1.

Madame Geoffrin

-She was a female Enlightenment thinker who contributed to the Enlightenment greatly. She was born in 1699, Paris, France, and orphaned when she was young: so she lived with her grandmother, who taught her to read. When she was 14, she married 50 years old Francois Geoffrin, who had 2 kids. She attended Madame Tencin's salon parties, which she inherited from Madame Tencin after her death. She also inherited her husband's money when he died. Later, when she was 50 years old, she began her own salon parties. 20 years later, she went on journeys toward Poland and died in 1777. Because of her invitation toward French Enlightenment thinkers for her salon party, those thinkers could have active and foreign contacts with others: spreading of Enlightenment followed. Also, she participated in Dennis Diderot's Encyclopedia.

2.

Thomas Hobbes

- He was a pre- Enlightenment thinker who usually contributed to political aspect of the society of that day. He was born in 1588, Malmesbury, Wiltshire --a small English town. His father, a vicar of small parish church, disappeared so suddenly, so Thomas and his siblings were raised by their uncle. He had several informal contacts with numerous scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, etc. But he never got an opportunity to be in the Royal Society, because he was a heterodox. He went to the University of Oxford and kept his career in England and France, both. He died in Hardwick, Derbyshire, England in 1679. His contributions generally covered governmental, political, and scientific aspects. His work, Leviathan states the leviathan--a commonwealth or even a state is possibly compared to an artificial man who acts upon the theory of motion. De Cive is stating that human nature is self interested but born with tabula rasa (blank mind), and people are ought to protect themselves from "continual fear, and danger of violent death". so the social contract among people is agreed to be governed by one absolute ruler: idea of Absolutism and Monarchy. Leviathan began the Engagement controversy, or the 2nd phase of the 3-parted drama of oath-taking and loyalty issue that led to 17th century upheaval. Also, he was firmly against the separation of power: either between church and state, or branches of the government. For science, his informal contract among scientists spread the idea of the Enlightenment. Moreover, he declared the theory of motion: inspired by Galileo Galilei.

3.

John Locke

- He was born in 1632, Wrington. He went to Westminster school, Oxford and was in the English Honored Society. He was also a secretary of Lord Chaftberry, and died in 1704. His contributions were the ideas of Empiricism, tabula rasa as the human nature, democratic government, popular sovereignty, natural rights of the man, and religious toleration. His famous works such as Essay concerning Human Understanding (reveals the idea of tabula rasa + how we learn sth), Letters of Toleration (reveals the idea of democracy), Two Treaties of Government (reveals the idea of proper education) contributed to the Enlightenment a lot. His ideas are still used, currently.

4.

Rene Descartes

- Also known as the Father of rationalism of the Enlightenment. He believed in ideas that contradicted with the works of the Roman Catholic Church of his time, and he based all his knowledge on scientific discoveries, such as the heliocentric view overall the universe. 5. Margaret Cavendish

- a very prominent scientist of the 17th century. She was able to take part in several scientific debates and came from an aristocratic family. Despite her achievements and works in the scientific field, she was not allowed to become a member of the English Royal Society. She wrote Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of the National Philosophy. She, overall, made many achievements and laid out new information in that time period. 6. Thomas Paine

-wrote numerous works that was voiced during the enlightenment. Some works were Common Sense, a 50-page long pamphlet, and 16 Crisis. He also wrote The rights of Man and The Age of Reason, concerning the idea of republicanism and attacking organized religion and supported deism. 7. Baron de Montesquieu - He was one of the French giant philosophers of the Enlightenment. His writing, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), a comparative study of governments, is revealing Montesquieus effort to try to apply the scientific method to the governmental and social aspect. It was to find the natural laws which applies to the social and political arena of human life. His idea of 3 basic kinds of government and the separation of powers gave great influence to the human society: even today, especially the separation of powers. 3 basic kinds of government are republics (suitable for small states), despotism (suitable for large states), and monarchy (suitable for moderate-sized states). Separation of powers is about the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of the government which limit and control each others powers with checks and balances. 8. Constitutional government

- Basically, it means a government controlled by constitution as a republic. A government under the supervising of law, not by the divine right of the monarch falls in this category. 9. Francois-Marie Arounet (Voltaire) - He was one of the greatest Enlightenment thinkers who got prosperous and famous by writing endless stream of pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and histories. He had criticism toward Christianity and strong belief toward religious tolerance: revealed in Treatise on Toleration (1763). He championed deism, a system of thought that denies the interference of the creator with the laws of the universeNewtonian world machine. This theory viewed the universe as a clock, which was created, set in motion, and was allowed to be run by the God (clockmaker), according to its own natural laws.

10. Francois Quesnay/ Adam Smith/ laissez faire - Quesnay and the physiocrats claimed that the major natural law of economics was that every individual should be set free to aim their own economic interest or benefit so it would ultimately lead the all society to gain benefit. The doctrine which says that the state have to leave the natural economic forces to be free; cannot interrupt by imposing regulations on the economy is laissez-fire. Adam Smith made its perfect statement in one of his writings, The Wealth of Nations (1776). He also proclaimed the governments 3 basic roles: 1)should protect its society from invasion (the army), 2)should defend its citizens from injustice (the police), 3)should preserve certain public works that cannot be afforded by individual. 11. Jean-Jaques Rousseau/ social contract - He believed that people had adopted laws and government to preserve their private property enslaved by government entire society agreed to be governed by its general will. This idea is revealed in The Social Contract. Thus, liberty and freedom were regained by being forced to follow what was best for each individual, which was not self-interest. He wrote Discourse on the Origins on the Inequality of Mankind and Emile. 12. Mary Wollstonecraft - Her idea of feminism was that women should have same education, economic, and political life as men. This is shown in the Vindication of the Rights of Women. 13. Francis Bacon/ scientific method - His creation of scientific method upon inductive reasoning (particular to general) effected the Enlightenment greatly. He also wanted science to create devices that would benefit industry, agriculture, and trade. 14. Blaise Pascal - He tried to unite science and religion and wrote Pensees and The Thoughts. Human nature is weak but motivated by their intelligence in his view. 15. Ptolemy - Ptolemy was a philosopher of the Middle Age who used the ideas of Aristotle and Christianity to construct a geocentric conception of the universe. This view of the universe states that motionless earth is the center of the universe, which is a series of concentric spheres that are made of crystal-like, transparent substance and moved in circular orbits around the Earth. 16. Nicolaus Copernicus/ Tycho Brahe/ Johannes Kepler/ Galileo Galilei/ Issac Newton - Nicolaus Copernicus: 1) first proclaimed the idea of heliocentric (sun-centered) model of the universe, 2) discovered that the Earth daily rotates on its axis and annually revolves around the sun, 3) discovered that the planets revolve around the sun in the order of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (Moon revolves around the Earth).

- Tycho Brahe: 1) worked to combine what he saw as the geometrical benefits of the Copernican system with the philosophical benefits of the Ptolemaic system, 2) Made it into his own model of the universe, the Tychonic system, 3) was credited with the most accurate astronomical observations of his time, and the data was used by his assistant Kepler to derive the laws of planetary motion. - Johannes Kepler: 1) imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II to Holy Roman Empire, 2) supported heliocentric view of the universe, 3) discovered that the planetary orbits are elipical. - Galileo Galilei: 1) invented telescope, 2) wrote Starry Messenger (1610), 3) supported the heliocentric view of the universe against the church put up in the trial and was forced to deny his belief he made fake decision in front of the judges (told them that he do deny his belief of heliocentric), but testimonies to himself that he still believes that the Earth spins. - Issac Newton: 1) law of gravity, 2) laws of motion: *every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless deflected by a force. *the rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the force acting upon it. * to every motion there is always an equal and opposite reaction. 3) Universal law of gravitation: 3 laws of motion govern the universe planets continued revolving in elliptical orbits around the sun. 4) Calculus 17. Antoine Lavoisier - born in 1743 and died in 1794. He was a French chemist who established the law of conservation of mass and the theory of combustion. He also explained the process of metallurgy and the ingredients of the water, and clearly stated the notion of the element. He was guillotined by the Jacobines for being a contractor of tax collection. 18. Enlightened despot - A ruler who preserved peoples natural rights with allowing religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, and the rights of private property was called enlightened ruler. He must nurture the art, science, and education and also obey the laws and enforce them fairly for all subjects. Frederick II (Frederick the Great) of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine II (Catherine the Great) of Russia fall in this category. 19. Joseph II - Unlike the Empress Maria Theresa, he believed that he needs to sweep away anything that hinders the path of reason. He abolished serfdom, eliminated the death penalty, established the principle of equality of all before the law, and worked on the complete religious toleration. By these policies, he alienated the nobles and clergies; realized his large failure and it is even written on his gravestone by him.

20. Dennis Diderot - He was a French Enlightenment thinker who criticized the fanatical and unreasonable qualities of the Christianity, and wrote the Encyclopedia28 volume collection of knowledge that he edited, to change the general way of thinking. Many articles in there asserted the ideas of more tolerant/ humane/ reasonable society and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment greatly. 21. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - He was a German musician who was truly a prodigy from his childhood: gave his first harpsichord concert at 6 and wrote his first opera at 12. He moved from Salzburg to Vienna, sought for patron but he wasnt able to get it: his life became miserable. However, he wrote music passionatelyThe Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni are well known for their greatnesses. 22. Proletariat - Government that forces the poorest class to labor: The class of industrial wage earners, who, possessing neither capital nor production means, must earn their living by selling their labor. 23. Marxism - A political and economic ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, specifically a system of thought in which the concert of class struggle plays a primary role in analyzing Western society in general and in understanding its allegedly inevitable development from bourgeois oppression under capitalism to a socialist society and trance to Communism. 24. Capitalism - An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately or corporately owned and development is proportionate to the accumulation and reinvestment of profits gained in free market. 25. Despotism - A government or political system in which the ruler exercises absolute power. 26. Meritocracy - A system in which advancement is based on individual ability or achievement. In this society, a group of leaders or officeholders selected on the basis of individual ability or achievement. 27. Oligarchy - Government by a few, especially by a small faction of persons or families.

28. Constitutionalism - Government in which power is distributed and limited by a system of laws that must be obeyed by the rulers. 29. Feudalism - A political and economic system of Europe from the 9th to about the 15th century based on the holding of all land in fief or fee and the resulting relation of lord to vassal and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture. 30. Federalism - A system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units. 31. Neo-fascism - A fringe movement inspired by the tenets and methods of fascism or Nazism. 32. Egalitarianism - Affirming, promoting, or characterized by belief in equal political, economic, social, and civil rights for all people. 33. Plutocracy - A government or state which ruled by the wealthy. 34. Primogeniture - The eldest son inherits his fathers all the authorities and properties when his father was dead.

42. Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes (1598) and declared the religious tolerance: the official religion of France was Catholicism, but the Huguenots right to worship was grantedHenry IV himself was a Huguenot who was forced to change his religion. Louis XIV revoked this edict and canceled all the religious toleration and fortification of the Huguenots towns and cities. Louis XIV was practicing absolutism, and a great amount of Huguenots fled France: not only the population, but GDP had decreased too, giving negative effect to the entire French Society. 43. Absolutism - Political theory that asserts the king or the absolute ruler has the divine right to rule the people. European rulers such as Louis XIV or Charles I practiced this. 44. Plebiscite - Basically, it means the voting process by the people within the use of suffrage. After Napoleon made consul for life in 1802, this system was applied in France.

45. Habeas Corpus - The Parliament declared this law in order to prevent the king from arresting or executing his opponents by only his will, not by the law. It was declared in 1679prohibited all the confinements and punishment that were held against the law. 46. Great Fear - During the reign of Louis XVI, fear increased all over the France. Fundamental supplies were in shortage, especially bread, which caused huge conflict between commoners. Huge inflation followed and hunger, poverty, and rage broke the moral of the peasants. Deficit spending of king and queen or huge failure at several wars also might have increased the fear. 47. Estates - 3 social strataor the estates were in segregations from each others in France. The most loyal one was clergies, the 1st estate. Nobilities follow after them as the 2nd one, and peasants were the rest. The First Estate was exempt from the tatille (tax) and radically divided again. Nobilities also had privileges such as tax exemption and running important role in government, military, law courts, church offices, etc. The commoners were taking the majority of the whole population but were treated harshly. Also, there were bourgeoisies who were usually professional in certain area. 48. Bourbon dynasty -