter
paper, then it can be located with the help of a suitable reagent like ninhydrin that is used to
identify different types of α-amino acids present in a mixture.
 The various components present in a mixture are identified by comparing the
calculated Rf value with the reference substance or with the standard values given in the
databook.
ELECTROPHORESIS
Electrophoresis is a technique used to separate macromolecules in a fluid or gel based on their charge,
binding affinity, and size under an electric field. Charged macromolecules are placed in the electric field
move towards the negative or positive pole based on their charge. Nucleic acid has a negative charge
and therefore it migrates towards the anode.