PAU 3101 HISTORY OF AFRICA

PREPARED BY
Felix Kiruthu
fkiruthu@gmail.com
Cell:0722406651.
Dept of History, Archaeology & Political Studies
Kenyatta University,
Nairobi-Kenya

May-June, 2023
• It is not possible to study History of Africa
without asking a number of fundamental
questions, namely:
 What is the definition of an African?
 is an African defined by the skin colour, or by
place or home of origin?
 What is so special about Africa to warrant
studies on the continent, (which is by far
appears more marginalized than any other part
of the world)?
 what is Pan- Africanism- where does it begin
and where does it end?
 Why is it important for students pursuing studies at
PAUSTI study history of Africa?
 The African Union possibly decided to have all the
postgraduate students undertaking science and
technology courses to learn Pan African History for
several reasons:
I. First, it is important for them to know the history of
the people they are expected to serve.
II. Secondly, it is important for them to know the socio-
economic and political challenges that the people
they will serve experience in order to help in
overcoming those problems.
 The above question has bothered African
scholars for a long time:
 Is it because of the African climate ?
 Does our underdevelopment arise from inherent
lack of intellectual capacity as compared to
communities in the west?
 Does our marginalization arise from our cultural
traditions?
 Finally, is it true that we have been
underdeveloped by virtue of our relations with
the West?
 Africa is often understood to define the Black people’s
continent(Kakai and Ngari, 2001).
 The name Africa which is given to the entire continent
emanates from North Africa. The term originally
designated north eastern Tunisia but was at first
generalized to refer to the territories of Tunisia, and
later included Algeria.
 The term Africans refers to descendants of Africans who
stay in other continents such as Europe and America as
Africans. This group is also referred to as the Africans in
the Diaspora.
 Ultimately, the term Africa is increasingly seen to refer
to all residents of the African continent. This includes
the Asians in East Africa, Europeans in South Africa etc.
 Pan Africanism is one of the most complex
concepts in modern history.
 Pan Africanism stands for economic,
technological, social and political advancement
not only of Africans in the continent, but also of
all peoples of African descent globally.
 Sometimes Pan Africanism is also taken to refer
to unity of the peoples of the African continent.
 What factors motivated the development of this
spirit of Pan Africanism?
 African scientists work with communities and they
need to understand their socio-cultural realities
 African scientists should understand where the
rains started to beat Africa in terms of technology
 They need to understand the political terrain in the
countries where they are working
 Globalization necessitates possibility that African
scientists may work in multiple countries a way
from home & history is useful in understanding
complexities existing in different societies.

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 (ref: Kizerbo, J., (1990): UNESCO General History of Africa &
Mokhtar, G., (1981): UNESCO General History of Africa-Vol 2.
 The Egyptian civilization is one of the oldest in the world and
Africa takes pride in this achievement of Egyptians.
 Historic Egypt is divided into upper and lower Egypt
 Upper Egypt: Comprised of the narrow valley of the Nile, for
800 miles between the second cataract and the Delta.
 Lower Egypt: Comprised the Delta – a wedge shaped area, that
was one hundred miles long.

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 The flood plain of the Nile was already settled between
5000-4000 BC.
 Pop of Egypt was mixed and constituted of the following
groups:
 Semites (People of Arabic & Jewish origin)
 Indo European peoples (Aryan)
 Blacks (Hamites)
 Cheik Anta Diop, a scholar from Senegal conducted DNA
studies on the Egyptian mummies and concluded that some
of them were black or African in ancestry.

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 From early times, the Egyptians developed a calendar
based on the flooding of the Nile and the Lunar month.
Thus, they began recording their history by dynasties
based on pharaohs (kings)
 E.g., the third Egyptian dynasty was ruling around 2700 BC
& had its capital headquarters at Memphis.
 It is this dynasty that united both upper and lower Egypt.
 During the 4th dynasty from 2600-2500 BC, the Great
Pyramid of Gizeh was built by King Cheops and other
pharaohs for their burial.

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 After the 30th Dynasty (circa 4th BC), Egypt fell to
Alexander the Great . Since then, the Ptolemies or Greek
rulers continued to control Egypt until they were defeated
by the Romans around 3RD Century BC.
 In spite of experiencing periods of conquests by outsiders,
Egyptian culture nevertheless remained surprisingly
stable.
 In most cases, the foreign rulers were absorbed by the
weight of the Egyptian culture.
 Geographical factors ensured this Egyptian security and
continuity in several ways:
 Libyan desert protected Egypt from the west
 Arabian desert in the east

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 Nubian desert in the south and Nile cataracts in the south
 And the harbourless coast of the Delta at the north
 These geographical factors left the Egyptians free in their
sheltered valley to pursue their own destiny with out too
much interference from the outside.
 Secondly, the Nile river provided natural cohesion that
held the entire valley together as a stable functioning
unity.
 Finally, the steady flow of the river, carried traffic
efficiently between upper and lower Egypt, thus enhancing
unity of the Egyptians.

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 What kind of society was the Egyptian society?
 What was its contributions to world civilization?
 Egypt produced one of the pioneer civilizations in the
world. Early Egyptians settled a long the river Nile and
practiced irrigation agriculture based mainly on the annual
floods of the river.
 By 3100bc there existed two kingdoms in Egypt, each ruled
by a king.
 King Menes was able to unite the two kingdoms and
established the first ruling dynasty
 Political unity & economic development based on
agriculture paved the way for later devpts.

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 Political Organization
 The King in Egypt referred to as pharaoh-(Term -derived
from the term “pe-rao”, which in the Old Kingdom meant
“designated house”)
 This included the residence of the royal family and the
ministers-in the new kingdom, the term came to refer to
the person of the king.
 Succession of the pharaoh was from father to son.
However, there were at least 4 known female pharaohs in
Egypt (UNESCO Vol 2 pp84.).
 Pharaoh was head of governmental hierarchy and was also
in charge of defense.

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ORGANIZATION OF GOVT IN EGYPT

 Ancient Egypt achieved stability through the co-operation of all

levels of the population.
 The PHAROAH was at the top of the social hierarchy.
 Next to him, the most powerful officers were the VIZIERS, the
executive heads of the bureaucracy.

 Under them were the HIGH PRIESTS, followed by Royal

overseers (administrators) who ensured that the 42 District
Governors carried out the pharaoh's orders.
 At the bottom of the hierarchy were the SCRIBES, ARTISANS,
FARMERS, and LABORERS.
 Achievements of Ancient Egypt:
 Agriculture- Egyptians transformed the Nile Valley through
cultivation since 5000 BC and enabled inhabitants to
progress from food gathering to food production.
 Food production had a great impact on human life as
communities were able to lead a sedentary life style.
 Settled life paved the way for other social, economic and
political developments of man
 Crafts production:
 Egyptian contribution to the craft industry can be see in
their prowess in stone, metal, glass, bone, and many other
materials

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 From 3000 BC, Egyptians learnt and made use of copper
tools. Gold and copper were the two metals widely used.
 From 5000 BC the Egyptians used flax for spinning. This
was done by womenfolk who spun fabric out of flax, which
was used for daily wear as well as for funeral ritual
mummy wrapping.
 Wood and leather were also used for making a variety of
articles especially for storage purpose of different
materials.
 Egypt contributed to the invention of glass- making
techniques to the rest of the world civilizations. Even
though Mesopotamia and Indus valley were familiar with
glazing, the technique used for making glass- there exists
no evidence to suggest that Egyptians borrowed from
them.. The glass was then exported to China and
elsewhere. 8/5/2023 17
 Another important industry in Egypt was papyrus production.
Papyrus reeds that grew along the Nile valley were important in
the following ways:
 Fibres were used for boat-making
 Papyrus was also used for making wicks for oil lamps; mats;
baskets; ropes etc.
 When tied together in bundles, papyrus stems served as pillars in
early architecture
 Finally, papyrus was used for making paper. The word paper is
derived from papyrus
 Paper was made by placing crosswise successive layers of fine
strips taken from stem of the plant.
 After pressing and drying, the material formed a large sheet.

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 The papyrus used in Egypt from about 3000BC until the end
of the pharaonic period was later adopted by the Greeks,
Romans and Arabs.
 Papyrus was therefore one of the major legacies
bequeathed by the African continent to other civilizations
 Another major technical contribution of Egypt to the
world was the art of masonry. Egyptians :
 Transformed huge blocks of granite & limestone into well
shaped materials for use by architects
 Some materials such as diorite used to built statue of
Chepren -acquired more than 65km from Cairo in Nubian
desert.

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 Egyptians made contributions in sciences including:
 Agriculture
 Physics
 Chemistry
 Medicine
 Pharmacology
 Geometry
 Applied maths
 Architecture
 Survey
 Astronomy
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 The Egyptian advancement in sciences was meant to tackle
their practical challenges in life .
 For instance, they would calculate the area and volume in
building the pyramids and in the survey of flood plain land
for farming.
 They also developed an accurate (365 day) calendar, which
was based on the lunar month & flooding of the River Nile in
order to serve their practical needs in life.
 The practice of mummification and embalming led to
advances in medical knowledge, including how to set broken
bones, wounds, and how to treat disease.
 Mummification: This was preservation of the dead bodies
 It demonstrated Egyptian proficiency in several sciences
gained from long practical experience and inspired by
belief in life after death
 A Chemical known as natron was used for mummification
 Compounds of natron have been found to include: sodium
carbonate, sodium bi-carbonate, salt and sodium sulphate.
 The process of mummification involved soaking the body in
natron for 70 days
 Brain was removed through the nostrils and intestines
removed through an incision in the body

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 Surgery:
 Knowledge in mummification enabled Egyptians to develop
surgical techniques
 Smith papyrus –authored between 2600-2400 BP
documented 48 cases on bone surgery and external
pathology, and each case is examined systematically
 Each description is followed by diagnosis
 Some mummies indicated surgical operations during
lifetime of the individuals dating from the Old Kingdom
 Some had artificial teeth made of gold

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 Medicine:
 One of the famous Egyptian doctors was Imhotep

(depicted as god of medicine even by the Greeks)

 Egyptian doctors examined patients & determined
symptoms
 They then made diagnosis and prescribed treatment-just
like the modern practice
 Treatment included: bilharzia/skin cancer/gastric
disorders/bronchitis etc
 NB/ Hippocratic oath taken by doctors even today is
believed to have originated from Egypt

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 Egyptian genius in math is demonstrated by the accurate
measurements of their architecture
 Egyptians invented fractions and the decimal system
 Arithmetic: used to solve day to day issues e.g.,
 Calculation of number of bricks to build a wall
 Harvest from fields
 Geometry used to calculate amount of land cultivated and
volume of grain in silos/stores-thus calculated volume of
a circle, cylinder and pyramid.
 This indicates they had already invented the pie (22/7)
 Math was also used for survey using knotted cord-
forerunner of surveyor’s chain.

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 Astronomy:-several contributions:
 Invention of the calendar- Egyptian calendar was the basis
of the Greek and Roman calendars
 Predicted phases of the moon with adequate accuracy.
 The pyramids in Egypt was a demonstration that Egyptians
were aware of the true north.
 It also indicated that they were aware of the cardinal
points of the compass.

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 Egyptians were quite religious and believed in the existence
of God.
 This belief evolved over the centuries from emphasis on local
deities into a national religion with a smaller number of
principal deities.
 Some scholars think that Egypt was moving towards a
monotheistic faith in a single creator, symbolized by the SUN
GOD.
 Although there was no single belief system, Egyptians shared
a common understanding about the creation of the world..
 The ancient Egyptians believed in life after death and the
resurrection of the body.
 This belief was rooted in what they observed each day. E.g., the
sun set in the western horizon each evening and was reborn the
next morning in the east.
 Similarly, new life sprouted from grains planted in the earth, and
the moon waxed and waned.
 As long as order was maintained, everything was highly
dependable and life after death could be achieved.

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8/5/2023 29
 The question of Africa’s underdevelopment has bothered a
number of scholars in the light of previous advancement.
 Martin Bernal’s two volumes of Black Athena subtitled: The
Afro Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilizations is an attempt
to settle this question.
 He observes that two models explain the origins of ancient
Greeks, namely :
 The ancient Model
 Aryan Model

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 The Ancient Model admits that Greeks were civilized by
Egyptians and Phoenician settlers.
 The Aryan Model changed this analysis in the 18th century
& argued that Greek civilization was the result of culture
mixture following conquest by Indo-Europeans.
 This model seems to deny African influence among the
Greeks.
 Bernal points out the loopholes of the Aryan Model and
emphasizes that Ancient Egyptian civilization was an
African civilization.
 NB/ There is overwhelming evidence to prove that
Egyptians influenced Greek philosophy and culture.

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 Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle were among
beneficiaries of Egyptian civilization
 Plato lived in Egypt at around 390 BP and obviously
acquired a lot of knowledge from ancient Egyptians,
including his thesis on division of labour in society
(Mudimbe, 1992).
 Aristotle who is glorified in Western civilizations is
believed to have benefitted a lot from the Egyptian
philosophy, when he accompanied his former student-King
Alexander the Great of Macedonia to Egypt (C.L.R. James:
The Stolen Legacy)
 Apparently, prior to the expedition, Aristotle had not
authored a single book. However, upon visiting Egypt, he
claimed authorship of over 1000 books.

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 The kingdom of Meroe lay in present day Sudan and is to
be instrumental the spread of iron technology to Sub-
Saharan Africa.
 Meroe as a kingdom came into existence at around 650 BP
& lasted up to 350 AD
 By around 4000 BP Nubia was colonized by Egyptians who
had dominated the entire Nile valley
 By the time Egyptians descended southwards into the area,
Meroe was occupied by groups of pastoralist communities

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 From that time up to 2000 BP, Egyptianization of the South
continued rapidly to the extent that it became a province
of Egypt
 Evidence of Egyptian influence could be seen in the ruins
of stone temples built in towns in the area
 By 9th Century BP the kingdom of Kush emerged in present
day Nubia (Sudan) and eventually overrun Egypt
 Soon after this, Assyrian invaders attacked and occupied
Egypt.
 They pushed the Nubian rulers of Egypt southwards, who
then established a capital at Meroe

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 When Assyrians spread southwards into Meroe at around
670 BP, they introduced iron technology and since then,
this technology became widespread in Meroe
 Meroe became an important centre of iron production to
the extent that it was referred to as the “Birmingham of
Africa”. This was due to a number of factors :
 Abundance of wood fuel for smelting iron ore in the
region, which is located at the confluence between the
Blue Nile and the White Nile. (The area was heavily
forested).
 Meroe became a centre of transport and communications
as it had access to the Read Sea in the east and the Nile
river which facilitated movements towards the north

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 Meroe also became an important food production centre.
While the pastoralists kept the short-horned humpless
cattle, sheep and goats, fishing and farming also became
important activities
 The community embarked on the cultivation of millet,
sorghum as the major cereal crops
 In Meroe, cotton was exploited for the production of
clothes as opposed to Egypt where flax was employed for
textile production
 Meroe was also the transit point for gold bound to the
east, which was acquired from the western parts of Africa

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8/5/2023 38
 The Horn of Africa is also one of the regions in the continent,
where early state formation took place.
 From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into
powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated
social structure.
 Geographical proximity to and control of the international water
bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean, along with
their ports as well as rich interior favored some of them to
become stronger than their neighbors and eventually
dominated them.
 Some of the states that emerged within the region included
Ethiopia, Puntland & Damat.
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 Ethiopian highlands was settled by Afro-Asiatic peoples as early
as 2000 BP, who intermingled with the local Agaw peoples.
 These inhabitants established a civilization based on irrigation
agriculture.
 A range of crops were domesticated in the region, including,
wheat, barley, flax and tef.
 A fusion of southern Arabian culture and local Agaw culture
thrived in the area resulting in a third culture.
 Thus began a civilization, characterized by skills in writing,
urbanism, foreign trade, metallurgy, plough-agriculture,
monumental architecture and, most important, a state in which
an elite controlled a peasantry.
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 In the course of time, the Ethiopian civilization was centered
around Aksum, which was founded prior to 1000 BP.
 This became the nucleus around which the Kingdom of Ethiopia
developed
 The Kings of Aksum were never agents of foreign powers, and
became Africanized.
 The ruling classes became Christianized within a few centuries
after which they moved inland and established the feudal
Christian Ethiopian state.
 The Ethiopian, Tigrean & Amharic ruling class was a proud one
& traced its descent to King Solomon.

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 The Kingdom absorbed smaller states & kingdoms and became
an empire in the same sense as European empires of the time
such as Prussia.
 Greek traders described Aksum as centre of an empire, with
trade links with India, Arabia, Rome, Egypt, Persia and Greece.
 Ethiopian history is centred on the legend Queen of Sheba of
Ethiopia and King Solomon of Israel.
 Ethiopians believe the relationship between Queen of Sheba &
Solomon resulted in the birth of the Solomonic Dynasty in
Aksum
 The Emperor of Ethiopia was addressed as: “ the Conquering
Lion of the Tribe of Judah, Elect of God, Emperor of
Ethiopia, King of Kings” 8/5/2023 42
 Major exports of the Aksumite state were natural products such
as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like
ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns,
hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and some animals like apes.

 In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments,

textiles, jewelry & glassware from Egypt, India, Roman Empire &
Persia, were acquired

 Metallic sheets, tools, utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from
the Roman Empire and Syria were also imported.
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 The Aksumites were renown for their fine architecture, crafts and
skills.
 Their masons & metal workers, were renown for their fine skills. The
architecture of Ethiopia demonstrates the technological skills
acquired by the people.
 They even hired craftsmen from Turkey to help in the
manufacture of weapons
 Today, Aksum abounds in archaeological remains and great
granite stone curved obelisks known as Stelae, which served
as royal tombs or memorials.
 This architecture is also seen in the churches built or carved out
of rock.
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 The peoples were literate & wrote their history to glorify the king
and the nobles, especially after the 1st Century AD during the
Solomonic dynasty.
 Fine illuminated books & manuscripts became a prominent
element of the Amharic culture.
 In addition, fine garments & jewelry were developed for the
church & the nobility
 The institution of the monastery also became well established
during the Amharic dynasty.

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 The wealth of Ethiopia rested on agriculture.
 The fertile uplands supported cereal growing & there was
considerable livestock raising as well as horse keeping
 They adapted to their hilly terrain and created terrace
farming
 They also dug canals to channel water from the mountain
streams into the fields.
 Finally, they build dams and cisterns to store water

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 Apart from developing a written language, the Aksumites
also minted their own coins.
 Similarly, they employed administrators from Egypt to help
running of financial administration
 Calendars were developed and adopted among various
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Oromo calendar is based on astronomical observations
of the moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular
stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars)
and Bakkalcha (morning star).

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 The Fall of Aksum

 The kingdom of Aksum lasted about 800 years

but collapsed due to Muslim conquest between
632 and 750 AD.
 Consequently, the Aksum’s rulers moved their
capital over the mountains into what is now
northern Ethiopia to escape Islam.
 The new geographical location, and depletion of
forests and soil erosion led to its decline.
 Apart from Egypt, Aksum and Meroe, there existed several
other ancient civilizations in different parts of Africa. These
included:
 Zimbabwe in the southern part of Africa. Roland Oliver
(1961) observes that late 19th century explorers in Africa
were convinced that “ such stone structures could not have
been constructed by Africans” pp53
 However, by time the Portuguese reached the East Coast
of Africa in the 16th century, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe was
already in decline
 The ruler of the old Zimbabwe was known as Monomatapa
or Mambo

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 Built consistently throughout the period from the 11th century to
the 15th century, the ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the
oldest and largest structures located in Southern Africa.

 At its peak, estimates are that the city of Great Zimbabwe had as
many as 18,000 inhabitants.

 The ruins that survive are built entirely of stone & span 1,800
acres (7 km²) .

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 The people of the Great Zimbabwe were known as
Makaranga
 The ruler was a divine priest or king
 a royal fire burned as long as the king was alive
 In the Court or palace there was a chancellor of the
kingdom
 Court chamberlain
 Head drummer
 A military commander
 A keeper of fetishes
 Head door-keeper
 Chief cook

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 The kingdom had a Queen Mother

 There were also nine principal wives of the king & each had
a miniature court within the palace enclosure

• Outside the court there existed the following:

 Vassal kings who also lit fire from the royal fire and had to
be rekindled every year from the central fire during a
ceremony.

 Governors of provinces

 A large noble class who had to send children to the Court to

be educated as pages & warriors
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The Ghana Empire was also known as Wagadou Empire & its
people were known as Soninke or Mande.

It existed from around 300-1100 AD & was located in the region
now known as SE Mauritania, Western Mali, and Eastern Senegal.

It was the first of many empires that later emerged in that part of
Africa.
 From around 8th century a dramatic shift in the economy of the
Sahel area south of the Sahara allowed more centralized states to be
established in the region.

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•The Soninke were in contact with the nomads of the Sahara from whom
they acquired small horses brought from North Africa.

• The early Soninke’s superiority in iron weaponry & horses made it

possible for them to establish a kingdom.

•They gradually expanded their territories and dominated neighboring

rulers . By 10th century the kingdom had become an empire.

• Visitors from N. Africa began referring to the Soninke state as Ghana,

but the Soninke themselves a & other Mande peoples referred to the
kingdom as Wagadu.

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The empire owed much of its prosperity to Trans-Saharan trade and a
strategic location near the gold and salt mines.
Gold was exchanged for various products such as textiles, ornaments
and cloth, among other materials.
The introduction of the camel also boosted the kingdom’s fortunes.
Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in old Morocco also
had their origins in the empire, whose main centre of trade was Kumbi
Saleh.

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 Achievements: the Ghanaian empire grew in wealth due to trade.
•Towns emerged such as Taghaza, Gao and Kumbi saleh.
•Wealthy merchants emerged in Western Sudan.
•Local industries such as gold smithing & dyeing of cloth developed.
•Introduction of iron tools during trade led to increased production in
agriculture.
•Enhanced contacts between North Africa and Western Sudan.
•Islamic religion, culture, education and law (sharia) was spread in
Western Sudan.
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•The Mali Empire or Manding Empire was a medieval West African
state of the Mandinka from c. 1235 to c. 1610.
• The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became famous for
the wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa I.
• The Mali Empire had many profound cultural influences on West
Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along
the Niger River

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 King Sundiata, son of a Mandingo chief was able to unite the
people of Mali against the rulers of Ghana.

 In 1240 the two armies met in a fierce battle where Sundiata

became the victor, earning the title “Lion King of Mali.”

 Sundiata was able to bring all of the chiefs together and turn Mali
into a rich empire based on the salt & gold trade.

 Sundiata ruled this area from around 1230-1255 AD & led the
people in conquering and expanding his kingdom to be as great
as Ghana had been.

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 The ancient kingdom of Mali had a constitution. As
early as the 13th century when Sundiata Keita became
the victor in the famous battle of Kirina, Mali
established a governing oral document, the Kouroukan
Fouga.
 It meticulously defined Mali’s governing structure,
conduct of its people and relations beyond its borders.
 During this period, important political structures such
as provinces (tinkurus), counties (kafos) & villages were
formulated as a means of simplifying leadership and
ensuring stability in the region
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•Mali’s greatest growth came under Mansa Musa from 1307-1332. Mansa
means- (king, emperor, chief, or sultan), while Musa means Moses.
• He was referred to as “the Black Moses” ; also encouraged knowledge
and teachings of Islamic faith.
• He invited Arab scholars to come to Mali and study and Timbuktu, the
capital of ancient Mali, became a center of learning for scholars
throughout the Muslim world in Africa.
 He developed the gold and salt trade of Mali and his kingdom became
very powerful and rich
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•Mansa Musa used armies to maintain peace. The soldiers were also
used to protect trade routes and increase the size of Mali.
•He was very good to his officers and soldiers who kept his empire
peaceful.
•In 1324, he made a pilgrimage or hajj to Mecca with 60,000 servants,
followers and 80 camels. The caravan carried more than 4,000
pounds of gold to be distributed among the poor.
•This demonstrated his power and wealth to the other people he
visited.
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 By 15th Century AD, the whole of the African continent was at
the height of its civilization.
 For instance, the Songhai kingdom in West Africa and Ethiopia
in Eastern Africa, were experiencing a high level of progress.
 These African kingdoms exhibited an excellent level of
scholarship, as well economic & political development.
 Unfortunately from the 16th century AD, the state of African
history began to change drastically for worse.
 What factors were responsible for this decline?

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 First, was the phenomenal rise of Europe, which had just
woken up from medieval slumber.
 Secondly, the Islamic tradition which was hitherto
successful in Africa was unable to renovate technologically
to match that of the Europeans.
 Europeans began to make a number of inventions, mainly
due to scientific innovations. These included:
 The compass-which enabled ships to sail far into the seas
 Better & more reliable ships were constructed (Caravel) by
the Portuguese.
 New & more efficient weapons were also invented e.g.,
the cannon (Portuguese)

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 Scientific discoveries laid down the ground for industrial
revolution
 It was in line with this that Portuguese discovered the
short-cut to the East, while the Spaniards discovered the
West Indies
 At the start of the 16th century, the Portuguese were
establishing bases/colonies along the west coast of Africa
e.g., at Sao Tome, Cape Verde & Ghana
 In these areas, Portuguese established sugar plantations
and therefore required large numbers of slaves to work
for them.

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