World

Hist-
oryVolume1
to 1500
World History,
Volume 1: to 1500

SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

ANN KORDAS, JOHNSON & WALES UNIVERSITY
RYAN J. LYNCH, COLUMBUS STATE UNIVERSITY
BROOKE NELSON, FORMERLY CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY
JULIE TATLOCK, MOUNT MARY UNIVERSITY
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CONTENTS
Preface 1

Unit 1 Early Human Societies

CHAPTER 1
Understanding the Past 9
Introduction 9
1.1 Developing a Global Perspective 10
1.2 Primary Sources 14
1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History 25
Key Terms 31
Section Summary 31
Assessments 32

CHAPTER 2
Early Humans 35
Introduction 35
2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration 36
2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age 48
2.3 The Neolithic Revolution 55
Key Terms 64
Section Summary 64
Assessments 65

CHAPTER 3
Early Civilizations and Urban Societies 69
Introduction 69
3.1 Early Civilizations 71
3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia 76
3.3 Ancient Egypt 88
3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization 99
Key Terms 107
Section Summary 107
Assessments 108

CHAPTER 4
The Near East 113
Introduction 113
4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes 115
4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom 130
4.3 The Persian Empire 142
4.4 The Hebrews 151
Key Terms 160
Section Summary 160
Assessments 161
CHAPTER 5
Asia in Ancient Times 165
Introduction 165
5.1 Ancient China 167
5.2 The Steppes 180
5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia 185
5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire 201
Key Terms 212
Section Summary 212
Assessments 213

Unit 2 States And Empires, 1000 BCE–500 CE

CHAPTER 6
Mediterranean Peoples 217
Introduction 217
6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples 219
6.2 Ancient Greece 225
6.3 The Hellenistic Era 242
6.4 The Roman Republic 249
6.5 The Age of Augustus 260
Key Terms 266
Section Summary 266
Assessments 268

CHAPTER 7
Experiencing the Roman Empire 273
Introduction 273
7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family 274
7.2 Slavery in the Roman Empire 280
7.3 The Roman Economy: Trade, Taxes, and Conquest 286
7.4 Religion in the Roman Empire 289
7.5 The Regions of Rome 296
Key Terms 303
Section Summary 303
Assessments 304

CHAPTER 8
The Americas in Ancient Times 309
Introduction 309
8.1 Populating and Settling the Americas 311
8.2 Early Cultures and Civilizations in the Americas 323
8.3 The Age of Empires in the Americas 342
Key Terms 361
Section Summary 361
Assessments 362

CHAPTER 9
Africa in Ancient Times 367
Introduction 367
9.1 Africa’s Geography and Climate 369

Access for free at openstax.org

9.2 The Emergence of Farming and the Bantu Migrations 379
9.3 The Kingdom of Kush 385
9.4 North Africa’s Mediterranean and Trans-Saharan Connections 394
Key Terms 405
Section Summary 405
Assessments 406

Unit 3 An Age Of Religion, 500–1200 CE

CHAPTER 10
Empires of Faith 411
Introduction 411
10.1 The Eastward Shift 413
10.2 The Byzantine Empire and Persia 424
10.3 The Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar 431
10.4 The Margins of Empire 437
Key Terms 444
Section Summary 444
Assessments 445

CHAPTER 11
The Rise of Islam and the Caliphates 449
Introduction 449
11.1 The Rise and Message of Islam 451
11.2 The Arab-Islamic Conquests and the First Islamic States 465
11.3 Islamization and Religious Rule under Islam 474
Key Terms 482
Section Summary 482
Assessments 483

CHAPTER 12
India, the Indian Ocean Basin, and East Asia 487
Introduction 487
12.1 The Indian Ocean World in the Early Middle Ages 488
12.2 East-West Interactions in the Early Middle Ages 502
12.3 Border States: Sogdiana, Korea, and Japan 516
Key Terms 528
Section Summary 528
Assessments 529

CHAPTER 13
The Post-Roman West and the Crusading Movement 533
Introduction 533
13.1 The Post-Roman West in the Early Middle Ages 535
13.2 The Seljuk Migration and the Call from the East 549
13.3 Patriarch and Papacy: The Church and the Call to Crusade 558
13.4 The Crusading Movement 563
Key Terms 574
Section Summary 574
Assessments 575
Unit 4 A Global Middle Ages, 1200–1500 CE
CHAPTER 14
Pax Mongolica: The Steppe Empire of the Mongols 579
Introduction 579
14.1 Song China and the Steppe Peoples 581
14.2 Chinggis Khan and the Early Mongol Empire 590
14.3 The Mongol Empire Fragments 598
14.4 Christianity and Islam outside Central Asia 605
Key Terms 615
Section Summary 615
Assessments 616

CHAPTER 15
States and Societies in Sub-Saharan Africa 621
Introduction 621
15.1 Culture and Society in Medieval Africa 623
15.2 Medieval Sub-Saharan Africa 634
15.3 The People of the Sahel 647
Key Terms 656
Section Summary 656
Assessments 657

CHAPTER 16
Climate Change and Plague in the Fourteenth Century 661
Introduction 661
16.1 Asia, North Africa, and Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century 662
16.2 Famine, Climate Change, and Migration 672
16.3 The Black Death from East to West 679
16.4 The Long-Term Effects of Global Transformation 687
Key Terms 692
Section Summary 692
Assessments 693

CHAPTER 17
The Ottomans, the Mamluks, and the Ming 697
Introduction 697
17.1 The Ottomans and the Mongols 699
17.2 From the Mamluks to Ming China 720
17.3 Gunpowder and Nomads in a Transitional Age 733
Key Terms 742
Section Summary 742
Assessments 743

Appendix A Glossary 747

Appendix B World History, Volume 1, to 1500: Maps and Timelines 753
Appendix C World Maps 757
Appendix D Recommended Resources for the Study of World History 763
Index 765

Access for free at openstax.org

 Preface 1

Preface
About OpenStax
OpenStax is part of Rice University, which is a 501(c)(3) nonpro]t charitable corporation. As an educational
initiative, it's our mission to improve educational access and learning for everyone. Through our partnerships
with philanthropic organizations and our alliance with other educational resource companies, we're breaking
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About World History

World History is designed to support both semesters of the world history course offered at both two-year and
four-year institutions. Serving a student base of both majors and non-majors in the ]eld, as well as an
institutional variation in requirements of one or two semesters depending on the plan of study, the course
introduces students to a global perspective of history conveyed within an engaging narrative. Concepts and
assessments are presented in ways to help students think critically about the issues they encounter so they
can broaden their perspective of global history and how the topics studied apply to their current life as citizens
of the world.
2 Preface

The text shows how historical content and the ways in which history is studied are relevant to modern-day
needs and situations. The narrative shows readers the why of historical events and people, providing context
and import to engage students. A primary goal of the book is to include content, scholarship, and activities that
explore a variety of perspectives, including those traditionally underrepresented in this canon.

Being able to thoughtfully achieve a global approach requires explicit discussions about the challenge
historians face in their work. Each instructor and student enters the classroom with a construct that informs
their existing understanding as well as their ability to understand and to appreciate novel perspectives. World
History works to present an honest and authentic view of history for students to explore. The authors and
reviewers achieve balance by introducing and juxtaposing people’s experiences of history for a rich and
nuanced discussion. New resources and new voices are integrated into the text in a deep and meaningful
manner. Primary source material represents the cultures being discussed from a ]rsthand perspective
whenever possible, showing a variety of experiences and voices that stress the interconnected nature of people
and societies throughout history. Moreover, the work of diverse and underrepresented scholars and
scholarship bolsters the text’s ability to embrace diversity of thought and interpretation while spotlighting
parts of history and places that often receive less coverage in history textbooks. Students will be challenged to
use empathy to understand others’ ways of thinking in order to better understand, analyze, and evaluate
today’s changes in the world.

Pedagogical Foundation
Learning Objectives

Every module begins with a set of clear and concise learning objectives that have been designed to be both
measurable and meaningful. These objectives closely align with current teaching practice and aim to help the
instructor decide what content to include or assign, and to guide student expectations of learning. After
completing the module and end-of-module exercises, students should be able to demonstrate mastery of the
learning objectives.

Key Features

Various features throughout each chapter engage students with the content while having them practice some
of the most essential skills in the study of history, such as the examination of primary sources, the analysis of
multiple accounts of an event or period, the study of non-textual artifacts, and the exploration of how speci]c
historical topics connect to today's world.

• In Their Own Words: Students are presented with a textual primary source for review and/or analysis,
with discussion/re^ection questions included. This feature bolsters the foundational importance of using
primary sources in historical studies.
• Dueling Voices: Learners are given either a historiographical debate, or a side-by-side primary source
reading that offers two different interpretations of the same event. Sometimes these are directly
contrasting, and sometimes they help elucidate different perspectives. Discussion questions are included.
This feature highlights that history is an interpretive discipline and that historians must regularly grapple
with con^icting and at times contradictory information and approaches.
• Beyond the Book: Non-textual sources— such as art, physical objects, or architecture—are presented for
study with the goal of helping students understand the value of these kinds of sources in historical work.
Discussion questions open up conversations about how to understand these important artifacts.
• The Past Meets the Present: Students explore how an aspect of chapter content speaks to an issue in the
present day, and have the opportunity to engage further in the topic with re^ection/discussion questions.
• Link to Learning: This feature provides a very brief introduction to online resources—videos, interactives,
collections, maps, and other engaging resources—that are pertinent to students’ exploration of the topic at
hand.

Access for free at openstax.org

 Preface 3

Section Summaries

Section summaries distill the information in each section for both students and instructors down to key,
concise points addressed in the section.

Key Terms

Key terms are bold and are followed by a de]nition in context. De]nitions of key terms are also listed in each
end-of-chapter Glossary, as well as a book-level Glossary appendix.

Assessments

A variety of assessments allow instructors to con]rm core conceptual understanding, elicit brief explanations
that demonstrate student understanding, and offer more in-depth assignments that enable learners to dive
more deeply into a topic or history-study skill.

• Review Questions test for conceptual apprehension of key concepts.

• Check Your Understanding Questions require students to explain concepts in words.
• Application and ReHection Questions dive deeply into the material to support longer re^ection, group
discussion, or written assignments.

Answers to Questions in the Book

The end-of-chapter Review, Check Your Understanding, and Re^ection Questions are intended for homework
assignments or classroom discussion; thus, student-facing answers are not provided in the book. Answers and
sample answers are provided in the Instructor Answer Guide, for instructors to share with students at their
discretion, as is standard for such resources.

About the Authors

Senior Contributing Authors

Senior Contributing Authors (left to right): Ann Kordas, Ryan J. Lynch, Brooke Nelson, Julie Tatlock.

Ann Kordas, Johnson & Wales University

Ann Kordas holds a PhD in History from Temple University, and a JD from Boston University School of Law.
She is a professor in the Humanities Department at Johnson & Wales University, where she teaches courses in
U.S. history, world history, the history of the Atlantic World, and the history of the Paci]c World. Her research
interests lie primarily in the ]elds of cultural history and gender history.

Ryan J. Lynch, Columbus State University

Dr. Ryan J. Lynch is Associate Professor of the History of the Islamic World and Associate Dean of the Honors
College at Columbus State University in Columbus, Georgia. A specialist of pre-modern Islamic history, he
completed his DPhil and MPhil in Islamic Studies and History at the University of Oxford, an MLitt in Middle
Eastern History and Language at the University of St Andrews, and a BA in History and Religious Studies at
Stetson University. Dr. Lynch’s research focuses primarily on the period of the early Islamic conquests, the
Islamization of the Middle East, Islamic state formation, and Arabic historiography, while he also has a growing
4 Preface

interest in how modern terror groups use an imagined Islamic past to justify their extremist views in the
modern period. He is the author of the award-winning book Arab Conquests and Early Islamic Historiography
(I.B. Tauris, 2020).

Brooke Nelson, formerly California State University

Brooke Nelson is the Director of Curriculum at Marco Learning, an edtech company focused on making great
educational resources available to all students. Previous to this role, she taught at California State University,
Dominguez Hills, and Marymount California University. Her favorite courses to teach were World History,
Death and Dying, and Introduction to Western Civilization because they allowed her to share her love of history
with both non-major and major students. Her research focus is the late Roman world, with a special emphasis
on religious con^icts and gender studies. She has a doctorate from Claremont Graduate University and
master's degrees from the University of California, Irvine, and the University of Edinburgh.

Julie Tatlock, Mount Mary University

Dr. Julie C. Tatlock chairs the Department of Justice, Sociology and History at Mount Mary University in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her research interests include World History, Gender History, British History, and
Face-to-Face and Online Pedagogy. She has several recent publications including, Shaping Online Spaces
Through Online Humanities Curricula (IGI Global, 2023), “The Original Order of Things,” (Lutheran Journal of
Ethics, 2020), and “Enhancing Student Engagement Online: Creative Pedagogy in the Digital World,” IGI
Global, 2019). She is passionate about innovative teaching and learning as well as making higher education
accessible to all students.

Contributing Authors

Chris Bingley, UCLA

Celeste Chamberland, Roosevelt University
Scott Corbett, Ventura College
Rick Gianni, Grand Canyon University
Jennifer Lawrence, Tarrant County College
Jamie McCandless, Kennesaw State University
Cristina Mehrtens, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth
Anthony Miller, Hanover College
Abigail Owen, Carnegie Mellon University
David Price, Santa Fe College
Kim Richardson, University of South Carolina Lancaster
Chris Rose, The University of Texas at Austin
Joseph Snyder, Southeast Missouri State University
Christopher Thrasher, National Park College
David Toye, Northeast State Community College
Alexander Wathen, University of Houston-Downtown
Grace Hunt Watkinson, Kennesaw State University
Joel Webb, Auburn University

Reviewers

Wayne Ackerson, Georgia Gwinnett College

Jonathan Allen, University of Maryland, College Park
Milan Andrejevich, Ivy Tech Community College
Maria Arbelaez, University of Nebraska Omaha
John Bertalan, University of South Florida
Robert Bond, MiraCosta College
Wesley Borucki, Palm Beach Atlantic University
Ken Bridges, South Arkansas Community College

Access for free at openstax.org

 Preface 5

Michael Burchett, Ohio Christian University

William Burns, The George Washington University
Matthew Byron, Young Harris College
Robert Caldwell, University at Buffalo
Elaine Carey, Purdue University Northwest
Katherine Clark Walter, The College at Brockport
Melanie Cochran, Volunteer State Community College
Melissa Daggett, San Jacinto College
Sharon Deubreau, Rhodes State College
Charles deWitt, Belhaven University
Sherrie Dux-Ideus, Central Community College
Mark Ellingson, Interdenominational Theological Center
Ronald Eydenberg, Middlesex Community College
Bryan Gibbs, Dallas College
Lela Gibson, Santiago Canyon College
Travis Grasser, Collin College
Chris Gratien, University of Virginia
Matthew Hacholski, Seward County Community College
Brian Harding, Mott Community College
Paul Harvey, Steilacoom Historical School District No. 1
David Head, University of Central Florida
Catherine Holden, Stevenson University
Christopher Jackson, De Anza College
Lesley Kauffman, San Jacinto College
Mark Klobas, Scottsdale Community College
Jennifer Lang, Delgado Community College
Ira Lovitch, Mount St. Mary’s University
Paul Lubienecki, Chautauqua Institution
Senya Lubisich, Citrus College
John Lund, Keene State College
Jodie Mader, Thomas More University
Michael Mangus, The Ohio State University at Newark
Nicky Kay Michael, Bacone College
Charlotte Miller, Middle Georgia State University
Brandon Morgan, Central New Mexico Community College
Phil Nash, The Pennsylvania State University
Caryn Neumann, Miami University
Kenneth Orosz, SUNY Buffalo State College
Lisa Ossian, Des Moines Area Community College
Tao Peng, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Janet Rankin, Oregon State University
Jason Ripper, Everett Community College
Maria Ritzema, College of DuPage
Lomarsh Roopnarine, Jackson State University
James Ross-Nazzal, Houston Community College
Kimlisa Salazar Duchicela, Pima Community College
Greg Sanford, MCC Penn Valley
Leah Seabook-Rocha, Central Texas College
Julia Sloan, Curry College
Steven Smith, Fullerton College
6 Preface

Mary Sommar, Millersville University

Ralph Sonenshine, American University
David Stefancic, Saint Mary’s College, Notre Dame, IN
Bianka Stumpf, Central Carolina Community College
Deborah Vess, East Georgia State College
Paul Vickery, Oral Roberts University
Christopher Ward, Clayton State University
Laura Wood, Tarrant County College
Clinton Young, University of Arkansas at Monticello

Additional Resources
Student and Instructor Resources

We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, an
instructor’s answer guide, test bank, and image slides. Instructor resources require a veri]ed instructor
account, which you can apply for when you log in or create your account on OpenStax.org. Take advantage of
these resources to supplement your OpenStax book.

Instructor’s answer guide. Each component of the instructor’s guide is designed to provide maximum
guidance for delivering the content in an interesting and dynamic manner.

Test bank. With nearly 1,300 assessments across both World History volumes, instructors can customize tests
to support a variety of course objectives. The test bank includes review questions (multiple-choice,
identi]cation, ]ll-in-the-blank, true/false), short answer questions, and long answer questions to assess
students on a variety of levels. The test bank is available in Word format.

PowerPoint lecture slides. The PowerPoint slides provide learning objectives, images and descriptions,
feature focuses, and discussion questions as a starting place for instructors to build their lectures.

Academic Integrity

Academic integrity builds trust, understanding, equity, and genuine learning. While students may encounter
signi]cant challenges in their courses and their lives, doing their own work and maintaining a high degree of
authenticity will result in meaningful outcomes that will extend far beyond their college career. Faculty,
administrators, resource providers, and students should work together to maintain a fair and positive
experience.

We realize that students bene]t when academic integrity ground rules are established early in the course. To
that end, OpenStax has created an interactive to aid with academic integrity discussions in your course.

Visit our academic integrity slider (https://www.openstax.org/r/academic-integrity-slider). Click and drag icons along
the continuum to align these practices with your institution and course policies. You may then include the graphic on
your syllabus, present it in your Yrst course meeting, or create a handout for students. (attribution: Copyright Rice

Access for free at openstax.org

 Preface 7

University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

At OpenStax we are also developing resources supporting authentic learning experiences and assessment.
Please visit this book’s page for updates. For an in-depth review of academic integrity strategies, we highly
recommend visiting the International Center of Academic Integrity (ICAI) website at
https://academicintegrity.org/ (https://academicintegrity.org).

Community Hubs

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8 Preface

Access for free at openstax.org

Understanding the Past 1

FIGURE 1.1 The Whole World. This seventeenth-century projection map of the world, prepared by cartographer
Philip Eckebrecht for the noted German astronomer Johannes Kepler, gives a sense of the breadth of territory this
text will cover. As we see later in this chapter, maps often reflect the maker’s perception of geographical realities.
(credit: modiYcation of work “A Modern Depiction of the World” by Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons, Public
Domain)

CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Developing a Global Perspective
1.2 Primary Sources
1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

INTRODUCTION What is history? Is it simply a record of things people have done? Is it what writer Maya
Angelou suggested—a way to meet the pain of the past and overcome it? Or is it, as Winston Churchill said, a
chronicle by the victors, an interpretation by those who write it? History is all this and more. Above all else, it is
a path to knowing why we are the way we are—all our greatness, all our faults—and therefore a means for us to
understand ourselves and change for the better.

But history serves this function only if it is a true re^ection of the past. It cannot be a way to mask the darker
parts of human nature, nor a way to justify acts of previous generations. It is the historian’s task to paint as
clear a picture as sources will allow.

Will history ever be a perfect telling of the human tale? No. There are voices we may never hear. Yet each new
history book written and each new source uncovered reveal an ever more precise record of events around the
world (Figure 1.1). You are about to take a journey into human history.
10 1 • Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the role history plays in higher education
• Discuss the ways in which the study of history can build skills for lifelong learning and success
• Explain how the features of this text will optimize your learning experience

From the legends of Troy heralded by Homer to the contents of digital archives accessed by modern students,
the human story has fascinated and instructed those who have tried to understand its complexities. Knowing
the past has long been considered a mark of civilization, and its study has never been more important. We
have all heard the philosopher George Santayana’s observation, “Those who do not learn from history are
doomed to repeat it.” Yet because history is an ever-changing collection of events in^uenced and shaped by a
variety of causes and outcomes, it never truly repeats at all.
Santayana’s comment rings true, however, in that we can discern patterns of human behavior by careful study
of the past. To know history is to know ourselves, and understanding history’s nuances opens our imaginations
to the possibilities each new situation creates. It is this knowledge of possibilities that allows the student of
history to see the present with more clarity and prescience.

World History as Preparation for Life after College

History is more than a series of names and dates; those are simply its building blocks, the pieces necessary for
completing the whole picture. History is a story, the human story, that connects us both to each other and to
the generations that lived before us. And today we study history in a way that grounds students in this shared
past while also preparing them for their futures. The liberal arts are intended to help students ]nd ful]llment,
to better themselves and their communities through meaningful self-re^ection and development. But they
have also always prepared students to enter the workplace by honing career skills. To say that a world history
class prepares students for the workplace is simply to acknowledge what has always been true.

This world history text has several key features that will help you understand the past in ways that are relevant
to the present. Perhaps most important is its recognition that the study of world history prepares us to meet
modern challenges. To cover the history of the whole world is daunting, perhaps, but a student must be
prepared to engage with the globalization processes that have dominated history for the past few centuries.
People around the globe are more integrated than ever by social and economic forces that transcend national
boundaries. Both your private and public lives will require knowledge of the world and its people.
Understanding the diversity of peoples and ideas and possessing cultural empathy and awareness will allow
you to meet global complexities with competence.

The study of history will also enhance your critical-thinking and analytical ability, both of which consistently
appear among the top ten skills desired by employers (Figure 1.2). Other skills that have become increasingly
important include adaptive thinking, social intelligence, cross-cultural competency, and media literacy. This
]nal skill is critical to modern workplaces. History teaches students how to assess and analyze the material
they are reading, as well as how to develop and present content in a meaningful and persuasive way. It also
hones a creative mindset that is ^exible and open to interpretations and ideas outside our own worldview.

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 1.1 • Developing a Global Perspective 11

FIGURE 1.2 Do You Have These Skills? The top skills employers will value in 2025, according to the World
Economic Forum, include innovative inquiry and creative thinking. You will develop and practice many of these skills
in this course. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Without question, skills such as critical thinking, analysis, and creativity are developed best through the study
of history. Historians must be truly multidisciplinary in the sense that they observe and gather as much
information as they can and then interpret that data with the aim of drawing conclusions. The historian also
must be a creative thinker because the source material—the data—is human, making it the most complex data
imaginable. Historical data is as diverse as the people who make it, and it might be everything from the edicts
of kings to the tunes played by street musicians. Historians must also be effective communicators. Who cares
about a story nobody reads or a product nobody buys? What company in the world could not use and value
someone who can think critically and creatively and then explain and communicate effectively? Historical
thinking also provides students with a stronger sense of self, with avenues to explore human existence, and
with the skills necessary to navigate the complexity of their world and future workplaces.

This text and its assessment questions will encourage you to analyze large amounts of information, to
understand a myriad of concepts, and to make connections across topics. Developing cultural awareness and
empathy is also critically important, and studying world history is a way to ensure you have this necessary
skill. The in^uential job site Indeed.com says, “In our workplaces, in our world, we are a diverse people.
Cultural competence is increasingly important as our means of communication and collaboration in working
environments evolve. Learning how to respect, communicate and collaborate with an increasingly diverse
work culture is crucial to optimizing a company’s ef]ciency and productivity.”

World History and Global Citizenship

The study of world history recognizes the integrated nature of modern life and prepares students for diverse,
global workplaces. Knowing about the world will prepare you to be a global citizen, someone who may reside
in only one nation but who self-identi]es as part of the larger world community. Issues in need of solutions,
like climate change, social justice, and human rights, are global in scale. You must know the world to be the
change it needs. How do you ]t in the global environment? What is your story, and how is it linked to that of
others?

In many ways, the idea of global citizenship emerged from the human wreckage of the two world wars.
Beginning in 1948, the United Nations (UN) established a series of universal declarations that conceived of all
people as deserving of human rights and dignity (Figure 1.3). Three such declarations further af]rmed the
rights of women (Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, also known as
CEDAW, 1979), of children (The Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1959), and of people with disabilities
(The Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, 1975). The UN regularly requires that member nations
report on progress in these areas. Words and declarations help to create an ethos, a set of guiding principles.
So, in addition to participating in global economies that transcend lines on a map, many in our world recognize
12 1 • Understanding the Past

that we have also agreed to a series of rights and obligations that do the same.

FIGURE 1.3 Human Rights, Codi>ed. Eleanor Roosevelt is shown holding a poster of the UN Universal Declaration
of Human Rights in November 1949. Roosevelt, the former First Lady of the United States, chaired the committee
that drafted the declaration. (credit: “Eleanor Roosevelt UDHR” by FDR Presidential Library & Museum/Flickr, CC BY
2.0)

A BBC poll in 2015–2016 surveyed eighteen countries and found that more than half the respondents believed
themselves to be “global citizens.” It also found that in times of prosperity, sentiments favoring a world
community grow, while in times of strife, people tend to revert to more local, national identities. Though no
one can see the future, it is dif]cult to imagine turning the clock back on the processes of globalization.
Whether you would like to be a global citizen of the world or not, understanding the world is essential.

LINK TO LEARNING
What does it mean to be a citizen of the world? Watch this TED Talk by Hugh Evans (https://openstax.org/l/
77HughEvansA) and think about the ways this concept resonates with you. Do you see yourself as connected to
the world? Is that a positive attribute? Why or why not?

Features of This Textbook

This text is a great place to begin your journey into the world’s past. It has several features that will help you
understand the history of world civilizations from the earliest time to the modern era. For clarity, it adopts a
traditional chronological approach, proceeding from ancient to modern times. Each chapter features maps
prominently and will help you frame world cultures in their geographic and historical context. You will engage
with ]rsthand accounts of key people and events—including instances in which people’s recollections of the
same events might differ. And the text will highlight links between the past and the present to emphasize how
earlier knowledge applies to our world.

Of particular note are the feature boxes within each chapter. These present documents and images from the
eras you are studying. Sometimes you will be guided outside the text—such as in the Link to Learning boxes—to

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 1.1 • Developing a Global Perspective 13

explore other digital resources that clarify content, expand on ideas, and highlight interesting new work
happening in the ]eld. Finally, where appropriate, the text will offer material relevant to your current
experiences, to help you understand the links between the past and the present. Following is a quick reference
to these features.

In Their Own Words

In Their Own Words feature boxes present a source composed in the period the chapter covers and allow you
to examine it in context, learning how to critically analyze source material. A short series of questions will help
to guide your analysis.

Dueling Voices

Dueling Voices feature boxes present either an ongoing historical debate or con^icting reports of the same
event or idea that were written around the time it occurred or emerged.

Beyond the Book

In Beyond the Book feature boxes, you can explore the value of art, architecture, music, ]lm, and other
physical objects as sources in interpreting history. The goal is to demonstrate that the human story resides in a
great deal more than just the written word itself. You may also have the opportunity to do some experiential
learning.

The Past Meets the Present

The Past Meets the Present feature boxes ask you to understand the connections between the material in the
chapter and the present. They will prompt you to think about the relevance of a particular historical issue in
today’s world.

Because this is a global history, we tried to be true to the essence of world cultures by presenting people’s
names in forms as close as possible to their language of origin. These spelling choices have been made by
experts in their ]eld based on current research. For example, the text uses the pinyin system of transliteration
for writing Chinese names, as opposed to the older Wade-Giles system, because pinyin is the system adopted
by the People’s Republic of China and more closely approximates the sounds of Mandarin Chinese. In
languages using the Latin alphabet, accents have been retained on all personal names (Hernán Cortés,
Napoléon Bonaparte); however, in transliterated languages such as Chinese and Arabic, we have avoided
accents and apostrophes whenever possible, unless they are necessary to aid pronunciation and enhance
readability. In naming events, places, and other items of historical interest, we have generally chosen the most
commonly encountered English variants. Finally, dates are given using the Gregorian calendar, the
international standard for civil calendars, with “BCE” to indicate developments occurring before the Common
Era and “CE” to mark events in our own era.

The study of world history also requires a strong understanding of geography. You might assume that maps are
fairly cut and dried. After all, we can clearly demonstrate where things are, can’t we? For most of history,
however, this was not actually the case. Maps are some of the most contested pieces of historical evidence we
have because they were almost always made from the perspective of the one making the map, not as an
objective practice. Most civilizations put themselves at the center of their known world, for instance. Maps
have also been used to aid in the conquest and suppression of peoples. During the Age of Exploration, the Pope
arbitrarily divided inhabited territory that was new to Europeans and granted it to Spain and Portugal.
Centuries later in Berlin, Germany, European diplomats drew lines on a map of Africa to apportion territory
among colonial powers. Think of how written history might change if our surviving maps were indigenous in
origin. Even when humanity acquired knowledge of the size and space of things, maps remained inaccurate,
often showing Europe as larger than it is and regions of the Global South—Latin America, Africa, and parts of
Asia and Oceania—as smaller than their actual size.

Maps also present challenges because some territories are claimed by more than one political entity. There are
14 1 • Understanding the Past

many examples in the distant past, and even today, of contested regions, such as Crimea and Taiwan, that can
make presenting regional geographies dif]cult. Crimea is claimed by both Russia and Ukraine, and Taiwan
claims independence while China considers Taiwan part of its territory. The text will highlight these regions as
they arise in the human story so you can explore geography’s complexities.

LINK TO LEARNING
For a perspective on how Google Earth re^ects the globalization of society, read “World Maps and the Dawn of
Globalisation” (https://openstax.org/l/77GoogleEarthA) by Jerry Brotton, a cultural historian and author of The
History of the World in Twelve Maps. This brief blog post comments on the precision of GPS map technology as
used by Google Earth. As you read it, consider the possibilities and dangers of such technology.

1.2 Primary Sources

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify different types of primary sources
• Analyze primary sources in a historical context
• Interpret primary sources effectively

Historians develop interpretations of the past based on source material, and we do the same in this book. From
ancient hieroglyphs to works of art to blog posts, from histories and biographies written by later scholars to
Google Maps, sources help us build our interpretations of the human story.

Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

There are two main kinds of historical sources, primary and secondary. A primary source is a gateway to the
past because it is an object or document that comes directly from the time period to which it refers. Primary
sources might be government documents, menus from restaurants, diaries, letters, musical instruments,
photographs, portraits drawn from life, songs, and so on. If a historian is looking at Ancient Egypt, a statue of a
pharaoh is a primary source for that time period, as are hieroglyphs that tell of the pharaoh’s reign. Primary
sources, when we have them, are considered more valuable than other sources because they are as close in
time as we can get to the events being studied. Think, for example, of a court trial: The ideal is to have the trial
quickly so that witness testimony is fresher and therefore more reliable. With the passage of time, people can
forget, they might subconsciously add or take away parts of a memory, and they may be in^uenced to interpret
events differently.

A secondary source is one written or created after the fact. A twentieth-century biography of an Egyptian
pharaoh is a secondary source, as are a map drawn in the 1960s to identify the battle sites of World War II
(1939–1945) and a museum curator’s blog post about the artistic achievements of the Ming (1368–1644).
These types of scholarly sources are critical for the evolution of historical knowledge and are often the place
students begin to form an understanding of past events. Secondary sources are useful for setting context and
placing a topic in relationship to others of the same era. They also provide access to scholarly research based
on primary sources for students whose access might be limited by language or geography. Good research
requires both types of sources and some attention to historiography, which is the study of how other
historians have already interpreted and written about the past.

All primary sources are not equal. History technically begins with the advent of writing, when humans began
to deliberately make records and, after that, to develop the idea that preserving the past was a worthwhile
endeavor. This is not to say that there isn’t anything valuable to be found in the oral histories of preliterate
societies, or in prehistoric cave paintings and archaeological artifacts. For historians, however, the written
word is more accurate evidence for building narratives of the past. For example, imagine a modern magazine
with a rock or pop star on the front, dressed for performance in a vibrant or provocative style. If that were the

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 1.2 • Primary Sources 15

only piece of evidence that existed ]ve hundred years from now, how would historians interpret our era?
Without context, interpretation of the past is quite dif]cult. Studying artifacts is certainly worthwhile, but text
offers us greater clarity. Even if the cover of the magazine bore only a caption, like “Pop star rising to the top of
the charts,” future historians would have signi]cantly more information than from the photo alone. However,
even textual sources must be met with a critical eye. “Fake news” is not new, but the speed at which it travels
today is unprecedented. We must investigate the full context of any source and look for corroboration.

It takes time to develop the skills necessary to interpret primary sources. As an example, consider the act of
reading a poem. You can read the surface of a poem, the literal meaning of the words presented. But that
seldom re^ects the true meaning the poet meant to convey. You must also look for nuances, hidden meanings,
or repeated metaphors. We approach a primary source in a similar way.

There are four key areas to consider when interpreting sources: the author, the audience, the intent, and the
context. Here are some key questions to ask yourself when exploring a new source:

1. What kind of source is it? Government documents have a different purpose than personal diaries. A
former president commenting on a political issue has a different view from a comedian doing the same.
2. Who authored the source and why? Is the author responsible for simply recording the information, or was
the author involved in the event? Is the author reliable, or does the author have an agenda?
3. What is the historical context? How does the source relate to the events covered in the chapter?

None of the answers disqualify a source from adding value, but precisely what that source brings to the overall
picture depends heavily on those answers.

LINK TO LEARNING
This is a presentation on working with primary sources (https://openstax.org/l/77PrimarySA) produced by the
Smithsonian. Pay particular attention to section 2, “Documents.” Read through it and take note of the kinds of
questions to ask as you critically assess primary sources. You may want to write them down or have them on
hand for reference as you work your way through this text.

In a world where many sources are available in digital format, searching online, as many students do, is a
convenient way of doing research. But the internet has just as much misinformation as it has legitimate
sources. Historians evaluate the strength of both primary and secondary sources, especially online. How do we
decide what a good source is? Some clues are more obvious than others. For example, it is unlikely any truly
scholarly material will be found on the ]rst page of a Google search, unless the search terms include key
phrases or use targeted search engines such as Google Scholar. Online encyclopedias may be a good place to
start your research, but they should be only a springboard to more re]ned study.

Your work is only as strong as the sources you use. Whether you are writing a paper, a discussion post online,
or even a creative writing piece, the better your sources, the more persuasive will be your writing. Sites like
Wikipedia and Encyclopedia.com offer a quick view of content, but they will not give enough depth to allow for
the critical thinking necessary to produce quality work. However, they are useful for introducing a topic with
which you might not be familiar. And if you start with encyclopedic sources, you can often ]nd pathways to
better sources. They might spark new lines of inquiry, for instance, or have bibliographic information that can
lead you to higher-quality material.

Always make sure you can tell who is producing the website. Is it a scholar, a museum, or a research
organization? If so, there is a good chance the material is sound. Is the information cited? In other words, does
the source tell you where it got the information? Are those sources in turn objective and reliable? Can you
corroborate the site’s information? This means doing some fact checking. You should see whether other
sources present similar data and whether your source ]ts into the narrative developed by other scholars. Does
your school library list the site as a resource? Finally, if you are not sure, ask. Librarians work in online spaces
16 1 • Understanding the Past

too, and you can generally reach out to these experts with any questions.

As you explore world history via this text, you will be asked many times to read and interpret primary sources.
These will normally be set off as feature boxes, as noted earlier. Let’s work through a few examples. The goal is
to become more familiar with the types of questions you should ask of sources, as well as the variety of sources
you will work with throughout the text.

First, an image exercise. The following images are exterior and interior views of the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, a
wonder of the late antique world whose name means “Holy Wisdom” in Greek. Buildings and other material
objects change as they are affected by historical events. Images of them can tell us much about those events
and the people who enter or interact with them.

The ]rst set of images (Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5) provide a likeness of the famous church at the time it was
built, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (483–565 CE). The domed structure was unique for
its engineering and stunning in its effect. Decorated with Greek iconography, the visual images and symbols
used in a work of art, the basilica stood as an emblem of Justinian’s power, the awesome nature of the Christian
God, and the surviving wealth and stability of the East. Churches at the time were meant to inspire awe;
because most people could not read, stories of religious ]gures and events were told through highly decorative
and symbolic images, and obedience and a desire to join a religious community could be motivated by the
buildings’ grandeur. As you study the renderings, re^ect on the following questions: What are the key features
of the building? What does it make you think about? What does it tell you about the period in which it was
built? What would you think about it if you were a poor sixth-century farmer, an urban merchant of some
wealth, or a foreign leader?

FIGURE 1.4 Exterior of Hagia Sophia. Note the domes and archways in this drawing of the exterior of the Hagia
Sophia. Such architectural features were particularly hard to build during the sixth century and often collapsed
because the engineering was flawed. Thanks to their durability, those of Hagia Sophia were a marvel at the time it
was built. (credit: “Saint Sophia, Constantinopolis” by ETH Library/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

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 1.2 • Primary Sources 17

FIGURE 1.5 Interior of Hagia Sophia. The Greek Christian iconography found in the interior of the Hagia Sophia
includes halos on the Ygures, signifying holiness. Also note the lavish use of precious gold in this tenth-century
mosaic of Mary, the child Jesus, and the emperors (left) Justinian and (right) Constantine. (credit: “Hagia Sophia
Southwestern entrance mosaics 2” by “Myrabella”/Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0)

In 1453, nearly a thousand years after the reign of Justinian, the city of Constantinople (now called Istanbul in
present-day Turkey) was conquered by Muslim Turks. According to contemporary accounts of the conquest,
when the Ottoman leader Sultan Mehmed II came to the Hagia Sophia, he recognized its beauty and saved it
from destruction. To Muslims, the Christian God and the Muslim God are the same, so Mehmed made the
church a mosque—following a long tradition in the Middle East of continuing the use of sacred spaces.
Minarets, towers from which the Muslim call to prayer is issued, were added at the four corners of the building,
and Arabic writing was placed beside the ancient Greek iconography.

The second set of images (Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7) show the Hagia Sophia as it stands today, having also been
a museum and now serving as a mosque once again. The building tells a tale spanning hundreds of years and
highlights many fascinating aspects of the region’s history. But without the context, its meaning would be far
less clear.
18 1 • Understanding the Past

FIGURE 1.6 Hagia Sophia’s Minarets. Hagia Sophia has four tall minarets, which were added a thousand years after
its initial construction. Minarets are towers from which the Muslim call to prayer goes out multiple times a day.
(credit: “Hagia Sophia (Istanbul)” by Frank Mago/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)

FIGURE 1.7 Hagia Sophia’s Many In?uences. Muslims consider themselves the heirs of Judaism and Christianity,
and until recently, you could still see the early Greek iconography in the interior of Hagia Sophia. Now it is covered
during prayer times by large medallions bearing Arabic writing. (credit: “Hagia Sophia Istanbul 2013 13” by Karelj/
Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

Textual, or written, primary sources are considered the best possible resource for historians. They tend to offer
both far more context and far more information than other types of sources, and sometimes clues about the
writer’s intent. But even they must be approached with method and scrutiny. We must evaluate the author,
audience, intent, and context in order to accurately interpret a primary source document. Some questions you

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 1.2 • Primary Sources 19

might ask about the author include the following: Who wrote the piece and what is their background? What
was important to the author? Why might the author have written what they did? In some cases, the answers
will be fairly obvious. In others, a deeper inspection might reveal hidden motives.

You must also take into account the planned audience for a document: For whom was it written? Was it meant
to be public or private? Is it a letter to a friend or an essay submitted for publication? For a modern example, is
it a text to a friend or to a mother? Texts will one day be a source for historians to use, but knowing who sent
them, and to whom, will be essential to interpreting them correctly. (For fun, search online using the term
“misinterpreted texts.”)

In addition to considering the audience, you should think about the intent: Why was the document written?
Was it intended to be a factual account of an event? Was it meant to persuade? Is it a complete falsi]cation?
Often people write things that present them in the best light rather than reveal weaknesses.

Finally, you should re^ect on the circumstances of the document’s creation. Some questions you may want to
ask include the following: What is the general time period of the document, and what was that time like? What
was happening when the individual wrote the document? Was there any sort of intimidation or distress? Is it a
time of war or peace? Is there religious con^ict? Is there an economic crisis? A health crisis? A natural
disaster? Could the writer have been fending off an attack or lobbying for one? Are we missing other
perspectives or voices we would like to hear?

The answers to these questions will shape your interpretation of the primary source and bring you closer to its
true meaning. Most text-based sources have meanings beyond the obvious, and it is the historian’s job to
uncover these. Be sure to keep these questions in mind throughout this course and whenever you undertake
historical research or are considering the accuracy of information you encounter (Figure 1.8).

FIGURE 1.8 Evaluating Primary Sources. These key questions to ask about primary sources help us evaluate the
author, audience, intent, and context. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

To gain experience using these questions, consider the two accounts in The Spanish Arrival in the Aztec
Capital, written relatively close to each other in time and dealing with similar subjects from different
perspectives. According to the ]rst account, written in 1519 by Hernán Cortés, Indigenous people in the
Americas were thrilled to become subjects of Spain when European colonizers arrived. The Aztec, telling of
their encounter with the Spanish, relate that the Spaniards killed even the unarmed, which seemed barbaric to
the author. What should historians do with such widely competing texts? How do they decide what each one
20 1 • Understanding the Past

adds to the true story of the conquest of Mexico? As you read, keep these questions in mind.

DUELING VOICES

The Spanish Arrival in the Aztec Capital

Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in what is now central Mexico in
1521. An ambitious but brutal young man seeking fame and fortune, Cortés wrote a series of letters to Charles V
describing his exploits in the hope of raising himself in the king’s esteem. In the following letter, written in 1519,
Cortés recounts his conquest of Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, and describes the Indigenous people he
encountered. The letter is followed by an Aztec account of the conquest that describes an event known as the
Massacre in the Great Temple, an attack on nobles and warriors who had gathered in Tenochtitlán to celebrate a
religious festival. The attack was conducted by Pedro de Alvarado, who had been left in charge while Cortés was
absent from the city. At the time of the massacre, Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, was under house arrest, having
previously greeted Cortés on his arrival and invited him into the sacred city.

In my former despatch [sic], Most Excellent Prince, I gave a list of the cities and towns that had to that
time voluntarily submitted to your authority, together with those I had reduced by conquest. I also
mentioned having received information from the natives of a certain great Lord, called MUTECZUMA,
who, according to their computation of distances, dwelt ninety or a hundred leagues from the coast and
the port where I had disembarked; and that, trusting in the greatness of God, and the conYdence
inspired by the royal name of your Highness, I proposed to go and see him wherever he might be. I also
recollect having [. . .] assured your Highness that he should be taken either dead or alive, or become a
subject to the royal throne of your Majesty. With this determination I departed from the city of Cempoal,
to which I gave the name of Sevilla, on the 16th of August, with Yfteen horse and three hundred infantry,
all in the best condition for war in which I was able, or the time permitted me to render them. [. . .] I also
left the whole province of Cempoal, and all the mountainous region adjacent to the town, containing Yfty
thousand warriors, and Yfty towns and fortresses, in peace and security, and Yrm in their allegiance to
your Majesty, as they have remained to the present time. Although they were subjects of Muteczuma,
yet according to the information I received, they had been reduced to that condition by force, within a
short period; and when they had obtained through me some knowledge of your Highness, and of your
great regal power, they declared their desire to become vassals of your Majesty, and to form an alliance
with me. They also begged me to protect them against that mighty Lord, who used violent and tyrannical
measures to keep them in subjection, and took from them their sons to be slain and offered as sacriYces
to his idols; with many other complaints against him, in order to avoid whose tyranny they embraced the
service of your Majesty.

—Hernán Cortés, Second Letter to Charles V

During this time, the people asked Motecuhzoma how they should celebrate their god’s Yesta. He said:
“Dress him in all his Ynery, in all his sacred ornaments.”

During this same time, The Sun commanded that Motecuhzoma and Itzcohuatzin, the military chief of
Tlatelolco, be made prisoners. The Spaniards hanged a chief from Acolhuacan named
Nezahualquentzin. They also murdered the king of Nauhtla, Cohualpopocatzin, by wounding him with
arrows and then burning him alive.

For this reason, our warriors were on guard at the Eagle Gate. [. . .] But messengers came to tell them to
dress the Ygure of Huitzilopochtli [the god of sun and war]. They left their posts and went to dress him in
his sacred Ynery: his ornaments and his paper clothing.

When this had been done, the celebrants began to sing their songs. That is how they celebrated the Yrst
day of the Yesta. On the second day they began to sing again, but without warning they were all put to

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 1.2 • Primary Sources 21

death. The dancers and singers were completely unarmed. [. . .]

The Spaniards attacked the musicians Yrst, slashing at their hands and faces until they had killed all of
them. The singers—and even the spectators—were also killed. This slaughter in the Sacred Patio went on
for three hours. Then the Spaniards burst into the rooms of the temple to kill the others: those who were
carrying water, or bringing fodder for the horses, or grinding meal, or sweeping, or standing watch over
this work.

The king Motecuhzoma [. . .] protested: “Our lords, that is enough! What are you doing? These people
are not carrying shields or macanas. Our lords, they are completely unarmed!”

The Sun had treacherously murdered our people on the twentieth day after the captain left for the coast.
We allowed the Captain to return to the city in peace. But on the following day we attacked him with all
our might, and that was the beginning of the war.

—Miguel León-Portilla, The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico

• To whom is each author writing?

• How do the authors’ different intentions affect what they wrote?
• One author was on the side of the victorious and one among the vanquished. How does this context affect
the tone of the writing?

Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

The different types of language used in a source are clues to its interpretation. Linguists call the use of
language rhetoric. Rhetorical choices, decisions about the way words are used and put together, are often
deliberate and intended to achieve a certain outcome. For example, think about the way you talk to a professor
versus the way you talk to a friend. We must closely examine the rhetorical choices in any primary document
to correctly interpret it. To practice this skill, consider President Roosevelt’s famous speech in Roosevelt’s “Day
of Infamy” Speech and the guiding questions that follow.

IN THEIR OWN WORDS

Roosevelt’s “Day of Infamy” Speech

The United States entered World War II in 1941 after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor (Figure 1.9), the naval
base where the U.S. PaciYc fleet moored most of its vessels. It was a surprise attack that killed hundreds,
devastated the base, and shocked the country. President Franklin D. Roosevelt went to Congress and asked for a
declaration of war against Japan. The speech he gave, however, was about more than this request. Roosevelt
used certain words to highlight that the attack was secret and calculated. He also suggested that God was on the
side of the United States. As you read, pay special attention to the words Roosevelt uses. Can you pick out a few
key rhetorical choices?
22 1 • Understanding the Past

FIGURE 1.9 Pearl Harbor under Attack. This photograph of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was taken from a Japanese
plane on December 7, 1941, shortly after the beginning of the torpedo attack on the U.S. fleet anchored there.
(credit: “Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese planes view” by Naval History and Heritage Command/Wikimedia
Commons, Public Domain)

Mr. Vice President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the Senate and of the House of Representatives: Yesterday,
December 7th, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and
deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.

The United States was at peace with that nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in
conversation with its government and its emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the
PaciYc. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had commenced bombing in the American
Island of Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to our
secretary of state a formal reply to a recent American message. And while this reply stated that it
seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or
of armed attack.

It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was
deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time, the Japanese
government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements and expressions of
hope for continued peace.

The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military
forces. I regret to tell you that very many American lives have been lost. In addition, American ships
have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.

Yesterday the Japanese government also launched an attack against Malaya.

Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong.

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 1.2 • Primary Sources 23

Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam.

Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands.

Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island.

And this morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.

Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the PaciYc area. The facts of
yesterday and today speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their
opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our nation.

As commander in chief of the army and navy I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense.
But always will our whole nation remember the character of the onslaught against us.

No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their
righteous might will win through to absolute victory.

I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only
defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never
again endanger us.

Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are in
grave danger. With conYdence in our armed forces—with the unbounding determination of our
people—we will gain the inevitable triumph—so help us God.

I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday,
December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.

—Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Day of Infamy”

• What message was Roosevelt conveying to the nation’s people and to the world?
• What word choices did he make to convey this message?

LINK TO LEARNING
In his “Day of Infamy” speech, Roosevelt uses a rhythmic cadence to give the impression of imminent danger
as Japan attacks other targets. Listen to an audio recording of the speech (https://openstax.org/l/77Infamy)
from the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum.

Hidden in History
Historians begin their work with a research question and seek to ]nd the sources necessary to build an
authentic narrative that answers it. One challenge is that written sources are undeniably valuable but often
leave out important details. For example, many speak only of the lives of elites. It is not terribly dif]cult to ]nd
information about kings, queens, and other rulers of the past, but what of their families? Their servants? What
of the ordinary people who lived under their rule?

Some groups of people remain hidden in our account of history because few records talk about their lives and
experiences. Historians of the 1960s began to revolutionize the discipline by studying history “from the
bottom up.” In other words, they began to focus on just those groups that had long been ignored. They used
sources like church records, newspapers, and court hearings to illuminate the lives of the poor and illiterate.
Court hearings were one venue in which the words of people from all backgrounds were recorded as they
served as witnesses and as accused. Mothers and fathers also sought out those who could write letters for them
to get pardons for loved ones convicted of crimes. These kinds of sources shed light on those whose voices
24 1 • Understanding the Past

were rarely heard, either while they lived or after they died. Great strides have been made in the ]eld of social
history, which looks beyond politics to the everyday aspects of life in the past. But it remains dif]cult, lacking
records, to represent women, the poor, and minority communities on an equal footing with those who have
traditionally held power.

These kinds of limitations can also apply to regions of the world. Civilizations with long-standing and
abundant historical documents often have more complete histories than others. Much is known, for example,
about European history and Chinese history, both of which have deep roots in the written word. Europe, after
all, had Herodotus, and China had Sima Qian. Herodotus, who lived in the ]fth century BCE, is called the father
of history in the West; he wrote the history of the Greco-Persian wars. Sima Qian, born in the middle of the
second century BCE, is referred to in China as the father of history for his work Records of the Grand Historian,
a sweeping history of the Han dynasty. The Middle East and India also have rich textual histories. In Africa and
Latin America, the historical record is less full.

In the case of Latin America, the historical record was signi]cantly altered when the Europeans arrived.
Believing that much of the writing of Indigenous people that they found spoke of a religion and culture they
meant to replace, the conquerors deliberately destroyed it. Writing Africa’s history is complicated by both its
size and its diversity, as well as its colonial past. Due to the extremes of climate, surviving written documents
and even archaeological evidence are not easily found, and what exists of written history is often tainted by the
bias of the colonial observers who wrote it. New scholarship is emerging in both regions, generated by
historians who look with fresh eyes and seek to understand history as it was. To gain some insight into the way
history is relevant to the present, read Chinua Achebe on the Value of Indigenous History and consider the
questions posed.

THE PAST MEETS THE PRESENT

Chinua Achebe on the Value of Indigenous History

The following is an interview with the noted Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) in The Atlantic.
Achebe, author of several important books including Things Fall Apart, which explores the impact of British
missionary work in Nigeria, speaks to both the historic legacy of colonialism—the practice of controlling another
people or area, usually for economic gain—and the need to Yrst see ourselves independently and then in relation
to others (Figure 1.10).

FIGURE 1.10 Chinua Achebe. This is a photo of the young Chinua Achebe in Lagos, Nigeria, in 1966. (credit:
“Chinua Achebe, 1966” by The New York Times/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

Access for free at openstax.org

 1.3 • Causation and Interpretation in History 25

But, of course, something doesn’t continue to surprise you every day. After a while I began to
understand why the book [Things Fall Apart] had resonance. I began to understand my history even
better. It wasn’t as if when I wrote it I was an expert in the history of the world. I was a very young man.
I knew I had a story, but how it Yt into the story of the world—I really had no sense of that. Its meaning
for my Igbo people was clear to me, but I didn’t know how other people elsewhere would respond to it.
Did it have any meaning or resonance for them? I realized that it did when, to give you just one example,
the whole class of a girls’ college in South Korea wrote to me, and each one expressed an opinion about
the book. And then I learned something, which was that they had a history that was similar to the story
of Things Fall Apart—the history of colonization. This I didn’t know before. Their colonizer was Japan. So
these people across the waters were able to relate to the story of dispossession in Africa. People from
different parts of the world can respond to the same story, if it says something to them about their own
history and their own experience.

—Chinua Achebe in Katie Bacon, “An African Voice,” The Atlantic

• Try to sum up Chinua Achebe’s words in one sentence.

• In what ways do you think colonialism has influenced the writing of history?

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe causation as it is used in the study of history
• Identify the levels of causation
• Analyze the role of interpretation in producing an accurate historical record

The study of history has always been about more than giving a recounting of past events. It is about
remembering our shared past, making human connections that traverse centuries, and helping us know more
about ourselves. Once we know how to muster as many facts as we can, we must consider the next
step—understanding causation. Causation is the why behind events; understanding it is the way historians get
at the heart of the matter. The powerful and public forces that change society and government are also present
when individuals make choices about their lives. What, then, are the forces that shape history, that shift it one
way or another, that move people to change on both an individual and a societal level?
All of us see these historical causes through the lens of our own experiences, circumstances, and value
systems. Historians, particularly those trained in recent times, work to eliminate as much bias as they can, but
we cannot wholly disconnect ourselves from our environment and beliefs. Bias can even sometimes act as a
positive force, allowing us to look at the past in new ways. For example, historians in the 1960s and 1970s
began to question their discipline’s traditional focus on elites and sought out new sources that highlight the
lives of more ordinary people. Driven by a bias in favor of the counterculture and politics of the era, they
wanted to know more about what all people experienced.

Levels of Causation
In their quest for the why of an event, historians look at both the immediate and the long-term circumstances
of that event. Not all causes are equally signi]cant; we need to rank them in importance. Let us begin with a
thought exercise. At this moment in your history, you are reading this textbook. Why? Perhaps you would say,
“Because the instructor told me to, and it will be on the test.” Certainly that is a valid reason. But if you think a
bit more deeply, you might also say, “I want to do well in my education so I can be successful.” And at an even
deeper level, “Society tells me that education is necessary to realize my full potential, ]nd ful]llment, and
participate in the community.”
26 1 • Understanding the Past

Think of all the other things that caused you to be here in this moment. There are no wrong answers; just
explore the levels of causation behind your reading right now. Now rank them in order of importance. Which
causes had the most in^uence on you, and which were more remote? Your response might look something like
a pyramid (Figure 1.11). The primary cause is the most immediate. It is the spark. The secondary cause is
once removed. The tertiary cause offers the broader context.

FIGURE 1.11 Causation Explained. This causation chart answers the question, “Why are you reading?” on three
levels. The primary level is the most immediate. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0
license)

To reach a true understanding of why you are reading your text, you needed to know yourself well, understand
the connection between education and career, and assess how social factors, such as the value employers place
on education, in^uence your decision-making. The more aspects of causation historians can ]nd, the closer
they can get to the true nature of the event.

Let’s try another example, this one from history. Why did the United States enter World War II in 1941? In this
case, the immediate cause was Japan’s attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, but hostilities
had been brewing for some time. The president of the United States, Franklin Roosevelt, had been looking for
ways to help the British fend off a potential German invasion, and Japan and the United States had long-
standing issues over the use of power in the Paci]c (Figure 1.12).

FIGURE 1.12 Causation Applied to World War II. This causation chart identiYes and ranks the reasons for the entry
of the United States into World War II. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)

Access for free at openstax.org

 1.3 • Causation and Interpretation in History 27

Here is one more example. In 1453, Mehmed II laid siege to the city of Constantinople. Why? Mehmed II was
the leader of the Ottoman Empire, the sultan. He had been badly treated by his father, and when he ascended
the throne, he felt he had something to prove. The Ottomans had tried several times to take Constantinople
because it lay at the crossroads of many civilizations. Conquest had long been a reliable mechanism for
bringing new people and wealth into the Ottoman Empire and for keeping its economy prosperous. All these
factors played a role in the siege undertaken by Mehmed II. Can you order them by importance? This is the
point where historians usually disagree, even about events for which most of the facts are clear. A historian
who believes powerful leaders are the most in^uential factor driving events would rank Mehmed’s personal
goals ]rst (Figure 1.13). Base your ranking on the strongest arguments you can make.

FIGURE 1.13 Causation Applied to the Conquest of Constantinople. This causation chart ranks the reasons for
Mehmed II’s 1453 Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC
BY 4.0 license)

There can be more than three causes to any event, of course, and because human choice always plays a role,
we sometimes cannot separate events on the big stage from the smallest of personal moments in history. The
context of the Ottoman Empire’s continuous expansion set the scene in this example, and Mehmed II’s desire
to prove his ability was the spark.

Before moving on, try one more example on your own. Pick a moment in history with which you are familiar
and follow the same process.

Interpretation in History
Hand in hand with bringing causation to light is discovering what informed the choices people made in the
past. What makes people act as they do? For much of history, we found the answer in the actions of
elites—tsars, sultans, kings, and queens. The ]rst historians largely concerned themselves with the study of
wars and rulers, in accordance with the great man theory of history that credits leaders and heroes with
triggering history’s pivotal events. Although these historians gave some attention to historical detail, there was
also an equal measure of bravado, exaggeration, and political spin in their work. This seemed reasonable in a
world where the king’s choice became everyone’s choice and where sources rarely spoke about anyone other
than noble lords and ladies. That this type of history remained the norm for so long was also a function of who
was writing it.

In the West, Thomas Carlyle, a nineteenth-century Scottish historian, considered the study of the lives of “big
men” enough to understand all of history. Higher education was the privilege of only the rich; it must have
seemed quite natural to believe that only the elites could move history. These ideas began to change, however,
if slowly. In the early nineteenth century, a new school of thought called Romanticism emerged. The Romantics
believed there was greatness in everyday life. Even a small ^ower was worthy of a poem, and the plight of a
28 1 • Understanding the Past

lowly squire was as important as the worries of the great lord of the manor, for both were essential actors in the
human experience. The advent of Romantic art, poetry, music, and novels paved the way for a broad
reexamination of what was worth knowing and studying. Writing a little later, in 1860, the Russian novelist Leo
Tolstoy argued that there is more to history than the actions of one person. In his novel War and Peace, he
contended that the “general mass of men” who participate in history are the ones who truly cause events.

DUELING VOICES

Great Men, or Everyone?

In an 1840 lecture on heroes, Thomas Carlyle coined the term “Great Men” to describe the kind of history he
considered worthy, the study of elite men in positions of power. In his novel War and Peace, the Russian novelist
Leo Tolstoy argued that there is far more to history than the actions of one person. In the following excerpts,
consider the viewpoint of each writer.

As I take it, Universal History, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the
History of the Great Men who have worked here. They were the leaders of men, these great ones; the
modellers, patterns, and in a wide sense creators, of whatsoever the general mass of men contrived to
do or to attain; all things that we see standing accomplished in the world are properly the outer material
result, the practical realization and embodiment, of Thoughts that dwelt in the Great Men sent into the
world: the soul of the whole world’s history, it may justly be considered, were the history of these. [. . .]

We cannot look, however imperfectly, upon a great man, without gaining something by him. He is the
living light-fountain, which it is good and pleasant to be near. The light which enlightens, which has
enlightened the darkness of the world; and this not as a kindled lamp only, but rather as a natural
luminary shining by the gift of Heaven; a flowing light-fountain, as I say, of native original insight, of
manhood and heroic nobleness;—in whose radiance all souls feel that it is well with them.

—Thomas Carlyle, “Lecture on Heroes”

In historical events (where the actions of men are the subject of observation) the Yrst and most
primitive approximation to present itself was the will of the gods and, after that, the will of those who
stood in the most prominent position—the heroes of history. But we need only penetrate to the essence
of any historic event—which lies in the activity of the general mass of men who take part in it—to be
convinced that the will of the historic hero does not control the actions of the mass but is itself
continually controlled. It may seem to be a matter of indifference whether we understand the meaning
of historical events this way or that; yet there is the same difference between a man who says that the
people of the West moved on the East because Napoleon wished it and a man who says that this
happened because it had to happen, as there is between those who declared that the earth was
stationary and that the planets moved round it and those who admitted that they did not know what
upheld the earth, but knew there were laws directing its movement and that of the other planets. There
is, and can be, no cause of an historical event except the one cause of all causes. But there are laws
directing events, and some of these laws are known to us while we are conscious of others we cannot
comprehend. The discovery of these laws is only possible when we have quite abandoned the attempt
to Ynd the cause in the will of some one man, just as the discovery of the laws of the motion of the
planets was possible only when men abandoned the conception of the Yxity of the earth.

—Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace

• Which kind of history do you prefer, the “great man” kind or what we might call the “everyone” kind? Why?
• Whose argument is more convincing, Carlyle’s or Tolstoy’s? Why?

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 1.3 • Causation and Interpretation in History 29

While on one hand historians began to look at people of the lower classes as more integral to the human story,
history as a discipline became dominated by the same set of colonial powers that were conquering much of the
globe in the nineteenth century. Therefore, two divergent streams of thought were operating simultaneously,
and the picture of history both expanded in terms of class and contracted in terms of diversity. One of the early
European schools of thought was progressive history, which viewed history as a straight line to a speci]c
destination. Historians with this “progressive” view believed societies were becoming more democratic over
time and that the advance of republican governments was inevitable. Their perspective might also be
considered a form of teleological history, which proposes that history is moving to a particular end, a
culmination of the human experience. Progressive historians believed in the betterment of people and of
society, so long as it occurred on a European model. Progress looked only one way: the Western way. Consider
what Chinua Achebe (quoted in Chinua Achebe on the Value of Indigenous History) would have said about
European democracy and republicanism.

In the twentieth century, particularly after World War I, the idea of inevitable human progress seemed
laughable. People grew more willing to question the authority of elites because these leaders were of little help
once war began. Historians became more interested in the irrational aspects of the human condition, the
psychology behind people’s choices. This is one reason for the rise of contemporary intellectual history,
which looks at the ideas that drive people to make certain choices and focuses on philosophical questions and
the history of human thought.

The counterculture of the 1960s in the West deepened people’s desire to challenge existing norms, such as the
lack of rights for women and for racial minorities. The ]eld of social history, guided by the concept that
history is made by all people and not just elites, became much more important during this period (Figure
1.14). In this context, young historians and sociologists began to develop new ideas. In their 1966 book The
Social Construction of Reality, for example, sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann argued that our
belief systems are informed by social constructs, ideas that have been created and accepted by the people in a
society, such as the concepts of class distinction and gender. Social constructs in^uence the ways people think
and behave.

FIGURE 1.14 Trends in Historical Thought. Historians’ thinking has led from the progressive school of interpretation
to the more contemporary Yelds of intellectual and social history. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax,
under CC BY 4.0 license)

To understand history, you must understand the social construction of reality, which is the way people de]ne
roles and perceive themselves within a social context. Consider our earlier thought exercise. You believe
education is important. Why? Who has said that to you in the past? How did you come to believe it? In other
words, what is your social construction of education, and where did it come from?
30 1 • Understanding the Past

Social constructs exist everywhere and inform many decisions we make, often on a subconscious level. For
example, consider the following questions:

1. What do you buy a ]ve-year-old girl for her birthday? What do you buy for a boy the same age? What
in^uenced your decision?
2. What would you wear to a job interview? What would you wear to a party? Why?
3. To which person standing at the front of a classroom would you give more respect: a woman dressed in a
tailored suit, or a man wearing jeans and a t-shirt? Why?

In addition to examining reality as socially constructed, twentieth-century historians made interpretations

through the lenses of Marxism, which considers history to be driven by class struggle, women’s history (now
usually referred to in the context of gender history), which sees history as driven by power differences between
men and women, and postcolonialism, which focuses on the history of places formerly occupied by colonial
powers. In the process we call revisionism, each additional lens revised the great man story of history, adding
new key players and viewpoints.

Let us look at one more example. How would each school of historical thought approach the story of colonial
Latin America between the Spanish conquest that began in 1493 and the independence movements of the
1820s? The progressive historian might explore the growth of democratic legal systems or people’s increased
interest in republican forms of government. The intellectual historian might consider the Indigenous literature
and philosophy of the period. The social historian would look at what conquered people ate, how they worked,
and what they looked for in marriage partners. A Marxist historian would examine unfair labor practices and
moments of class con^ict like rebellion or riot. The gender historian would focus on the role that social
constructs of gender played in the lives of people in the past. And the postcolonialist would highlight why
aspects of colonialism, such as racism and poverty, remain in^uential after independence. All these
interpretative elements help us weave a more complete picture of the past.

The variety of interpretations open to historians also helps us put in the ]nal piece, which is the practice of
historical empathy, the ability to meet the past on its own terms and without judgment or the imposition of
our own modern-day attitudes. To fully embrace the study of the past, the student of history must be able to set
aside the assumptions of the modern era. Everyone has a set of biases, generated by the people who in^uence
our lives and the experiences that shape who we become. Historians must spend the time necessary to
investigate these biases and understand how they affect their interpretations. It is not the historian’s job to
pass judgment on the past, but to present it as clearly as possible and to preserve that clarity for future
generations. This may mean re^ecting impartially on historical positions, attitudes, or decisions we might ]nd
abhorrent as viewed from today’s world. However, the more strands of history we can investigate and bring
together, the more accurate the picture will be. And there is still much work to be done. For example, recent
and ongoing research into LGBTQ+ studies, Indigenous studies, and the history of the Global South will
continue to sharpen our image of the past.

The bottom line is that interpretation plays a central role in the ]eld of history. And changes in our
interpretation increase the number of ways we can get a clearer picture of those who lived before us. The
danger lies in using only one lens. Yes, historians choose some causes as more important than others, but only
after considering all the information available.

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 1 • Key Terms 31

Key Terms
chronological approach an approach to history that follows a timeline from ancient to modern
global citizen a person who sees themselves as responsible to a world community rather than only a national
one
great man theory the view that it is enough to study the deeds and impact of important leaders to paint an
accurate picture of the past
historical empathy the ability to see the past on its own terms, without judgment or the imposition of our own
modern-day attitudes
historiography the study of how historians have already interpreted the past
iconography the use of images and symbols in art
intellectual history the history of ideas, which looks at the philosophies that drive people to make certain
choices
primary cause the most immediate reason an event occurred
primary source a document, object, or other source material from the time period under study
progressive history a school of thought that views history as a straight line to a speci]c and more democratic
destination
revisionism the process of altering our interpretation of historical events by adding new elements and
perspectives
rhetoric the way words are used and put together in speaking or writing
secondary source a document, object, or other source material written or created after the time period under
study
social constructs ideas such as class and gender created and accepted by the people in a society that
in^uence the way they think and behave
social history a ]eld of history that looks at all classes and categories of people, not just elites

Section Summary
1.1 Developing a Global Perspective
Knowing the past, the human story, has long been considered a mark of civilization, and its study has never
been more important. The study of world history provides the skills necessary to meet global workforce needs
while at the same time developing a sense of self and place in our global community. You will gain critical-
thinking and analysis skills that will help you ful]ll the role of a global citizen in our interconnected world.
This text will help you approach history with an open mind, and it will engage you in meaningful ways, often
highlighting content that remains relevant in today’s society.

1.2 Primary Sources

Primary sources are the ]rst-hand evidence with which historians form a foundation of knowledge of the past.
Interpreting them requires attention to four key areas: the author, the audience, the intent, and the context.
Secondary sources offer valuable starting points for inquiry and context, but students must be aware of any
bias they contain. Despite the efforts of generations of historians, there are still people and regions we do not
know much about. We must hope that new generations of historians will continue to hone our interpretation of
the past.

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

The historian’s main job is to discover why history happened as it did. What caused the events that have
shaped our shared human past? To answer this question, historians apply rigorous interpretative methodology
rooted in the search for causation. They study events for both immediate causation and contributing factors,
while avoiding judgment and remaining open to revision. You now have the tools you need to fully engage with
the material in this text and begin your journey into the human past.
32 1 • Assessments

Assessments
Review Questions
1. What is an example of a primary source?
a. a diary entry by a person who lived in the period under discussion
b. a modern biography of a person in the period under discussion
c. an account of a nineteenth-century battle in a twenty-]rst century textbook
d. an article in an academic journal

2. Whom do the Chinese view as the Father of History?

a. Homer
b. Santayana
c. Herodotus
d. Sima Qian

3. What interpretation of history assumes that history can be viewed primarily through the lives and choices
of leaders?
a. great man theory
b. progressive interpretation
c. gender interpretation
d. Marxist interpretation

4. The belief that history is moved primarily by class struggle is the ______ of history.
a. social interpretation theory
b. revisionist view
c. progressive interpretation
d. Marxist interpretation

5. What is the most immediate motivator of a historical event?

a. the tertiary cause
b. the primary cause
c. the action of a great man
d. the social construct

6. Our perspectives are deeply rooted in _______, which we learn from our upbringing and environment.
a. education
b. social constructs
c. historical empathy
d. causation

Check Your Understanding Questions

1. What does it mean to be a global citizen?

2. What are the features of this textbook, and how will they enhance your learning experience?

3. What is a primary source, and what are some examples of primary sources?

4. What are the four types of questions we should ask about textual sources and why?

5. De]ne causation as it is used in the study of history.

6. Describe the process you would go through to establish the primary, secondary, and tertiary causes of a

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 1 • Assessments 33

historical event.

Application and Re7ection Questions

1. How do you see your knowledge of world history helping you achieve life goals? What do you hope to learn
from this text?

2. Why is it important to consider competing sources about the same topic?

3. What primary source materials do you think you will leave behind for later generations? How would you
want them to be interpreted?

4. If you could suggest a revisionist addition to the history you have been taught so far, what would it be?
Why?

5. Provide three examples of social constructs that affect the way you view the world and explain why.

6. Which historical interpretation interests you most? Why?

7. Choose a recent event you have followed in the news or on social media and establish a history of that
event. In a few short paragraphs, tell the story and rank the causes in order of importance. Then write the
history again, using one of the major interpretive theories in the chapter (progressive, intellectual, gender,
etc.). Your goal is to produce a different viewpoint on the same story.
34 1 • Assessments

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Early Humans 2

FIGURE 2.1 The Landscape of Evolution. Millions of years ago, our early evolutionary ancestors roamed around
today’s Ethiopia, living off the land. (credit: modiYcation of work “Blue Nile Falls at Tis Issat near Bahir Dar,
Ethiopia” by A.Savin/Wikimedia Commons, Licence Art Libre/Copyleft)

CHAPTER OUTLINE
2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration
2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age
2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

INTRODUCTION In 1974, while on a mapping expedition in Ethiopia (Figure 2.2), an American

paleoanthropologist named Donald Johanson and a colleague stumbled upon a skeletal forearm and skull in a
gully. Upon closer inspection, they not only found more bones but also realized that all of them had belonged to
some type of early human. After careful work, Johanson’s team was able to recover about 40 percent of the
skeleton, which they named Lucy after the popular Beatles song, “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.”

We now know that, though small, Lucy was an adult when she died about 3.2 million years ago. Scholars have
learned a great deal since her discovery, about her but also about many of our other evolutionary ancestors. In
the millions of years since Lucy walked the Earth, a number of early human species have come and gone. Some
migrated out of Africa and populated portions of Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas. These different
species developed new tools, learned to control ]re, mastered language, and produced stunning works of art.
Then, about twelve thousand years ago, some of our own species adopted agriculture. With this innovation,
many early human groups began to end their hunting and gathering ways and establish settled communities.
36 2 • Early Humans

FIGURE 2.2 Timeline: Early Humans. (credit “2–3 million years ago”: modiYcation of work “Skull of Homo Habilis
(Replica)” by “Luna04”/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.5; credit “200,000 years ago”: modiYcation of work
“Spreading of Homo sapiens” by “NordNordWest”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “40,000 years ago”
top: modiYcation of work “Reconstruction of Neanderthal woman (makeup by Morten Jacobsen)” by Public Library
of Science/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.5; credit “40,000 years ago” bottom: modiYcation of work “Venus"-
pendant, mammoth ivory, Alb-Donau Region, on loan from the National Archaeological Museum in Baden-
Württemberg, shown at the Landesmuseum Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany” by “Anagoria”/Wikimedia Commons,
CC BY 3.0)

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Discuss the process of human evolution in a biological and anthropological context
• Explain how and why Paleolithic humans migrated
• Describe the tools and technologies used in the Paleolithic Age

Millions of years ago, our distant ancestors descended from the trees, took to walking upright on the land, and
gradually evolved into the species we are today. Their evolution was in^uenced by many variables, including
changes in climate, diet, and survival strategies. Over time, humans developed new skills and tools to meet the
challenges of endurance and sought better prospects for themselves through cooperation and migration.

Understanding these changes and the long-ago origins of our species has required careful research by
archaeologists, anthropologists, genetic scientists, historians, sociologists, and many others. Through
painstaking reconstructions and study, these specialists have used a relatively small number of archaeological
]nds and material remnants of our distant ancestors to paint a striking picture of our prehistoric past, going
back millions of years. The nature of this work, however, requires using some extrapolation, educated
speculation, and outright guesswork to piece together the bits of unearthed evidence into an intelligible story.
This means that even as we have had to discard old theories when new information has emerged, there remain
plenty of things we’ll simply never know for sure.

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 2.1 • Early Human Evolution and Migration 37

Human Evolution
The concept of evolution over time is one we are all likely familiar with. Consider, for example, how technology
has evolved. The ]rst true smartphones appeared on the market at the beginning of this century, but these
complicated devices didn’t spring all at once from the minds of ambitious engineers. Rather, these engineers
built on technology that had evolved and improved over many decades. In the mid-1800s, telegraph
technology ]rst demonstrated that electricity could be used for long-distance communication. That technology
paved the way for the ]rst telephones, which were basic and expensive but over many decades became more
sophisticated, more common, and cheaper. By the early 1980s, electronics companies had begun selling
telephones that used radio technology to communicate wirelessly. Over time these devices were made faster
and smaller, and companies added features like cameras, microprocessors, and eventually internet access.
With these evolutionary transformations, the smartphone was born.

LINK TO LEARNING
Use this guided activity from the Evolution Lab to explore how we study biological relationships between
species using phylogenetics (https://openstax.org/l/77Phylogenetics) to learn more. Try to create your own
“Tree of Life.”

Modern humans are not smartphones, and in human history, chance biological adaptations to a changing
environment drove the evolutionary process rather than the minds of inventors conceiving of technical
innovations. But the evolutionary process that eventually gave birth to our species resembles the technological
evolution of smartphones and other devices in some important ways. Just like we can trace the evolution of the
smartphone back to the telegraph, so can we trace our own evolution back to a very distant ancestor called
Australopithecus, who lived in eastern and southern Africa between 2.5 and 4 million years ago. Lucy,
previously mentioned, was of the genus Australopithecus (Figure 2.3). A genus is a taxonomic rank that
includes several similar and related species within it. Like us, members of Lucy’s species afarensis (named for
the Afar region of East Africa where she was found) were capable of walking upright and likely used tools.
Beyond that, however, they were very different from us. They had plenty of hair like chimpanzees, ]ngers and
arms well suited for climbing trees, and brains about one-third the size of ours. Despite these differences,
scholars have concluded that the genus Homo (“human”) evolved from Australopithecus somewhere around
two to three million years ago.

FIGURE 2.3 Lucy. Despite the incomplete state of the remains of Lucy, a member of the ancient genus
Australopithecus, the similarities between her and modern humans of the genus Homo are striking. This image is a
photoshopped reproduction of her skeleton. (credit: modiYcation of work “Reconstruction of the fossil skeleton of
"Lucy" the Australopithecus afarensis” by “120”/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.5)

Possibly the earliest member of the genus Homo was Homo habilis (Figure 2.4). This species appears in the
archaeological record about two to three million years ago. Habilis means “handy”; it was thought at one time
that this was the ]rst species to have created stone tools. We now know that stone tools predate Homo habilis,
38 2 • Early Humans

but the name has stuck. Homo habilis resembles us in many ways, with a large brain similar to ours as well as
small teeth and a face we might recognize as human. But members of the species also had many ape-like
characteristics, such as long arms, hairy bodies, and adult heights of only three or four feet.

FIGURE 2.4 Homo Habilis. Partially restored remains, like the skull represented by this replica, are some of the
most important evidence we have of the human ancestor Homo habilis. (credit: “Skull of Homo Habilis (Replica)” by
“Luna04”/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 2.5)

Around two million years ago, a species even more similar to us, Homo erectus, emerged in East Africa. It
likely evolved from Homo habilis. As the name erectus for “upright” suggests, this species lived entirely on the
ground and walked—even ran—exclusively in an upright position. The consequences of this evolutionary shift
were huge. Being upright meant that the body’s digestive organs were pulled down lower and into a smaller
space. That in turn necessitated a change in diet, away from tough plants and toward easier-to-digest items
like nuts, fruits, tubers, honey, and even meat. Living on the ground was also more dangerous because it made
eluding predators more dif]cult. However, the upright position left Homo erectus’s hands free to use tools.
This advantage likely led to further evolutions that made human hands more dexterous over time, prompting
the wider adoption of ever more sophisticated tools.

Members of Homo erectus shared other close similarities with modern humans. They were about the same
height as we are, sometimes reaching just over six feet. They made and used relatively sophisticated stone
tools and relied on ]re for both warmth and cooking food. They likely constructed huts of wood and fur in
which to live and worked cooperatively with each other to hunt and forage. The position of the larynx in the
throat also suggests that Homo erectus may have had some capacity to communicate vocally, which would
have aided in cooperative endeavors. Finally, archaeologists have uncovered strong evidence that Homo
erectus cared for the sick and elderly. This evidence includes the discovery of the remains of individuals who
suffered from debilitating diseases yet lived a long time, indicating that assistance was both necessary and
provided by others. Together these characteristics made the species highly adaptable to changing climates and
environments, helping explain why its members survived for so long. Homo erectus populations lived until as

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 2.1 • Early Human Evolution and Migration 39

recently as about 100,000 years ago.

Sometime between 1.8 and 1.5 million years ago, Homo erectus started migrating into other parts of Africa and
beyond, reaching North Africa, the Near East, Europe, and East and South Asia over hundreds of thousands of
years. The reasons for this extensive migration are still debated, but they likely included climate change and
the desire to follow certain types of prey. Homo erectus appears to have stayed close to rivers and lakes during
migration, hunting and eating animals like rhinoceroses, bears, pigs, and crocodiles, as discoveries in the Near
East have con]rmed. Populations evolved to adapt to the different environmental conditions into which they
moved. Over time this led to a diversity of human species, including Homo heidelbergensis; Homo
neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals; Denisovans; and modern humans, or Homo sapiens (sapiens means
“wise”). Some of these species, like Denisovans and Neanderthals, emerged outside Africa. Others, like Homo
heidelbergensis and Homo sapiens, emerged in Africa ]rst and later migrated to other areas.

The extent to which these different human species interacted with each other remains unclear. DNA evidence
from a bone found in Siberia has shown that a girl (who died at age thirteen) was born there of a Denisovan
father and a Neanderthal mother. Another recent study demonstrated that modern European and Middle
Eastern populations have between 1 and 4 percent Neanderthal DNA. This appears to suggest that mating
between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals was quite common. The careful work of archaeologists and other
scholars has also made clear that some species evolved from others. For example, both Neanderthals and
Denisovans appear to have evolved from populations of Homo heidelbergensis.

At some point between forty thousand and ]fteen thousand years ago, the diversity of human species declined
and only Homo sapiens remained. Two models attempt to explain why. The ]rst and most commonly accepted
is the “out of Africa” model. This theory suggests that modern humans emerged ]rst in Africa approximately
200,000 years ago and then, approximately 100,000 years ago, expanded out of Africa and replaced all other
human species. The second model is often called the “multiregional evolution model” and proposes that Homo
sapiens evolved from Homo erectus in several places around the same time. This model emerged as an
explanation for the great diversity of modern human traits in different populations around the world. But it
relies primarily on the study of fossils and archaeological records rather than on genetic data.

These theories about human evolution are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and the real answer to the
puzzle may be a combination of the two. For example, it’s entirely possible that modern humans or a common
ancestor did emerge ]rst in Africa. Then, as this species expanded around the world, it mixed its genetic
information with that of other human species. The DNA evidence collected in recent years certainly suggests a
more complicated picture, and the debate has not yet been settled. The tools of both archaeology and
molecular genetics continue to reveal new insights into the puzzle of human evolution and the rise of Homo
sapiens. And the conclusions we can draw about our distant past will continue to change as we learn more.

DUELING VOICES

What Happened to Neanderthals in Europe?

For tens of thousands of years before Homo sapiens arrived in Europe, the continent was home to Neanderthals
(Figure 2.5). Then, about forty thousand years ago, right around the time modern humans entered Europe, the
species neanderthalensis began to rapidly die out. For more than a century and a half, scholars have been trying
to understand why.
40 2 • Early Humans

FIGURE 2.5 An Imagined Neanderthal Woman. This modern reconstruction of what a Neanderthal woman may
have looked like demonstrates a striking resemblance to modern humans. (credit: “Reconstruction of
Neanderthal woman (makeup by Morten Jacobsen)” by Public Library of Science/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY
2.5)

One theory is that modern humans replaced the Neanderthals in Europe through violent competition, including a
type of warfare between the two groups. Another model argues that the competition was less about violence and
more about resources. This theory posits that modern humans were simply better tool makers, had better
survival strategies, and possibly experienced lower mortality rates and higher birth rates. Neanderthals simply
couldn’t keep up, and their small population dwindled and then disappeared entirely.

Modern DNA analysis has opened the door for a new theory, that mating occurred between the two species and
that the population of Neanderthals was simply absorbed by modern humans. The presence of small amounts of
Neanderthal DNA in modern human populations lends some credibility to this idea, but it seems unlikely to
explain the total disappearance of Neanderthals.

Finally, analysis of climate change in Europe has revealed some variations that could have weakened
Neanderthal populations and led to their disappearance in some areas. As of now, no one theory can account for
everything. It seems possible that several factors were at play rather than a single primary cause, so the debate
goes on.

• How might more than one of these reasons, or all of them, have contributed to the decline of Neanderthals in
Europe?
• Can you think of any other explanations for the extinction of Neanderthals?

Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

Archeological evidence indicates that Homo sapiens began migrating out of eastern and southern Africa as
early as 200,000 years ago. This expansion took early humans deeper south, west, and north as far as the
Mediterranean Sea. Approximately 100,000 years ago, groups of Homo sapiens left the African continent and
began a global migration that lasted for tens of thousands of years (Figure 2.6). After crossing the Sinai into
southwest Asia, early migrants out of Africa likely followed the coasts of Asia, and by about seventy thousand
years ago, they had made their way into India and China.

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 2.1 • Early Human Evolution and Migration 41

FIGURE 2.6 Migration of the Earliest Humans. Homo sapiens Yrst expanded around south and eastern Africa before
embarking on migrations that eventually took them around the world. (credit: modiYcation of work “Spreading of
Homo sapiens” by “NordNordWest”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

Some groups continued moving south through Malaysia, into Indonesia and beyond. In places like Papua New
Guinea and Australia, there is evidence of settlements at least forty-]ve thousand years old. Others groups
making their way into southwest Asia from northern Africa entered Europe around forty thousand years ago,
moving either along the Mediterranean coast or by way of Turkey into the Danube valley. By twenty-]ve
thousand years ago, Homo sapiens had reached Siberia and other parts of northern Asia. And approximately
]fteen thousand years ago, some groups in Asia crossed into North America, eventually reaching the tip of
South America and settling at various locations in between.

This timeline has been pieced together based on the analysis of several archaeological ]nds. But our
knowledge is still limited, and new discoveries frequently require adjustments to the proposed dates and
patterns of global human migration. For example, we now know that because the Earth was in its most recent
ice age during this period, areas currently covered by water were then dry land. This is true for large portions
of maritime Southeast Asia as well as the Bering Strait between Asia and North America. Humans were able to
walk as far south as Java and from Asia into Alaska.

Yet they also roamed as far as Australia, which was not connected by land to Asia in this period. This means
they must have used rafts of some type, probably by crossing short distances between islands. Likewise,
discoveries of human habitation dating from fourteen thousand years ago in South America suggest that rafts
or boats of some kind may also have been used to skirt the North and South American coasts. No crafts have
been or may ever be found, but we must assume they existed.

More interesting still, analysis of the remains of the eight-thousand-year-old Kennewick Man discovered in
1996 in Washington State reveals anatomical features more consistent with Southeast Asian populations than
with those traditionally assumed to have populated the Americas. This discovery complicates the version of
human migration we think we know, and if anything, it suggests there is much about the process that we may
never fully understand.

But what triggered this migration in the ]rst place? Despite the uncertainties, we can draw some speculative
conclusions. We know that around the same time Homo sapiens began leaving Africa, the climate there was
becoming increasingly dry. Drier conditions meant fewer of the plants and animals humans needed to survive
were available. Modern humans were hunter-gatherers like their evolutionary ancestors, meaning they
survived by employing the strategies of hunting animals and gathering wild plants rather than by planting
42 2 • Early Humans

crops and raising livestock. As hunter-gathering societies regularly forage over a large area, any scarcity of
resources in some places or abundance in others encourages movement. In the lifetime of a single individual,
a large-scale migration would have been barely perceptible, if at all. But over tens of thousands of years,
human populations traversed an enormous portion of the globe. Nor did they go in a single direction or all at
once. Groups likely moved back and forth over areas, responding to the climatic conditions and availability of
resources. There were long periods of relative stasis punctuated by movement, creating waves of migration in
various directions.

As humans moved into new environments, they adjusted their strategies to be successful under new
conditions. This meant learning to gather different types of plants and hunt different types of animals they
came into contact with, including mastodons, woolly mammoths and rhinos, various types of grazing animals,
and giant sloths and beavers. The arrival of humans who were highly effective at survival occasionally
accompanied major transformations in their new environments. Scientists who study now-extinct animals
have recognized for some time that human hunting likely contributed to the decline of a number of these
species. Before humans arrived approximately forty-]ve thousand years ago, for example, Australia was home
to a number of large reptiles, a marsupial lion (which carried its young in a pouch), and huge wombats and
kangaroos (Figure 2.7). These species began to vanish around the same time humans reached Australia and
well before the climatic warming that led to the extinction of large animals in other places.

FIGURE 2.7 A Marsupial Lion. Tens of thousands of years ago, Australia was home to many large marsupials, such
as this marsupial lion. Its fossilized skeleton is shown here in the Victoria Fossil Cave where it was found. (credit: “A
skeleton of a Marsupial Lion (Thylacoleo carnifex) in the Victoria Fossil Cave, Naracoorte Caves National Park” by
“Karora”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

Early Human Technologies

To understand how early humans lived hundreds of thousands and even millions of years ago, scholars use the
tools of archaeology to analyze the objects left behind. Many were made of materials like wood, animal skin,
and earth, which rarely endure in the archaeological record. Bone items are somewhat more durable and have
occasionally survived. But our window into the distant past is quite small. Stone items are the most likely to
have lasted long enough for us to study them today. Beginning possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago, our
distant pre-human ancestors began using stone tools for a variety of purposes. This event marks the start of
the Paleolithic Age (lithos means “stone”), which lasted until nearly twelve thousand years ago.

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 2.1 • Early Human Evolution and Migration 43

The earliest known human-made stone tools date from about 2.6 million years ago. They were likely ]rst
created by Homo habilis, by smashing smooth rocks together to create crudely sharpened edges. The resulting
implements are often described as Oldowan tools, and their use continued until about 1.7 million years ago.
While a seemingly simple adaptation from our perspective, the development of Oldowan tools in fact
represents a huge leap in human engineering ability. These sharpened stones served a variety of cutting,
scraping, and chopping purposes. They were highly ef]cient tools for killing animals, butchering meat,
smashing bones to access marrow, and a host of similar tasks.

Beginning around 1.7 million years ago, some ancient humans began to develop a new and more sophisticated
style of stone tool by carefully chipping away smaller ^akes of the stone core to create a teardrop-shaped
implement often described as a hand-axe. Far thinner and sharper than the Oldowan tools, hand-axes were
even better at the cutting, scraping, and chopping tasks for which they were designed. They were such an
improvement over earlier tools that archaeologists have given them their own name. They are called
Acheulean tools (pronounced ah-SHOOL-ee-an), after Saint-Acheul, the site in France where they were ]rst
found in the nineteenth century CE. Since then, more Acheulean tools have been uncovered in Africa, the
Middle East, and India and scattered in parts of East Asia (Figure 2.8).

FIGURE 2.8 Early Paleolithic Stone Tools. Acheulean hand-axes (a) were far more sophisticated and required more
skill to create than the earlier Oldowan variety (b). (credit a: modiYcation of work “Handaxe in quartzite, from the
bed TG-10 of Galería in Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain)” by “Locutus Borg”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit
b: modiYcation of work “Canto tallado de tradición Olduvayense procedente de la región del Sáhara atlántico
Guelmim-Es Semara (Museo Arqueológico Nacional de Madrid)” by “Locutus Borg/Wikimedia Commons, Public
Domain)

Far superior to the Oldowan variety, Acheulean tools remained the dominant style of stone tool until as
recently as about 250,000 years ago. At that time a new type of utensil emerged in Europe, North Africa, and
southwestern Asia. Called Mousterian tools, these implements were smaller hand-axes and tools made from
stone ^akes rather than cores. In older traditions, the ^akes had been removed in order to shape the core as
desired, such as into a hand-axe. But in the Mousterian tradition, sometimes the ^akes were chipped off in
such a way that they themselves could be used as small knives for cutting meat, scraping leather, and serving
as spearheads attached to shafts (Figure 2.9). Advances to the Mousterian techniques later led to other tool
traditions. By around forty-]ve thousand years ago, humans were making a great diversity of specialized tools
from stone ^akes. These included a variety of scrapers as well as engraving tools for carving and carefully
reshaping softer materials like bone and antler into either tools or works of art.
44 2 • Early Humans

FIGURE 2.9 The Next Generation of Paleolithic Tools. Mousterian stone tools, like these found in Israel, were used
as scrapers for more careful butchering of animals between 250,000 and 50,000 years ago. (credit: modiYcation of
work “Stone Scrapers for Cleaning & Working Leather, Mousterian Culture” by Gary Todd/Flickr, Public Domain)

Another important tool of our human ancestors was ]re. When exactly humans began controlling ]re remains
a topic of debate. There is evidence that earlier ancestors like Homo erectus used it, but we don’t know whether
they were able to start ]res or merely used and perpetuated those that naturally occurred. It’s clear, however,
that by at least about 125,000 years ago, if not much earlier, modern humans had learned to start and control
]res.

Controlled ]res were useful for staying warm in cold climates, scaring off predators, and cooking meat to make
it easier to consume and digest. Archaeological ]nds also suggest that controlled ]res aided in the
manufacture of certain tools. Wooden spears could be hardened in the ^ame, making them more effective
hunting implements. Some types of stone could be treated with heat to make them easier to chip and mold.
Fire also played an important social function. Gathering around the heat and light likely aided in bonding and
helped build the social connections vital for cooperative activities and group survival.

Sitting around a ]re may also have been an occasion for early humans to display one of their most powerful
tools, the unique ability to use sounds as language. There is some speculation that earlier human ancestors
like Homo erectus were able to make sound and possibly had a type of language. We’ll never know for sure. But
we do know that modern humans are capable of making a great variety of different sounds. Biologists calculate
that we can produce ]fty different phonemes, or distinctive sounds. When strung together in a sophisticated
manner, these phonemes can produce many tens of thousands of words to describe what we see, feel, do, and
imagine. Beginning at least 100,000 years ago, modern humans began using language in this fashion, gaining
a major advantage over competing animals. With language, they could coordinate daily tasks, work much more
ef]ciently in groups, communicate abstract ideas, and pass important information to successive generations.
Few tools aided modern humans more than their ability to communicate with complex languages.

While they left no record of their discussions, early humans did leave a number of impressive artistic
depictions. The work that has survived includes small animal and human sculptures, usually made of carved
bone or stone. The human-shaped items are often of large, possibly pregnant, women and might have served
as symbols of fertility. There are also preserved hand prints, created by placing a hand on stone and blowing
pigment around it to preserve the image of its shape.

Some of the most stunning prehistoric art still in existence today consists of cave paintings dating as far back
as forty thousand years. Many painted caves have been discovered in Spain and France, but there are also
examples in England, Italy, Germany, Russia, and Indonesia. The paintings in the Cave of Altamira in northern

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 2.1 • Early Human Evolution and Migration 45

Spain are prime examples of this type of art. Within the cave, and dating to about thirty-six thousand years ago,
are more than two dozen large images of animals including bison, bulls, horses, deer, and boars. Each is
painted in impressive detail using combinations of charcoal and ochre (a pigment made from clay) to produce
bold reds, yellows, browns, and blacks. In many instances, the artists incorporated features of the cave walls as
part of their designs, giving three-dimensional shape and de]nition to the animals they drew (Figure 2.10).

FIGURE 2.10 Paleolithic Art. The Paleolithic artist who painted this (a) bison in Altamira Cave (in what is now Spain)
used protruding features of the cave’s surface to create a three-dimensional effect, such as at the bison’s shoulders.
(b) Other examples of three-dimensionality in the art of Altamira are apparent in a Czech museum’s model of the
cave’s ceiling. (credit a: modiYcation of work “Cave Paintings” by Graeme Churchard/Flickr, CC BY 2.0; credit b:
modiYcation of work “A model of the ceiling of Altamira from right, in the Brno museum Anthropos” by
“HTO”/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)

BEYOND THE BOOK

Interpreting Artistic Expression in the Paleolithic Age

We often think of visual art as a relatively modern gesture consisting of works like oil paintings, sculptures, and
even computer-designed images. But artistic expression among our species is quite ancient. We may never know
how much art was produced tens of thousands of years ago; many examples have probably been lost. But what
we do have is fascinating to behold, though interpreting it is much like trying to reconstruct an entire puzzle from
just a few pieces.

Some of the most interesting and perplexing artistic works include a number of female images sometimes called
Venus Ygurines. These are relatively small statuettes (one to sixteen inches in height) that were carved from
stone, ivory, bone, or clay to resemble women. The tiny Venus of Hohle Fels, discovered in Germany, is the oldest
such object found to date (Figure 2.11). Carved from mammoth ivory, it dates to about forty thousand years ago,
and what remains of it depicts a woman with large exaggerated breasts. This feature has led some
anthropologists to conclude that it was intended to represent sex, reproduction, or fertility.