Bangor University

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Czerny's interpretation of Beethoven's piano sonatas

Lee, Suan

Award date:
2003

Awarding institution:
Bangor University

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 C ERNY'S

INTERPR-ETATION

OF BEETPOVEN'S.

PIANO SONATAS

by Suan Liu Lee

UNIVERSITY OF WALESBANGOR

2003

I'W DDEFNYDDIO YN Y
LLY'FRC-[: YN U,",!IG
-LL

TO Di':
-. COi%'SIJLT
ED IN THE
I
,
Ll"LMARYONLY
 SUMMARY

The teachingof Carl Czemywas influential in the first half of the nineteenthcentury. His
CompleteTheoreticalandPractical Piano Forte Schoolandits supplement, TheArt ofPlaying
the Ancient and Modern Piano Forte Works,are especiallyrelevantto the performanceof
Beethoven'spiano sonatas.Much of the informationin this monumentaltreatiserevealshow
Beethovenwouldhaveperformedhis sonatas.His pedallingtechniques,for example,aresimilar
to thosedescribedin Czerny'streatise. Although TheArt waspublishedin 1846,someof the
ideasin tl-dsbook datebackto Czemy'sHaslingerII edition of the late 1820s,therebyshowing

a.certain consistencyover a period of abouttwenty years. Most of Czemy'steachingon the

performanceof Beethoven's piano sonatas,hs recorded in his piano treatise, stem from
Beethoven'sown practice. However,he sometimesalteredBeethoven'sdirectionsbecausehe
consideredhis solutionto be better (suchas the fingering.in the trio of Op. 2/l/iii), or because
they did not conformto contemporaryperformingstyles,or simplybecause theydid not suit the
moreresonantpianosof his day.
 CONTENTS
sUMMARY H

PREFACE ViH
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi

CHAPTER 1 CZERNY'S BACKGROUND

[Introduction) 1

1.1 Czerny's early musical education I I

1.2 Czemy learns from Beethoven 3

1.3 Czemy's career as a performer 6,
1.4 Czemy's career as-a teacher 8
1.5 Czemy's other musical activities 15

CHAPTER 2 MUSICAL INFLUENCES

[Introduction] 23
2.1 Background of the treatisesto be studied 24
2.2 A comparison of the treatises
2.2.1 Tempo 28

Indicationsof Speed- Italian terms,time signature

andthe metronome 28
The meaningsof adagio andallegro 31
RallentandoandRitardando 32
Cantabile 32
Con animaandcon espressione 32
2.2.2 Tempoflexibility 33
2.2.3 Dynamics 36
The rangeof dynamicsin use 36
Functionsof dynamics 37
Accentuation 38
Dolce 40
Smorzando,cala.ndo andmorendo 40

in
 2.2.4Articulation.andtouch 41
Legato - 43
Tenutoandsostenuto 43
Legatissimo 44
Staccato 45
2.2.5 Ornaments 48
Long andShortAppoggiaturas 48
Turn I 49
Mordent 49
TriHs 50
Arpeggio 51
2.2.6Fingeringandtechnicaldrills 54
2.2.7Pedalling 56
2.2.8 Stylisticandexpressivemattersin performance 63
2.2.9 Summaryof influences 65

CHAPTER 3 CZERNY'S INTERPRETATION, AS RECORDED IN HIS WRITINGS

AND IN HIS EDITIONS OF BEETHOVEN'S PIANO SONATAS
[Introduction] 67
3.1 What is "correct interpretatioif'? 67
3.2 Following the text faithfully 71
3.3 The problems of finding authoritative nineteenth-centuryeditions

of the piano sonatas 73

3.4 Czerny's editions of Beethoven's piano sonatas 74
3.5 Czemy's editions of Op. 57 compared 83
Metronome marks 83
Dynamic markings and accents 84
Articulation 89
Fingering 93
Pedal.ling 95
3.6 Summary 101

IV
CHAPTER 4 TEMPO AND TEMPO FLEXIBILITY
[Introduction] 104
4.1 A Ila breve 106
4.2 Italian terms 108
4.3 Metronome -a provider of ansNyers?
4.4 Maelzel's chart 113
4.5 Beethoven's speed 115
4.6 The application of metronome markings-ýy Beethoven, Czemy and their

contemporaries 115
4.7 The metronome markings of Czerny and Moscheles 117
4.8 Czemy's metronome markings compared with the deductions made by

Kolisch and Gelfand 118

4.9 The validity of Czemy'smetronomemarkings 120
Tempoflexibility 123
4.10A ccelerando 124
4.11 Instanceswherea slowingdown is recommended 127
4.12 Instanceswheretempodeviationsarediscouraged 136
4.13 Summary 140
Appendixto chapter4 143

.CHAPTER 5 STYLE AND EXPRESSION DYNAMICS AND TONAL CONTROL

-
[Introduction) 157
5.1 The range of dynamics,the character representedby each dynamic marking -

and the,corresponding touches 157

5.2 Accentuation 161
5.3 sf, rf andfp 162
5.4 Unnotated accentuation 166
5.5 Annotations of Cramer Etudes 167
5.6 Beethoven's and Czemy's.usagesqf accentuation 172
5.7 Czemy's advice on-dynamicscompared to Beethoven's usagein the

piano sonatas 177

V
CHAPTER 6 STYLE AND EXPRESSION - ARTICULATION AND TOUCH
6.1 The basictouchesusedby BeethovenandCzemy 179
6.2 Legatoor non legato?, 130
6.3 Legatissimo 183
6.4 The meaningsof slursandlegatq 187
6.5 Tenutoandsostenuto 193
6.6 Staccato 195
6.7 Mezzostaccato 199
6.8 Summary 202

CHAPTER 7 ORNAMENTATION
7.1 The relevanceof Bach's Essay in the understandingof Beethoven's ornaments 204
7.2 Appoggiaturas 209
7.3 The Schneller 210
7.4 The trill 212

CHAPTER 8 FINGERING, HAND POSITION AND TECHNICAL EXERCISES

[Introduction] 226
8.1 Some technical exercisesfrom Beethoven's sketches 227
8.2 Fundamentalrules of fingering 232
8.3 The fingering of repeated or similar figures 239
8.4 Chromatic scale 242
8.5 Passagesin thirds 243
8.6 The fingering of repeated monotones 245
8.7 Sliding from one key to another on the samefinger 246
8.8 Glissando - 247
8.9 The "bebung" effect 248
8.10 Summary 253

vi
CHAPTER 9 PEDALLING
Untroduction] 255
9.1 The significanceof Beethoven'spedalmarkings 257
9.2 The functionsof the damperpedal 260
9.3 The una corda pedal 280
9.4 Czerny'sauthorityon pedallingconsidered 283

CHAPTER 10 THE PIANO SONATAS IN THE HANDS OF FRANZ LISZT

AND HANS VON BfJLOW
[Introduction] 284
10.1Liszt's Approachto Beethoven'sPianoSonatas 2ý4
10.2The Choiceof Pianos 289
10.3 A Review of Liszt's and von Billow's Editions 292

CONCLUSION 300

SOURCES OF MUSICAL EXAWLES 304

SOURCES FOR THE THESIS 313

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 327
I
 PREFACE

Throughouthis adult life, Carl CZemy,(1791-1857)playedan activerole in the promotionof

Beethoven'smusic,especiallythepianoworks. His zealwasfuelledby hislovefor Beethoven's
musicand a sense
of missionto preserveitg performancetradition in Viennaafter the latter's
death.Thepianisticabilityof Czemyandhis first-handknowledgeof Beethoven'scompositions
to
would appear be sufficientfor him to be consideredan authorityon the interpretationof the
are divided,becauseCzerny'swritings
latter's pianomusic. However,contemporaryopHUOns

mayhavebeeninfluencedby the changingstylesof piano playingin his formativeyears. The

rapid developmentin piano technology,achievedthrough the closepartnershipbetweenthe
inevitablylea to a differentstyleofplaying.Thechangefrom
makersandcomposers/performers,
the non-legatoplayingof Mozart to a morelegatotouch aspractisedby Beethovenis only one
example.

The aim of this thesisis to investigatewhether Czerny's opinions on the performanceof

Beethoven'spianosonatasreflectthoseof the composer. This subjectis largelyunexplored-
surprisingly,consideringthe closefriendshipbetweenCzemyandBeethoven,andthe frequency
with which Czerny's writings are used to support argumentsof from
scholars: Thayer and
Nottebohmin the late nineteenthcentury to Brown, Drake, Rosenblum,andNewmanin the
twentiethcentury. In order to understandCzemy's interpretationof the pianossonatas,it is
necessary to understandhispersonality,education,career,andrelationshipwith Beethoven,and
i
to identifyimportanttreatiseswhichmayhaveinfluencedhisCompleteTheoreticalandPractical
Piano Forte School, Op. 500 (1839), and its supplement The Art of Playing the Ancient and
Modern Piano Forte Works (1846). These will be discussedin the first section. In the second,
I will evaluate the extent to which Czerny's understanding of tdmpo indications, dynamic and

articulation markings,his realization ofornaments, his idealsregardingtonal colours andtechnical

dexterity, as well as the contexts in which he introduces pedalling, reflect the intentions of
Beethoven. Czerny's various editions of Beethoven's piano sonataswill alsobe considered,with
Op. 57 used as a casestudy. My conclusions,about how Czerny perceived Beethoven's piano

sonataswill be guided by the writings of Czemy, Beethoven andtheir contemporaries,by editions

of the sonatasby Czerny, by intelligent deductions from the musical context (sometimes from

viii
genresotherthanthe pianosonatas),andby modemscholarship.And finally,a brief surveywill
be madeto seewhether Czemy'sinterpretationof the piano sonataswaspassedon from one
generationto another,especiallyfrom Czemyto Liszt andfrom Liszt to BUlow.

Beethoven'spianosonatasplayeda centralrole in the musicaldevelopmentof both Beethoven

and Czemy. Throughout his life, the pianoprovidedBeethovenwith the meansto experiment
with techniques.
compositional He wasalsoanexcellentimproviser
on thepiano. Theimportant
role of the is in
piano madeclear thoseworks written for other instrument(s)andpiano,where
the pianoactsas an equal,if not dominant,partner. Czemy'sparticularinterestin Beethoven's
pianocompositionsis only to be expected,sincehe himselfwas an accomplishedpianist. One
mustalsobearin mind that Cýemy'sfirst introductionto Beethovenwasasa piano student. It
is for thesereasonsthat this researchis limitedto the pianosonatasof Beethoven.

When interpreting music, the performers' duty is to realise itsmeaning through sound and this is

undoubtedly shapedby their personalities,their environmentsand an understandingof historical

and stylistic matters. By identifying Beethoven'sand Czerny's views on various musical details
such as tempo, dynamics, articulation, and pedalling, it is hoped that this research will help
today's performers make informed decisions.Since Czerny is the closest reliable link we have to
Beethoven, we should certainly take his suggestionsseriously and use them as a starting point.
The results of this investigation should by no meansact as a set of rigid rules or be perceived as

the only solution to the way Beethoven's piano sonatas should be performed. The ultimate
decision regarding the meaningbehindeachsonata'restsin the handsof the individual performer.

In this thesis,refqencesto Czerny'spiano treatisewill be obtainedmainly from the English

translations,that is PianoForte SchoolandTheArt, ratherthanthe originalGermantext. Apart
from some misplacedpunctuation,unusualcapitalizations,and occasionaladditionsby the
translator(which do not alter the meaningof the original text) in'the Englishversion,these
translationscannotbe faulted. Sincethe NeueBeethovenwerke edition of Beethoven'spiano
sonatas hasnot beenpublished,manyof themusicalexamplesareobtainedfrom theHenleUrtext
edition(1980)and facsimiles
ofthe autographs.Whereexcerptsfrom theUrtext editionareused,
only the in
fingerings italicsareBeethoven's.For clarity,thenineteenth-century
Englishfingering

ix
 in someof the exarhpleshavebeenchangedto the modemstandardone. Sourcesfor all the
.musicalexamplesýare listed at the end of this thesis. In general,I will be using the standard
Hehnholzpitch notation,in which middleC= c', andeachoctaverunsfrom C to the B above.
However,wherethe octave is immaterial,as for instance,when fingeringpatternsare being
discussed,which apply in any octave, capital letters are used. And finally, for the sakeof
convenience,nineteenth-centurypianos are referred to as "pianos" rather than "fortepianoe'.

x
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

As with all large-scaleresearch,this thesiswould not havebeenpossiblewithout the assistance

of numerouspeople.First of all, the adviceandhelpfulcommentsfrom my supervisorDr Bruce

Woodandfrom ProfessorRobertPascallaregreatlyappreciated.I havealsobenefitedgreatly
from the Germanto Englishtranslationswhich ProfessorPascallandMrs HelenDavieshaveso
kindly helpedme with.

I am deeplyindebtedto Mr Michael Freyhanfor allowing me to play on two earlynineteenth-

century.pianosin his private collection.I am also grateful to Ms Carol Barker,the Musepm
Assistantin the Royal Collegeof Music, for the tour shecon4uctedandthe discussionwe had.
Manythanksalso to Mr RichardBurnett for the informativeandthoroughlyenjoyabletour of
the pianocollectionsat Finchcocks,Goudhurst,and for the opportunityto play on someof the
pianostherewhich havehelpedincreasedmy understandingof earlypianos.

I would also like to expressmy heartfelt gratitude to the staff of the University of Wales Bangor
library, especiallythe music librarians Mrs Catherine Evans and the now retired Miss Elizabeth
Bird, for their patienceand guidancein helping me to find the material I need. My sincerethanks

also to the staff in the British Library, Mrs Dorothea Geffert (from the Beethoven-Haus,Bonn)
and Dr Otto Biba and Ms Ingrid Leis (from the Gesellschaftder Musiýfreunde, Vienna) for their

kind assistance.I am also grateful to Mr Nigel Simeoneand, in particular, Mr Harvey Davies for
lending me their books and music.

Finally, I wish to convey a specialthank you to Mr Edward Davies and his wife for their constant

support and encouragementthroughout my PhD studies. I truly Appreciatewhat they have done
for me and I cannot thank them enough.

xi
SEC Fll ION
a
CIIAPTER-1: CZERNY'S BACKGROUND

Music was a major love in Carl'Czemy's life. Throughouthis career,he was not only an
influentialteacher,but alsoa competentperformer,composer,writer, andmusiceditor. Apart I

from a few trips abroadin the 1830sand 1840s,Czemyspentall hisworkinglife in Vienna. In

1837,uponLiszt's invitation,Czemytravelledto Parisandstayedtherefor a few months. His
onlyotheroverseastravelswereto Leipzigin 1836,to Londonin 1837andto Lombardyin 1846.
Czemywas an astuteobserverwho integrateddifferent standsof contemporaryperforming
traditionswhich he consideredto be good andmadethem into his own. The slightbut gradual
modificpLtions of Czerny'sperformanceideals are evident in his writings, for example! he
realizationsof trills (seesection7.4 below). Beforetheseiss4esarediscussed
in the subsequent

chaptersofthis thesis,we will first exploreCzerny'sformativeyearsaswellashisbusyandvaried

career.

1.1 CZERNY'S EARLY MUSICAL EDUCATION

Carl Czerny was born in Vienna on 21 February, 1791. He was to spendall his childhood in that

city, except for four years (1791-1795) when the family lived on a Polish estate. His father,
Wenzel Czerny, a talented pianist, bad taken up a teaching post there. The family eventually

returned to Vienna to avoid political unrest in Poland. In his childhood, Carl Czerny was exposed
to a wide variety of piano music played by his father - music by Bach, Clementi, Mozart, and
Kozeluch, among others. He showed musicalpromise from an early age. Whenhe was about ten

years old, he already had a good command of the piano and knew much of his repertoire
(including a great deal of music by Mozart, Clementi and other contemporarycomposers)from

memory. This talent was carefully nurtured by his father. Czerny later recounted in his memoir

that "My father had no intention whatever of making a superficial virtuoso out of me; rather, he

strove to develop my sight-reading ability through continuous study of new works and thus to
develop my musicianship")

'CzeMY(1956),p. 303.
I
 music was further encouragedfrom the year 1802
Czemy'sexposureto eighteenth-century
onwards,when Government Councillor Hess(a friend of ClementiandMozart) offeredthe boy
to
access his private library. This library containedBacNsfugues,Scarlatti'ssonatas,andmany
worksthat were difficult to obtainat that time.He wasalsograntedthe privilegeof copyingany
he
music wanted from the library? It was,around this time that Czernystartedcopyingthe

orchestralworks of Beethoven,MozartandHaydnandbeganto realisetheenormousbenefitshe

receivedfrom this activity. Not only did heget a good graspof instrumentation,
it alsogavehim
the opportunityto practisethe art of notatingmusic.very quickly - somethingthat provedvery
usefiil later in
on his life whenhe startedcomposing.

Besideshis father,who playeda majorrole in his earlymusicaleducation,Czernyalsobenefited

from contactwith the variouswell-knownmusicianswho frequentlycameto theirhouse.Among
themwerethe composerandteacherJohannBaptistWanhall'(1739-1813),the famouspianists
JosefGelinek(1758-1825)andJosefLipavsky(1772-1810),andtheviolinistWenzelKrumpholz
(1750-1817).It wasthroughGelinekthatWenzelCzemyfirst learntofBeethoven.Gelinek,who
hadbeenchallengedto a "pianoduer' by Beethoven,wasmostimpressedwith the latter'spiano
technique,improvisationsandcompositions.This promptedCarl to persuadehis fatherto buy
him all the availableBeethovencompositions,suchasthe first threetrio Op. 1, the Op, 2 piano
sonatasdedicatedto Haydn,severalvariations,andthe songAdelaide.Thispianoduelisbelieved
by someto havetakenplacesoonafterBeethoverfsarrival in Viennain 1792. However,there
is evidencethat it took placeaboutsixyearslater. All theworksmentionedabovewerepublished
between1795and 1797. Therefore,the Gelinek-Beethoven
duel and Czerny'sintroductionto
Beethoven'smusicprobablytook placein 1797. Carl Czernywasonly six yearsold.

Although Gelinek was the first personto mention the nameof Beethovento the Czemys,
Krumpholzdeservesspecialmentionhere,becauseit was he who arrangedthe first meeting
betweenthe ten-year-oldCzernyandBeethoven.He alsoplayeda furtherrole by passingon his
knowledgeof Beethoven'sperformancepracticeto Czemy. Krumpholz,beinga closefriendof

'Ibid., pp. 307-308.

'In additionto this-spelling,Vanhall,Vanhaland Wanhalare givenasalternativesin Sadie
(2001),xxvi, p. 254, s.v. "Vanhall".

2
Beethoven,
wasfamiliarwith the latter'sideas
andmusicalprojects.SinceKrumpholzvisitedthe
Czemysalmosteveryday, Carl wasableto playBeethoverfscompositionsto him regularlyand
learnfrom him. Although Krumpholzwasnot a pianist,he wasa good musician. He was able
to adviseCzemy on matters relating to "tempo, manner of performance,intendedeffect,
character,etc., sincehe had often heardthemperformedby Beethovenhimselfandhadin most
the
caseswitnessed processof composition 4

1.2 CZERNY LEARNS FROM BEETHOVEN

Czerny'sfirst meetingwith Beethovenin 1801was a considerablesuccess.Beethovenwas

impressedby the young boy's talentandagreedto teachhim severaltimesa week. Before his
first pianolesson,Czernywasrequestedto get C. P. E. Bach'sYersuchfiber die wahreArt das
Clavierzu spielen. Czemylater recalledin his memoir:
During the first lessonsBeethovenmademework solelyon the scales
in all keysandshowedmemanytechnicalfundamentals, which were
asyet unknownto mostpianists,e.g. the only properpositionof the
handsand fingersand particularlythe useof the thumb;only much
later did I recognizefully the usefulness of theserules. He thenwent'
through the variouskeyboardstudiesin Bach'sbook andespecially
insistedon legato technique,which was one of the unforgettable
featuresof his playing;at that time all other pianistsconsideredthat
kind of legatounattainable,sincethe hammered,detachedstaccato
techniqueof Mozart'stime was stillfashionable. (Someyearslater
Beethoventold me that he had h,card Mozart play on several
occasionsand that, sinceat that time the fortepianowas still in its
infancy,Mozart, moreaccustomed to the then still prevalentFlagel,
used a technique entirely unsuited for the fortepiano. 1, too,
subsequentlymade the acquaintanceof severalpersonswho had
studiedwith Mozart, and found that Beethovensobservationwas
confirmed by their mannerof playing).'

Unfortunately,theselessonsdid not last long becauseBeethovenwas frequentlybusywith his

and
compositions had to cancelthe lessons. By 1802,Czerny was left on his own. By then,
however,the fundamentalrules regqding proper playing posture,hand position and legato

"Czemy(1956),p.-305.
'Ibid., p. 307. Italicizationoriginal.

3
 been
playing-had fully and
established. Czernylater duly them
passed on to all his pupils.

In the meantime,Czernycontinuedto learnall Beethoven'spianocompositionsfrom memory.

Concerts,both privateandpublic,wereanotherimportantfeatureof Czerny'seducation.From
1801-1804,hewasa regularvisitor to the rnýsicalsoir6eswhichweregivenby Mozart'swidow.'
In addition,therewereweeklymorningconcertsin the AugartenHall duringthe summerwhich
of Haydn,Mozart andBeethoven.In the winter,
featured,amongotherthings,the symphonies
`
thesewere replaced quartetand quintet recitals. The concertswere performedto a high
by

and
standard, the premi&es of many of Beethovensgreat works given in this forum madea
lastingimpressionon Czemy.

Czemy'seducationtook a differentturn in 1804,owing to a chancemeetingwith Beethovenat

PrinceLichnowsky'shouse. Czernyhad beenin the habit of playingto the Princeon most
mornings. On these he including
occasions playedeverything, the piano musicof Beethoven,
present,wasworriedthatCzernymightoverlook
frommemory! Beethoven,who wassometimes
"Even
markings:
someofthe expression ifhe playscorrectlyon the "
whole, Beethoven
remarked,
"he will forget in this mannerthe quick survey,the a vista-playingand,occasionally,the correct
1
expression".However,Beethovenwassaidto beverysatisfiedwith Czerny'sprogressandsight-
readingskills,afterthe youngboy succeeded
in sight-readingthe newlycomposedpianosonata
Op. 53 from themanuscript.Fromthenon, CzernyandBeethovenremainedon mutuallyfriendly
.
Czernywasevenentrustedwith theproof-reading
terms,asseenbytheirregularcorrespondence.
of Beethoven's newlypublishedworks. Between 1810and 1812,he againhad the opportunity
to study"severalthings"underBeethoven.He alsorevealedthat Beethoven'scorrectionswere
still aspreciseasthey hadbeenten yearsearlier;andhadnot beenaffectedby his hearing "
loss.
From 1816" to 1818,whenCzemywasaskedto teachBeethoven'snephewKarl, the frequency

61bid.,p. 308.
7Ibid.,p. 3 10.
'Ibid., p. 309.
9Thayer(1969),p. 391. Italicizationoriginal.
IOCzerny (1970),p. 10.
"Czernygavethe yearhe startedteachingKarl as 1815in "Recollections" (1956),p. 313. His
memory for datesis unreliable:
on p. 305, he gave 1819as the dateof Krumpholz'sdeath;in
fact, Krumpholzdied in 1817. He alsoprovidedtwo differentdatesfor the publicationof his

4
of his meetings
with increased.
Beethoven

Beethovenwas influential not only.in developing the pianistic skill of the young Czemy, he also

advisedthe latter in the art of arrangement. Czerny's first assignmentin this field came in 1805,
he
when was askedto make a piano reduction of Beethoven's operaFidelio. With Beethoven's
guidance,Czerny was able to learn much from this project. Beethovenwas obviously satisfied,
for he entrusted Czemy with many more such tasks: for example, the arrangementsof the
Seventhand Eighth Symphoniesfor two pianos, which were both publishedin 1817. Eight years
later, in 1825, Beethoven publicly announced his approval of Czerny's arrangementsof the
Overture Die Weihedes Hauses, Op. 124:
I considerit my duty to wam the musicalpublic againstan entirely
misleadingpian6forte arrangementfor four hands of my latest
overture, an arrangementwhich, moreover,.is not faithfid to the
originalscore. This arrangement hasbeenpublishedby Trautweinin
Berlin underthe title 'FestivalOvertureby Ludwig van Beethoven'.
Thiswarningisthemorenecessary asthepianof6rtearrangements for
two andfour bandsmadeby Herr Carl Czerny,which areabsolutely
faithfulto the score,will shortlyappearin the only authenticedition."

Beethovenwas also impressedby the speed with which Czerny could complete these
"
arrangements.And Czerny'sskill wasalsorespectedby othermusicians. WhenHaimwasasked
of the"GrosseFuge",Karl Holz, a violinistin theSchuppanzigh
to makeanarrangement Quartet,
suggestedusingCzerny'srecentlycompletedpiano arrangement
of the "Kreutzer" Sonataasa
model. Unfortunately,Czerny'sarrangements sometimessufferfrom an excessiveuseof the
piano'shigh register. It was believedto be for this very reasonthat Beethovenhad rejected
Czerny'sarrangement
of the "GrosseFuge" for pianofour "
hands. After Beethovenexpressed
hisdisapprovalof Halm'sarrangement,
Artaria hadapproached
Czerny.Apart from this overuse

of the high registerof the piano,Czerny'sarrangements,

on the whole,conveythe appropriate
I

Op. I- 1806on p. 312 and 1805on p. 314. Whenwriting the anecdotesfor Otto Jahnin
1852,he admittedthat the dateshe quotedmaybe incorrectbecausehewaswriting from
memory events that took placea long time ago. However,he that it wasonly
emphasized
with datesthat he erred. See qzerny (1970), p. 10.
"Anderson (196 1), iii, pp. 1442-1443.
Ibid., iii, p. 1148.-
13
(1958),p. 133;Schindler(1841) (ed. Moscheles),p. 169.
14MacArdle

5
charactersof the "
original compositions successfully.

Czerny'slove for Beethoven'smusicinspiredhim to makemanyarrangements, includingall

Beethoven'sninesymphoniesfor pianoduet. However,he did not limit hisarrangementsto the
of
compositions Beethoven. On his own initiative, he also madearrangements
of works by
I
Handel (Messiah), Haydn (The Creation and some of his symphonies)," Mozart (the Requiem,

at least six symphoniesand ten string quartets), as well as works by Schubert,Spohr, Cherubini,
Donizetti, and Mendelssohn,and others. At that time, there was great interest and enthusiasm

among the aristocracy and middle classfamilies to play arrangementsof orchestral and chamber

music, especiallypiano arrangements,at home for their own enjoyment. It was also a way for
them to get to know great music. Czerny's arrangementscertainly help cater for that market.

1.3 CZERNY'S CAREER AS A PERFORMER

In 1800,Czernygavehispublicconcertd6butasapianistin Vienna,whenheperformedMozart's
C minorConcertoK. 491. Thecriticspraisedhisplaying:Schillingdescribedit as"uncommonly
fiery" and Hanslickconsideredhim the third most important native Viennesepianist, after
Hummeland Moscheles. " Beethovenalso admiredCzerny'splaying.He wrote a favourable
testimonialfor the boy in 1805." Evenafter 1806,when Czernyno longeractivelyperformed
in public,Beethovenstill hadfaith in his pupil's pianisticabilities. H6 wasthe soloistin the first
performance of Beethoven's Fifth Piano Concerto for a private audience in 1812. His

performanceimpressedeven Schindler,who commentedthat "as a result of Beethoven's

coaching, brought
[Czerny] out theverybestin the "
music". Yearslater,Beethoven
againturned
to Czernyto performtheAdagioandRondofrom the sameconcerto,this time in a publicvenue,
I

"Among themareCzerny'spianoduet arrangements the Overtureto

of the ninesymphonies,
the Tragedyof Coriolanandthe EgmontOverture.
IICPM liststwelvesymphonies, (Nos. 93-104).
17Sadie(1980),v, p. 139,s.v. "Czerny".
"Anderson(196I)j iH,p. 1414.
19Schindler(1966)(ed.MacArdle),p. 160.

6
to "lend-lustreto thewhole concert"." Unfortunately,Czemyhadto refuseon the groundsthat
he had recentlyneglectedhis piano playing." This was inevitablewhen he startedfull-time
teachingin 1806,and thus could not devotesufficienttime to practice.

Although highly esteemedas a performer,Czernypreferredto leada life awayfrom the public

eye. He gavethe limp excusethat hisplaying"lackedthat type of brilliant,calculatedcharlatanry
that is usuallypart of a traveling[sic] virtuoso'sessentialequipment",a claimwhichheseemsto
in
contradict his by statingthat"brilliant virtuosityon thepianowasat thattime still
next sentence
an imperfect "
novelty". He also cited severalother reasonsin his "Recollections":his elderly
parents, the unconducive wartime conditions,and the lack of popularity of Beethoven's
compositionswith the "
public. This lastexcuseis nevertheless
ratherweak. Czernyknewa výst
repertoireofpiano music, and couldhaveeasily performed morepopularworks if he hadchosen
to do so. Of all the explanationsgivenabove,it seemsthat the mostplausibleis the circumstance
of his who
parents, were too old to takehim on tours. Theremay alsobe otherhiddenreasons:
his poor health(it was impairedby childhoodillnessesandby his overwork from 1806),andhis

wish to help his family financially,out of gratitudefor the sacrificeshis parentshad madeto
ensurethat he receiveda good education. The income from his teachingwasverygood,andthis
enabledhim to improvehis family's living conditions.

There were two distinct types of pianist at that time: the often flamboyant travelling virtuosos

who performed for the public in the larger, newly built concert hAs, and the less extrovert
in
pianistswho played recitals held in private halls or chambers(usually associatedwith royal and
noble patronage of the artists). The first category is typified by such artists asDussek and Liszt.
Czerny and Beethoven belong to the second category. Although Beethoven toured Prague,
Dresden, Leipzig'and Berlin, Pressburg(now Bratislava) and Pest (now Budapest) in 1796, and

made another trip to Prague in 1798, he did not rely on such performances for his upkeep.
Similarly, Czerny preferred to play for the entertainmentof the nobility (such as he had done for

"Anderson(1961), ii, p. 775. AlthoughAndersondatesBeethoven'sletter as 1818,Albrecht

believesthat 1824is moreaccprate.SeeAlbrecht(1996),iii, fn. 2 p. 37.
2'Anderson(1961), ii, p. 775.
22Czemy (1956),p. 311.
211bid.

7
PrinceLichnowsky'in 1804), and for private concertsorganisedby Beethovenand himself.
Between1818and 1820,he organisedweekly programmesat his homewhich were devoted

exclusivelyto Beethoven'spiano music. Beethovenhimselfsometimesattendedtheseevents.

For his own pleasure,Czemyalsoplayedpianoduetsandduosboth with prominentmusicians
(suchasFerdinandRies who was a pupil of Beethoven,andalsowith Chopinwhenhe visited
Viennain 1829)andwith royalty andnobility (suchasQueenVictoria in 1837).

1.4 CZERNY'S CAREER AS A TEACHER

Czemy was a well-respected and much sought-after teacher in Vienna. Besides Beethoven's

nephew Karl, his list of pupils includes virtuosos and child prodigies, such as Theodor D6hler,
Theo Kullak, Sigismund Thalberg, Stephen Heller, Ninette von Bellevile-Oury, Leopoldine
Blahetka,Theodor Leschetizky, and Franz Liszt. The last two namessubsequentlybecamehighly
influential figures in the musical world during the late nineteenthcentury. Leschetizky became

a prominent teacher whose impressive Est of pupils included Ignaz Paderewski, Benno
Moiseiwitsch and Artur Schnabel. Although Liszt was better known for his virtuosity on the

piano, he was also responsible for training numerous excellent pianists, Hans von BUlow and
Eugen d'Albert among others. Czemy's career as a teacherbeganbefore he was fourteen years

old, on occasionswhen his father was unableto teach. He started teachingin earnesta year later
he
and quickly establisheda good reputation. In 1807, he made the acquaintanceof Andreas
Streicher, the piano manufacturer. They had a mutual understandingand arrangement. It was

agreedthat Streicherwould recommendgood pupils to Czemy andhe, in turn, would recommend

Streicher's pianos to his pupils."

From 1816, Czerny taught from morning till night in the housesof the highest nobility and the
leading families of Vienna. It was lucrative, but it badly affected his health. Eventually, in 1836,
he gave up teaching entirely.

Czernywas a broad-mindedman and a keenleamer,who was alwaysopento new ideasand

"Ibid., p. 312.

8
 He
suggestions. al§obelievedin.exposinghis studentsto differentmusicalstylesand not just
thosepreferredby theteacher.He andStreicherfrequentlyexchangedideason pianoplayingand

on teaching.When ClementivisitedVienna in 1810,Czernytook the opportunityto learnfrom

him by frequentlyvisiting a farnilywhosedaughterClementiwasteaching. Czemylater wrote
in his "Recollections":
I
SinceI was very often presentat theselessons, I became
familiarwith the teachingmethodof this celebratedmasterand
foremost pianist of his time, and I primarily owe it to this
circumstance that later I was fortunate enoughto train many
important studentsto a degreeof perfectionfor which they
becameworld-famous. "

Czerny -later entitled his study, Op. 822 (Nouveau Gradus ad Parnassum) in homage ýto
Clementi's studies Gradus adParnassum."

Beethoven,too, thought highly of Clementi's studiesand his Introduction to the Art of Playing

on the Pianoforte (1801). When Carl Czemy suggestedgiving Karl van Beethoven a copy of
Clementi's studies,Beethovenapproved." Beethovenalsoorderedtwo German-languagecopies

of Clementi's piano method in the last few yearsofhis life - once in 1825 and again, a year later.
In the spring of 1826, he wrote to Stephanvon Breuning regarding a good piano rnethod for the
latter's son, Gerhard. He advisedthem not to use Czerny's Klavierschule (published in 1826 by
Haslinger), but to wait for Clementi's piano method which he had ordered on their behalf
Unfortunately, this letter has caused some confusion." It has been generally assumedthat
Beethoven preferred Clementi's teaching to Carl Czerny's. However, Czerny's Complete
Theoretical and Practical Piano Forte School, Op. 500, was not published until 1839. There
is indeed no evidence that he wrote a Klavierschule in 1826. In that year, however, his

contemporary by the same surname, Josef 29

Czerny, published a piano method Der Mener
Klavier-Lehrer, oder: Theoretisch-practische Anweisung das hanoforte
nach einer neuen

p. 313.
211bid.,
26Besidesthe studiesby Clementiandhimself,Czernyalsorecommends thoseby Bertini and
Cramerto his pupils.
'7Thayer(1969),p. 680.
2'Anderson(1961), iii, p. 1279.
wasa composer,pianist,teacherandpublisherwho took over the teachingof Karl
19Josef
Beethovenfrom Carl Czernyin 1818.

9
erleichternden Methode. It is mostlikely that the Klavierschulethat Beethoven
objectedto was
in fact the onewritten by Josef Czemy.

Carl Czemywasnot a rigid teacher. His aim was to createall-roundmusicians,competentnot

only in piano playing and public perfbný=Ce but also in the arts of improvisationand
composition.He was very meticulousin his teaching,
as his writingsreveal. Both his Complete
TheoreticalandPracticalPianoForte School,Op. 500,andtheLettersto A YoungLady, Onthe
Art ofPlaying thePianofortearewell-organisedand.follow a systematic
plan. Hehadanoverall
teachingschemewhichheadaptedaccordingto theneedsofthe individualpupil.ThePianoForte
basedonhisthirty years'teaching
Schoolis a compilationofpianoplayingmethodsandexercises
It
experience. waswritten for the benefitof aspiringyoungteachers,andespeciallythosepoorer
pupilswho were unable to afford renowned teachers.The teaching in the Piano Forte School

on aspectsof playingandmusicalunderstanding
consistsof explanations whichare exemplified
in musicalexamples.Exercisesaregivenat the endof eachchapterfor thepupato practisewith

specificpointsin mind.A summaryof the lessons

taught is insertedat strategicpoints. Letters
to A YoungLady, on the other hand,was written as a kind of Appendixto the Piano Forte
School. It is madeup of ten short lettersto a fictitious twelve-year-oldpupil, the talentedand
well-educated"Miss Cecilia",who was supposedlyat a boardingschoolin the country. The
lettersnot only sumup thesystematicteachingthat is recordedin thePianoForteSchool,but are
his
a revelationof practical approachto teaching.Naturally, the languageusedis moreinformal.

Czerny's disciplinedand systematicteaching method can also be seenin his approachto Liszt, as
describedin the "Recollections". Liszt's Playing was apparentlyin a relatively bad state when he

auditioned for Czejny in 1819. Czerny found it "irregular, careless,

and confused,and he had so
little knowledge of correct fingering that he threw his fingers ove the keyboard in an altogether
,r
arbitrary fashion".3' Nevertheless, Czemy recognised that Liszt was a highly gifted instinctive

pianist and acceptedhim as a pupil. Like Beethoven, Czerny startedhis teachingprogramme by

laying the foundations of piano playing systematically - he initially worked on regulating and

(1956),pp. 314-315.
IOCzemy
10
strengtheningLiszt's dexterity
mechanical through the "
playing of scales. Liszt was eager,
*
týlentedand hardworking,and beforelong he could play all the scalesfluently. Czernythen
proceededto instil in him a senseof rhythm,a good control of touchandtone,correctfingering,
and proper musicalphrasing,usingClementi'ssonatasas a basisfor this work. In Czerny's
opinion,these sonatas "will alwaysremain the best school for the pianist,if one knowshow to
studythem in his spirit". " OnceLiszt hadmastered thesebasic techniques,Czernyallowedhim
to play the works of Hummel,Riesand Moscheles,followed by thoseof BeethovenandJ. S.
Bach. By then,the technicalgroundworkhadbeenlaid, so that Czemywasfreeto concentrate
on familiarizingLiszt with theinterpretativespirit andcharacterof thesecomposers.Thisaspect
of interpretationis emphasized in the fourth volumeof hisPiano Forte School,entitled"TheArt

ofPlaying the Ancientand ModernPiano Forte Works".

In this last respect,Czerny's methodofteaching with an emphasison interpretative valuesechoes

that of Beethoven as describedin Ries' reminiscence-

If I made a mistake somewherein a passage,or struck wrong notes,
or missed intervals - which he often wanted strongly emphasized-
he rarely said anything. However, if I lacked expression in
crescendos,etc. or in the character of a piece, he became angry
because,he maintained,the first was accident, while the latter resulted'
from inadequateknowledge, feeling, or attention. The first happened
quite frequently to him, too, even when he in
played public. "

Also evident in Beethoven's oft-quoted letter to Czemy in 1817, in which he advisedCzemy on

how to teach Karl:
In regard to his playing for you, as soon as he has learnt the right
fingering and can play a piece in correct time and the notes too more
or lessaccurately,then pleasecheck him only about his interpretation;
ývhenhe has thatPoint, don't let him
and, reached stop playingfor the
sake of minor mistakes, but point them out to him when he has

"The teachingof scalesis an essentialelementin Czerny'sinstruction. Eventhe methodof

teachingin the first volumeof Piano Forte Schoolis foundedon the studyof scales.Besides
familiarizinghis pupilswith the notesandkey signatureof all the major andminorkeys,
Czernyusesscalesto teachthe rulesof fingeringandto developflexibility andagility of the
fingers.
"Czemy(1956), p. 315. Italicizationoriginal. Czernyalsobelievesthat everypiece,in away,
is a study.
3,WegelerandRies(1988),p. 83.
11
 finishedplayingthe piece. AlthoughI havedonevery little teaching,
yet I havealways followed this method. It soonproducesmusicians
is
which, after all, oneof the chiefaimsof the art, andit is lesstiring
for both masterandpupil."

And Czemyagreedwith Beethoven:

Noteworthyin this interesting ietter is the very correctview that one
ought not to wearythe talent of a pupil by too muchpetty concern
(whereinmuchdependson thequalitiesof the pupil, it is true) aswell
as the singularfingeringand its influence on 35
interpretation.

Beethovenhimselfwasusuallypresentat Karl's lessons.The fact that Beethovenfelt compelled

to write.this letterto Czemysuggeststhat theyprobablydifferedin their opinionsregardinghow
muchtime a teachershouldspendcorrectingtechnicalproblems.Althoughboth agreedon the
importanceof teachingthe pupil the correct "spirit" of a composition,Czerny's attentionto
technicaldetailswasperhapstoo closefor Beethoven'sliking. Beethoven'sown spiritedbut not
technicallyflawlessplayingshowshis attitude towardstechnicalaccuracy,aswitnessedby Ries.
Similarly,CzernydescribesBeethoven'splayingasinconsistent,aswell as"lacking in cultivated

purity and clearnessin "

difEculties". Elsewhere, he explains:"Although his playing was
extraordinarywhenhe improvised,it was often much lessgood whenhe playedhis published
compositions,for he never took the time or had the patienceto work somethingup again.
Success,then,wasmostlya matterof chanceand mood."" Evenbeforethe onsetof deafness,
Beethoven'splayingwasnot alwaysdistinctandfully workedup. In a letter to the Allgemeine
musikalischeZeilung dated April 1799, the writer describesBeethoven'splaying as being
"extremelybrilliant but [it] has lessdelicacy[thaý W61ffl's], and occasionallyhe is guilty of
" This observationis alsosupportedby Moscheles(in 1814)andFriedricliNisle
indistinctness".
(in 1808)." Czerny's emphasisin TheArt on technicalproficiencyas a prerequisitein the
interpretationof compositionsby Beethoven,andthenumerousbooksof studieshecompiledfor

ofdifferent
pianists technical
ability to helpthemimprovetheir technique,showthat hewasmuch

(196
-14Anderson 1), ii, pp. 742-743. Italicizationoriginal.
"Thayer (1969),p. 680.
16Czemy (1846),p. 32.
"Czemy (1970),p. 16.
IýThayer(1969),p. 205.
"Newman(1988),p. 77.

12
 moreconcernedthan Beethovenwith technicalprowess.
I

Although a strict teacher,Czerny incorporatedsome humour into his lessons. One of his
favouritetricks wasto correcthisyoungpupils' mistakesthroughteasing- he reproachedthem
for "making a cat's back7,that is, for hupchingover the keyboard."' As a cautionagainst
out
accelerating of control throughthe courseof playing a piece, he likened the fingersto "little
disobedientcreatures,if they are not kept well-reinedin[j they are apt to run off like an
...
unbrokencolt assoonas they have gainedsome degtee of fluency". " He alwaysexplainedto
hispupilshow to practiseandwhy it was necessary to do so. This wasdonethrougha variety
of methods:by clear instruction,by analogy, by encouragement, and evenby temptingand
enticement.For instance,he gavethe following explanationto the imaginary"Miss Cecilia"in
the first two letters,aboutthe virtuesof scalesandthe needto overcomethe initial difficulties:
Considerthe matter, dear Miss Cecilia,as if you were for a time
compelledto wend your way amongsomewhattangledand thorny
bushes,in order to arrive at last at a beautifulprospect,and a spot
alwaysbloomingin vernalbeauty.

At present, Miss Cecilia, you cannot form an idea of the beauty and
effect which is produced by a pure, clear, rapid, and strictly equal
execution of such runs; they are musical rows of pearls; and many
great artists are more particularly distinguished on account of their
peculiar excellencein the performance of them. You will no doubt
have alreadyremarked,that correctfingering is a very important part
of pianoforte playing, and one which costs every pupil a good deal of
labour. Now, the scales contain all the principal rules of fingering;
and they are in themselvessufficient,,in almost all cases,to shew the
pupil the right path. What do you say to all these advantages? Is it
not well worth the while to occupy yourself seriously with thesesame
tiresome scales?"

Throughoutthe first volumeof thePianoForte Schoolandthe Lettersto A YoungLady, Czemy

the
stresses importance of relaxedplaying so as to avoid injury.
physical Relaxed he
muscles,
declares,will alsohelpthepianistto vary histouchandtonewhenplaying. And we shallseethat
body movementswhenplayingwasa resultof the
Czerny'semphasison avoidingunnecessary

4OCzemy (1848), p. 4.
411bid.,pp. 23-24. -
411bid.,pp. 3 and 15. Italicization original.

13
influenceoffleethoýen(seechapter8) andClementi(seesection2.1). Czernyexpresseshisclear
displeasureat the contortionsandgrimacesdisplayedby manyof his contemporaries,
including
of
evena number good pianists. He complainsthat sometry to
manifest their feelingsby widelyjerking out their elbows;or they mark
the commencementof every bar by making a low bow with their head
and chest, as if they were desirous of shewing reverenceto their own
playing. Others, after every short note, suddenlytake up their hands
as far from the keys as if they had touched a red hot iron. Many,
while playing, put on a fierce and crabbedcountenance;others, again,
assumea perpetualsimper, &c. 43

He wasalso a perfectionist,and the relativelack of technicalfacility displayedby someof his

in public performancesfrustratedhim. In his Piano Forte School,he expresses
contemporaries
hisamazement at the numberof performerswho, in his opinion,couldnot evenplay the scaleof
C majorperfectly."

Onecanform someideaof Czerny'spersonalityfrom his writingson teaching,for he perceives

between
a clearparallel irable
des qualitiesin a personboth outsideandduring teaching. When
he insistson avoidingunnecessaryhand and body movementswhen playing the piano, he is
his
revealing admiration for moderation, decorum, sincerity,andelegance:
Do not suppose that you [Miss Cecilia] areto sit at the piano as
...
stiff and cold as a wooden doll. Some gracefulmovementsare
necessary while playing;it is only the excessthat mustbe avoided.
the elegant deportmentof polishedlife mustalwaysbetransferred
...
to the art; andtherule applies,generally,"that everymovementwhich
conducesreallyandessentiallyto our'betterplayingis allowed;here,
however,we must avoid all that is unnecessary "
andsuperfluous.

In his concludingremarksto the first volumeof the PianoForle School,he listsother traits that

a good teacher
shouldpossess:
good communicative
skills, firmness,
friendliness,warmth,and

patience.He againdraws the parallelbetween behaviour in life andin teaching:"Good temper

is as advantageousin Teachingas in life in general"." A teachermust also be a competent

p. 31.
411bid.,
'Czemy (1839E), i, p. 219.
41Czemy (1848),p. 32. Italicizationoriginal.
46Czemy (1839E), i, p. 216. Capitalizationorigmial.

14
performerin order' to demonstrate effectively to the pupil. One such occasion for such
is beforethepupil learnsa new piece. The teachershouldalsobe in a positionto
demonstration
for
preparepupils publicperformances.

The effectivenessof Czerny's teaching Met with a somewhatmixed responsefrom his

contemporaries.Liszt wasvery fond of Czerny. He his
acknowledged indebtedness
to Czemy
throughouthis life, often referringto his teacher as "my dear and belovedMaster", or "my
respectedandbeloved master"." Czerny's teachinggwere to remainwith Liszt all his fife. His

own teachingreflectedthat of his On

teacher. the other hand, Anton Schindler's
and Karl van
Beethoven'sdisapprovalof Czerny'sapproacW'may havebeeninfluencedby their prejudices.
In fact, Czemy'sLettersto A YoungLady andhis Piano Forte Schoolarevery informativeand
to
enjoyable read: they reflect his concernfor the well-beingof his pupils;they also show his
interestin providinghis pupils with the best educationin line with their ability and the latest

playingtechniques. his
Throughout writing, he further displayedall the necessary
qualitiesof a
good teacher. The largenumber of his pupils who achieved international fameasa performer,
a teacher,
or both, furtherbearwitnessto his success.

1.5 CZERNY'S OTHER MUSICAL ACTIVITIES

1806 was a historic year for Czemy, for this was the year he started full-time teaching and had
his first taste of composition. His Variations concertantes for piano and violin, Op. 1, was based

on a theme by Krurnpholz. He wrote it without having taken any lessons, except for the

occasional hint frqm Vanhall. He later taught himself the rules of composition by reading
Albrechtsberger's book on thorough-bass." Although Op. I sold well, his heavy teaching

"See Liszt's letter of 15February1881(to DdnesPdzmdndy)for example.Czernywasmore

thanmerelya pianoteacherto Liszt. Czemyshowedcompassion andgaveLiszt freelessons
aswell as free board and lodging for sometime. Liszt, in turn, showedkindnessto his pupils
from humblebackgrounds. Liszt perhapsalsoperceivedCzernyasa fatherfigure.In the
1830s,Liszt continuallyinvited Czernyto Parisandpromisedto do for Czernywhat he would
do for his own father.
41MacArdle (1958), p. 130.
p. 312.
49Czemy(1956),

15
4 prevented
schedule him from concentratingon composition.

A meetingwith the publisherAnton DiabeUiin 1818, however,re-ignitedCzemy's zeal for

composing he
and usedup his freetime in theeveningsto composea largeamountofmusic. This
wason top of his twelve-hour teaching sche4uleduring the 10
day. Czernycomposedquicklyand
easily. By the end of his fife, he had producedover a thousandworks, includingnumerous
many of which are without opus numbers. In additionto his reputationas a
arrangements,
teacher,Czemywasbecomingincreasinglyfamousashcomposer,partlythanksto hiswillingness
to writepopularmusicwhichwasin greatdemand.He composednumerousvariationson famous
themesby other composers(for exampleon the duet "La ci darenf' from Mozart's Don
Giovanni),andon folk melodiesof variousnations(includingthoseofAustria, Ireland,Scotland,
Bohemia,Poland, Russia,and France). He was also very fond of composinglight-hearted
characterpieces,populardancesandmarches,aswell aspiecesin the brilliantstyle,designedfor
thesolepurposeof displayingthepianist'svirtuosity. Althougha largepercentage
of hisoutput
consistsof small-scalecompositionsfor the piano, he was equallycapableof writing in large
forms,suchasthe symphony,the string quartetandthe mass.

Unfortunately, his enon-nousoutput of light, popular music, which had brought him fame, also
brought him criticism from certain quarters. Chopin describedhim as "Vienna's oracle in the

manufactureof musical taste"." And Schumannwas also rather unsympathetic. In his review

of Czerny's "4 brillante PhantasierP,

Op. 434, in 1838, he states:"By all meanslet him retire and

give him a pension; truly, he deservesit and would not [have to] write any more ... In a word, he's
gotten stale; we've gotten fed up with his things". " Beethoven was also not particularly
impressedwith Czýrny's compositional style. In 1823, Beethoven admitted to Ries that he was

not keen on compositions in the brilliant style, becausethey tend to promote mechanicalplaying
in an unnatural manner.53 When Czerny visited Beethoven in Baden two years later, he was

advised to "get to
an appointment and compose in the larger forms". " Czerny admitted that he

"Ibid., pp. 313-314.

"Chopin (1988),p. 142.
"Newman(1969),p. 181. Translatedby Newman.
"Wegelerand Ries(1988), p. 137; Anderson(1961), iii, p. 1064.
14Thayer (1969), p. 956.

16
did not-attachany real importanceto his compositionsfor the reasonthat "he scribbledthem
downsoeasily,andthat hetook musicfrom the publishersin exchange". " This maybethe case

with the light-heartedpieces,but he certainly conceivedhis solo piano sonatasas serious

compositions.In his letter of 1823to the publisherC. F. Peters,he explains:

My solopianosonatas,howevermanyI planto write, oughtthrough
[one separate]continuousnumberingto comprisean entirety [in
themselves],in whichI want,little by little, to recordmy artisticviews
and experiences.ThereforeI ask you to considerthe 3"" Sonate,
sentto you, asoneitem of an over-all series,which I hopeto make
moreandmoresignificant. "

Czemy'selevensolopianosonataswerepublishedbetween1820and1843,eventhoughthe first
sonatawas in
composed 181Or.
His third sonatain F minor, Op. 57, could be seenasa homage
to histeacher.It sharesnot only the key andopusnumberof Beethoven's"Appassionata",but
of
alsosomething the energy,
power andpassionof its first movement.In all his pianosonatas
andpiano duets,Czemy exploitsthe rangeof sonorityoffered by the instrument.
Sometimes, he
the
contrasts deep basswith the penetratingtonesof the high treble. At other times,suchas
in
certainpassages thepianosduetsOp. I 0/iii andOp. 54, hetreatsthepianolike a full orchestra.
Suchplaysof timbre,tessitura,andcolour are especiallyeffectivein the pianoduet medium,as
theuseof four handsprovidehimwith theopportunityto achievefull textures,harmonicrichness,
the
and contrast between the tonalcoloursaffordedby the differentregistersacrossthe rangeof
the piano.

In spite of his submissivereply to Beethoven's advice mentioned above, all Czemy's writings
display a certain confidencein his own ability as a composer. He could indeed compose in any

genre and was familiar with a wide range of compositional techniques. However, he generally

seemsunableto develop a thematic idea, preferring insteadto ch;inge the accompanimentor the
harmonic progression. The chordal section in the second movement of his fourth sonata in G

major, Op. 65, for example, sounds almost like a harmony exercise. He also suffered from an

overfondnessfor long stretchesof passagework. The fourth movementof his first Piano Sonata
in A flat major, Op. 7, is one such example. '

"Ibid.
(1969),p. 181. Translatedby Newman.
16Newman

17
 oftenbeenviewedin a ratherunfavourable
Czemy'sabilityasa composer,WhiChhas light, should
Thequalityofcompositionsin hisenormousoutputis,admittedly,not uniform
bcre-considered.
It is thereforeimportantthat oneshoulddifferentiatethe good onesfrom thosewhichresemble
His
studies.
compositional third for
sonata, example,is worthy to bein themainpianorepertoire.
Manyof his pianoduetstoo deservesomerecognition,suchashis OuvertureCharacteristique
et Brillante in B minor, Op. 54. His studiesalso should not be viewedas meremechanical
exercises. Die Schuledes Virtuosen,Op. 365, for example,not only exploresvarioustechnical
difficultiesoverthewholecompassof the keyboard,it canalsohelpthepupildevelopa wide and

variedrangeof dynamics, tonal

articulation, emphasis,and "
touch.

From the 1820s,Czernybeganwriting about music, piano playing, andcomposition. His writings
from this period show him to be a well-rounded musician. He dealswith the art of improvisation
in the SystematischeAnleitung zum Fantasieren auf dem Pianoforte, Op. 200 (1829), and Die
Kunst desPraludieren in 120 Beispielen, Op. 300 (1833). The preludesandfuguesin his Schule
des Fugenspiels, Op. 400 (cl 836), are intended to encouragethe pianist to develop the skill of

playing polyphonic compositions. As mentioned in the previous section, his three-volume

Vollstandige theoretisch-praktischePianoforte-Schule, Op. 500 (1839), and its supplementDie
Kunst des Vortrags der d1teren und neueren Klavierkomposilionen (1846), contain detailed
instructions on piano playing and stylistic matters. They were both translatedinto English as
CompleteTheoretical and Practical Piano Forte School and TheArt ofPlaying the Ancient and
Modern Piano Forte Worksrespectively. Both translations were published in the sameyear as

their original Germantreatises. Czerny's Elementary Worksfor the Piano Forte, published in
London in 1840, is a simplified version of the Piano Forte School. As it was intendedfor the use

of schoolsin Great Britain, its formula is similar to the treatisesof Cramer and Clementi (seealso
section2.1). Like all English treatises,it is relatively brief The exercises,
as in Cramer's treatise,

are accompaniedby conciseinstructions explaining the purpose of eachexercise,or the technical

difficulty involved, or how to overcome it. Czerny was obviously familiar with the music trade

and the expectation of the music-buying public both on the Continent and in England. Letters to
A YoungLady, asmentionedin the previous section, teachesmusic theory andpiano playing from

'Tor Kuerti's suggestionregardingsomeof Czerny's"serious"compositionswhich shouldbe

see
explored, Kuerti (1997),pp. 493-497.

18
a practicalviewpoint. Essentially
usingthe same ideas,the different stylesof writing andthe
differentformulasofPiano Forte School,Lettersto A YoungLady andElementaryWorksshow
how adaptableCzemywas. He also possesseda sound knowledgeof variouscompositional
forms and genres,as well as of orchestration;all of which is recordedin his Schuleder

praktischenTonsetzkunst
or School
ofPraqical Composition,
Op. 600 (1848). Threeyearslater,
he published Umriss der ganzen Musikgeschichte bis 1800, Op. 815, a book which gives a list

of musiciansfrom the time of the birth of Christ until 1800, with a brief rdsum6accompanying

eachentry. In this book, he is able to combine the three passionsof his fife - music, literature

andhistory. Each is
composer placedwithin a carefully drawn historical context (including major
in
political events), parallel with the cultural history of the important literature and musical
compositions of the period.

in German,French,Italian, andCzechalsobecameusefulin later

Czerny'slinguisticcompetence
life. With a good knowledgeof French,he was ableto translateAntoine Reicha's Traitj de

milodie (1814),Coursdecompositionmusicale(c 1816-1818),andTraitedehautecomposition

musicale (1824-1826) into German. The bilingual edition of this compilation, entitled
VollstandigesLehrbuchder musikalischenComposition,waspublishedin Viennain 1832." In
to
addition providing a Germantranslation,he also addedremarksand an Appendix. He
frequentlyusesthe works of well-known composers,such as Mozart, Haydn, Clementiand
Beethoven,
especially to aid his explanations. It is not only the aestheticswhichCzernyadmired
in Beethoven'smusic,but alsothe'latter'sskill in thematicdevelopment,his harmoniclanguage,
his experthandlingof variousstructures,andthe overallunity in his compositions.Czemyalso
I
editedandtranslatedReicha's,
4rt du dramatique
compositeur (1833)which he in
published 1835
as Die Kunst der dramatischenComposition. By acquaintinghimselfwith the writings of an
important figure'such as Reicha, as well as the cornpositioýsof his contemporariesand

predecessors,Czerny may have been paving the way for his own compositiontreatise.

Similarly, Czerny'sedition of A. E. Maller's GrosseForlepiano-Schule(Leipzig, 1825)and

Kleines Elementarbuchffir Klavierspieler (Leipzig, 1830) were perhapsalso preparations
towardshis own monumentaltreatiseon pianoplaying. Miller's Fortepiano-Schule
in particular

"'Newman(1969),p. 32.

19
hashadaninterestinghistory,havingbeenrevisedmanytimes. It wasin fact first written by G.
S.L6hleinandpublishedin 1765underthe title Clavierschule.The sixtheditionof this treatise
in
waspublished 1804asWiller's Klavier-undFortepiano-Schule.The eighthedition,entitled
GrosseFortepiano-Schule,and publishedtwenty-oneyearslater, was editedby Czerny. He

addeda largeandcomprehensive itten

newly-wr, sectionon figuredbasswhich incorporatesthe
theoriesand views of prominentcontemporarybooks, written for both the amateurand the
educatedmusician. In order to incorporatechanges in piano playing, extensiveadditionsand
alterationswere made in the chapterson fingering,
', ornamentationand performance. In the
chapteron fingering, he replacedmany of the old exerciseswith new pedagogicaldoctrine
the
concerning studyof scales,which he found,after a long periodof testing,to be the bestway
for thedevelopment
offinger dexterity. Out-of-daterealizationsoforriamentswerereplacedwith
newerones.The sectionon performancewas to
expanded includethe interpretationof classical
his
compositions,a chapterwhich anticipates Piano Forte School. The five classifications
each
for dynamicsandarticulation,his descriptionsregardingthe qualitiesandcharacteristics
of each
dynamicandarticulation,andhis remarkson the useof the pedals,are similarto those in the
PianoForteSchool.CzernyalsomodernisedtheKleinesElementarbuchby addingexercises
and
supplementing the chapteron ornaments,but the revisionsherewereon a muchsmallerscale.
Nevertheless, not all his editionsof existingpianotreatisesreceivedsuchextensiveadditions.In
his editionof Pleyel'sClavierschule,publishedaround 1860,he addeda sectionto explainthe
staccatoand portato notation,and some new exercises. Sometimes, his "editing" may simply
consistof addinga new setof exercisesat the endof a treatise,as in his editionof Jousse'spiano
treatise, Op. 420, published in London in 1836. Indeed, Czerny was also greatly respectedin
t

London. J. A. Hamilton, the man who translated Czerny's Piano Forte School into English,
invited Czerny to composenew exercisesfor the 50' edition of his treatise,Modern Instructions
for the Pianoforte. Prior to its publication in 1854, this treatise was sent to Czerny for revision.
I
In the preface, Hamilton proudly declares that Czerny made only very few and insignificant

corrections, thus indicating the latter's approval.

In additionto contemporarytreatises,Czerny.also editedthe musicof a numberof prominent

composers, from Bach and Scarlatti to Weber and Beethoven. His variouseditionsof the
completepiano of
sonatas Beethoven
will be discussed
in chapter3 below. In his editionsof J.

20
S. Bach's The Well-TemperedClavier (1837) and 200 of the sonatasby DomenicoScarlatti
(1839), he attemptedto reveal the characterof each piece by inserting tempo markings,

metronomemarkings, crescendo and diminuendo sudden

nuances, accents, fingerings, and
articulationmarks (often favouring legato). His suggesteddynamicrange from pp to ff is

significantlylarger than Bach would have,intended. Sometimes,Czemy encouragesa rapid

change from soil to loud andvice in

versa: PreludeXV in G majorfrom Book 1,for example,the
change fromp tof and back top happens
within the space
of two bars(from bars 7 to 9). From

p at thebeginning of bar7, Czemy recommendsa crescendo halfwaythrough the bar wMch leads
tofat the beginningof the next bar. This is followedby a diminuendohalfwaythroughbar 8 to
p at the beginningof bar9. All thesemarkings,whichclearlyreflectthe earlynineteenth-century
approach to baroque music, are consistent
with those found in contemporarycompositions,
Beethoven's.
especially Another trait
nineteenth-century whichis foundin Czerny's editingis the
occasionalthickeningofthe texture,suchashis insertionofdouble octavesin the bassof bars25-
29 from the C minor fugue in Book I. In the Prefaceto his edition of The Well-Tempered
Clavier, Czemyfurther revealshis indebtedness
to Beethoven,that is, by using Beethoven's
of
performances the fuguesas a basisfor his editing. Theseperformancesevidentlygaveeach
in
part a fuguean independent
voice aswell as highlightingthe interplaybetweenthe "
parts.

In spite of the vast quantity of new music that was being composed in the nineteenth century,
Czerny still felt that there was a lack of short pieceswhich would aid the development of sight-

reading skills, or which could be used for the purpose of entertaining, or for one's amusement.
As a result, the Musikalisches Pfennig-Magazin was startedto fill this gap, with Czerny as editor
between 1834-1836. The majority of compositions in the Pfennig-Magazin were by

contemporary composerssuch as Beethoven, Moscheles,Dussek, Field, Clementi, Cramer, and

particularly Czerny himself The genresof thesecompositionsare,

also very varied. Amongthern

are rondos, variations, romances,bagatelles,

polonaises,Austrian dances,cadenzas,and etudes.
A few pieces by Bach and Scarlatti are also incorporated, as it is Czerny's intention to introduce

the older composerswho had beenneglectedinto nineteenth-centuryrepertoire. However, like

his edition of Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier, these pieces contain articulation marks,
dynamics,and the occasionaltempo changewhich havebeeninserted by Czemy. In his preface,

59Bach(183 7), preface.

21
 to revisethe interpretativeandperformanceof baroquepieces
heexplainsthat it *as necessary.
io suitmodemtaste.'O

extensivecreativeoutput, with his editionsof treatisesandmusicwhich he soughtto

'Czemy9s
bringinto linewith contemporarytaste,carlbe bestsummedup by hisforcefulandwitty motto:
"Viel für Viele; Alles der ZeiC. `

Whentranslatedinto English,it means"much for [the benefitofl many;Time will bring all to
fruitiore'. I

6'Czemy(1834-1836), preface.
611bid.

22
 CIIAPTER 2: MUSICAL INFLUENCES

Throughouthis life, Czemywasexposedto a variety of musicalstyles. In the "Recouectiol&'

heacknowledges to C. P. E. Bach,Beethoven,ClementiandHummel.In order
his indebtedness
to understandCzemy'sinterpretationof Beethoven'spianosonatas,it is essentialthat eventsor
personswho influencedCzemy are first explored. In addition to the occasionalremark in

anecdotes
reminiscences, or diaries,-treatisesprovide an extensive source of information.
Towardsthe end of the eighteenthcentury,Europ6 was swept by an enthusiasmamongboth
for
amateursandprofessionals publishingtreatises on playing an instrument - the
especially
piano,whichwasbecoming increasinglypopular. It was not uncommon for in
teachers London
(includingeventhosewithout-anystanding)to publishtreatises.Copyrightlaw did not exist in
GermanyandAustria,sothe lessaccomplished teachersusuallyresortedto copyingthe writings
musicians.
of well-established The crazefor having one?s piano treatisepublishedwas partly
encouraged by developmentsin pianomanufacturing. New ways were explored to improvethe
of
mechanism the instrument
which, in turn, provided new opportunitiesand soundworlds to

composersandpianists.

Improvementsin transport andcommunication enabledthe main musicalcentresin Europe, such

as London, Paris and Vienna, to stay abreastofthe latest developments. Translations ofthe more
important treatises were made. For instance, Clementi's Introduction to the Art of Playing on

the Piano Forte (180 1) was translated into both German and French in 1802 while Hummel's
Ausfahrliche theorelisch-practischeAnweisungzumPiano-forte Spiel (1828) wastranslatedinto I
English the following year. Many musiciansandpublishersknew one anotherandwere interested
in new publications on piano playing. The subscribersto Hummel's English translation of the
Anweisung (1829), for example, include Clementi, Cramer, and Cocks and Co. (the company

which published many of Czerny's writings and compositions).

For the sakeof discussion,I will compareeight importantdocumentspublishedover a 93-year

period (1753-1846). The writers lived in Englandand in the German-speaking They

countries.
were composers,teachers,performers,publishersandpianomanufacturers, or a combinationof
theseaswascustomarythen. The discussionbegins with C. P. E. Bach's Versuch iiber die ivahre

23
Art das Clavier zuspielen(Berlin, 1753,1762) and D. G. Tilrk'sKlavierschule oderAnweisung

zum Klavierspielen ffir Lehrer und Lernende (Leipzig, 1789), continuing with J. L. Dussek's
Instructions on the Art ofPlaying the Piano Forte or Harpsichord (London, Edinburgh, 1796),
Clementi'sIntroduction to the Art ofPlaying on the Piano Forte (London, 1801), A. Streicher's
Kurze Bemerkungenüber das Spielen, StiMmen und Erhalten der Fortepiano (Vienna, 180 1),
J. B. Cramer's Instructions for the Piano Forte (London, 1812), and J. N. Hummel's
Ausfahrliche theoretisch-practischeAnweisung zum Piano-forte Spiel (Vienna, 1828), leading

to the culmination of Czemy's three-volume Vollstandige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-

Schule, Op. 500 (Vienna,1839) and its supplement Die Kunst des Vortrags der d1teren und

neurenKlavierkompositionen (Vienna, 1846).' However, sincesomeofthe treatisescontain very

little information on pedalling, pedal markings in the music of thesewriters will be incorporated
in the discussion.

It is beyond the scope of this thesis to study all the treatiseswritten in that period. Among them

are WienerPianoforte-Schule byFriedrich Starke (Vienna, 1819-1821), Mithodepour apprendre

le pianoforte by Friedrich Kalkbrenner (Paris, 1830) and Mithode des mithodes de piano by
FrancoisJ. Fdtis and Ignaz Moscheles(Paris, 1840). There were also many treatiseswhich echo
the writings of someofthe above-mentionedauthors. JohannP. Milchmeyer's Die wahreArt das
Pianoforte zu Spielen (Dresden, 1797) is influenced by Bach's Essay,' Louis Adam's Mithode

nouvelle pour de piano (Paris, 1802) reflects ideas in Clementi's Introduction' and Pleyel's
,
Mithode pour le Pianoforte (Paris, 1797) echoesconcepts in Dussek's Instructions on the Art.

2.1 BACKGROUND OF THE TREATISES TO BE STUDIED

Clementi's Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Piano Forte (1801) dealswith elementary

'References from Germantreatisesmadein this chapterare mainlyextractedfrom the EngEsh

translations.The third editionof Cramer'sInstructionfor the Piano Forte (1820)is used
insteadof the original,of which the British Library copy hasbeenmislaid.I amusingthe 1800
editionof Dussek's treatisewlýichhas a list of ItaHanterms;this list is in
not the 1796edition.
2Bach(1974),p. 7,
3Clementi/Rosenblum (1974),p. ix.

24
music theory, fingering, sittingand playing position, and ways to practise effectively. He
lays
repeatedly emphasison a "quiet" hand and the usefulness of practisingscales
evenly. This

emphasisis made more pronounced in later editions. Starting from the seventhedition (1812-
motion of the hand is printed in capitalletters.
1814),the sentenceregardingthe unnecessary
Clementiand one of his pupils, Cramer,extol the virtue of practisingscalesto train technical
facility. Dussekalso upholdsthesebasic principles. Besidesteachingfinger agility, Dussek
that
explains the practiceof scales will helpfan-dharise
the pupil with the keyboard, fingeringand
a knowledge of the keys. By the time Czernywrote Piano Forte School, the role of scaleshad
beenextended. They were no longer practisedmerely to enableneat and rapid execution.
playing:legato,the differentdegreesofstaccato,a wide
Czernyusesthemto developexpressive
rangeof dynamic levels,and the ability to produceany tones at will. He alsotrainshis pupilsto
playscalesin the circleof fifths,thus developing a senseof V-I harmonic progression. The taboo
surroundingthe placing of the thumb or the little finger on black keys unlessit is absolutely
taught
unavoidable, by TUrk, Dussekand Clementi, is still evidentin Piano Forte '
School.

Although Clementi is often considered "the father of the pianoforte", many of the principles in
his Introduction have their roots in C. P. E. Bach's Essay.' Bach teachesthe correct sitting

position. He understandsthe importance of the correct hand position in order to play properly.
He maintains that the thumb should always remain close to the hand while unnecessarybodily

gestures should be avoided. Bach discourages the performer from adopting ugly grimaces. "
.
Before the publication of Clementi's treatise,Bach was already teachingthat the left hand should
be intelligently exercisedso that it has equal facility with the right. This last point and the art of
fingering are perhaps the most important principles to influence later teachers. At the time of

writing the Essay, ýhe art of fingering was "almost a secret art, known and practiced [sic] by
...
very few". ' Bach obviously considers fingering to be a very important element in performance
becausethe Essay begins with a large chapter on fingering. He uses both the old and the new

4Bach(1974),p. 45; Rirk (1804),p. 17; Cramer(1835), p. 2; Cramer(c 1820,treatise),pp. 5

and 34; Dussek (1800), pp. 9 and 3 1; Czerny(1839E), i, pp. 46-77 and ii, p. 3.
'Clementihimselfadmitted"WhateverI know-aboutfingeringandthe new stYle,in short,
whatever I of
understand the pianoforte,I havelearned from this book". See Bach(1974),p.
14.
Tach (1974),pp. 30,31,41-44, and 152.
71bid.,P. 41.
25
methodof fingering scales. Inthose with no or very few sharpsand flats, he expresseshis
preferencefor the old method, that is, of vaultingthe third fingeroverthe fourth, andthe second
fingeroverthethumb. Nevertheless,in keepingwith newdevelopments, heconsidersthe turning

of the thumb and the crossingof the longer fingersover the thumb to be the most important

element in the study of fingering! Unlike t4e options of fingering for

available the easierscales,
thosewith many sharpsand flats permit only the new fingering. It is this new method of fingering
that was later developed and used as the basis of piano technique, first by Clementi, then by
Cramer,Hummel,' and Czerny. Another method that they adopt is Bach's recommendation on
how to practise technical exercises. First, the exercisesare practised slowly, the speed is then

gradually increaseduntil the fingering of such becomes

passages secondnature to the player.

Bach'sEssayconcernsitself mainly with the responsibilityof the keyboardplayer within an

ensemble and the art of improvisation. In treatisesemphasizethe

contrast,nineteenth-century
virtuosityof the solo concertpianist. Bach musthave noticedthe tendencytowardsmechanical
playing by the early 1750swhenhe warnsthat the performer
must "[p]lay from the soul,not like

a trainedbird! "O

Bach's and TOrk's treatises follow the format of many contemporary Gennan tutors. They are
lengthy, with rather few or no practical exercises. Bach offers advice on the mechanismsof the
harpsichord and clavichord, tuning, and care of the instruments. An experiencedperformer, he

gives hints on how to prepare for public performances. Clementi's and Dussek's, on the other
hand, follow the basic arrangement used by most late eighteenth-centuryEnglish instruction
books. They are simple and concise. Music theory, fingering, piano technique, and ornaments

are taught first. Thýsis sometimesfollowed by fingered scalesand/or a few exercises. At the end

of the treatises, a small number of pieces or lessonsare added. English tutors were considered
in their time as dictionaries of elements. Lessons would be selectedat the discretion of the

teacher and in the order that he saw fit. Cramer's treatise follows this principle loosely. It is

conciseand simple but has a slightly different format. From his teaching he
experience, found that

,ibid., pp. 45-46.

9Hummelshowsan awarenessof Bach'ssystemof fingeringwhenpreparinghis own chapter
on the subject. SeeHummel(1829), H,p. 224.
"Bach (1974),p. 150.
26
it wasmorebeneficialto teachmusictheorythroughmusic. Therefore,eachexerciseis followed
byexplanationandinstructions.Hummel'sTheoreticalandPracticalCourseandCzemy'sPiano
Forte School incorporatethe format of both the Germanand Englishtutors: comprehensive
theoreticalknowledgeis supplemented
by numerousexercisesandpieces. Unlike the English
tutors, Czernysetsout the topicsin Piano Forte Schoolaccordingto the order in wbýichthey
would be taught in lessons. In his opinion, a teacher is unnecessary if the pupil follows the
lessonsclosely. Like Bach, Hummel and Czemy give counsel on the mechanismand care of the

piano, and how to prepare for a public performance, ' The between
resemblance the structure of
Czerny'sPiano Forte School and Hummel's Theoretical and Practical Course is striking. Both

are divided into three sections:basictheoretical and practical knowledge,fingering, and the styles

of The
performance.
advanced only obviousdifferenceis wherethe discussion
of is
ornaments
introduced.Hummelplacesit in the third part of his treatise,togetherwith mattersrelatingto
advanced performing Czemy,
styles. on the other hand, introducesornamentstowardsthe end
of the first volumeof Piano Forte School. In contrast,Streicher's
bookletis shortandprecise.
It coversfour mainareas:basicplayingposition,toneproduction,themechanics
ofthe piano,and
of the instrument.
the tuningandgeneralmaintenance

Bach's Essayand Streicher'sNotes on the Playing, Tuning and Maintenance ofthe Fortepiano

are said to be aimed at amateurs. As I F. Rochlitz explains, the word "amateur" was used to
indicate one who truly understandsand enjoys music, as opposedto a "professional", one who

constantly criticizes." The high standard expected of a performer asset out in the writings of
Bach and Streicher is therefore understandable. 'Although its market is unspecified, TOrk's
Treatise is probably written for the same category of performers. Dussek's, Clementi's and
Cramer's treatisesare written for beginners. They are easyto read but lack instructions on the
finer nuancesof playing. Therefore, it is difficult to determinethe witers' idealson suchmatters.
Hummel's Theoretical and Practical Course and Czerny's Piano Forte School, however, are

more comprehensive. They are written for pupils at all stagesof proficiency, from beginners'

level to that of the advancedpianist.

I'Rochhtz(1832),p. 295.

27
2.2 A COMPARISON OF THE TREATISES

2.2.1 TEMPO
Indications of Speed - Italian terms, time signature and the metronome

About a centurybeforethe adventof the metronome,Italian temis were introducedto indicate

the speedof a piece. Originally,thesetermswereusedasa descriptionof mood. By the middle
of the eighteenthcentury,someof the Italian termsalso carriedimplicationsof speed.In some
cases,speed became more important than theterm's original Allegro
meaning. is an The
example.
literal meaningof allegro is "cheerfur. In 1789,TOrk definesallegro as"quick". "
j

The meaningsof Italian termsconstantlyevolvewith time. Even the degreeof quicknessor

slowness associatedwith thesetermsbecameblurred in time. There was disagreement as to

whetherlargo, adagioor gravewasthe slowesttempo. TOrkconsiderslargo to be the slowest
tempo. Clementiis more conservative. He prefersto follow the practiceof Corelli, thereby
listing adagio asthe slowesttempo. In his subsequenteditionsof Introduction, he repeatedly
defendedthis practice.He andCramerwereamongthe minority who followedthe adagio-largo
tradition. The others,includingDussek,Hummeland Czerny,regardedlargo or grave as the
slowest tempo. The speed conveyedby andantino was also problematic. TUrk, Dussek,
Clementi,andCramer,who standin oppositionto Czemy,insistthat andanteis slightlyquicker
than andantino. In the hopeof Clearingup this misunderstanding,
Hummelexplainsthat it is
to
erroneous perceiveandantino asquicker than andantebecausethe formeris the diminutiveof
13 I
the latter.

Speedsmay be classifiedin threemain groups- slow, moderateand fast. Slow temposare

by
represented grave, largo, adagio,and lento. Fasttemposare by
expressed allegro,presto,
by
and sometimes vivace and The
preslissimo. meaningof vivaceat this time was ambiguous.
TOrkdefinesvivaceasa tempomarkingwhichis slowerthanallegro. Clementicontradictshim

'IT&k (1804),p. 14.

IMIrk (1804),p. 14; Clementi(1801), p. 13; Clementi/Rosenblurn
(1974),p. xxix; Cramer
(c1820,treatise),p. 52; Dussek(1800),pp. 44-45;Hummel(1829),i, pp. 68-69;Czemy
(I 839E),i, p. 156.

28
by listingvivaceasAquickertempothanallegro but slowerthanpresto.DussekandCzerny,on
the otherhand,considervivacean adverbto the maintempoheadings.Dussek definesvivace
as"with life and spirit" while Czemyinterpretsit as"lively, with warmtlf The termsandante,

andantino, allegretto and moderatoHe between the slow and the fasttempos.An analysisof the
tableof speedas listed in the treatisesrevealsthe similarity betweenHummel'sand Czerny's.
Comparethe two lists, startingwith the slowesttempo:
Hummel: Grave - largo - adagio - andantino- andante- allegretto- allegro - vivacissimo-

presto-prestissimo
Czerny: Grave - largo - adagio - andante - andantino - allegretto - allegro - presto -
"
prestissimo.

Although choosing an appropriate speedis an important criterion in performing, the decision may
be
sometimes rather difficult. Speed varies according to time and place. In the second edition

of Klavierschule, TUrk observesthat a more moderate tempo was expectedof a piece marked

allegro composed fifty years earlier. The trend of increasingthe speedof allegro and reducing
the speedof adagio continued throughout the nineteenth century. This was noticeable even in

the mid-eighteenth century, for Bach complains of considerable differences in the speeds of

allegro and adagio, depending on the location. According to him and TOrk, speedmay also be

deducedfrom the characterofthe piece and its smallestnote value. Theselast two points are also

observedby Czerny."
,

The influence of the time signature in the choice of tempo was more significant in the eighteenth

thanin the nineteenth century. The only time signature used in the nineteenth century with a

relationship to the proportions was the alla breve. As with the Italian terms, there were many

contrasting views regarding the meaning of this time signature 4nd its tempo implication. To

complicate matters further, distinctions were rarely made between the sign of common time, C,

breve, k. Dussek late time by

and the alla retains the seventeenth-centurymeaning of common

"Tork (1804),p. 14; Clementi(1801),p. 13;Dussek(1800),p. 47; Czemy(I 839E), i, p. 156

"Hummel(1829), i, pp. 68-69;Czemy(I 839E),i, p. 156.
"Bach (1974),pp. -148,151and414; TOrk(1802),p. 106;Tilrk (1804),p. 14; Czemy
(1839E), iii, p. 69.

29
 C, ý and 'ý as indications
of this time "'
signature.
assigning

Apart fromDussek,all thewritersstudiedin this chapteragreethatalla brevecontainstwo minim

beatsin a bar. Dussekholdson to the old meaningof alla breve,that is, "a movementthat has

one Breve, and two in

semibreveetc. a bar"." There were two waysof interpretingthis time

signaturein performance.TUrkandCzemyareof the opinionthat the notesin alla breveshould

be playedtwice asfastasthey would otherwisebe in commontime." In the seventheditionof
the Introduction,Clementidecidesto embracethe other meaningassociated
with alla breve. He
writes:
ý
A composition marked thus was ANCIENTLY performed as fast
again as when markedthus C; but ý
now is performedsomewhat j
fasterthanC."
-
Such confusion prompted musiciansto experiment with ways of measuringthe exact speed of

eachpiece. Tiirk's Treatise lists someof thesemethods: uýing the ticking of a watch and writing
the time to "
needed perform a piece. In 1752, Johann Quantz proposed using the "pulse beat at
the hand of a healthy "
person". Pendulumsand chronometers were also usedto measuretempo
LouliCs chronomatre (1696), for example,had a calibrated frame with a peg on the fixed end
-
of the cord that could be plugged in at a number of points on the frame. This would then adjust
the length of the pendulum." In 1724, William Turner suggestedsetting tempos in terms of a
in 0
clock whereby the speed of crotchets reversed mensuration should be counted "as fast as
the regular Motions of a Watch". ` A more sophisticated version of this idea included a two-

m6tre high clockwork chronomNre musical by Jacques-Alexandre-C6sar Charles in 1786 and

patents by various inventors such as Anthony George Eckhardt in 1798 and G. E. St8ckel in
1800. Someof the patents,such as St6ckel's proposal to build a device resemblinga large wall-

17Dussek (1800),p. 4.
"Ibid., P. 44.
19Tfirk(1804),p. 12; Czerny(1839E), i, pp. I 10 and 119.
"Clementi(1801), p. 4 (capitalizationoriginal); Clementi/Rosenblum (1974),p. xxv.
21Turk(1804),pp. 14-15.
12Quantz(1966), p. 283. Seeh is discussion
in Quantz (1966),pp. 282-294.
,
21Fora list of the devicesusedto measuretempobeforethe inventionof the metronome,
please see Sadie (2001), xvi, pp. 532-535.
24Sadie (2001),xvi, p. 534, s.v. "Metronome". 'Italicizationandcapitalizationoriginal.

30
clock with a 61 cm audible
pendulum, harnmers
and bells, were nevercarriedout." Until the
inventionofthe metronomein 1816,noneofthoseearlierexperiments
wereuniversallyaccepted.
Hummel and Czemy were amongthe many musicianswho recommendedthe use of the

metronomeand praised its virtues. They wrote about it with authority and understanding.
Hummel cautionsthat practisingwith the Tetronome is usefulas long as the playerdoesnot
follow the beatsmechanically.Somerelaxationof pulseshouldbeallowed,dictatedby the taste

and feelingof the performer. The most importantrole of the metronome,

accordingto Czemy,
is the opportunityit providescomposersto notate the exactspeedof their compositions.The

metronomecanalso be usedto aid practice. Perhaps

asa reactionagainstthe excessiveuseof
temporubato employedby someperformers,Czemy seesthe metronomeas an instrumentto
correctthis fault. He elaboratesthat practisingwith the helps
metronome the
strengthen fingers
in
andgivesadditionalcertainty performance. "

The meanings of adagio and allegro

In general, adagio is often seenas an expressivemovement while allegro is cheerful and lively.
By the 1830s,movementsmarked adagio and allegro had suchdiversecharactersthat qualitative

terms were sometimesused. Both Hummel and Czemy reveal that the moods implied by allegro
range from tranquil and thoughtful, through majesty and warmth, to brilliance and liveliness.
Czerny also describesthree types of adagio - expressivebut sad, sentimental,and elegant.27

In the eighteenthcentury, movementsmarked adagio and allegro were characterisedby different

types of articulation. The general rule was to expressadagio through broad, slurred notes and
allegro through detachednotes. In the nineteenthcentury, this distinction was achievedthrough
finger action and tone. Hummel and Czerny teach that a piece markedallegro should be precise,

neat and brilliant. The execution of adagio is more subtle. The cýaracter of the piece should be

communicatedthrough a-variety of tones that are controlled by finger "

pressure. The notes are

more sustainedand the melody must have a singing quality. Czerny explainsthat
the Player must know how to fascinate his Audience by the finest

p. 535.
211bid.,
26Hummel(1829), fii, pp. 65-67; Czerny (1839E), iH, pp. 66-68.
2'Hummel(1829), i, pp. 68-69; Czerny (1839E), i, p. 156 and ifi, pp. 69-79.
2'Bach(1974), p. 149; Hummel (1829), ifi, pp. 41-42; Czemy (1839E), iE, pp. 70 and 74.

31
 possiblequality of tone, by correct accentuationand phrasingof the
melody, by a pellucidfullnessandcloseconnectionof the harmonies,by
feeling and delicacy,and by the appropriateexpressionof tenderor
sublimeemotions;and, accordingto the contentsof the composition,
operateon their heartsor th6r "
understandings.

Some Italian terms which affect the speed and/or character of a piece
Rallentando and Ritardando
Clementi, Cramer and Czerny agree that both rallentando and rilardando refer to a gradual

slowing down. Hummel believesthat both terms not only imply a gradual decreasein speed,but
in intensity as well. This dual meaningis more commonly associatedwith the terms smorzando,

calando, and morendo (see pp. 40-41). Dussek may have been able to clarify this for
matter, he
equatesrallentando with calando. Unfortunately, the meaniný of calando is not given in the Est

of Italian terms in his treatise, to

possibly owing an oversight on the part of the "
publisher.

Cantabile
Thetermcantabileis usedto emphasizethe lyric characterofa piece:to revealthislyric character
to the player, and encouragehim or her to bring it out. Its specificmeaning,however,is
determinedby the type of keyboardused. Tfirk's definition of "pleasingly,pleasantly"is more
suitedto the earlykeyboard.In the eleventheditionofIntroduction (1826),Clementirefinesthe
originalmeaning from "in a singingandgracefulmanner"to "in a singing,gracefulandexpressive

manner". This is in line with the adoption of legato as the normal touch (seepp. 42-43).
Cramer'sand Hummel's definitionscarry the samemeaningas Czerny's:"in a singingstyle.
MelodioUSV'.31

Con aninia and con espressione

Cramer, Hummel and especially Clementi all emphasize the expressive intention and shaping
denoted by con espressioneand con anima. In the first edition of Introduction, Clementi asks

that passagesmarked with either of those two terms be played:

"Czerny (I 839E), Hi, p. 74. Capitalization original.

IoDussek(1800), p. 46; Clementi (180 1), p. 14; Cramer (c 1820, treatise), p. 53; Hummel
(1829), i, p. -71; Czerny (1839E), i, p. 190.
IMIrk (1804), p. 15; Clementi (180 1), p. 14; Clementi/Rosenblum(1974), p. xxx; Cramer
(c1820, treatise), p. 52; Hummel (1829), i, p. 72; Czerny (1839E), i, p. 156.

32
 [w]ith expression;that is, with passionatefeeling;whereeverynote has
its peculiarforceandenergy;andwhereeventhe severityof time maybe
for
relaxed extraordinaryeffects. "

And in his seventhedition, the con animahasbecomemore expressive:"CON ANIMA, with

great expressiorf'. While the meaningof con is

espressione the standardindicationfor "With

exptessioif ', the of

meaning conanimais slightlyelusive.Hummel'scon anima,like Clementi's,
is"fullof soul,impassioned".However,Czemy'sdefinition,written only tenyearslater,is rather
different.In his opinion,con animameans"moving with spirit, life andvivacity"."

2.2.2 TEMPO FLEXIBILITY i

by a slightslowingdown,acceleratingor both. Bach,Hummel

A performanceis oftenenhanced
and Czemy agree that such flexibility shouldnot affect the o,
verall tempo. In other words, the
pieceshouldstart andend in the same tempo, with slighttempo changeswithin the "
music. The
degreeof tempochanges,however,vary accordingto the characterof the pieceandthe tasteof
the individualperformer.

Many instances of tempo flexibility in performance are not notated. Since this practice is
determinedby contemporary taste,which constantlychanges,it is a 'lost" art-form, savefor some

guidelines laid down in treatises.Bach suggeststhat acceleratingand retarding the tempo can be

effective at each transposition of a melody in octaves. The tempo should be broadened at the
repetition ofpassagesin a minor key that was originally in the major mode and at a fermata. Slow
I
notes, caressingor sad melodies and dissonant chords call for the use of tempo rubato. "

BachdefinestemporubatOasthe additionor subtractionof note values,whereone handplays

againstthe beat and the other strictly with it. TOrk gives three definitions of temporubato,

32CIementi(180 1), p. 14.

33CIementi/Rosenblum (1974), p. xxv (capitalization original); Cramer (6820, treatise), p. 52;
Hummel (1829), i, p. 72; Czerny (1839E), i, p. 190.
14Bach(1974), p. 161; Hummel (1829), iii, p. 47; Czemy (1839E), i, p. 118.
"Bach (1974), p. 161.

33
Bach's definition beingone of them. TOrk's secondtype of rubato occurswhenthe accentis

placedon weakerrather than strongerbeats.The third is achievedby delaying the

or accelerating
speed. Althoughthis last type is employedby Bach, he does it
not classify astemporubato. "

Tork givesmanyinstanceswheretempoflexibility canbeused.Accelerandois recommended

in

piecesof a fiery, violent and furious character, in the strongestpassages andin passagesplayed
strongerat the repeat. Ritardando is effectivein very tender,languishingandplaintivepassages,
beforeembellished towards
pauses, the end of or it,
a piece a part of and in passages marked
diminuendo,diluendo"orsmorzando.Certainpassages shouldbeplayedin strict timebut a little
slowerthanthe original speed. Among them are embellishedpassages
markedsenzatempoor
a softerpassageat therepetition,anda softandpoignantpassage
adlibitum, a transitionpassage,
betweentwo lively ones."

Similarly, Hummel believesthat melodious passagesin pieces marked allegro should be played

imperceptibly slower. Conversely, in pieces with florid right hand the

passages, left hand must
play in strict time. The examplesin Theoretical and Practical Course reveal that Hummel uses
tempo flexibility sparingly to enhancethe overall shapeof a phrase. He warns that tempo rubato

should not affect the neatness,grace and delicacy of a performance."

Czernyconsiderstempo flexibility to be the most important meansof expression.Unlike his

he
predecessors, seemsto favour a broadening of tempo. He that
explains it is morecommonto
slow downthanto increase
the because
speed, the formeris lesslikely to disfigurethe character
of a piece. In contrast to the numerous instances
where a slowing down is favourable,he
suggests only two examples where accelerando maybe employed:firstly, in the transitionto a
themewhich consistsof rapid runs or quick legatonotes;seconqly,in piecesof a fiery, violent
or furious 'O
nature. The latter recallsone of TOrk's examples.

"Bach (1974),pp. 161-162;TOrk(1804),p. 40.

37Torkdefinesdiluendoas"ext.inguishing"(seeTiirk (1804), p. 35).
3lTiIrk(1804),p. 40.
"Hummel (1829),iii, pp. 41-53.
4,Czemy(1839E), iii, pp. 31,3 3 and38.

34
Like Tfirk, Czernyrecommendsa slight ritardando in sad, tranquil and tenderpassages.In
he
addition, advises that slowingdown is effectivein the following cases:
(a) In thosepassages which containthe return to the principalsubject.
(b) In thosepassages, which lead to someseparatememberof a melody.
(c) In those long and sustainednotes which are to be struck with
particularemphasis,and after which quicker notes are to follow.
(d) At the transition into anýther speciesof time, or into another
movement different in speed from that which preceded it.
(e) Immediatelyafter a pause.
(f) At the Diminuendoof a preceding.very lively passage;as also in
brilliant passages, when there suddenlyoccursa trait of melody to be
playedpianoandwith much delicacy.
(g) In embellishments, consistingof very manyquick notes,which we
areunable to force into the degree of movement first chosen.
(h) Occasionallyalso, in the chief crescendoof a strongly marked
sentence, leading *to an importantpassageor to the close;
(i) In very humorous,capriciousand fantasticpassages,in order to
heightenthe characterso muchmore.
(k) Lastly, almost always where the Composer has indicated an
espressivo;asalso
(1) At the endof everylong shakewhich formsa pauseor Cadenza,and
is
which marked diminuendo. 41

In some ways, this list is similar to Tflrk's guidelines. The main difference is the absenceof

playing certain slower

passages but in strict time. Examples (a), (b), (0, and (g) are placeswhere
TUrk would have played the whole passageslower rather than gradually slowing down. It is

:observed that Czerny frequently equatessoft passages and chords or those marked diminuendo

with a broadening of the tempo. One must bear in mind that the list above merely servesas a

guide. Take the transition to the main theme as an example. The variation of speed when

approaching the subject is determined by the performer's judgment and the musical cdntext.
According to Czerny's list (ex. (a)), the transition passageshould be played slower and slower.
Elsewhere in Piano Forte School, he clarifies this, stating that if the transition consists of notes

played staccato or of chords, the performer should ritard towards the end. On the other hand,

transition passageswhich contain rapid runs or quick legato notes should be played in strict time
"
or accelerando.

411bid.,iii, pp. 33-34. Capitalization and punctuation original. Incidentally, Czerny omitted the
letter 0) as was customary then.
4'Ibid., iii, p. 38.

35
Theabuseof temporubato,a commonmistake,met with strongdisapprovalfrom Hummeland
the boundariesof what was acceptablewere extendedthroughoutthe
Czerny. Nevertheless,

nineteenthcentury. Towardsthe endof the 1820s,Hummel statesthatanexcessive useof tempo

rubato ruinsa Slightly
performance. over ten yearslater, Czerny alsofindsthe exaggerateduse
of accelerando and ritardando particularly offensive. In comparison to Hummel's,Czemy's

examples of temporubato in Piano Forte School are significantlymorenumerous.He advises

a slight tempo change in almost every bar. Hummel and Czemy do not evenagreeon the
of with
rendition passages florid right-handfigurations. Hummel that
states the two handsmust
act independently,
with the left handkeepingstrict time. AlthoughCzerny alsorecornmendsthe
two handsto beindependent from eachother,heallowsthe left handto slowdownwith theright
hand. The accompaniment, however,mustbe unornamentedso asnot to blur the pulse."

2.2.3. DYNAMICS

The range of dynamics in use

At the time of writing their respective treatises, all the writers surveyed set the soft and loud limits

at pp andff respectively. In his Essay, Bach still speaks of terraced dynamics. It is only in his

later compositions that the terms crescendo and diminuendo are used. This was in line with the

development in the second half of the eighteenth century, when both terms were used with

increasing frequency. There was also an expansion in the dynamic range; as the piano increasingly

all owed for a wider contrast between soft and loud, and more varied tonal possibilities. Clementi

was open-minded to this new development. In the seventh edition, he introduces ppp andfff
However, this practice was not immediately followed by later writers, including Cramer and

CzeMy. 44

Mezzavoce,mp,mf, andsottovoceareamongthe termsusedto definethe volumebetweensoft

43Hunu-nel(1829),iii, pp. 47,51-53; Czerny(1848),p. 3 1; Czerny(1839E),iii, pp. 32,35 and

46.
4'Bach(1974),p. 162;TtIrk (1804),p. 35; Dussek(1800),pp. 44-47;Clementi/Rosenblurn
(1974),p. xxv; Cramer(cl 820,treatise),pp. 52-53;Hummel(1829),i, p. 70; Czerny
(1839E),iii, P. I

36
andloud. TUrk, Cramer,
Dussek, andCzernyagreethat mezza voce is in themiddle,between soft
and loud. Bach, Clementi
andHummeldo not mention the term. The contradictorydefinitions

givenby Clementi,Cramer and Dussek showthat a standardmeaningdid not exist. Clementi

to
considersmp mean "rather soft", Cramerseesit as "a mediumbetween soft and loud" while
Dussek,curiously,claimsthat mp is "softer thanpiano". On the whole, this markingis more

commonlyused in Englandthan in the German-speaking Bach

countries. and TOrkdefine mf as
"half loud" and"half strength''respectively.Dussek,Clementi,Cramer,andHummeldefineit as
"ratherloud" while Czernyinterpretsit as"moderatelyloud". Sottovoceis a lesssignificantterm
thanmezzavoceandmf. Like its
mp, meaningat this time was ambiguous. Tark considers ait

soft dynamic. In contrast,Dusseklikens it to mezza voce. In other words, it representsthe

medium between soft and "

loud. Of these four intermediatedynamic terms,mf was the only
indicationthat wasuniversallyadoptedat the time.

There are two possiblereasonswhy intermediatedynamicindicationswere rarelyused. The

relativelysmalldynamicrangeavailableon the early pianosmadeit Micult to obtaindifferent

moderatevolumes. Therefore, the soft andloud limits may haverepresented

a broaderspectrum
of soundthan they do today. P may representanything frompp to mp whHef may be anything
from mf to ff. This boundarybecameclearer in time as composerswrote more specific
instructions.

- Functions of dynamics

However, the role of dynamicsis not so much the volume it representsbut its contribution to the

overall performance of a piece. Volume is adaptedto suit the characterof the music. TiIrk- gives

a general guide: lively piecesmust be played strongly while tender and singing passagesshould
be softer. Within these pieces,the touch must be adapted accord.ingly. He explains:
Compositions of a cheerful, joyous, lively, sublime, splendid,
proud, bold, courageous,serious, fiery, wild, furious, and the
like, character all require a certain degree of loudness. This
degree must even be increased or decreased according to
whether the feeling is
or passion represented more intenselyor

4'Bach(1974),p. 162;TOrk(1804),p. 35; Dussek(1800),p. 46; Clementi(1801), p. 9;

Cramer(c1820,treatise),p. 52; Hummel(1829),i, p. 70; Czemy(1839E),i, p. 184andiii, p.
3.
37
 more moderately. ... in each composition itself different
gradations areagainnecessary, all ofwhich must be in a suitable
relation to the whole. A forte in an Allegro furioso must
thereforebe considerablylouder than in an,41legroin which
only a moderatedegre6ofjoy prevails,etc.

Compositions of a gentle, innocent, naive, pleading, tender,

moving, sad, melancholy, and the like, character all require a
softer execution. The degree of loudness [in 1802, "of
sofines§"], however, must correspond accurately to the
prevailing sentiment and therefore is different in most of the
cases just named."

Hummel'sand Czerny'steachingis in the samevein. Again, this mannerof playing had been,
in
anticipated Bach's "
Essay.

Dynamicsalsoserveto emphasizethe structureof a piece. On a smallscale,both Hummeland

Czernyaskthat ascendinglinesbe playedcrescendoand descendingonesdiminuendo,unless
otherwise indicated by the composer 48 TUrk and Bach advise highlighting modulations,
.
dissonances andanunexpected turn of a melod
y.4' TUrk recommends usingdifferentdynamics

at the repeatof phrasesto providecontrast:

If a passagebe repeated,it is playedthe secondtime softer,if
it wasplayedstrongthe first time. On the contrary,a repeated
passagemay sometimesbe played strongerthe secondtime,
particularlyif the Composer has enlivenedit by "
additions.

Although Czerny agreesthat the choice of dynamicsat repeatsis determinedby circumstances,

he is Particularly fond of playing the repeat softer, with little or no crescendoand diminuendo.
This plan is also applied to formal structures, suchasthe repeatin a scherzoand trio movement."

Accentuation
Accentuationconsistsof metrical,expressiveand structuralaccents. Metrical accentscanbe

46TOrk(1804), p. 36. The translationis takenfrom Rosenblum(1988),p. 61.

4'Bach(1974),pp. 163-164;Hummel(1829), iii, pp. 40-42;Czemy(1839E),iii, pp. 74-79.
48Hummel (1829),iii, p. 42; Czerny(1839E), iii, p. 15.
41Bach (1974),p. 163;TiIrk (1804),pp. 34 and36.
'OTiIrk(1804),p. 36. Capitalizationoriginal.
5'Czerny(I 839E),iii, pp. 16 and 85.
38
further dividedinto two groups:accentswhich are determinedby the time signatureand note
,
divisions. The first type is self-explanatory.The secondtype of metricalaccentis usuallynot
indicated.Playersareexpectedto accentuatethe first of a group of notes,suchas
In addition,HummelandCzemy(asshownin exs.2.1a and2.1b respectively)proposevarying
the accentuationof a repeatedmotivic phrasefor interest'ssake.
Ex. '2.Ia

Ip. -r---1I LL

(i 19 io ?a *i iýii1F16ý4 j4 11
111 -1 111--- -ýEt4

Ex. 2.1b
/

A I
-#", I --*- týlft 1, I .t AL -0.
-0
pl F1f1
-4- gh

LJ3'I II I- f 6--L-L-4 r. Z: jzz4::

>
!IN

--j -

;p a

t"4
:!ý f=
-0- I
-9-

yi, 1,jil IIIIII _

>
;p >

Czerny also usesthe sametreatment-at the repetition of a simple melody. The melody is first

playedsemplice (this is not included in the musical examplebelow). The placementof emphasis
is then varied so that the melody appearsnew and interesting (ex. 2.2).
Ex. 2.2

Similarly, many expressiveand structural accentsare implied rather than indicated. TUrk fists a

number of instanceswhen expressiveaccentscan be used effectively: dissonances,

syncopations,

39
andprominentnotes (in termsof length,pitch and depth). Accentsat the beginning
of phrases
havea structuralfunction.Accentson noteswhich indicatemodulationsareof anexpressive and
a structuralnature. Bach,Hummeland Czernyalso use accentsin similarcontexts. Accents
highlightdetailsof musicalinterestaswell as help the performerkeeptime. Hummelexplains'
by
that so doing, the fingcrs can play with more precision. This also allows more scopefor
"
refiýedexpression.

Italian terms with dynamic implications

Dolce

Clementi and Czerny classifydolce under "dynamics". Czerny simply describesit as "soft". On
ýrst
the other hand, Clementi is more concernedwith the expressiveelementof this term. In the

edition of the Introduction, he defines dolce as "sweet, with taste; now and then SWELLING

somenotes". Its meaning is refined in the eighth edition - "sweet, with taste; SWELLING and
DINUNISHING some notes". Tork fists it with other terms which denote the character of a

passageor a piece. Hummel lists dolce under both headings. Hummel's definition, as with
Tark's, reflects an overlapping of the two categories - "sweetly, with softness". Cramer's
definition is the only one that does not have a dynamic implication. He translatds dolce as
"sweetly". On the whole, it can be concluded that dolce implies a soft dynamic."

Smorzando, calando and morelldo

The original meaningsof smorzando, calando and morendo, as recorded by TUrk, refer to a
decreasein volume. Hummel retains the original meanings of smorzando and calando" but
is
morendo grouped together with ritardando and rallentando. It has now acquired. a new

significance, that is, one of speed. Prior to the publication of Hummel's treatise, the original
I

"Bach (1974), p. 163; TOrk.(1804), pp. 33,34, and 37; Hummel (1829), i, p. 59, ii, p. 2 and
iii, pp. 54-61; Czemy (1839E), iii, pp. 6-13.
I'Tfirk (1804), p. 15; Clementi (180 1), p. 9 (capitalization original); Clementi/Rosenblurn
(1974), p. xxvii (capitalization original); Cramer (c 1820, treatise), p. 52; Hummel (1829), i, p.
72; Czerny (1839E), i, p. 184.
"'Rosenblumpoints out the weaknessof this definition. She arguesthat the indications
calando, in tempo appear in Hummel's Piano Sonata Op. 81 (1819) and his Piano Concerto
Op. 85 (cl821). SeeRosenblum(1988), p. 83. This indicates that Hummel associatedsome
down with the term calando at least nine years before he published his treatise.
slowing

40
meaningsof smorzandoandmorendoareusedin Clementi'sand Cramer'swritings. it
Instead,
is the termcalandothat hasthe speedimplication.While Clementirun-dnates
on oneof thethree
possiblemeanings of calando (the soundsshoulddie away gradually, or it may involve a slight
slackeningof the speed,or both), Cramer
confidentlydeclaresthat it refers to a gradualdecrease
in both tone and speed. Someconfusionmight be expectedwhen the meaningsof theseterms

werý evolvingin the first threedecades of the nineteenthcentury. However,the trend towards
adoptinga meaning associated with speed was inevitable. By 1839,Czemygroupssmorzando,
calandoand morendo together once more. They now sharea commonmeaning - onethat
in
decrease both tone "
relatesto a andspeed.

2.2.4 ARTICULATION AND TOUCH

Among the many touches described in Bach's Essay are legatissimo, legato, semi-detached and

detached tones. Crotchets and quavers in moderate and slow tempos are normally played with

the most common touch: the semi-detached. They are played firmly, with fire and a slight

accentuation. 56

A suitable articulation can be deduced from the tempo, the notated lengths of notes and the
dynamics.Both Bach and Tiirk recommendusing different touches to characterisethe allegro
from the adagio. As mentioned on p. 3 1, the generalrule is to play detachednotes in allegros

and broad, slurred notes in adagios. TiIrk elaboratesthat slow or solemnpiecesrequire a heavier

touch than fast and lively piecesor those of a plaintive character. He prefers to use the.-terms
"heavy and Eght Expressiorf'to refer to legato, and semi-detached(or staccato) respectively. In

general,notes of longer duration, suchas semibrevesand minims,, are to be heavier than those of

shorter duration, such as quaversand semiquavers. Similarly, the time is

signature also a factor

which influences the choice of articulation. Pieceswith an alla breve time signature are to be

played Eghtly. Another influential factor is dynamics. Soft and pleasant passages should be

"Tork (1804), p. 35; Clementi (180 1), p. 14; Cramer (cl 820, treatise), pp. 52-53; Hummel
(1829), i, p. 7 1; Czemy (1839E), i, p. 190.
IbBach(1974), pp. 148-160.

41
playedwith light while
expression loud ones areplayedwith heavy TOrk
expression. recognises
two otherimportantfactors:thenationalityandstyleofcomposers.Germancompositionsrequire
a heavier
touch than thoseby French or Italians. Contrapuntal
compositionsby Handelor J. S.
Bachalsorequirea heavierexpressionthan Classicalpieces.57

Although Bach and TOrk agreethat the common touch is neither legato nor staccato, they differ
in their descriptionswith regard to its length. According to Bach, the notes are held for half their

value. Tilrk's semi-detached touch, which is alreadyprogressingtowards the legato touch, is held

for three-quarters of its notated length." By the beginning of the nineteenth century, most

treatisesrecogniselegato as the normal touch. The revisions which Clementi made to his Op. 2

piano sonatasover a period of forty years record this move towards legato playing. Short slur
patterns,consistentwith those found in the works of Haydn and Mozart, are the dominant traits

of articulation in the early editions of Op. 2. In the revisions, these were replaced with long

slurs."

Clementi'sdecisionto changetowards legato playing may havehad its roots in the famous
contestbetween himself and Mozart on 24 December 1781 in Vienna. Clementi'svirtuosic
technicaldisplayof doublenotesin the right handdid not impressMozartwho wrote to his father
in January1782complaining:
Clementi plays well, as far as execution with the right hand goes. His
greatest strength lies in his passagesin thirds. Apart from that, he has
not a kreuzer's worth of taste or feeling - in short he is a mere
mechanicus. 60

Oneand a half years later, Mozart still had not changedhis n-dndabout Clementi's playing."In his
letter dated 7 June 1783, he once again criticized Clementi's mechanicalplaying which produced
"an atrocious chopping effect" and accusedhim of lacking in expression,taste or feeling." In
1806,Clementiadmitted to his student Ludwig Berger that until that occasion,he had never heard

anyoneperform with "so much spirit and grace" and he was also overwhelmedby the way Mozart

"Bach (1974), pp. 149 and 154; TOrk.(1804), pp. 36-38.

"Bach (1974), p. 157; Tfirk (1804), p. 37.
"Harrison (1998). 1 am grateful to Professor Robert Pascallfor sharing this information.
6OAnderson (1966), ii, p. 792.
611bid.,U, p. 850.

42
playedanAdagio.6' He alsoadmittedthat, in his youth, he enjoyedshowingoff his ability to play
bravurapassages.However,he later adopteda more"cantabileandrefinedstyleof'perforrnance
by listeningattentivelyto singerscelebratedat the time, andalsothroughthe gradualperfection

particularlyofthe Englishpianos,
whoseearlierfaulty a
constructionvirtuallyprecluded '
cantabile,
legatostyleof playing".6' This changein Clementi'smannerof playingis also reflectedin his
from
compositions the mid-I 780sonwards(beginningwith the Op. 13 sonata).

Legato, -
Cramer'sdefinitionof legatois representative
ofthose givenby Dussek,Clementi,Hummel,and
Czerny:legatonotesmustbe "playedin a smooth,connectedstyle,keepingdown eachnote its
full lengtlf'.' Technicalexecutionapart,thereis a soundidealassociated
with this touch. Inhis
fifth edition,Clementiadvisesthat legatopassages theBESTstyleof singing". The
must"in-ýitate
is
humanvoice alsoa model for Dussek, " Hummeland Czemy. Anothersourceof inspiration
for Czernyis the smoothtoneof wind instruments.Both modelscanbetracedto C. P. E. Bach,
the of
advantages listeningto distinguished
singersand "
instrumentalists.
who emphasizes

Tenuto and sostenuto

In general,Bach, TUrk, Dussek,Clementi, Cramer, and Hummel usetenuto to indicatethat a note

should be held its full length. Czerny adds that when tenuto is placed over single notes, these

notes must be struck with emphasis, and then firryfly held down. Many of them equate the

meaningof tenuto with sostenuto. Clementi's and Czemy's definitions of sostenuto also carry
tempo implications. In the first edition of Introduction, Clementi explainsthat sostenutomeans
"to sustain, or hold on, the notes to their full length". In his seventhedition (cl8l2-1814), he

adds the words "in steadytime". This qualification is modified to "in steady,moderate time" in

the twelfth edition (1830). The addition may have been inserted as a reaction against the
I

62Rosenblum (1988), p. 25. Her translation.

611bid.Her translation. Plantinga translatesClementi's new way of playing as "melodic and
noble" (see Plantinga (1972), p. 314).
64Cramer(cl820, treatise), p. 20.
65W. J. Tomagek who witnessed Dussek's playing in 1802, admired the latter's singing quality
on the piano.
6bBach (1974), pp. -151-152; Clementi/Rosenblurn (1974), p. xiii (capitalization original);
Hummel (1829), iii, p. 39; Czemy (I 839E), i, p. 189 and iii, p. 19.

43
tendencyto hold backthe tempoin sostenutopassagesin the nineteenthcentury,asis reflected
in Czemy'sdefinitionof sostenuto,"holdingon. Keepingback". "

Legatissinto
Thecontextin whichBachpermitstheprolongationof notesis exernplifiedin ex. 2.3 below. The
chord,the seconda brokenchordandthethird a repetitive
first exampleconcernsanarpeggiated
figuremadeup of brokenchords."
Ex. 2.3

H plr-týl (C-)
9, -, ,rý r--ý ?I-tij
Ff R) f in
I

.11
I-,
I. 7-
"
ý
I;Zý
LLI -t t

TOrk, Clementi, Hummel," and Czerny also prolong notes in certain figurations. Hummel
holding
suggests notes ofmelodic interest longer than their notated value, thus giving a sustained

effect (ex. 2.4).

Ex. 2.4 N. B. Notes marked * are held longer than their notated value.
,,

Sometimesnotes are prolonged for a practical reasonwhich indirectly results in a better musical

execution. In ex. 2.5, Hummel explainsthat the thumb must remain on the key longer than the

notated length while the other fingersplay on. This helps to stabili,
sethe hand, which in turn helps

to produce a richer and more harmonious "

passage.

(1974), p. 157; Tfirk (1804), p. 15; Dussek (1800), p. 47; Clementi (180 1), p. 14;
6113ach
Clementi/Rosenblum(1974), pp. xxv and xxxi; Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 25; Hummel
(1829), i, pp. 68 and 70; Czemy (1839E), i, pp. 156 and 189.
(1974), pp. 155,15 6 and 160.
6113ach
ORosenblurn(1988), p. 157; Hummel (1829), H, p. 8.
7OHummel (1829), ii, p. 67.

44
Ex. 2.5

Czernytoo works on the sameprinciple. Certainnotesare sustainedin passages

whichcontain
in
consonantarpeggiatedchords order to increase
the fullnessof the harmony(ex. "
2.6).
Ex. 2.6

WMte.
n-
1-, f' r-, Pý' 1"T 1,-P,
Ipi6 -i --1
wy-c--J-I IIII
v
IQ.;
f Sclfdlmo

rt
4-ý
Lj;; ý'
VI
cbtA

Staccato

There are many ways of indicating staccato. The notes can be separatedby rests,the passagecan
be marked semprestaccato, or the notes can be marked with dashes( ... )or dots(-). Hummel

does not differentiate between the dashesand the dots, which Clementi and Cramer believe

represent different degreesof shortness. TOrk is in agreementwith Hummel but acknowledges

that some composersuse dashýsto indicate a shorter touch. Czemy also does not differentiate

(I 839E),iii, p. 19.
71Czemy

45
betweenthe two signs,eventhoughtherehasbeensomeconfusionregardingthis matter. He

clearlystatesin the first volumeof Piano Forte Schoolthat "Punkle" (notatedas both dots and
dashes)indicatestaccato.'In the third volumeof the sametreatise,however,he usesthe term
"Panktchen"to referto staccatoindications.J. A. Harniltonunfortunatelytranslatesthis term as'
dashes,without any referenceto dots. SinceCzemyshowsthat "Punkte" refersto dots and
da&s, the term "Panktchen"mustsurelycover both signs. Perhapsinsteadof "dashes",this
term shouldbe translatedinto Englishas "little dots and little dashes". Czemy's edition of
Pleyel'sClavierschulealsosupportthis conclusion..In the sectionon staccatowhich he added,
Czernymadeno distinctionbetweenthestaccatoimpliedby dotsor that by dashes.In hisPiano
Forte School,Czernyalsomentionsanothertypeofstaccato. Thisverypercussivetouch,known
as martellato or is
staccatissimo, to be struck as short as possible. It is generallyemployedin

octaves,chords and in in
passages which the notes are far apart(ex. 2.7).
Ex. 2.7

-. - -1
v v .
e- r
I
E 13
0 d! aI:; III I.
: ý#
41 !-I li :411 lw
II
=; l/.p Rdh
j,
:1m :Im:; II w--
FTAl.'N t-- q, -L IIg II f- kt L.
F-ýJz- -1 -- 1v1. .6 42 1P --- mo rl R f, -

crq.s( ,
K.
74
LJ-J-P
*k'T-W "r-4
D
1 1- FFFFFFFF-
i%pIý 13 1"VE I; I fij 1 15-1!1 6=L==j ;i411

ljýll
This touch, as describedby Czemy, probably stemsfrom the bravura style which was popular in

the nineteenthcentury. It does not resemblethe very short staccatos describedby Clementi and
Cramer. In the examples and explanations given, Clementi and Cramer use this staccato
(indicated with dashes)in a group of notes in close succession,such as 72

The debatethat surroundsthe differentsharpness

of a staccatonotation(whetherit is indicated
by a dot or by a dash)mayhaveresultedfrom a practiceduringC. P. E. Bach'stime. Ironically,
he suggeststhe useof dots insteadof dashesto indicatestaccatoso asto avoid confusionwith

12'rfirk(1804), p. 36; Clementi (1801), p. 8; Cramer (0820, treatise), pp. 27 and 38; Hummel
(1829), i, p. 65; Czemy (1839E), i, p. 186 and iii, pp. 27-28; Czemy (1839G), i, p. 142 and iii,
pp. 21-23; Pleyel (c 1860), p. 8.

46
the fingering."'

Anothertype of staccato,known asthe mezzostaccato,appearswith slur marks. The manner

ofperformanceof this staccatowasnot universal.Tilrk teaches
that "the notes be
must touched*
smoothlyand distinctly". Clementi
andCramer classifyit asthe leastdetached,
afterthe dashand
the aot. Hummel'sandCzemy'sdefinitionsof the mezzostaccatoresemblethe meaninghitherto
withportato.
associated Hummel revealsthat this touch is found
generally in cantabilepassages.
The notesare gentlydetached,with eachreceivingan increasingdegreeof emphasis: rrr
Czemydescribestwo typesof mezzostaccato.In slow tempos,the notesareslightlyemphasized

and are held for two-thirds their value. Whenthis staccatooccursin fight, fast the
passages,
fingersshouldmakea "scratching"motion."

in spiteof the differentmeaningswhichcertainwriters associatewith the staccatoindications,

they agreethat the shortnessof staccatodependson the musicalcontext in which it occurs.
Many of the factors listed by Bach and TUrk on pp. 41-42 still apply in piano playing of the

nineteenthcentury. Take Czerny'sexplanation as an example. He believesthat staccatois

influencedby the tempoandthe characterof a piece. In his opinion, mezzostaccatois mainly
employed in pieces marked moltoallegroorprestowhilemartellato(or is
staccatissimo) reserved
"
for piecesof a brilliant character.

Besidesthe staccato signsalreadymentioned,Czerny proposesusing'the term sciolto to indicate

staccato. This is because the double meaning of sciolto (untied or loosened; or free, light and
supple) sumsup the characteristicof the staccato. However, he is alone in this. TOrk, Dussek and
Hummel do not mention this term in their writings. Clementi includes it for the first time in his

seventhedition but he associatesit with a slightly different meaning: "SCIOLTO meansFREE,

neither Legato nor Staccato". Cramer states that notes marked sciolto should be played in a

7'Bach(1974),p. 39.
14TOrk (1804),p. 36; Clementi(1801),p. 8; Cramer(cl 820,treatise),p. 35; Hummel(1829),
i, p. 66; Czemy(1839E),i, p. 186andiii, pp. 24-26.
75
Czerny(1839E),iii, pp. 27-29.

47
 " Althoughthistermwasnot universallyadopted,it showshow Czernyexpects
distinctmanner.

staccatoto be played.

2.2.5 ORNAMENTS

Bach's description of ornamentsdiffers from that of Dussek, Clementi, Cramer, Hummel, and
Czemy. Bach is concernedwith the correct context in which eachornament can be employed.
Dussek, Clementi and their contemporaries, however, concentrate on the realizations of

ornaments; the variable factor being the tempo and character of the piece in question. The shift
in the way ornaments are dealt with in treatises is the result of the new practice, wher6by

composerswrite out the ornaments. TOrk's treatise bridges this development by showing the
in the ornamentsoccur as well as their realizations."
context which

Long and Short Appoggiaturas

The main ornamentsused in the mid-eighteenthcentury which survive into the nineteenthare the
long and short appoggiaturas,turns, mordents, and trills. The most common ornament and the
function of ornamentsin the nineteenth century, however, differ from those in the eighteenth.
Bach and TOrk pay the most attention to the appoggiaturasbecauseof the diversity and the
frequency with which they occur in music. The realization of appoggiaturas from Dussek's
is
treatise onwards similar to those found in modem-day textbooks. The long appoggiatura has
half or two-thirds of the value of the principal note. The accentfalls on the appoggiatura rather

than the principal note. Bach's practice, in which the appoggiaturasshould take the length of the

note while the principal note is played after the appoggiaturas(after a tie or a slur as shown in exs.
2.8a and 2.8b respectively) or during the ensuingrests (ex. 2.8c), had becomeobsolete.78
I

"Clementi/Rosenblum (1974), p. xxv (capitalization original); Czemy (I 839E), i, p. 189;

Cramer (c 1820, treatise), p. 53.
ITach (1974), pp. 79-146; TUrk (1804), pp. 24-3 0; Dussek (1800), p. 6; Clementi (180 1), pp.
10-12; Cramer (cl 820, treatise), pp. 21,32,34, and 38; Hummel (1829), iii, pp. 1-13; Czemy
(I 839E), i, pp. 160-172.
"Bach (1974), pp.,90-9 1; Tilrk (1804), p. 24; Dussek (1800), p. 6; Clementi (180 1), p. 10;
Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 2 1; Hummel (1829), iii, p. 11; Czerny (I 839E), i, p. 161.

48
Ex. 2.8

0)ý; Pik-yj ý)
WYAQ, pta3j Ir
cc-) W,JýLh CIasi

v FFF9 , FFF9 .? t F9
- I --, % ý
11
ii-r

Bach, Tflrk and Clementi use the samenotation for both the long and short appoggiaturas. In

their opinion, a different notation for eachtype of appoggiaturais unnecessarybecauseeach can

be recognisedfrom the context in which it occurs. Dussek, whose treatise was published before
Clementi's, is probably one ofthe first to usea different indication for the short appoggiatura. The
diagonal stroke through the tau
notation of the short appoggiatura as a small quaver note with a
was later adopted by Cramer, Hummel and Czemy. Unlike the long appoggiatura, the accent of
the short appoggiaturafalls on the principal note while the appoggiaturaitself is played as quickly
'
as possible.

Turn
BachandTtirk recognisethat theturn mayhavea pleasingor animatedquality,dependingon the
ornamentsbecamemotivic decorationsinsteadof
tempo. As the nineteenthcenturyprogressed,
essentialelementsof music. The change in this trend is reflectedin the way ornamentsare
describedin somelateeighteenth-century in
andespecially nineteenth-century treatises.Dussek,
Clementi,HummelandCzernyare concernedonly with the realizationsof the ornaments.The
beautyof the ornamentsis no longerconsideredanimportantfactor. The variousrealizationsof
turnsandinvertedturns have the
remainedunchangedsince nineteenthcentury.80

Mordent

Bach and Tfirk employ both long and short mordents. By the nineteenthcentury, only the short

mordent was used. The name and notation of this ornament were inconsistent. Bach it
calls a
Tfirk it
calls a beat, Cramer and Czerny call it a transient shake,Clementi refers to it as
mordent,

"Tach (1974), fn. 5 p. 9 1; TUrk (1804), p. 25; Dussek (1800), p. 6; Clementi (180 1), p. 10;
Cramer (c1820, treatise), p. 39; Hummel (1829), iii, p. 12; Czemy (1839E), i, p. 160.
IoBach(1974), pp. 12-127; Tiirk (1804), pp. 29-30; Dussek (1800), p. 6; Clementi (1801),
-I (1829), iii, 9-10; Czemy (1839E), i, 164-165.
pp. 10-11; Hummel pp. pp.

49
a short shake(ex. 2.9a) or a transient
shake (ex. 2.9b), while Hummel calls it by any of three
names: mordente (sic), transientshake or short beat. The notationof the mordentalsovaries,
from+ (Bach,Tfirk andHummel)andir (Cramer)to the acceptednotationtoday,W (Czerny).
Sometimes,a composermay employmore than one type of notation. As shownin ex. 2.9,*
Clementiacknowledges threedifferentindications.Thesevariants,however,areinsignificantas
lonj as the performersunderstandthe intentionof the composers.In spite of the numerous
namesandindications,
the writersagreeon its realization, to
whichremainsunchanged this "
day.
Ex. 2.9

(a)
4- Ii
-
Ill'A. % FIii
I-FP

-0 %\ " AA AA
or -45"., e
F! r J?
tzt4-4 C-1--t=1 r-=::I=i r.ý :!If

Trills
Unlike Bach and Tfirk, nineteenth-century writers consider the trill to be a more important

ornamentthan the appoggiatura. They emphasizethe difficulty ofexecuting the trill satisfactorily.
Thus, they concentrate their efforts on teaching finger exercisesthat will aid the successful

execution of the various trills. This is necessaryas technical demandsincreased,with the use of
double trills, simultaneoustrilling accompanyinga melody played by one hand, and the like.

Bach, too, recognisesthat trills are the most difficult ornaments. They must be played evenlyand

rapidly as well as with lightness and clarity. He recommendstraining all the fingers to play this

ornamenteven though some fingers are naturally more suited to trifling. This train of thought is
followed by all the writers studied in this chapter."

"Bach (1974), p. l27; Tflrk(l804), p. 28; Clementi(1801), p. 11; Cramer (c1820, treatise), p.
34; Hummel (1829), iii, contents page and pp. 1,8 and 9; Czemy (1839E), i, p. 163.
"Bach (1974), pp., l 01- 102; TUrk (1804), pp. 26-27; Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 32; Hummel
(1829), iii, pp. 2-3; Czerny (I 839E), i, p. 171; Czerny (1848), p. 33.

50
Thefirst two to threedecadesof the nineteenthcenturywerea timeof transitionin the way trills
startedand ended. The accepted eighteenth-century practicewasto start the trill on the upper
the
notewith optionof finishingit with a turn. In Dussek,
general, Clementi and Cramer followed

the old practiceof startingthe trill on the uppernote. By the time Hummeland Czernywrote'
it
their treatise, was common start to the trill on the It
principalnote. was also usual the in
I
nineteenth century to endthe trill with a turn. Dussek, Clementi, Cramer, and Czernyusea turn

at the endof the trill. Tark and Hummel to

continue use trills "
with eitherendings.

rpeggio
Turk classifies arpeggio under "graces" while the other writers consider it a performance
I
direction. According to Tilrk, arpeggio is indicated with or small notes. The rapiditý in
the
spreading chord depends on the speed and the characterof the piece. Among the indications
I L. The (ex.
of arpeggio during Bach's time are the word arpeggio, and notes are overlapped
2.1Oa),except when the notated note values within the chord are different (ex. 2.1Ob).
Ex. 2.10

-
(ct) Wr%ttQY\

-1

Nineteenth-century performers, however, are divided on this matter. Clementi and Hummel
follow Bach's practice of holding down all the notes for the duration of the chord which have
(
(and in Hummel's case,also and the term arpeggio) prefixed to it. Clementi, however, does

not assigna nameto this of

method playing. Cramer, who refers to it as appoggiando, maintains

that it is indicated by small notes, as shown in ex. 2.11. Cramer's arpeggio, on the other hand,

"Bach (1974), pp. 100-101; TiIrk (1804), pp. 26-27; Dussek (1800), p. 6; Clementi (180 1), p.
11; Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 32; Hummel (1829), iii, pp. I and 3; Czerny (I 839E), i, pp.
171-172.
-
$'Bach(1974), pp. 159-160; TUrk (1804), p. 3 1.

51
Ex. 2.11
1m
cýcdon of
91-1
/- 31
k-L4.

----v-

( I
is identifiedby or or is markedby a strokethroughthe stem. Unlike Bach,Clementiand
Hummel,Cramerinsiststhat the notesin an arpeggioshouldnot be helddown (ex. 2.12). He
alsoexplainsthat the speedof the spreadis determined
by the characterof the "
piece.
Ex. 2.12

L-. -l

4--:NIU
19,

ý
Czernyagreeswith Cramerthat arpeggiosareindicatedwith or with a strokeacrossthe chord,
and the notes should not be prolonged. In Czerny'sopinion, the most important factor to
influencethe speedof the spreadis, surprisingly,dynamics.This is exemplifiedin the following
excerpt(ex. 2.13), which recallsthe opening of Beethoven's"Tempest" Sonata, Op. 31 No. 2.
Ex. 2.13

"Clementi(1801), p. 9; Hummel(1829), i, p. 66; Cramer(cl 820, treatise),

pp. 41 and 50.

52
Markedpp, the spreadshouldbe playedslowly, with the possibilityof a rallentando. If the
were markedff,
passage the arpeggioshouldbe playedquickly, or not employedat all, unless
indicatedby the composer.In general,he suggeststwo waysof playingan arpeggio:it canbe
helddownfor along durationor quicklydetached.This is usuallycombinedwith playingit either

softly andgraduallyslower,or loudly and"hard" "

respectively.

Cramerspecifiesthat chordsare arpeggiatedonly where indicated. Czernyis more liberal. Where

indications are not given, the musical context should be taken into account. In contrapuntal

passages,a single, slow, and full chord which has to be emphasizedmay be arpeggiated. The

chords marked + in ex. 2.14 may be arpeggiatedwith moderate quickness,but the spreadmust

not interrupt the legato. Unnotated arpeggio is also allowed in two types of chordal passajes.
Ex. 2.14

-4T 4ptký Iý T-1

0i j do
P-0 F-I-
Ir Re I' -iPM! 0 1--M r.
ol VLj--4 I 'I
1ý01
Li [J. JJ44in
9r 1Fp11-0 11P ?-
''L V- ci L i111 r- aIa it aIIFI. II

The first is in a slow passageof sustainedchords. All the chords in ex. 2.15 may be arpeggiated

at a moderate speed, except the last chord in the fourth bar, which closes the section. When

arpeggiating thesechords, Czerny warns, the smooth flow of the melody must not be disturbed.

The secondcontext is a long, sustainedchord which precedesa successionof quick chords, as

in ex. 2.16 (the chords marked + may be arpeggiated)."
Ex. 2.15

16Czemy (1839E), i, p. 138 andiH,pp. 55-56.

171bid.

53
Ex. 2.16

1
nII.
1112- ý dI-I=i
II
4ý jý- 41 11
;,

'
[0 ,67.ý
vZ131ý-
L---ý iI
IIIIIý 'iIl

Czemy's description of arpeggio suggeststhat it is used for expressivepurposes. None of the

abovewriters pays as much attention to tbýsaspect of playing as Czemy.

2.2.6 FINGERING AND TECHNICAL DRILLS

Theimportanceoffingeringin theart ofperformanceis acknowledgedbyall thewriterssurveyed.

Some,however,considerfingeringprimarily from a technicalor aestheticpoint of view. TOrk
andHummel aretwo suchwriters. In contrast,Clementi'spriority is to selectfingeringswhich
producethe smoothestconnection and the effect intendedby the composer. Sometimes, the
easiestandthe most naturalfingering may be unsuitable. Czerny's is
standpoint in the middle,
thoughperhaps leaningcloser to that of the first "
group.

On the whole, technical exercisesin the early nineteenthcentury were aimed at improving finger

agility, strength, precision, and independence of fingers. Technical difficulty and the style of
playing should not affect elegance in performance. The playing must be neat, and the tone

produced, smooth, clear and varied.

Thebasicexercisesspecifiedby Bach,TOrk,Dussek,andClementidealwith repetitivefive-finger

patterns,extensionand contractionof the hand, chords,

scales, leaps,
arpeggios, silent finger-

changing,slidingfrom a black to a white key with the samefinger,repetitionon a monotone,

"Bach (1974),p. 4 1; TiIrk (1804),p. 17; Clementi(1801), p. 14;Hummel(1829),ii, p. 1;

Czemy(1839E), ii, p. 4.

54
quickrepetitionofdoublenotes, and handcrossing.Initially, mostof theseexercisesweremeant
for the training of the right hand. Throughout the early nineteenthcentury,there was an
increasingexpectationof training the left hand to be as proficient as the right. The revised

editionsof Clementi'sIntroduction echo this ideal,with many exercises written specificallyfor

the left hand. Among them are exerciseswhich airn to securethe independence
of fingersby
holaingdown somenoteswhile repeatinga monotone;othersemphasize
the playingof parallel
thirdsandsixths,chromaticrunsin contrarymotion,legatooctavesandarpeggiateddiminished-
seventhchords.This trendofraisingtechnical
competence, setby Clementi,
wasquicklyfollowed
by Cramer,Hummeland Czemy.

Trainingin technicalproficiencycontinuedto be intensified.By the time Huninielpublishedhis

treatisein 1828,he had widenedthe boundariesto include'exercises with a rangeof up to an
eleventh for each hand, double trills and their variants, finger patternswhich are played
with
simultaneously held chords,andthe passingof a short finger undera longer one (the fifth
fingerunderthe fourth,asin ex. 2.17). The exercisesin Czemy'sPianoForte Schoolareno less
Ex. 2.17
51
.5 I '-ý 1 If ;; 4
:t -0- I I ýg
A
I
::r- p KI 00

I1 L-:Tl a-I

impressive.Exercisesincludechromaticrunsin doublenotes,extensionsbiggerthanan octave

and,in order to exploit the more durablepianowith an enlargeddynamic the

range, striking of
a loud note with two fingers. While composers
and performers for
searched morechallenging
demands,
technical they continuedto intensifyandvary the trainingin the basicexerciseslisted
by Bach. This was necessarybecauseof the unsatisfactoryactionof the pianohammers. The

quick repetitionof notes was especially difficult. This problem was causedby the slow return
of thehammer after striking the string. As a result,the holding
slightest backof the fingeraction
"
would affectequality.

89Czemy(1839E), i, p. 9.

55
Hummel(ex.2.18)andCzemyalsomentiona peculiarway of playing,that of glidingthe fingers

on a succession of white keys. Czemy explainsthat when playing the so-called double-note

glissando(in fact doublethirds,sixthsor octaves),the fingersshould be kept stiff, but the hand
Ex. 2.18 S5
cc
IIIIiI

and the armmust remainrelaxed and flexible(seealsosection 8.8 "

below). In spiteof its overtly
this
virtuosicnature, mode of playing is by no means a nineteenth-centuryinvention. In 1797,
Milchmeyerwrites in Die wahre,4rt dasPianofortezu Spielen: I
As part of showmanshipin the playing of the pianoforte I include
in
glissandopassages thirds, sixths, and octaves,which can only be
played in C major and on a keyboard without a deep key dip. If
one wants to participate in this foolishness,which, however, some
might consideran admirableskill, then one must turn the right hand
quite far outwards in going up, so that the fingers that slide over
the thirds, sixths, or octaves come virtually to Heon the keys; at
the sametime the thumb must be kept stiff and straight. Further,
it is necessarythat one give the two fingers playing a certain
strength or elasticity so that they do not open and close with the
thrust that one gives to the hand with the arm while playing."

His account suggeststhat this method of playing was already fairly well-establishedby then.

2.2.7 PEDALLING

Although pedalswere alreadyavailableby 1789, TOrk did not considerthem of sufficient

importanceto beincludedin histreatise.His youngercontemporaryDussekalsoappearsto treat
the subjectof pedallingwith caution. Under the list of Italian terms, he describesmezzo in an
unexpectedmanner. This term, he indicates
explains, that the pedal of the grandpiano forte

shouldbe taking
employed, off only onestring. His detachment
apparent in this mattergivesthe

(1829),ii, pp. 254-255;Czerny(1839E),ii, pp. 29-30.

9OHummel
(1988),p. 202. Rosenblum'stranslation.
91Rosenblum

56
 that Dussekhardlyused pedals. In fact, this could not be furtherfrom the truth, for
impression
CzernytestifiesthatDussekwasoneof thoseresponsiblefor bringingthe pedalinto generaluse
the beginning of the nineteenth "
century. Kalkbrenner's report that Dussek frequently
at
employed the damper pedal in his playingalso supportsCzemy's statement. "

Sini'larly,Clementimentionspedalmarkingsfor the first time in hisfifth edition(1811),but does

not on
elaborate their use. In spiteof Clementi's brevity on this subject,
we know from Czemy
94
that Clementi employed the pedal frequently in his latter works. This is true, but pedal
indicationsare alsofoundin earlycompositionswhich were revisedby Clementi. His revision

mayconsist of changingthe articulation(seep. 42 above)or addingfingering(as in Op. 11)and

(the
pedalling set of two pianosonatas Op. 34). The first editionof Op. 34 was published in 1195

without any pedalindications.At the beginningof the first movement of the first sonata in his
by
revisededition,published Artaria abouttwelve years later, he addsa statementto explainthe
pedal symbols used. Pedalmarkings were added in both sonatas. His first piano sonatato
incorporatethe useof the damperpedalis Op. 37, publishedin 1798,in whichheusesthe terms
"OpenPedar'and"without Pedar'. Thesetermswere soondroppedin favourofpaired symbols

suchas 'Ted" and"@" (or "-V')orEband-A-.

Cramer's treatise is slightly more helpful. He recommends that the tremando (presumablyhe

means tremolando) be played with the "open pedal, [because] swelling and diminishing the sound

produces a great effect in some passagee'. Apart from that, the damper pedal is primarily used
in slow movementswhenthe sameharmony is to be prolonged." In addition, Czerny revealsthat
Dussekand Cramerusethe damperpedal in broken '6An
chord passages. exan-dnationof the pedal

markings of the authors surveyed show that the use of the pedal in tremolando passagesand

arpeggiated figures was common in the nineteenth century. The damper pedalwas also used to

sustaina bassnote to enablethe left hand to play another line. All these be in
effectscan seen ex.
2.19 below, from variation 8 of Cramer's Introduction and Variations on Mozart's air "Vedrai

(1800), p. 46; Czemy (1839E), iii, p..64.

9'-'Dussek
93ROsenblum (1988), pp. 118-119.
14CIementi/Rosenblum (1974), ý. xxiii; Czemy (183 9E), iii, p. 64.
9'Cramer(cl 820, treatise), pp. 50-5 1.
96Czemy(1846), p. 2.

57
Carino" (from the opera Don Giovanni). This examplealso revealshow Cramer pedals
In
passages.
arpeggiated bars9,10,13, and 14,the pedalremains depressed
afterthe dominant-

and
seventharpeggios the ensuingsenýiiquaver
rests. The finaleof Dussek'sSonata Le Relour
Ex. 2.19

iA) var: (9.

I Lý- -ft
A I_-.
j-. - -zý
TJ- w
ý
Ped v -w -A`IýP- //yi
FZ-6
P4 2r-aý-
1-- m%
- F,
*z "

TII () 1 L.
Lt L.
It I R1
r4-)
. __ .J..
_
----- -- -

W141 1-4
FIbibIl *- 11

1?ecl V_
Pea. cl
Fýý

VOC2 LIZ

(VI---. r-w-m=
4x-
[4
1
I- H-&-E::
I E
I F L-Lý ML. L MUL ML. L JIL. L -Aý- -AF LZ- '

LN

.---I1
ZýIlj
11
V.
1.9-.
I.
-.
OR%i
d
-. 1 v
.. -
-1vo;", 16) vv
.
pnhojzd
pn50. mi
- loco
Aikeýll
III 514k
-I *p,-
:i9--0 r«! Nt-r- >J, iý
cl! nR I Fmir.
=
1!-----T--Twr. 7

U; -R RiiR ii =7ý-=j a! 1 1 ý; 1 R RJW/ I

. -- - me R 6ý60ý-, WHW7-fipK-1 it 1al 1: -
.I -! -1 at
Cres .t

P--N
L-Lei- -a, -
i
-_:
FiRt
WE . OR=a Lýz
-tzml-E+-E++ýýF- . 1, - m -fl, A
m LEL ýezi
=---

'Pea t c 5
I!
-

Fýý

EýRp- ý*p;:;II do. A lnl--ý F:

r-:;
A F-9;
lzmn-i' F
el
-- -#Tý;I
II Pn goir2- ;j-* ; --FR
i--- -ý4 ý1- RM; ---ý
- EEýg FT-74P- 'ýý
- IL
-W
AK ---T
- 1 11
".
ý. r--d 10 41-
-13 ,--J...
W,
6,
som:
wl - ot
res

k-I me:
.1

iv -i-L -:-L
Ped -k ;:171 ýi :il :i-: i ýVZi :i-
týt I
-9-1 ,.
I-
Z vr
-w-

58
 Paris, (Euvre64, similarly,exploitsthe sameeffects. In bars 117-120,
the pedal is usedto
ti
the
sustain bassnotes,while in bars308-311 (ex. 2.20), Dussek prolongsthe pedalthroughthe
and
arpeggios the rests.The examples in Czerny'sPiano Forte Schoolshow that he,too, follows
"
thispractice. Hummel,however,prefersnot to prolongthe resonance
beyondthe arpeggiated'
figure(ex. 2.21).
Ex. 2.20

r(Ln

v a
pa,

Ex. 2.21

Allegro. -'-- =.
od; orl
n /1, rDýU ýp
1ý!
--. 40
m ->I 1 F« 1
- -- ..
/' JZai II /-u. I. I
Ii
ri 61ýp-
ýII I- ,i--F.
:411
Mo ' -no "F-Low
-4-4-4w-L-L4
4-4ý1 rýý
.
-r- P2ý
L
-doý I-
110co- iIoc0 .

-1119ý1ý
.- rNe - jr-'s "
i
q; l ,, -.
'll#*q iii iI Iii,
11 1,1
faý4
': ý '-''-, -- i

I V- N-mm=22Hir--ý Z. L -I : wýl
EýFmý=

popr [::::I
Dý- a -i i-
lpý-EdEt=ý ý-- fl, fe Ii ýl

In ex.2.22below,Cramerintentionallyomitsthereleasesignat theendofthe movementto allow

to
the resonance dissipatenaturally.. This is also a favourite effect with Dussek(ex. 2.23),

(1839E), ifl, pp. 58,61 and62.

97Czemy

59
Clementi,Hummel,andCzernywhenthe endingconsistsof only oneharmony."
Ex. 2.22

Ex. 2.23

The principal rule of pedalling, as observedby Clementi, Cramer,Dussek,Hummel, and Czemy,

the pedal to be changedalong with the 99
harmony. Occasionally,this rule is violated to
requires
createa specialeffect. According to Hummel and Czerny, this is especiallydesirablein very soft

passages of slow movements, especiallywhen the damper pedal is not changedthrough several
chords with different harmonies,"' as shown in bars 5-6 of ex. 2.24. Hummel
passing

98Seethe end of the secondmovement of the first sonata from Clementi's Trois SonatesPour
le Forte Piano, CEuvre42 (it is actually Op. 40), Hummel (1829), iii, p. 63 and Czerny
(1839E), iii, p. 63.
"Cramer (cl820, treatise), p. 51; Hummel (1829), iii, p. 63; Czerny (1839E), iH, p. 57.
100Hurnmel (1829), iii, p. 63; Czerny (1839E), iii, p. 61.

60
 pedals
occasionally through tonic anddominant harmonies without changing the (ex.
pedal 2.25).
He employsthis effect only sparingly,sinceclarity is his ideal. In contrast,Clementi'sblurring

of is
harmonies
tonic-dominant significantlymore extensiveand (see
adventurous exs. 9.3 and
9.4). WhHemanywould advisethatblurringshouldbeconfinedto soft passages, Clementidoes,

not follow this rule. In his Op. 34/2/iii/l 04-106(ex. 2.26), the pedalis depressed
for two bars.
Altfiough the harmonyin the bassis static,the chromatic scale in the treble, especiallyin a
fortissimo passage,givesriseto muchblurring.
Ex. 2.24
Lýrgo-
I- - '1r1
___________ -.
v-.
--

Fri.
-_- - p. - -I
T-
1367ý
?I -n 1wi -rl
ý:Cg;tgggMa E3EEREa5&= .
--

Ex. 2.25
Both the damper pedal and pian6. pedal pressed.dawn.
Adag-io. +
Cil AI.
-(ý- * 4- +
4: n

-A pe

ýt: VVZVTT Ir-: 7 . 47.12 _;:; - -:Sý .

-Z aý.
- --
LU t LIJ III
11 ..,
LU t
-.
LU
Mi
III
pp 4il-
---
iýQ &J, sII Is --.. .. I'on
I--- - t#.. P;. =-w .I. 1 111
-4. ej - -4 4) 1. LATI-I
Z+ pp
I-
-e
1:;:: S
D...
4
ri
-1- 6- 1-i

ireJ
su
4-w> ig
t: A

fj iI44l!
El

:f1; tiii

61
Ex. 2.26

[::: ý-4-4 1 -1
ý--i -4ý, - *Jda
-Tý a I- rI
Jb Atli w1 WE 11 111
i iii ljo -- -"4 i-1-011
11
Wýw - r7: 3-ý-
MINI. " Q
I _-1

f rl. i rTI-H
19-1 Výý pt--t--3 Pa: 7r-lAF Cl-ý
11101iiii
P-,=- Ill -j -
11v11aj-Iii-11,1kj
-iiý-id. i 15399- ii-2 i* *14 -
-i id
P04 ýi-i-i iý-ý i-I if- ,01

CzernysharesHummel'sidealof clarityin playing,but allowsblurringin the highregistersof the

piano,as long as the harmonyin the bassis the same(ex. 2.27, seealso ex. 101
9.25). This also
to
appears be Dussek's for
prmciple, examplein CEuvre
64/iv/117-120(ex. 2.28).
Ex. 2.27
Allewro. .

Ex. 2.28

:..,., :''. " ' *0

-00-_OL ý4e eýr-4F-0. 44>

I.

r--j- -. - -- II
:J- ap
-

Czernymentionsanotherroleofthe damperpedal:that of connectingchordswhenlegatocannot

beachievedby the fmgcrs(seeex. 9.6below).102The otherwriters surveyedprobablyemployed

(1839E),.iii, pp. 59-61.

'O'Czerny
Hi,p. 63.
1011bid.,

62
thepedalin this mdrineralso,tho.ughthis cannotbe confirmed. Neithertheir treatisesnor pedal
in
markings their music offer any clue. llý

Accordingto Cramer,the othermainpedal(that is, the shiftingpedalor the unacorda)is mainly'

employed inp, diminuendo and pp passagýs. 103 As a result of the expandedtonal possibilities
& in 1830s, has been
of pianos the therole of this pedal adaptedaccordingly.Althoughit is still
used in soft and delicatepassages,Czemy sees its function asoneof creatingspecialeffects. It
is particularlyeffectivein melodicpassageswith slOw-movingharmonies.It canalso usedto

createa gradualcrescendo and diminuendo(usuallyindicatedbypoco a poco 3 cordeandpoco

a poco una corda respectively).When combinedwith the damperpedal,it createsa pleasing
effect M arpeggiatedchords and passages.However, Czemy warns that sincethis pedal is
employed mainly for special its
effects, useshouldbe sparing. He that the soft,
alsoemphasizes
light anddelicatetone shouldbe producedsolelyby the fingers. The unacorda is usedto add
anothercolour to the 'O'
tone.

Onemustbearin mindthat the guidelinesgivenby thesewriters areby no meanscomprehensive.

For example,the use of the damperpedalin broken-chordpassages by Dussekand Crameris

revealednot by but
themselves, by Czerny. In addition, pedalmarkingsin the musicof these
writers (except for Czerny)are significantlymore extensiveand variedthan the explanations
they are informativeandthey showhow the functionsof
found in their treatises.Nevertheless,
.
the pedalsbecamemorevariedover time.

2.2.8 STYLISTIC AND EXPRESSIVE MATTERS IN PERFORMANCE

Bach believes correct fingering, good embellishmentsand what he terms good performance are
important factors which lead to expressive playing. While correct fingering and good

are
embelfishments self-explanatory,good performance covers a vast area. It refers to the ability
to play the keyboard in a vocal manner,to correctly understandthe content of the piece and to

"'Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 5 1.

114Czemy (1839E), iii, pp. 57-65; Czemy (1846), p. 3.

63
 this
transmit understandingto the audience. This last point is affectedby dynamics,
articulation,
kcents,tempo,andtemporubato. In addition,all the notesandembellishments be
should played
in correcttime with a touchthat is in accordancewith the true contentof the piecein question.
The soundproducedmustbe round, clearand forthright. Rage,angerandother passionsare'
harmonic thanby heavy "'
portrayedthrough andmelodicnýeansrather an exaggerated, attack.
I

ContemporarydescriptionsofBach's playing further reveal somefmer details in his performance.

He was praised for his expressiveand singing playing in adagio movements. His rendition of

very soft passageswas not only soft but distinct. In the Essay, he cautions againstrough playing
in loud passages. Johann Cramer was also impressed by Bach's facility to create "endless.

nuancesof shadowand light [in] his performance".106

...

Although Bach expresseshis preferencefor the clavichord, he recognisesthe potential of tonal

variety on the newly-inventedpiano. His teaching on keyboard playing remainedinfluential upon

future generationsof teac4ersand performers. TOrk's teaching faithfully follows the principles
laid down by Bach. In Bach's opinion, a musically sensitiveperformanceis more satisýýingthan
"' However, the importance of technical skill is already noticeable in
a technically accurateone.
TUrk's treatise. Although brief, Clementi's comments on this matter are along similar lines.
Numerous pianists, including Hummel, experimentedwith tonal colour on the piano, but none

with a greater passionthan Czerny.

Both Czerny and Streicher frequently exchangedideason piano playing and ways to improve the

of
mechanisms the instrument. Since Czerny adaptspiano technique according to improvements

made to the piano, Streicher's views on this matter should be considered. The latter built his

instrumentsto emulatethe fullness of sound produced by the richnessof the human voice or a
instrument. This fullness, he believes,is responsiblefor affecting the feelingsof the listener.
wind
His instrument is also capableof every type of tonal gradation, if played by someone with an
the instrument and with the necessaryfinger control. A quiet and supple hand,
understandingof

105Bach (1974),pp. 16,30,148, and 149.

106Bach (1974),fn.-33p. 164. Seealsoffi. 14 p. 36.
,O'Ibid.,pp. 36 and 150.
64
with minimalbut precisefingermotion,is requiredfor a goodtouch. He constantlywarnsagainst
ýxcessivehardplayingin veryloudpassages. Ffmust beachievedthrough full-voicedharmonies

ratherthan by pounding on the keys. Equally, the soft passages must not descend to a mere

whisper:rather,the notesmust be light but played with certainty. Streicherlikens the sound

producedin ff passages to an organ or a full orchestra, and the pp passages to the glass
harýonica. The staccatomustbe quick and fight, but with a roundedtone. Every note and
ornamentmust beclearlyand fluentlyexecuted.'O' It is clearfrom this description
that Streicher's
idealis similarto Bach'sandCzemy's.

2.2.9SbMMARY OF INFLUENCES

From this study,it is obviousthat the eight treatisesrepresentthe personalpreferencesof the

writers duringthe period of flux in performance,
with the writings of TOrk and Dussekserving
as transitions between the performanceaesthetics of Bach's and Clementi's time. The

contributionsof Bach and Clementi, in

especially ffigering, articulationandmatters relatingto

styleand have
expression, beenvital in helpingto shapethe way in which keyboardinstruments

areplayed.

On a personallevel, Czemy himself acknowledgesusing Hummel as a model, hencehis emphasis

on clarity andtechnical facility. Other similarities can be observedbetweenHummel's Theoretical

and Practical Course and Czemy's Piano Forte School. Besides the almost identical structure

of both treatises,the authors agreeon the order of tempo indications (beginning from the slowest

to the fastest). They encouragethe performer to create a variety of nuancesby altering the

pressureof the fingers, to shapeascending and descending lines though the useof crescendoand
diminuendo respectively,.to vary the placing of accentsat repetitions to add interest, to prolong

notes in arpeggiated figures beyond their notated length to increasethe fullness of the passage,
to
and use double-note glissando on white keys.

(1984),pp. 463-465.
losFufler
65
In someinstances,Czemywas inclinedto follow the newwaysof playingthe piano:the manner
in whichtemporubato is treated,for example.The numerousfluctuations(sometimeswith the
left handfollowingthe speedof the right) which herecommends,
occurringat shortintervals,are
to
akin mid-and late nineteenth-century convention.In other such
respect, as Czerny's'
pedalling,
practicemerely reflects that of his contýmporaries. He is more communicative than his

on
contemporaries this but
subject, on close Piano
examination, Forte School
doesnot offer any
innovations.

By far the most influential factor to shapeCzemy's approachto piano playing is the development

of the piano. Thicker strings had improved the tone quality of the middle and especiallythe high,

registersof the piano. This, together with the improved hammer action, allowed him to extend

the scopeof technical showmanship. The sturdier frame of the instrument, with stronger strings,

enablethe bravura style of playing to be developed. The breakthrough in finding a suitable

material for covering the hammersmeant that more variety of timbre could be obtained from the

touch-sensitivekeys. In short, the Viennesepiano in the 1830s,with its large dynamic range,was

capableof numerouspossibilities oftonal shadingand articulation. Very short and sharp touches

suchasmartellato becamepossible. At the other end of the scale,legatissimo could create fuller

harmonies.

piano playing, as describedin Piano Forte School, was the result of constant experiment, and of

refinementsboth in the instrument itself and in piano technique. It required the close cooperation

of performers, composers and piano makers. In order to obtain the best tone from the piano,
Czerny, through his own experiments, improved on discoveriesmade by his predecessorsand

contemporaries.

66
S E-C ION
 CHAPTER 3: CZERNY'S INTERPRETATION, AS

RECORDED IN HIS WRITINGS AND IN HIS EDITIONS. OF

BEETHOVEN'S PIANO SONATAS

After Beethoven'sdeath,Czemy expressedconcern regarding a lack ofunderstanding of his style

in many performancesoutside Vienna.' Czemy's wish to preservethe correct performance of

Beethoven's music, especially that for piano, must'have been the main driving force for his

numerouseditions. Even the Piano Forte School, which dealswith many aspectsofperformance

and music theory, contains ideaswhich can be traced back to Beethoven, especiallyon fingering
(seechapters8 and 9). This is only to be expected,since Czemy had studied many
and pedalling
of Beethoven's compositionswith the composer, including tfie piano sonatasOp. 13, Op. 14/1,

Op. 14/2, Op. 31/2, Op. 57, Op. 101, and the Andante from Op. 28, and all his piano concertos

with the exception of Op. 19. Badura-Skoda adds that Czerny was probably also aware of
Beethoven'sperformanceintentions for Op. 26, Op. 27/2, Op. 31/2, Op. 31/3, Op. 53, Op. 81a,
Op. 106, the Diabefli Variations Op. 120, and the "Kreutzer" SonataOp. 4V

3.1 WHAT IS "CORRECT INTERPRETATION"?

Accordingto CountessGiuliettaGuicciardi,Beethoven'steachingwascentredaroundcorrect
interpretation?But what does"correct intcrpretation7'embody?Merely accurateplayingdoes
not seem to be Beethoven's main concern(seepp. 11-12). When Schuppanzigh
complained
about the difficulty
technical of a in
passage one of the "Razurnovsky"
Quartets,Beethoven

replied: "Does he believethat I think of a wretched fiddle when the spirit speaksto me.
Sirifflarly,Ignazvon Seyfriedrecalledthat duringorchestralrehearsals,
Beethovendid not mind
if certainpassages went amiss. However,he was
verymeticulouswith regardto expression,themore delicateshadings,
distribution
an equalized of fight and shade,and an effectivetempo

'Czemy(1846),p. 68.
2Czemy(1970),p. 3.
3Sonneck
(1967),p. 33.
4
Kerst (1964),p. 25.
67
 rubato, and without betrayingthe slightestimpatience alwaystook
pleasure in discussingthem individuallywith the '
variousmusicians.
I
This passage shows that, to Beethoven, "correct interpretation" involves conveying the

appropriateexpressionof a piece which should be achieved through tonal colours, dynamicsand

tempo flexibility. To this list, ofcourse, must be added articulation marks. As Beethoven'sletter
to the violinist Karl Holz in 1825 makesclear, his notation of dynamic and articulation markings
is very specific, for it either denotesessentialelementsin the structure of the piece or revealsthe

expressivecontent of the music. This letter, quoted below, refers to the String Quartet in A

minor, Op. 132,whereBeethoven

alsobemoans
the ignoranceandcarelessness
of copyists:
Most ExcellentSecondViolin!
Thepassagein the first violin part of the first Allegro is asfollows:

etc.

So makeit exactlylike that.

And in the first Allegro aswell you mustaddin the four partsthese
expressionmarks
1. --A I
----N I T t I 0
etc.
=:: -- p pp

I_- J) =- PP

All the notes are correct - but do read me correctly - Vold Subito. Well,
now for your copy, my dear fellow.
Obbfigatissimo - but for the marks p etc. etc. have been
horribly neglected and frequently, very frequently, inserted in the wrong
place. No doubt, haste is responsible for this. For God's sake please
impress on Rampel to copy everything exactly as it stands. If you willjust
have a look now at what I have corrected, you will find everything that you
have to tell him. Where there iý a dot above the note a dash must not be put
i *r ý
instead and vice versa -(rir, and are not identical).
Sometimes the are inserted intentionally after the notes. For
instance,

5Sonneck(1967), p. 41.

68
 The slursshouldbe exactlyasthey arenow. It is not all the samewhether
it is like this

or like this

In the Adagioit is predominantlythus

4r
Pay attention to what those who know better are teHingyou _

In additionto the four factorsmentionedabove,Czernystatesthat goodinterpretationdepends

the
on pianistpossessing technique,
anexcellent andhavinga goodunderstanding of thecharacter
of a pieceandthe styleof the composer! P

Czemy is aware of the importance of being acquainted with the styles of earlier composersin

order to have a better understanding of contemporary music. The style characteristic to each
is
composer carefully described in the Piano Forte School and its supplement, The 4rt. He

divides the music of his contemporaries into six different styles and schools: (a) Clementi, (b)
Dussek and Cramer, (c) Mozart, (d) Beethoven, (e) Hurnmel, Kalkbrenner and Moscheles,and
Thalberg, Chopin and Liszt. Some of the differences are underlined below:
Clementi was able to unite brilliant bravura execution with
...
tranquility anda regular position ofthe hands,solidity oftouch and
tone, great address and flexibility of finger, clear and voluble
execution, correctness, distinctiveness, andgraceofexecution; and
in his day he was always allowed to be the greatest Player on the
Piano-forte The [English] Pianosof that day possessedfor their
...
most distinguished properties, a ftill Singing quality of tone; but as
a counterbalance to that, they had also a deep fall of the keys, a
hard touch, and a want of distinctnessin the single notes in rapid
playing. This naturally led Dussek, Cramer, and a few others to
that soft, quiet, and melodious style of execution, [with] beautiful
Cantabile,a fme legato combinedwith the use of the Pedals,[and]
in
an astonishingequality the runs and passages,for which they,
and likewise their compositions, are chiefly esteemed,and which
may be looked upon as the Antipodes of the modem, clear, and
brilliantly piquant manner of playing. Mozart['s] style, which
approachednearer to the latter mode, and which was brought to
such exquisite perfection by Hununel, was more suited to those

6Anderson(1961),iii, pp. 1241-1242.

7Czemy(I
846),p. 118.

69
 [German-Viennese] piano-forteswhich combinedfight and easy
touch with greatdistinctnessof tone, and which were therefore
more suited for general purposes, as well as for the useof Youth.
[This stylerevealeda] distinctandconsiderablybrilliantmannerof
playing, calculated rather on the Staccatothan on the Legato
touch. [It required]anintelligentandanimatedexecution[but the]
Pedal[was] seldomused,andneverobligato. Meantime,in 1790,
appeared Beethoven, who ýnriched the Piano-forte by new and
bold passages,by the use of the pedals, by an extraordinary
characteristic manner of execution, which was particularly
for
remarkable the strict Legato of the full chords, and which
thereforeformeda newkind of melody; [punctuationsic] andby
before _
thoughtof. His executiondid not possess
manyeffectsnot
the pure andbrilliant eleganceof manyother Pianists;but on the
other hand it wasenergetic,profound,noble,with all the charms p
of smoothandconnectedcantabileandparticularlyin the Adagio,
highly feeling' and romantic. His performance[j like his
Compositions,was a musical painting of the highest class,
esteemedonly for its generaleffect. The meansof Expressionis
often carriedto excess,particularlyin regard to humorousand
fanciful levity. The piquant,brilliant, and shewymanneris but
seldom applicable here; but for this reason, we must more
frequentlyattendto the total effect, partly by meansof a full,
harmoniousLegato,andpartly by a happyuseof the Pedals,etc.
Greatvolubility of finger without brilliant pretensions,and in the
Adagio, enthusiasticexpressionand singingmelody,repletewith
sentimentandpathos,arethe greatrequisitesin the Player!

Czerny confidently declaresin TheArt that:

in the present case there can be only one perfectly
...
correct mode of performance, and we have endeavoured,
according to the best of our remembrance,to indicate the time, (as
the most important part of correct conception,) and also the style
of performance, according to Beethoven's own view. '

Unlike modem researchon performancepractice, which placesarguablytoo much emphasisupon

-
the minute details of the music, Czemy is more concernedwith the result of the performance as

a whole. Advice on musical details is given where appropriate. This is due to his belief that only

a performer with sufficient techniqueon the piano should attempt Beethoven's piano sonatas. He

insists that Beethoven's compositions were usually inspired by visions and images,which were

'Czemy(1839E),iii, pp. 99-100. The text from the two pageshasbeencondensed

to avoid
repetition. Spelling,capitalizationandpunctuationoriginal.
9czerny (1846),p. 119. Italicizationandpunctuationoriginal.
70
drawnfromreading,natureor frornhisown imagination,anaccountsupportedby RiesandLouis
,
" Unfortunately,Beethovenwasratheruncommunicative
Schl6sser. on suchmatters,hisreason
beingthatifhe divulgedwhatinspiredeachcomposition,it mightforcetheaudienceto experience
thesaidobject, thusrestricting their musical experiences. Czemy, however, believes thenecessity
to know (where the
possible) sourceofthese inspirations, in orderto understand thecompositions
,
and their performances." It is therefore not surprising that he feels his duty is to help the

performer understandand convey the "correct" spirit of the compositions.

Contraryto his earlierclaimto preserveBeethoven'sview in performances,

Czernyadn-iitsthat

the appropriateconceptionof Beethoven'sworks had changed in time:

the mental conception acquires a different value through the
...
altered taste of the time, and must occasionally be expressed by
othermeans,than were then demanded. "

By thishemeansthe newpossibilitiesaffordedby the improvedpianos.It appearsthat Czerny's

claim regardingthe "one perfectly correct mode of performance" is a partial adaptationof
Beethoven'soriginalconception.It is alsopossiblethat someof theseimagesare invented. In
The Art, he remarksthat the two recitative passagesin Op. 31/2/i "must sound Eke one
13
distance". However,he is also believedto havetold TheodorKullak (Franz
complainingat a
Kullak's father) that Beethovenintendedthese recitative passagesto create the effect of
"someonespeakingfrom a cavernousvault, wherethe sounds,reverberations, andtoneswould
blur confusingly"." The two differentremarkssuggestthat, in this instance,Czemyis trying to
inventimagesto explainthe music. Basedon Beethoven'spedalmarkings,Czemy'ssecond
descriptionwill conveythe effect more convincingly.

3.2 FOLLOWING THE TEXT FAITHFULLY

In theperformanceof his [Beethoven's]works ... the playermustby

no meansallow himself to alter the composition,nor to makeany
1OWegeler and Ries (1988), p. 67; Sonneck (1967), p. 147.
"Czemy(1846),p. 60. Schindleris alsoof the sameopinion;seeSchindler(1841) (ed.
Moscheles),pp. 80-82and Schindler(1966) (ed. MacArdle),pp. 398-400.
12
Czerny(1846),p. 32.
"Ibid., P. 53. -
MQuotedin Newman(1988),p. 246. Histranslation.
71
 15
addition or abbreviation.

Czemy's stem warning in his introduction to the performance of Beethoven's 0

piano music in The
Art has its roots in an incident that took place on II February 1816. Czemy, who was playing
the piano in the Quintet for piano, oboe, clarinet, hom, and bassoon,Op. 16, had embellishedthe
doublings the like. " This
piano part with additional notes, octave and act so offended the
composer that Czemy was reproached in front ofthe other members of the quintet. The next day,

Beethoven apologisedto Czemy in a letter:

I was very sorry [b]ut you must forgive a composerwho
... ...
would rather have heard his work performedexactlyas it was
written, however beautifullyyou played it in "
otherrespects.

Beethovenwas not the only one who reacted against this prevailing nineteenth-centurypractice.
Years earlier, Milchmeyer had expressedhis disapproval." In fact, Beethoven was so specific

with his indications in Op. 16, he even wrote out the Eingang. According to Ries, Beethoven

askedhim to add notes to his compositions on only two occasions:the first, in the Rondo of Op.
13 and the second,in the Rondo theme of his First Piano Concerto, Op. 15. Beethovendecided

that adding double notes to the it

concerto would make more brilliant. On the whole, Ries

observedthat Beethoven rarely addednotes or embellishmentswhen playing. " However, there

were occasions when he broke this rule. Beethoven's outburst was rather harsh, consideringhe
himself could not resist the temptation of improvising in a public performanceof this samework,
his " Nevertheless, Beethoven's reproof left a lasting
much to the annoyanceof colleagues.
impressionon Czerny,through whosewritings this messagewas passedon to future generations.

Czerny also strongly objectsto the other common practice, that is, ofaitering Beethoven'searlier

piano pieceswhich were written for the five-octave instruments,when six or six-and-a-halfoct4ve

pianos becamethe norm Beethovenwas of the sameopinion. He explainsin a letter to George

.21
Thomson that he refrains from rewriting his compositions, becauseevery changein the details of

"Czemy (1846), p. 32.

See Thayer (1969), pp. 640-641; Schindler (1966) (ed. MacArdle), p. 415.
16
17Anderson(1961), ii, p. 560.
IgMilchmeyer (1797), p. 8.
19Wegelerand Ries (198 8), p. 94.
"Ibid., p. 69; Thayer (1969), p. 350.
21Czemy (1846), p. 32.

72
 the
his compositionswill change characterof the 22
whole piece.

I-

3.3 THE PROBLEMS OF FINDING AUTHORITATIVE NINETEENTH-CENTURY

EDITIONS OF THE PIANO SONATAS

Beethoven'scorrespondence his
with publishersshowsthat,throughouthiscareerasa composer,
he consistentlytried to correct errors in the fair copy or those which have crept in during
In
engraving. spite of his efforts,some were retainedin the published
edition. Piratedcopiesof
hismusic,oftenwith inaccuracies, werealsowidelycirculated.Thecommonpracticein theearly
r.uneteeiithcentury of using the same plates in different publicationsfurther propagatedthe
Steiner's 1815 platesfor Op. 90 were also used by Breitkopf and Sinirock in their
problem.
editions datingfrom the sameyear. Steiner, in partnership with Haslinger,later madea second
printing with changes to some details, including the articulation markings. Although such
alterationswere madewithout the authorityof the composer,this secondprint became the basis
Clementi'sLondon edition after "
1823. Unfortunately,
this was not an isolatedcasewhere
of
publisherstook the libertyofchangingthe text without Beethoven'sconsent. More thana decade

earlier,Ndgeli had decided to "improve" the music by addingfour extra barsin the codaof the
first movementof Op. 31/1.'

In 1803, Beethoven publicly denounceda Mainz io

engraver's attempt publish a pirated edition

of his collected works for piano and strings. In the samearticle, published in the Wiener Zeitung,
25
he declared his intention of undertaking such a project, which he himself would supervise.
However, it was another sevenyearsbefore he approachedBreitkopf& Hartel for the publication

of "an authentic edition"of his collected compositions. Although it did not come to fruition, his

wish for a correct version of his compositions and, possibly, for fmancial reasons, led him to

pursue the matter with other publishers. Between 1816 and 1825, he negotiated with Simrock,

2'Kerst(1964),p. 30.
2'Beethoven(1993),pp. 37-40.
24Wegelerand Ries (1988),p. 77.
25Anderson(1961), iH,p. 1435.

73
C. F. Schott,
Peters, and "
Hofineister. Unfortunately,his effortswereunsuccessful,
becausethis
undertakingwould mostlikelyhaveprovedunprofitablefor the publishers.Thepublicwasmore
interestedin newly-composedworks thanin correctedcopiesof musicwhich hadalreadybeen
published.

3.4 CZERNY'S EDITIONS OF BEETHOVEN'S PIANO SONATAS

From the 1820s until his death in 1857, Czerny was involved in at least four editions of the

complete piano sonatas of Beethoven. According to Moscheles, he supervised the edition

by Haslinger (1828-1832). " This company also published another edition of the
published
the sametime (I 828-cl 840). For & from
collected sonatasat about sake of convenience, now
on, the first edition will be referred to as Haslinger I and, the second as Haslinger II. The plates
used for the printing of Haslinger II were those of Haslinger 1, but additional editorial markings

were inserted. As with its the

predecessor, editor of Haslinger II was not namedon the title page
but, as will be shown below, Czernywas involved. In the meantime, Cocks in London published

a collection of Beethoven's piano sonatasfrom 1835 to about 1880, with Czerny as the named
editor. Towards the end of his life, Czerny again turned his attention to a new edition of the
this
piano sonatas, time with Simrock the
as publisher (1856-1868). 28
complete

Czerny'sactivitiesasaneditorof thesesonataswereby no meansrestrictedto completeeditions.

Many sonatassold separately,whichnamedCzernyasthe editor, were alsopublishedboth in
Europeand in America. Someof theseeditionscarry the inscription"revised from the New
ViennaEdition" or "carefullyrevisedfrom The OriginalViennaEditions",thus acknowledging
theiraffinity to theHaslinger The
edition(s). edition by
published NYessel
in Londonaround1852-
1854is one suchexample. On the title pageof the 1856-1868Sinirock edition,as well as on
"
individually, Czernyis creditedwith the insertionof metronomemarks
somesonataspublished

16Seealso a draft he in
prepared 1822 to justify the for
reasons this project in Anderson
(1961), ifi, pp. 1450-1451; Schindler(1966)(ed. MacArdle), p. 400.
2'Schindler (184 1) ii, p. 107.
(ed. MoscheJes),
.
217hedatesof the HasUnger andSimrockeditionsare givenin Newman(1976-1977),pp. 510-
512.
"For a list of thesesonatas,seeibid., pp. 510-516.
74
and fingering. This is because,
misleading as will be madeclear in this the
sectionand next, be
alsoaddeddynamicmarkings,accents,articulationandpedalmarkings.

Althoughthe editorof Haslinger11is not namedon the title page,theeditorialmarkingscanoffer

usvaluablecluesto his identity. Someofthe dynamic

markings and pedalindications
in Haslinger
II cýrrespondwith Czemy'sadvicein TheArt and in his variouseditionsof the piano sonatas.
Therhythmicaccentsin Op. 57/iii/I 13-118(seeex. 3.19 below) arethe samein both Haslinger
IlandinSimrock. Theaccentedfo's in the trio of Op. 28/iii/71,75,79,83, and87 inHaslinger
to
II also correspond Czemy'ssuggestion in The Art. " Similarly,the e6s in the bassof Op.
31/3/iv/20-34areconsistentlyaccentedin HaslingerII andin Cocks(ex. 3.1). Of the last eight
tx. 3.1' P

bars of variation 2 from Op. 26/i, Czemy instructs that"the crescendomust increasetoforte, but
the last 4 bars must againbe lightly "
staccato and very soft". The dynamicmarkings in Haslinger
II (ex. 3.2) reflect this advice,and are clearly addedby the editor. In the autograph of this sonata,
Beethoven does not include a single dynamic marking in tl-ýspassage(ex. 3.3).

30Czemy(I
846),p. 51.
"Ibid., p. 47.
75
Ex. 3.2

0
(s

-4Z.

) .
(p
10

S.
TZ

A bi
-! -AI
4L

) I

76
Ex. 3.3

SOS
-If 4 2,- -',T,
*
4r-4u--j
T
ý, -; i
-, -1,
-1_. "_ -t - i-, - -' --
I-- -', '"_""j"__'-, _Ii. '-'
.

I-

4- -riJI r- .. .'-. ----

_
k_5_;: -_I ---'
_L
V
--p II
. I- -1...................... .

-rT ---1 F-101"T

FTI-l
;i
Ec71 1T
."

....
....
. 15;
I......
1",
I... I-I i; II. 11i----I:
F_-_j -j
--;: 1
te
-III-I
L-L-L=j .. -I
#- IIII..
-----. " II

6ýý
F.?
i: Z--1- j-4,
-=- r==a

-*ý
-
"
b5 -ý 1
-.
r_-ý
I P1

III. I...
I bt

E=.. r IL]

:r
--' ;- I-4-
-- ýs
x"_
i 2ýi
-

-n u

There are other instanceswherethe editorial markings in HaslingerII are consistentwith Czemy's
but deviate from the composer's markings. The pedal marking in the last ýar of
other editions
Op. 109/iii in Haslinger II, for example, is identical to that in the Cocks edition (ex. 3.4).
However, this is different from the autograph, in which Beethovenrevealsthat only the last chord
Ex. 3.4

viý4"
"I L 11-
z

be (see
should pedalled ex. 9.15below). Similarly,
the pedal
markings
of Op. 101/iii in Haslinger

77
I, HaslingerIl (ex. 3.5) andCocksarethe samebut, again,they are different from Beethoven's
(ex. 3.6). It is for aUthesereasonsthat the editor of HaslingerII mustbe Czerny.
Ex. 3.5
Mif4iiterSafte. - 7
Sul una cotda.

Z; a ngýa? n

Adaglo
ma non troppo Fýý
0 ,Iiýi 01
01 nvt--: ý
con afTettp.

--- ýý -0- 4
Olt 5 101
-ýP_

31 i IF -_ - Hr Lf$'4- H
i, r r
e5ý
ý Th.
AP olooli-Ar
k
hd. rcd.
.
PE - I OIE ZAEZ--
ol
-. -pFF

(2) P:
..
.
-
----
9
II. ____

IIE
I""

.-
": ,--,.
9ý U" - -
1L L-jo PC
0 0
9ý
I... 1 0, -4 30'.
1.1
L-H. .r
R,
-0,-, ".-- -;
410pl ir - :hk ff
nbft dic
- -
=0 I-
IL= I
..
10
.;:..
11cmpreSto. . Nach und baela zueltrere Sx itrn
p f. .'
Ir
ri ur -r (r%prII((I%Pr
1ýý 90- --d11
- 11d-l0A 0-If1 ffm F1,,,,, '6;;i±! 1 '1 1.1.1 FF1. toF
c Ljj -to ----s
1" -1-6-ý_ýJjj!

4ý3

Peetho-%eii1.

78
Ex. 3.6

____
II/

'-\
"1 (1
, 2rN
I z.
s-i L'- 1L

At
il

79
Therearealsomanysimilaritiesbetween Czemy's Cocks editionand TheArt. The fingering.
of
theleft-hand
accompanimentin the openingbarsof Op. 14/1/iii, for example,areexactlythe same
in thetwo sourceS.32For the left-handpatternin thirds in Op. 81a/iii/l, he indicates3-1 in both

Cocks (ex.3.7) andTheArt. " In Cocks,this finger is

pattern maintained throughout the first four

Ex. 3.7

1f4 ý--?
a!
mo J/L

v"kqz -r-r-LI
, PTfr F'F'fl
IIii=ii
F -1 r--PIrIF1
-F-rI
1111111
41
lili !
I1HTI
Iw If 10 9 -ov-
S3 - il J% -f -62
'a I

bars. Czerny's fingering of this passagealso reflects his reluctanceto place the thumb on black
keys. The choice of fingering in Op. 7/iv/76 and 83 in Cocks (ex. 3.8) is almost identical to that
in The Art (ex. 3.9). Czerny clearly prefers the older method of fingering, whereby the fourth
finger crossesover the fifth. The only difference between Cocks and The Art is the fingering of

the note preceding the fifth finger. In general,Czemy doesnot indicate exactly the samefingering

in different editions of the samesonatas,but the principle of fingering is usually consistent. There
Ex. 3.8

L____ 5
c 3 u1 143 r_all---ý 4a2
ALUI
rnlsiý I 4jJI
[-. Iql - -Ij

rrrr61Jdrr
4J I
il

(cl
Beethoven
32 835-1880), i, p. 9; Czemy (1846),p. 44.
See
33 Beethoven (cl 835-1880), H, p. 10; Czemy (1846), p. 61.

80
Ex. 3.9

43a I
it
-t 27-%
db f--;-- -4e-.
r- Z: r-
y1V. 11 01 ý
&F Ij 1'! F r--r Fk. F-1 -ý eEg: -

4- S 6
L,,. 4 3 3 3
k-iýlt
u
I

( "No
c.
.
kv. f--7
---
f--l II--wIr
-1
l7i-=z4zýH'l
[lop, III -TU ii
4.
rw wA 11 t I

III-", I
-ý 11
i pi j b-Aa @I pF
i_.
Sý-
h Hm
a
- i.:R
I. I. pi
ýL-ZZZL F.-
LI N«u

I
s
cu'a toOq
.
j

'S

is anothersimilaritybetweenCocksand TheArt: Czemymaintainsthat the first six barsof Op.

31/3/i hasa free tempo. In the Cocksedition, the metronomemarking is printed not at the
beginning,as is the norm,but on the seventhbar. This reflectsCzemy'sremarkin TheArt:
The openingresembles a question(theanswerto whichfollows in the
7' bar) andmust,on that account,havea certainindeterminatecast,
both in time andexpression;which, after the pause,andparticularly
in the 16' andfollowingbars,yieldsto a decidedstyleof performance
and then the beatsof the Metronome canbe duly "
observed.

Sometimes,Czerny's editorial markings in Cocks, though basedon the sameprinciple as TheArt,

are slightly modified. His pedal indication at the abrupt modulation in Op. 7/iv/1 55-156 in Cocks

supports his advice in The Art. The two sources, however, disagree on the length of the

In The Art, Czerny states that the pedal should be depressedfor two-and-a-half 35
bars,
pedalling.
but in the Cocks edition, the pedal is releasedafter two bars (ex. 3.10).

14Czemy (1846),p. 55. Capitalizationoriginal.

'qbid., P. 39.
81
Ex. 3.10

.1

rl
"1 M' LI: -1II

-leg ý-), ýE'! 'i1 tm± lp

; IMIWNM 1. Wmj= FEE= L_L_I"
Mý- .

r-T... Vww ".. -.. JFý

ftkrd:
loftk -. ...
ý4' JA IAIIiI
do
i-IN
;I- =i =i - -I.=i ---z ý PIK 0!3
IV
mmmmm.
F r: i

S4 .k

. icuzz32"
i V" Pow I 'I'dO
4

PP

APO 00 dp
ii11i i' ý ##
ft 0 on
b..,.. w- F. ý . .0 lp I I! p- ia
I .. 11 . I-- ,

Although most of Beethoven's fingerings are incorporated in the Cocks edition, a few (for

example in Op. 81a/i/5 and Op. II I/ii/174) are omitted. By the 1830s,Czerny had already made
the decisionto modify Beethoven's fingering of Op. 2/l/iii/59-62 (ex. 3.11). His fingering of this

passage in Cocks (ex. 3.12) is largely the same as that in The Art (ex. 3.13), but these minor
deviations do not affect the overall fingering pattern. In The Art, Czerny retains Beethoven's
fingering in bars 61-62, but in his earlier Cocks edition, he makestwo small alterations in these

two bars. It is interesting to note, however, that there are no changesto his fingering of the
double fourths in bars 59-62 between Cocks and The Art (see also the discussionin chapter 8).
Ex. 3.11
S. 15
1ý 2. ý!, xL
i ý, _
I ooý ý%I- "I- -1 I -ý I

u C;ý=" . *-9 -0. If- 0-

It mi IP i- Im
I-
f-
Is 1-
IIII I r- UP I-
VL
I 1w
t-- %&r
I& I L.
AD
W-Llpr-p--r - I
I -- 11111 it I
da:ý
IIII11, --.
(

Ex. 3.12
ks4 ll sF 54
nER III -; 4st5
12. Z. 1 2, -1 %Ix , .1,1 2- 1 I
.-
k4Y4 A.

r-Y
ýAr,
I- -- -a--iacwr r-T-ý -0- 0 -@1 Ab -1
i-
I-
v rw,
IIIIf,
.
-ýw
9- m -*-
I
i-
I-
Tiara--17
M-1-1-A Ur0r, Eq.
7- aF-aFIIFIw I
ý rrtý Vii ii! i___! i1i11L111111 r- f- In L In 1 dd -
-i-r --
FN.Y II II
1_1III IIIII-IIII1 I_________-I
11 11-
--IIIII

82
Ex. 3.13

44 4'
-f-
i
i.
-* _,
.-I
IN -Ih -011
¶4
-o-
Z jo.-
-e-
2.
ý, ,ýk 0
I-ýfm he V r-L. a1
f-
0--t-la r- 1- 0;
PFF F- F 1-1-1 iii ! -; o
i L--1--L- 11111111111iwiF,
1PF1111 le --
,. ed, ----1
t9a:ko -

Thesimilaritieswhich TheArt shareswith the editorialmarkingsin Haslinger11andin the Cocks

editionof the piano show

sonatas that many of the ideasin TheArt werealreadysown by the late
1820s.Thesewere consolidatedthroughthe Cocks edition,begun in the 1830s,beforebeing
finallywrittendown in TheArt in the 1840s.In the Simrockedition,Czemychoseto concentrate

onadding fingeringsand,asin all the other editions,metronome markings.There are hardly any'
additionalexpressive markings in this edition,apartfrom a few None
accents. of his four editions
containsall his ideas,but collectivelytheyoffer, in conjunctionwith his advicein TheArt, a fairly

goodpictureof his approach to Beethoven's pianosonatas.

3.5 CZERNY'S EDITIONS OF OP. 57 COMPARED

In this section, Op. 57 will be used as a casestudy to exemplify Czerny's editing from the 1820s

to the 1850s. As mentioned on p. 65, this was one of the sonataswhich Czerny had studied with
Beethoven. The five editions usedfor this study are Haslinger1,HaslingerII, Cocks, Wessel,and
Sinirock. These editions will also be considered alongside Czemy's advice in The Art and
Beethoven's autograph of this sonata.

Metronome marks
First movement Allegro assai

HaslingerI J.=120

Haslinger11 J.=108

Cocks J.=120

Wessel J.=138; Piý allegro 1,=160

Simrock J.=120

83
 Secondmovement Andantecon moto
HaslingerI ý=120
HaslingerII ý=108
Cocks ý=120
Wessel ý =92
Sirnrock ý=l 12

Third movement Allegro ma non troppo

HaslingerIJ =138
HaslingerII = 138; Presto =92
Cocks =138
Wessel = 152;Presto =100
Simrock = 144;Presto =96

As can be seenfrom thistable, the metronomemarkingsin Cocks are identicalto those in

HaslingerI. Although Haslinger11was publishedat about the sametime as HaslingerI, the
metronomemarkingsof the first'two are
movements slower. However, in Haslinger
I, Haslinger
II andCocks,Czerny'smarkingsconsistentlydemonstratethe tempo relationshipbetweenthe
first two movements,wherethe basicpulseof the secondmovementis alwaysthe sameasthe
first. This is, surprisingly,no longerthe casein editionspublishedin the 185Qs.Themetronome

markings in Wessel swing wildly from being extremely quick in the first movement to being

significantlyslowerin the second movement. This is againfollowed by a very quick tempo in the
third movement.Although the metronome
markings in the Simrockeditionwere later
published
thanWessel,the speedsof the threemovementsare,onceagain,morecompatible.Czernyhad
his
obviously reconsidered metronomemarkings on various occasions,and one can o'nly
'
to
conjectureas why the markingsin He
Wessel outsidethe range of his other four editions(see

alsothe discussion
of Czerny's markings
metronome in 4.6-4.9
sections below).

Dynamic markings and accents

Many of the dynamic markings in these five editions are the same as those in the autograph.
Occasionally, however, one of Beethoven's terms is replaced by another. In bar 226 of the third

84
movement, Beethoven's rinforzando is replacedby either ritard. or ritardando in all the five
i:ditionssurveyed.This error initially appearedin the first editionof this sonataand may have
beenoverlookedin Czerny'seditions. In four out of the five editions,the rinforzando
in bar 14 of the secondmovement(ex. 3.14) is replacedwith sf-::, -. Although the dynamic

markingin is
Wessel the same as in the autograph, the diminuendo beginsearlier(ex. 3.15). We
havýseenonpp.68-69how particularBeethovenwaswith regardto thetypeofdynamicmarking
usedaswell aswhere it begins. In addition,as will be outlinedin section5.3 below, he did not
employrinforzandoasan alternativeterm to sf andvice versa.
Ex. 3.14

Ex. 3.15

Cl
ax inýý19 g.. 1. i--1.,.,.
am.
p
Ji
L Z-ff---L

19-
to

l-1
-.

,i 9 Jrf''. Z40 , 0-0 II

ý
7,1
«0,
" -ý 0
1& 1-1-ý-IMS

It is not unusualto find editorialdynamicmarkingsandaccentsin Czerny'seditions. A hairpin

is addedto reflectthe ascendingand descendingfigure in bar 50 of the first movementin the

85
Sinirock edition. His recommendationfor the use of hairpins in such instanceshas been
documentedin his treatise (see p. 38). There are significantlymore dynamicmarkingsin
HaslingerII thanin HaslingerL For example,Haslinger11adds in bars22-23,--=::Z
in bar 28 anddim. in bar 30 of the secondmovementof Op. 57. HaslingerI doesnot haveany

of these additionaldynamic markings. In the first movement,the sf markingson the third and
fouith beatsof bar 15in HaslingerII (ex. 3.16) are not found in HaslingerL Thesfon the first
beat of bar 18 is not foundin the autograph,nor in any of Czemy'sotherfour editions. The sf

on the first beatof bar 16,however, in

appears bot4,
HaslingerI andHaslinger
Il. At tlýiispoint,
the autograph(ex.3.17)andWesselhavep. Anotherdiscrepancyoccurson the first beatof bar
14:fz in HaslingerII but onlyf in the autograph.
Ex. 3.1*6

Ex*.3-..
17

86
In bars53-54of the first movement,a crescendois addedto accompanythe ascendingbassline
in HaslingerII (see ex. 3.31 below), but this marking does not appearin HaslingerI or in
Czemy'sothereditions. Accentsarealsoinsertedin bars135-137in the third movementof this
sonatain Haslinger
II. TheAs because
areaccented theyaredissonantagainsttheotherparts(ex.
3.18).
Ex. j-18

J-777ý
tjp-T-pr-tr- fIIiIIrIF, -----I. :iJ- "4 ?---L-Y AV
-1
- AV -A

SE -, "1 5-! r
- !ýIPi00p1

III-III--
IT,. i 01:j 1ý 7E 0
=4ý-4
- --- --1 - P-- II-- 0iI,11 31
1...
MI-I fý];.o 11 &.4 ,-
dw I-, k lz
-IIII...
11 ý- 1
1
-- -.
--

In HaslingerII, rhythmicaccentsareaddedin bars113-115(ex. 3.19)andthesemiquavers

in the
first time barbeginningin bar 300 of the lastmovement.Simrockis theonlyothereditionwhi6h
hasaccentsin thesetwo passages.In the Simrockedition,rhythmicaccentsarealsoinsertedin
two otherpassages from this movement:bars96-97 andbars 100-101.
Ex. 3.19

.t.
.& it h
0L -w-

L-6-oOL
dL
777ng--L-
00 ýE
10

", er, dimin.

leý
ks 1,.
-- #""

Accentsof anexpressivenaturecanalsobe foundin Czemy'sSimrockedition. In bars105-107

of the first he
movement, accentsthe (ex.
syncopations 3.20), while in bar 206, he highlightsa
foreign harmonynote (ex. 3.21). In bars37 and 111,accentsareplacedoverlong notes(ex.

97
3.22a). Theaccenton thislongnote,whichwasaddedby Czemy,hadalsoappearedin anextract

publishedmorethana decade earlierin The Art (ex. 3.22b).This suggeststhat Czemypossessed

memory.
a remarkable In addition,
as listedin section 5.6 below, all theabove-mentioned
usages
of unnotatedaccents
are with
consistent the preceptsin his Piano Forte Schooland in TheArt.
Ex. 3.20

3; 2, p= f-F+m, f-ý
-0-, -I:
Eiý icr it Ali ,iIi
:;, - ý..
LM I I I ria
4" ýýcres

01 II

- -- -IýI..

Ex. 3.21

(2D
.

t1.-0114
.-1t
-It
S21 2 S2
cres
I14
1-1ý V

Ex. 3.22a

+ §--l 52

(2)
1110 4p
li ý- 31
i --! ?-I
4

t?ý Fý I All L_Jr

-4-
F
:3 .

-- - .1- -
1" I Ii' 1 11I
dolce -
FFi- f1iiii111 P7
i 1ý !i4 1-
ý4ýf4-
4ýIý--,
loý
r-I Wý hoW WW 6=ý LEFTTI
13

Ex. 3.22b

' 12Li --- IIHtI FZ I

111 1-
i40 13 ,iI*111
1 j'61 '"
--IE2
1-"--
ol .
Vi 1-" ý4 .ii.. , -1
0i
.
go -:;-Pt.",; -
--F&- 0ý

itwi+W i F-Pl- IM 'F ---1-

-.
I INQ

88
 Articulation
Articulation marks in Czemy's editions, especiallythe length of slurs, sometimesbear no
resemblance to the autograph.Oneexample is the in
slurs bars33-40 in the secondmovement
of Op. 57. SinceHaslingerI andII (ex. 3.23) are printed from the sameplates,the slursarethe
same. From bars 33-37, the slurs both in the treble and in the bassare shorterthan in the
autoiraph (ex. 3.24). The slurringof the bassin bars 33-40 is the samein Simrock(ex. 3.25),
Cocks andWessel,but it is longerthan Beethovenintended. In all threeeditions,the long slur
in the trebleis alsomissing.
Ex. 3.23

I, El P!,;
.-II io. NO2[
3ýý, I-11 1#04 i. 4-4. L4-04 14-1 .- ji--T; jL#-!
12 1,, ýI- :J1-1ý2Laf. 05 dE 01 -H-
1w
I
_'I'I.
II lZ

o'fm
IK im

st 1 dE
-r ii I- 'do II
--I-I.

I I, I F--,
n-
týý J): f1
II

L--.; -Oo WOO

riir r ffý

Ex. 3.24

89
 Ex. 3.25

'I 21 41 a54
3 iI
= Em
i(ANdl+
ý,c
M. irk ak
I i- :-1ý 10
01
9ýa IqjjkII II -I--I
II.,T1 .,
ý' lpl' l'
.
Zia Ii AtIii rt:
H im; ii ý=

112
11 13 OWN 4
.

ivkiý -0 ýo

(OR47 L!
F: fffF ME-0
pi r! I-,.
V -
" 2ý; - Wm*d -I .
. .1..

The lengthsof the slursin bars76-95of the third movementarealsodifferentin all five editions.
&
Beethovenconsistentlyslurs bassmotif either in groupsof 2+2+4+1+1or of 2+2+4+2(ex.
3.26). HaslingerI andHaslingerII (ex.3.27)arefaithful to thecomposer'sslurringin bars76-85,
but in the next phrase,the slur coversvirtually the whole phrase.The slurringin Simrock(ex.
3.28), CocksandWesselis inconsistentandthe slursareessentiallylongerthanin the autograph.
Ex. 3.L6
Qq a A 1 "1

0
f. /P 4-ý tit /77 / :ý ; rf -4- AZI
_!
heg oll)
III- --
-- -I

-r - -- --- F; q
-Iýff
N IFIf 0 P, I-It::; ý- ný'? , i-
-L-I-I

/-II
H- ']» 3 /_

90
Ex. 3.26 (con't)

Q
2T

1
__
I ---
----r
'71

Ex. 3.27

6ý ------------------- %------------
----------------------------- !---------------
r tý, 0V of mr L=k--4 FaFFF! P OF P F f- IF I ""h A JF - -MRPFM 1 r IF fFAF ? "t -, ý A AFý -ýAFVP'J
- -1 -V'oFf'. -*P?
7I4 LLLLi-' I 1L L--L' 1 17
I- -
II;. __I.
ýIIIM--. 31?1 2F I or - mr F.
i6w ýx r-
-1 --JXý .. -
__i? -

-pb; a,m .0iF=01- 10i ý= R. i- i

.!
I
4l
=2 op,
ý-MýM-Wý1 Fp- . F, 19rIr- Ar F", - -t- at -b
-IýIIII -,
V
r- I
I,
4! rgF1I/-II- -i ____

-r " dimin.
--

ýAr jur jo
-I e 20 4 -- I- dý
..,-iý lwml
I:;

---------------------------- loco.
1#---01- = --IOLIO -I*I

CT--- rm= =; 2;;; ;;;;-p Wl- P=-

ýý t ---
. r- ,

*---
ý * im
ts :: m. e ý
1
i? iF .
.. -
crese.,

ts 14 EFE 1ýr -n
sip
f,ý ;I
i
YE 0lot -;; H PU 67foi-
w
-
-
I-
-
dimin.

LM 0 Ar

m -F r

i
I

91
Ex. 3.28
a al. L----- '-. 1.
- -
I
___ _____ _____

======I'I- 'crei

. -4h -
[. o- 10-: 01-0 H-_: a 1.
=--+
b%,PiF 0iI Mý ý=fl- iiiH HF IM lbI: 9i
1-'. k7, 1,7- ýp 17
-. -
yp ly
Jyp --
11

aimin PEN".

pip 9 N't rr
ij
9(
q

-- 12

diinin:

12 g 3.:
lal res 4 !.. -W
13.
. . f. T .-0- ,

Two-note slurs and staccato dots are added to the quaver accompanimentin bars 25-26,28 aýd
31-32 in the first movementofthe HaslingerII edition (ex. 3.29). This articulation is not included

at this juncture in the other four editions. However, in the Simrock edition, slurs are added in
bars 94-95 in the developmentsection, but without the staccato sign (ex. 3.30). Even without

this indication, accordingto Czemy's teaching(seesection 6.4 below), the secondnote ofthe slur
is expectedto be detached. This shows that in spite of the twenty- to thirty-year gap between

the publication of thesetwo editions, Czerny still holds to a similar rhannerof performing those

quavers.
Ex. 3.29

IL"l-b @ ast
it-..
pa "aaai FIAat of
/, -ý
00a - r-% -OF 111-fIIiI
ii
E; ýWll L-L-i I L---L
L-I. -j

D AT --- r-- T--

92
Ex. 3.30

fp2
2
0 O LO"" 000--
Mumm MM

0A121121 II SI

Staccato signs are also addedto the ascendingbassfigure in bars 53-54 of the first movement in

three of Czerny's editions - Haslinger 1, Haslinger II (ex. 3.3 1) and Sinirock. - The same

articulation is marked in Haslinger 11every time this motif appears,albeit sometimesincomplete.

In Haslinger I and in Sinirock, staccato signsare also added in bars 192-193, thus confirming the

articulaiion of this passage.

Ex. 3.31
Ir-IN
%R;aj

-r
ýý
VL -I 6ý,
I-W Sý
_:;

It is observedthat Haslinger I and Haslinger 11use dots to indicate staccato, while Cocks prefer
the dash. Simrock and Wesselemploy both signsin this sonata. In Sinirock, staccato is usually

representedby the dash. However, in where

passages Czerny has made additions, such as the
ascending bass figure in bars 53-54 and bars 192-193 in the first movement, or the ascending
quaver figure in bars 266-267 in the third movement, dots are us&d. It is possible thýt the
engraveroriginally indicatedstaccatowith dashes
but, perhaps,anotherengravermay haveadded
dots at a later stagebefore printing, so as to incorporate Czerny's suggestion. It is unlikely that
dashes and dots were used to represent different degrees of sharpnessor that Czemy had

specifically asked for a particular type of sign to be used.

Fingering
Of the five editionssurveyed,only the Simrockeditioncontainsfingeringaddedby the editor.
Onemodeof fingeringis unusual.As will bediscussedin section8.6 below,differentfingersare
in
normally used passageswith repeatedmonotones. Throughout the first movementof this
Czerny
sonata, only
requests onefingerin such the
passages: thumbin bars24-28,33,94-97 (ex.

93
3.30 above),134,135,149,166,and172,andthe secondfinger in bars150and 173. Inthetwo
instanceswherethesecondfingerisemployedratherthanthe thumb,it is to facilitatethefingering

of the figure which follows,asshownin ex. 3.32.

Ex. 3.32

At

moh
I,,
bk ýi! iý ; Off OR
QF7= c
+14 2 S+ 2s 2512 3262. -Ff
cres " F#w
hl ýff
0001

ýe * -0--OL-OL
-ko--,0--e "go--0--e -0- r: r7C ýr
i ul 2
...

In TheArt, Czerny advisesthat the repeatedCs in the bassof Op. 57/i/134-139 be struck with one
fmger, or preferably, with the thumb." In the Simrock edition, he reinforces this idea by

repeatedly marking Is over the Cs in bars 134,13 5 (ex. 3.3 3) and 149 (seeex. 3.32 above). Why
does Czemy insist on this fmgering? He explainsin TheArt that if the fmgers.are changed,a less

convincing effect would be "

produced. Presumablyhe envisagesan'insistent,rumbling, aimost

ominous-sounding bass,and the thumb would be the best candidate. He studied this sonatawith
Beethoven "several times"" so it canbe assumedthat Beethoven conceivedthis effect and, most

probably, requested this fingering.

Ex. 3.33

p. 59.
161bid.,
171bid.
38
Czemy(1970),p. I

94
 Pedalling

-Although many ofthe pedal markings in Czemy's editions of Op. 57 correspondto the autograph,
the exact place for the pedal releaseis not always as precise as Beethovenwould have liked. The
latter was meticulous in his notation, sometimeseven marking where the pedal should be released
during a rest (see chapter 9, especially pp. 256-257 below). Towards the end of the first

movement, Beethovenusesthe pedalto link the adagio sectionto thepih allegro at bar 23 8. The
pedal releaseon the first chord of the piii allegro is faithfully observed in Cocks, Wessel (ex.
3.34) and Sinirock, but not in Haslinger I nor Haslinger II (ex. 3.35), where the peddl is released
,
before the beginning of the quicker section.
Ex. 3.34
PIG ALLEGRO. ).
=160.

(ý13 ADAGIO.

41
"1-;
-. -01

ibrýtý
pg.
(Pi2p
1 ;, I
0 E=
-PP
D
fl
j:, 6-iV p-j-j jI
LI
u ý-l

Ex. 3.35

Adagio. -

E2Er$ý 4-
. maoao-
------ ---------
Ted.
da 11 '-' do. *
-r----r-; --- ---- ------:;. - - *,A
1;.
*. *.. r ir - ý-.
ýe-i- ý: 0-
-;
- .: . -VI * :ýE...

The lack of accuracyin the positioningof the pedalreleasesignsprobablyresultsfrom a lack of

notation
ofBeethoven's
understanding andintentions
ontheengraver'spartratherthanCzemy's.
figurein bars176-183ofthe third movement,for example,varies
Thepedallingofthe arpeggiated
evenwithin thesameedition.In theautograph,Beethoven
from editionto edition,andsometimes

asks for the pedalto be depressed through the rests,includingthe two emptybars 179and 183
(ex. 3.36). In HaslingerI, HaslingerII and Simrock(ex. 3.37),thepedalreleasesignsappearat
the endof bars178and 182,that is, a barearlierthan is specifiedin the autograph.The pedalis

95
to be releasedevenearlierin Cocks - on the last quaverof the bar 178 (ex. 3.38). Wesselis
rather inconsistent(ex.3.39);thepedalreleasein bar 179is accordingto Beethoven's
autograph,
but that in bar 183is a bar early.
Ex. 3.36

(a ,. 4-r

Ex. 3.37

ý00
*
IA-
ii
ej 1;
'I
il ý 119 :eg
.1 L2
-fýO.
.-- ým;p !e ii!m1-, -
I
242 mol
-- __
P!ý
-0- 42
if 53
t+
M2el
.4 =ý
wol
0
ý ý c-
el Ij * S: sempre Ped:

Lp-
dimin:

96
Ex. 3.38

-. . 'im' == 7M:- == Z- 4-- +- +- +- +- t- t- t- T-

Jr
LLJ..
1" .'
.
.-
JJ

"i
.a. ___________

w r-

Pfd.

Ex. 3.39
.1

ct-l-T . 8va--, ------------------- I

loco. F!! =
R5 i; :. FEE F7
--V-IeP ' -7
-,:
I-i-i hi
-OSUE -
id-id id =11 44ý
I- .1

11' K
iiAý1
:i- -- ff
-
-, 1- pq- ý r- i- ir d! ,. G, ý. -
IM -. I-. -- -1 11

Sf
f-
LI
Triff-Di- -k .1Ir
I
___j
r7= TJ
K7P
or
red: Pe& *p(, ý: dim;
Z
11
-,
Z id
1ý: -
'l d, r_-
-. -: -.
men 0'**-. ,
MT-9
. 1:
3
,

1L-III-III
'Fl Wc 39 ý 1'. IIr 'I Fi II r
''II
1'2
- I
11 --
R=L. d
VL

RV "-.
Oom I, Ap

EE
se ro

zempre rea-,

P9 i

97
 Wessel.occasionallyhasadditionalpedalmarkings,suchasthosein barsl7-22 (ex. 3.40a)andin

-bars152-161 (ex. 3.40b)of the fi rst movement.Thesemarkingsdo not in

appear the other four

editions,but theyreflectCzemy's advicein TheArt where, in the first movement,thepedalmust

&C'y%3 9
(as in.bars 14,17,20
be usedin "all concording,[and] energeticpassages, Thereare,
however,two obviousmistakesin theWesseledition. Basedon Czemy'sremarksin TheArt and
I the in these two in Wessel, the in bar 19 should
on most of pedalling passages pedal release sign
be at the end of the third beat of the previous bar, while in bar 155, it has been accidentally

omitted. Both are engraving errors.

Ex. 3.40a

L-Ic-lia-V
I-LI3 v
II
ELI u

0
. -I If
fý
ýg-.5Eý; i,,, -h..
4 rd ,.
__,
9, OF
I1 1
11 fI1 q JlOL_3016 -W6

JgF6

ffir
P4

R .
/I
.
-n
i -LI -IJ

2KI 1ýpI -I F:::]

rvvrI ---. l
fl$ ; 4- rI
yEI I II I

ff
nfl II
IiII,,
J J) fl i:
1!2
. 0'.
; oe.-
- ri.OL --l
-1b1:
:.-. d, Ped.
. o, - --,

19Czemy(1846), p. 59. Punctuation original.

98
Ex. 3.40b

El
7, r7-L-jl. If 111 1111 in"
pr-ý II.. III

1-1 11 -
cl*es.
Rý
FTT-M [=ý d--

'r -1 1, zzý I--,.

7 1--F-TT HIAý
-iii-iý.
III-ý-. fi: ý!ýIo ,, -1 , 111721
* ýl Vý
ITI
I. -
qm7d
cjý

Sý

61
U. lz t;
11V
(a .I
r7r r=rý
C:N IAL AV FI
[ 1 c:; a Ii LA. w .dI LA
U If II
L L.
-L.

-4" fS
I-
ikeýkli-v I- I-I..
13,1311 - ýL,
JAI I-
i..
'I ,
I-=1111
pq - 6.1 IAE
71P
111.
I, !MV 7- 1,
a; in dm-=-
, F- N1
Ic
t9lI mi

Peth'
C5
4
-. ý &ýW;i 49

eAI. ,-U, Qr L --ml _- ewp.

I.C 1 1- hm 1, 'Id
-
Khm,
aý, l'i
i Af a
00 Fi
If

p 11
W-ZL,if-
']'1 qlý : 'ii
: i5ed.
:
'J:
jjjj
I

The pedalling from bars123-139in the first movementofthe Wesseledition (ex. 3.41) is probably

another error. According to the autograph, there should be a pedal releasesign on the first beat

of bar 132. There is then no pedal marking until bar 218. If the additional pedal marking in
Wessel,from bars 140-143, is credited to Czerny, then, in the previous phrase,the pedal should
be depressedanew in bar 136. Simrock also has additional pedal markings in this passage,but

only in bars 132-133 (ex. 3.42). The pedal is changedevery bar. The pedalling of this passage
in the other three editions is the sameas the autograph.

99
Ex. 3.41 SVII ....................... ............
1-1 1ý 1 F- II1 40 1
ý .1ý1iI.
M.;NI--F. dtHtK 1 !3 00 M -- I
'j PI-1w- I, -J
w
19 v 9 -I
flf,
.
, O! 2N; oon IIC; FOMT71L-ý
ho b. m-. IIII-Ii Ll I-II--. II, -,
. m...
!A. 0, ýv w. -1,2i Eý :w,
i; F4
k) IOL
1
ýI,:ýt-- -,OL
- OL
- -OL
- OL
-q
A-- -------------------------------------
u --- =
------------!
614')
,
cl'i. ý o =; Ft .....................
.,. 2=22MMEM WM!!:
101
il-
-Iý
bo
.iiM-1 -1 ýff II-, MI.. -. - ýMT ý

ffi 111V 1. '1-00 i 12* Im. ý-l

LIE I----9.
'q -#m t
ý9
ýý ýý0ý,
aI --.e- WE K - bow
I-A-f r F.- ul 1A -1 1,,

sompre Fed:
--. Wp.m k..
FýL I- I**.
6.0
Elld
1 r--l 9
-I-Lii
Fýo 6! *=;
F0 itlý P-307I
Himo 100 MC ap-- --I
ýj iNA, 0- 1 2-1 11- L-i. M
7r
1. I-M
-11ý eep ;ý9
ý(6i , gl

0.r-ý-, -ýý kc ýi

1.

r 'n
(ýýg I. L'
i
Of-
2
- /' 0'" f-t-T-
11
Avr-r- 6- VT- r Of If--
-0 p
17--l-
d,
15mi I

I- i-.... ROW W-i

- ýo
sumpre red.
.1 IV
34 45
I"1
ig oz ,I -F,
ho I-,

(M) OZZilimia pmm-9 pm-M V-01 Pw--M smoR 1!=

F---L= c Fc-44:
44 F7 M F7 rM r-=l r-!l
N---L-d -1 -J J -j . --j --. r. _j .I , . JlT
i7ý
-ýJe--Jw-
f -ý .ý
-ýJ. I

Or-] ;;qý -- I"

ý'.
I.
lo.
ý--!;
1W,
ýjl 'ff -it 0ae lip 1910
r-11 I -i -Ii tg p
6.d .I1 -1
"I
-IUWt M -1 'A

,I-III-. I-. 1M. r ar .11 fla. i. i- M.

F=::
ý
M. rc-4
. "Mq ..
- , -
WFv. 1 I ii: - " -
vif ..
-- 1" ;j. _ :"
.r:.
dim
Oýlp 0 v A), -i-0 eýl
- '' 10 'lkF FI, po "-
VTJ1 IIII ''L......... L........
J . -- I

:W.7
I.

tC;), H6-. =-f F16; 0. FF1 61 hd -P ý 1-1 1

1ý ýA i I-V .-.!; NE 4' ,. -. 1--j- Wr,
v rl i OEI -j -& Mr-ot, Irlaq,
. -i ký rol ff-. -. I -id V ý. II-I-rI
- -,
31,. I+

? 'ý .I. 17 Clý

- . ar. ; -, ie
IIII-II -*, --A J1-1
- .. Iýý
1,1-"l- LIII
J . I_Ii VI
..
of ýRj 0#I
U

100
Ex. 3.42
13451

. I!
Altie=--

di

ý4tf1.1., m=, rii M. Ll

11 m"q =, rrl
ýýiý e=_o
. L-1
2ý
d r. == 3. !1,
--2 Z. Mt
»
If --- 41 I
s32j-

cpiiii , lp-,-Tlý
141
4 JqS

semnre Ped: iI Now

________
; ________

Is
Il lý

- I- !9 0.
,' 0
:
. 1 0--
sempre-Ped: ý T1 1. 1
-
J EýFt .
-

77 1222
.3
1.

rn=

Ped: P0"dimin"i

"1 4
i. S
.... . 1111.13
567.
.

3.6 SUMMARY

Throughout chapterstwo and three of TheArt, Czerny emphasizesthe importance of observing

Beethoven's tempo, dynamic and articulation markings. It is therefore perplexing that Czerny
insisted on this when a "correct" edition of the sonatasdid not exist. It was common to share

plates among the publishers because it was expensive and time-consuming to re-engrave.
Unfortunately, mistakeswere sometimesoverlooked and were retained in new editions, such as
Clementi's London edition of Op. 90. However, from the various editorial changeswhich Czerny

made, it is possible to form a more comprehensiveunderstandingof his approach. There may be

101
some discrepancies
amonghis various editions, but many of the main principlesremained
unchanged.

Czemy's editing of Beethoven'spiano sonataswas more thorough than originally thought. He

added not only fingering and metronome marks, as many of the titles suggest, but also pedal
markings, accents,articulation, and dynamic markings. The additional pedal markings in Op.
57/i/I 7-22 and 152-161from the Wesseledition are exactly the sameasthose he suggestsin The
Art. Accents are added in Op. 57/iii/I 13-115 in Haslinger II and Simrock. Staccato and

crescendo marks are also added to the ascending bass figure in Op. 57/i/53-54 in Haslinger 1,
Haslinger II and Simrock. The dynamic markings in the last eight bars of Op. 26/i/var. 2 in
Haslinger II correspondclosely with Czemy's advice in TheArt. Thesemarkings, together with

numerous other similaritieswhich HaslingerII sharewith TheArt and Czemy'sother editions,

also leadus to the identity of its editor - Czemy.

There is a certainconsistencyamongCzerny'svariouseditionsand his commentsin TheArt.

Apart from the featuresalreadymentionedin the previousparagraph,the similaritiesalsoextend
to Czemy'sfingeringand tempo indications. His adviceof usingonly one finger to play the
repeatedbass monotones in the first movement of Op. 57, first publishedin The Art, is
consistently reinforcedthroughhis fingeringof this movement in the Simrockedition. The old
methodof fingering,wherebythe fourth fingercrossesover the fifth, is employedin Op. 7/iv/76
,
in both CocksandTheArt. The importanceof maintaininga freetempoin the first few barsof
Op. 31/3/i is alsoemphasizedboth in Cocksand in TheArt.

Suchconsistencyalsoreflectsthe seriousstudywhich Czernymusthaveundertaken.Someof

the ideason the performanceof Beethoven'spianosonatasin TheArt canbe tracedbackto the
Haslinger II edition from the late 1820sthrough to the Cocks edition in the 1830s. Although this

supplement to his monumental Piano Forte School was not publ-isheduntil 1846, Czerny's

comments in 4rt
The. appearto consolidatehis earlier editings. In addition, it was an opportunity
to elaborate on the character of the individual sonatas and also to provide some solutions to
technical problems.

102
Sometimes,however,Czemy'seditingcontradictsBeethoven'sindications,suchashis fingering

-6f the doublefourths in the trio of Op. 2/l/iii. Althoughthe composer'sfingeringwasretained

in the two Haslingereditions,reverencegaveway to a moremodemfingeringby the 1830s,in
the Cocksedition. This wasthenslightlymodifiedin The,4rt. Thisprovesthat Czemyhadbeen
consistently studyingthe sonatas
and,in theprocess,
reviewinghis understandingofthem. In The
ýe
Art, did not simplytry to recallwhat hehadlearnedwith Beethovenalmosttwo decadesafter
the latter's death. Rather,he wascommittingto paperhis understandingof thosecompositions
from whenBeethovenwasstill alive,albeitwith so# modifications.
.

103
 CHAPTER 4: TEMPO AND TEMPO FLEXIBILITY

Whena work of Beethovenhad been performed,his first question

was always, "How were the "
tempi? Every other consideration
seemedto be of secondaryimportanceto him!

There is clearlysometruth in this statementby Schindler. Beethovensometimesalteredtempo

markings afterthe first performances.His threesuccessive

versionsof thefinaleofFidelio "Wer

ein holdesWeib errungen" (1804-1805,1805-1806 and 1814) show an increase in speedand

liveliness.HermannBeckobservesthat the originaltempomarkingfor the finalewasmaestoso.
"LebhafteresTempo"(morelivelytempo),whichwaswritten at theedgeof thefirst version,was
to
changed maestoso vivacein 1hesecond,and allegro ma non troppo in the 2
third. Frustratea
by the differentmeaningsassociated with someItalian terms,he laterusedmetronomemarkings
,
as well as tempo markings. Metronome markings which he assignedto his compositions had

often been carefullychosen. He consideredthe possibilityof MM 108 or 120 asthe speed

the first movementof his final but
symphony, eventuallydecidedonJ= '
88. Timesignatures
of
can also influencethe so
speed, it is importantto chooseone which is the most In
appropriate.
the trio of theNinth Symphony,for example,Beethovenmadesketchesin both2/4 and4/4 time
signatures, beforedecidingthat the implied
accentuation by alla brevewas '
moreappropriate.
Even when his deafnessbecamepronounced,the violinist JosephBblim recountedthat the
composer's "eyes followed thebows [ofthe stringquartetso closelythat] hewasableto judge
...
fluctuations
the-smallest in tempoor rhythmandcorrect them inimediately". 5

This concern with tempo was shared by many musicians, Czerny being one of them. - He

Acknowledgesthat:,
[a]ny musical piece produces its proper effect only ývhenit is played
in the exact.degree of movement prescribed by its Author; and any
even inconsiderable deviation from that time, whether as to

'Schindler(1966)(ed. MacArdle), fn. p. 423.

'Rosenblum(1988),p. 324.
3
Barth (1992),p. 52.
4For a detaileddiscussion,seeStadlen(1967),pp. 341-342.
'Thayer(1969),pp..940-941. This eventtook placeduringa rehearsalof the Quartetin A
minor, Op. 132,in 1825.

104
 quickness,or slowness, will often totally destroy the sense,the
beauty,andthe intelligibilityof the piece.'

By requesting that "the exact degreeof movement" be preserved, Czemy is obviously referring

to the necessityof observingthe tempo which hasbeen"prescribed" by the composer. However,

the meaningof his next point is slightly ambiguous. "[A]ny... inconsiderabledeviation from that
time, whether as to quickness,or slowness,will often totally destroy the sense,the beauty, and
the intelligibility of the piece" could be understood to mean either (i) the initial tempo selection

or (H) the initial tempo selection and the strict maintenance of that tempo throughout a

performance.

As discussedin chapter2, the treatisewriters from C. P. E. Bach to Czernyunequivocally

recommend some pressing on and holding back within a piecefor expressive purposes. They

caution that suchtempo flexibility, though desirable,should not distort the overall tempo. In

other words, a piece shouldbeginandend in the sametempo. Both Hummeland Czernyalso

spokeout against accelerating
excessive or slowing down (seep. 36). If tempoflexibility were
to be completelyforbidden,they would haveexpressedtheir remarksin a differentand more
comprehensive way. Therefore,
when Czernyasksfor a whole movement to be playedin "strict
time", suchas the slow movementof the "Tempest"Sonata, Op. 31 No. 2,' he meantwhat we

might today term a steady

rhythm which toleratesinterpretivetempo flexibilitywithout,however,

carryingit to excess. Had he wishedfor one tempo to be maintainedrelentlesslythroughoutthis

he
movement, would not haverequestedthe useof accelerando andrallentando,both of which
arenot notatedby in
Beethoven, bars55-58. it
Unfortunately, is termssuchas"strict time" which
led GeorgeBarth to accuseCzernyof encouragingthe strict observanceof a single speed
throughouta pieceor movement.He alsocriticizesCzemyfor distortinga tradition,or at least,
helpingto establisha new one.' Czerny'ssuggestedperformanceof Op. 31/2/ii (mentionýd

above)and his of
explanations tempoflexibility in his treatise,
are sufficientto prove that both
Barth's accusationsarecompletelybaseless.

'Czemy (I 839E),i, p. 157. Capitalizationoriginal.

ICzemy(1846),p. 53.
'Barth (1992),pp. 1-2,55-57and80-81.
105
4.1 ALLA BREVE

Like Beethoven,Czernyalsounderstands the relationshipbetweentime signature,especiallythe

alla breve(ý), andtempo. Accordingto Czemy, movementswith thealla brevetime signature
be
should played a degree quicker than indicated,often with an increasein liveliness.Although
Op. 14/2/His markedandante,he advisesthat since"the measureis alla breve,the time should
be a tolerablylively Allegretto".' Sin-dlarinstructions are given to two works with this key
the
signature: second movement of Beethoven'sPiano Concerto No. 1, Op. 15, and the first

movement of Op. 27 No. 2." Czemy knew Beethoven's intentionsin all threeworks, having
studiedat leasttwo of themwith the composer. Czemy elaboratesthat alla brevemovements
composea during "second
Beethoven's period", however,
"mustbe distinguished moreby beauty
than
of tone andperformance, by excessiverapidity"."

introducedwithin a movementwhichbeginswith a differenttime

Evenshortalla brevepassages,

signature,areto be playedquicker. This was certainly intention.

Beethoven's In the scherzoof
the Ninth Symphony,Beethovenalternatesbetween3/4 (molto vivace)andalla breve(presto)
sections. A of
reminder the alla breveaccentuationis giventhroughforte marks at everyhalf bar
for the first two barsof this section.A briefpassageof alla breveis alsoinsertedtowardsthe end
of the 3/4 scherzoand trio movement of the Third Symphony. In both symphonies,the 3/4
J. =1 16,while the alla breve sectionsarco=1 16. Accordingto Beethoven's
sectionsaremarked
metronome markings, the basicpulse in both the 3/4 andthe alla brevesectionsis the same:As
a result, he could not have adoptedthe old meaningassociatedwith alla breve,because
his

metronomemarkings inform us that the alla brevesectionsis onlysomewhatquickerthanthe 3/4

sectionwhichprecedesit. As mentioned onpp. 29-30, thereweretwo meanings associated
with
thistimesignatureat thistime. Beethoven'smetronomemarkingsin thesetwo symphonies
show
the newermeaning:that ofplayinganalla brevepassage
thathe,like Clementi,embraces quicker
twice as fast.
thannotated,but not necessarily

9Czemy(1846), p. 45.
"Ibid., pp. 49 and 104.
"Ibid., p. 87.

106
Czemy is moreconservative.In an articlethat appearedin CocksMusicalMiscellany(I April
1853),hecomplainsof thetendencyto playthe alla brevepassagefrom the scherzoof theThird
Symphony(ex.4.1) too slowly. However,heappearsto be unawareof Beethoven'smetronome

markingsfor this passage when he explainsthat the minimsin the alla breve passage should be

playedas crotchets" (as if the time signaturewere 2/4). Here, he is usingthe old defh-ýition
of
this signature.His examplebelow(ex. 4.2) showshow the alla breveshouldproceedfrom the
3/4 section. AlthoughCzemy'ssuggestedspeedof the alla breve sectionis questionable,he
correctly points out the accentuationdenotedby the time signature. He deducesthat the
is
accentuation themost"likely why
reason Beethoven
preferredthewhitenotesalla breveto the
ordinary crotchete'. "

Ex. 4.1

Ex. 4.2 -

vwv V- it
f I 0
If f
ýj > >

N. B. The first'h6tes of t'heallý breve section in exs. 4.1 and 4.2 are as written in Cocks Musical
Miscellany. Both notes are extracted from the E flat major chord. The inconsistencybetween

the two examplessuggeststhat Czerny quoted the extracts from memory.

Although Czernygivesthe old meaningof alla breve in his Piano Forte School,he doesnot

slavishlyfollow this rule in practice. The speedof the alla breve may depend on the musical
structure,as is in the case of Op. 53/iii. Czerny's advice is to play the "[p]restissimofinale

12Cocks(1853), pp. 29-30.

"Ibid., p. 30.

107
[markedalla breve] with the greatestpossiblerapidity"" ratherthanmeasureit in relationto
...
the*beginningof the movement.

BeethovenandCzernyboth construealla breveto imply a quickertempo. Regardingthe speed

an alla brevesectionshouldbe however,

played, they have a smalldisagreement.

4.2 ITALIAN TERMS

A piecewhichis playedtoo fastor too slow losesall its effect,and

becomesquitedisfigured.Wherethetime is not markedaccording i
to Maelzel'smetronome,theplayermustlook to the Italianwords
which indicatethe degreeof movement;as allegro, moderato,
presto, etc. andlikewiseto the characterof the composition,and
gradually learn by experienceto know their "
real significations.

Unfortunately,the "degreeof movement"andthe "real significance"denotedby Italian terms

were not alwaysstraightforward.Their meanings, as discussedin section 2.2.1, wereconstantly

changing. Againstthis background,
are thedefinitions of the mainItalian ternis givenby Czemy
likely to be thoseof Beethoven?The answer,in the majority of cases,is affirmative.

Both Beethovenand Czemy considerlargo a slower tempo than adagio. Beethoven's

metronomemarkingof Op. 106andhis notationof smaller in

note-values the largo sectionshow
that he considerslargo to be slowerthanadagio. Similarly,Czernyplaceslargo as a slower
tempoof the two in the first volumeof Piano Forte "
School. They were also frustratedby the

general public's tendencyto the

exaggerate slow movements. In 1810, Beethovenasked
Breitkopf to add ma non troppo to the existingadagio indicationon the headingof the second
the String Quartet Op. 74." In TheArt, Czerny frequently cautionsthat slow
movementof
movements (that is, those markedlargo or adagio) shouldnot be "spun out" or in
played a
"draggingmanner".

14
Czemy(1846), p. 57.
IlCzerny(1848), pp. 46-47.
Czemy(I 839E), i, p. 156.
16

"Anderson(1961), i, p. 285.
108
"In gehenderBewegung,dochmit viel Ausdruck"(with walkingmovement,but with expression)
is the GermaninstructionBeethovenassignedto the secondmovementof Op. 81a,alsomarked

andanteespressivo. The German indicationin this instanceis a direct translationof the Italian
term, so andante,asunderstoodby Beeth6ven,refersto "a walking pace". Czerny'sdefinition
of "moving onwardslowly;lessso howeverthanAdagio"" givestheimpression
that hemayhave

playedandantemore slowly thanBeethoven. However,his metronomemarkingsofthe andante

movements in Beethoven's piano sonatas
are fairly brisk. In spiteof the choiceof wordingsin
his definition of this term, Czerny'sandantemust have beentaken at a speedcomparableto
Beethoven.

The mearing of andantinowas more problematic. In 1813,Beethovenwrote a letter to the

ScottishpublisherGeorgeThomson,askinghim whetherheunderstoodandantinoto be quicker
or slowerthanandante." In spiteof this Beck
uncertainty, discovers
that Beethoven'stwenty-
threeusesof andantinosuggestthat it is moreoftenusedto meanquickerinsteadof slowerthan
andante. " Czerny alsoadopts the same meaningofandantino. He defines
it as"progressing
with
but it
still considers quicker than "
andante.
a tolerablyslow pace"

Czerny's defHtion of allegretto as "somewhat lively, cheerful, yet not hurrying onward"22also

reflects Beethoven's usage of the term. This is exemplified in the first movement of Op. 10 1,
marked allegretto ma non troppo. Its German indication "etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten

Empfindung" means"somewhat lively and with deepestfeeling".

In a letter to Mosel (cl 817), Beethoven complained that the original meaningof allegro, that is
"merry", had been frequently ignored." Beethoven even resorted to using German indications

to convey the spirit of some of his compositions. In order to clarify the meaning of allegro-in
the last movement of Op. 101, he includes the German translation "Geschwinde, doch nicht zu

"Czemy (1839E),i, p. 156.Capitalizationoriginal.

19Anderson(1961),i, p. 406.
"Newman(1988), p. 101.
21
Czemy(I 839E),i, p. 156.
221bid.
"Anderson(1961),ii, p. 727.

109
sehr, und mit (fast,
Entschlossenheit" but not too much,and with decision). This is one of the

rare occasionswhen Beethoven specifiedthe character of a piece marked allegro. Czerny's

textbook definition of allegro is simply'Tast, Lively, with Agility". ` In the third volumeof
Piano Forte School,he elaborateson the ýwiderangeof emotionsembodiedby the term, all of
features
which arerecognisable in the pianosonatas
of Beethoven:
(a) Tranquil,soft, andcoaxing
(b) Thoughtfulor Enthusiastic
(c) Sorrowful,or harmoniouslyintricate
(d) Majestic,grand,andevensublime
(e) Brilliant, yet without ain-dngat too mu&hmovementor rapidity
(0 Light, cheerfulandsportive
(g) Hastyandresolute
(h) Impassioned,excited,or fantasticandcapricious
(i) Stormy,hasty;iq a seriousaswell as in a sportivesense.
(k) Extremelywild, excited,andunbridledor furious."

During Beethoven'slifetime,vivacewas usedin two ways;some(suchasTOrk.and Clementi)

used it to indicatespeed,while others(such asDussek) used it asan adjectiveto the maintempo
,
headings.Vivaceappearsfairly frequentlyin Beethoven'spianosonatas,usuallyasa qualifierto
two of the main tempoindications,allegro andallegretto. This is the casein Op. 2/2/i, Op.28/iii,
Op. 3 I/l/i, Op. 31/3/ii, Op. 78/ii, andOp. 109/hi/var.3. Sometimes,Beethovenusesvivaceon
its own (asin Op. 79/iii) or with otherqualifiers(in Op. 101/ii, vivaceis usedwith alla marcla,
in Op. 106/ii,assai,and in Op. 109/i,ma non troppo). In everyinstance,he usesvivaceas an
adjectiverather than as a main tempo indication,evenwhen it is usedon its own. Czerpy's
definitionof vivace"lively, with warmth" correctlydescribesthe characterof all the movements
He it
too uses asan adjective. 26
with this marking.

The following Estby Czerny,on the degreeof movementimpliedby the maintempoheadings,

can be saidto echothat of (beginning

Beethoven with the tempo):
slowest
Grave - largo - larghelto - adagio - andante - andantino - allegretto - allegro -presto -
27
prestissimo.

"Czerny (I 839E), i, p. 156. Capitalization original.

,
211bid.,Hi, p. 69. Capitalization*original. Again, 0) was omitted as was then customary.
261bid.,i, p. 156.
21bid.
110
Although CzemyagreeswithBeethovenonthemeaningsoftheseItalianterms,hehasotherideas
the
regarding meaning of assai. Rosenblum, Stewart DeasandCliveBrown areconvincedthat
Beethovenoftenusesassaito indicate"enough"or "rather". Czerny,on theotherhand,defines
the term with "very".'s This is morein line with the usageof Mozart, ClementiandHummel.

4.3 METRONOME -A PROVIDER OF ANSWERS?

Beethovenexpressed his supportfor the metronomepublicly (in 1813)evenwhile it wasstifl in

the processof beingmade.Thayerclaimsthat Beethovenwasat first "not well disposedto the
instrument, notwithstandinghe had joined SaHeri and the other composersin strongly

recommending the in
'chronometer' 1813". Beethovenbelievedthat "[i]t is silly stuff; onemust
feel the tenip&%2' Eventually,he changedhis mind. On 6 February1817,WienerA11gemeine

musikalischeZeitungnamednumerous "celebratedmasters;' includingBeethoven,who pledged

to includemetronomemarkingsin their future compositions.In Decemberof the sameyear,he
wrote a letter to Mosel, praisingthe invention and vowed to help spreadits use. He also
publishedtwo pamphletson a Fixation of Tempo in terms of Maelzel'smetronome.The first
one, published in 1817, containsmetronome markings for the Septet,Op. 20 and all his
symphonies,except theasyet unwrittenNinth. The secondpamphlet,publishedtwo yearslater,
hasmetronomemarkingsfor his first elevenquartets. Metronomemarkingswerealsoinserted
in someof his compositionswritten after the publicationof the pamphlets,namelyin the Ninth
Symphony,the "Hammerklavier"Sonataandthe Diabelli Variations.

Another public endorsementofthe metronome,this time as a teachingaid, appearedin the Wiener

Allgemeine musikalischeZeitung (14 February 1818):
Maelzel'smetronomehasarrived! The usefulnessof his inventionwill be
provedmore and more. Moreover, all the composers of Germany,England
and France have adopted it. But we have not consideredit quite
superfluousto voice our convictionandto recommendthe metronomeas
a useful,nay, an indispensable aid to all beginners
and pupils,whetherin

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 320; Deas(1950),pp. 333-336;Brown (1999),p. 302; Czemy

(I 839G),i, p. 118-
(1969),p. 687.
'*'Yrhayer
ill
 singingor for the pianoforte or any other instrument - By using it they Will
learnto judge andto applyin the easiestpossiblyway the valueof a note,
and in the shortest time they will be enabled to perform without difficulty
to anyaccompaniment andwithoutbecomingconfused.For sincethepupil
the
observing suitable method and directions provided by the teacher,must
not in the latter's absence arbitrarily sing or play out of time, by meansof
themetronomehisfeelingfor timeandrhythmwill quicklybe soguidedand
corrected that he will soon have nd further difficulties to encounterin this
respect - we think that we should acclaim this invention of Maelzel's,
which indeed is so useful from this point of view also, for it seems that for
this particularadvantage it has not yet been, sufficientlyappreciated. "

of the metronome.He claimsthat Beethovenhad

Schindlertried to play down the advantages
two
assigned. different sets of metronomemarkings(on separateoccasions)for the Ninth
Symphony.Whenaskedaboutthe discrepancy, Beethovenwas supposedto havereplied"No

more metronome! Anyone who can feel the music right doesnot needit; and for anyonewho
is
can't, nothing of any use;he runsaway with the whole orchestraanyway". " This remarkis

now generallyassumed to beanotherof inventions.

Schindler's 'It is also that
possible Beethoven
did utter thosewords,but Schindlerquotedthemout of context. Beethovenmayhavebeenbusy

and perhapslost his temperwhen asked this because

question, he did not want to be disturbed.
Whatevertheinterpretationof Schindler'sremark,Beethovencertainlycontinuedto advocatethe
useof the metronomeup to the time of his death.

From February 1825 to February 1827, Beethoven repeatedly promised to send metronome

markings of the Ninth Symphony,the Mass in D major, Op. 123 and the string quartets Opp. 127'

and 131 to his publisher Schott. Unfortunately, he managedto fulffl his promise only in respect
the Ninth Symphony. His deteriorating health, his problematic relationship with his nephew,
of
and the frequency with which his metronome broke, are possible causes. He also attributed the

the first performance of the Ninth Symphony in 1826 to metronome markings." The
-successof
for this work which he sent to Moscheles in March 1827 further bear witness to his
markings
endorsementof the metronome.

"Anderson(1961), iii, pp. 1441-1442.

(1966) (ed. MacArdle),pp. 425-426.
31Schindler
(1961), iH,p. 1325.
32Anderson
112
4.4 MAELZEL'S CHART

In September1821,Maelzel publisheda chart of metronomemarksand Italian terms in the

AllgemeinemusikalischeZeitung (the Intelligenz-Blatt, No. 8). Comparisonswere made

regardingthe favoured
speeds by someof the jeadingcomposers. It is clearfrom TableNo. 3 in
Maelzel'schart(shownbelow)thatBeethovenwasinclinedtowardsfasttempos(seealsosection
4.5 below). For example,Beethoven'spresto (J =224) is twice asfastasClementi'spresto

=96). The chartalsoshows the largerangeof speedimpliedby eachItalianterm: for example,

1
Cramer'smoderato2/4 covers =63-116,while Beethoven'spresto C coversa rangeofJ=1 52-
224. It alsorevealsthe relationshipbetweenspeed,time signatureandItalianterms. Although
the smallestpredominantnote value in each compositionis not includedasa speedfactor in thý
its is
table, presence suggested by the largerangeof speedsassociatedwith eachItalian term.

Maelzel'sclairnthat the metronomemarkingswere takenfrom actualmarkingsby the various

is
composers rather dubious.. For a start, thereare no examples
of metronome
markingsleft by
Beethovenfor presto movementsin commontime. l4owever,sincethe signsfor commontime
andalla brevewereusedinterchangeably
at the time, it makessenseto three
consider metronome
for in
markings presto movements alla breve time by Beethoven
whichwerepublishedprior to
1821. Of the threemetronomemarkings,that for the finaleofthe StringQuartetinE minor, Op.
59/2 (o=88) andthe fourth movementof the Fifth Symphonyin C minor,Op. 67 ( c) =1 12) are
Maelzel's J the finale the Op.
Septet, 20 (J=l 12) is
within rangeof =152-224,while of outside
the lower limit. Beethoven'smetronome marking for the secondmovementof the Ninth
Symphony,publisheda few yearslater, alsolies within Maelzel'srange.

is
It peculiar that Maelzel
givesseveralfigures lie
which outsidetheupperlimit of themetronome
. '
(that is, 160),andevenmore so that he attributesthe metronomeindicationsin TableNo. 3 to
thoserespectivecomposers. Even more curious is the inclusionof this chartby Hummelin his
by
treatise,accompanied a brief explanationof the threetables,but without any correction,or

acknowledgment to Maelzel. In spiteof these the

eccentricities, chartis usefulin the that
sense
it provides informationon the varying speedswhich were employedand the factors which
influencetempo.

113
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114
 4.5 BEETHOVEN'S SPEED

In the early nineteenthcentury,fast temposwere more moderatein Viennathan they were in

Germany.JosephFischhof,a Viennesepiarnstandmusichistorian,wrote that from the 1820s,
GermanorchestrasplayedBeethoven'scompositionsmorequicklythantheywereperformedin
33
Vienna. However,Beethoven'sown playingwas consideredfast by his contemporaries.A
concertof Beethoven'sFourth PianoConcerto which Reichardt
attendedon 22 December1808
left a favourableimpression. He also considerstheythennew piano concerto"of, immense
difficulty, whichBeethoven,with astoundingcommand,executedin thefastestpossibletempi"."
This is in spitethe fact that neitherthe first nor the third movementof the concertois marked
prestissiMo:they carry the indications allegro moderatoand vivace respectively. The large
s
differencebetweenBeethoven; fast tempo and that of someof his'conternporariesis also

confirmed by Maelzel'schart. The fast tempo, however,shouldneverbe extreme,asMoscheles

makesclear. He was by
saddened the extremitiesof temposet by Wagnerin the early 1840s:
I know manythink me old-fashioned,but the moreI considerthe tendency
of modem taste, the more strenuously will I upholdthat which I know
...
to be sound art, and side with those who can appreciatea Haydn's
playfulness,a Mozart's Cantilena,anda Beethoven'ssurpassing grandeur.
What antidotes have we here for all these morbid moanings and
overwroughteffects! ... Here as elsewhereI missthe right "Tempi," and
look in vain for the traditions of my youth. That tearing speedwhich
sweeps away many a little note; that spinningout of an Andanteuntil it
becomesan Adagio, an "Andantecon moto," in which thereis no "moto"
at all, and "Allegro comodo" which is anything but comfortable. .....

4.6 THE APPLICATION OF METRONOME MARKINGS BY BEETHOVEN, CZERNY

ý
AND THEIR CONTEMPORARIES

(1821),Maelzelexplainsthat themetronome
in anarticlein theAllgemeinemusikafischeZeitung

could be usedto a
communicate correcttempoat the beginning
of a piece. He also that
stresses

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 334.
(1953),p. 325.
14Sachs
I'Moscheles(1873),H,p. 286. Capitalizationoriginal.
115
 be imposed on tempo." Beethoven also uses the for
mechanical rigidity could not metronome
thiS'purpose. He indicatesat the head of the autograph to the song "Nord oder SUP, WoO 148
0 817): 'ýI 00 according to Malzel; yet this can only apply to the first measures,sincefeeling also
has its beat, which cannot be conveyed wfiolly by a number (that is, 100),,.31

Moscheles is alsoofthe opinion that metronome markings must not be applied strictly throughout

a piece. He reveals how metronome marks were viewed by nineteenth-centuryperformers and

conductors:
Its objectis to showthe generaltime of a movement,particularlyat
its commencement; but it isnot to befollowedstrictlythroughout;for
no piece,except marcha or a dance, would have any real life and
expression,or fight and shade, if the Solo performer,or the orchestra
its
under conductor,were strictly to adhereto one and'the same
tempo, without regard to the many marks which commandits
variations... The playeror conductor, who entersinto the time and
spirit of the piecemust feel whenandwhere he has to introduce the
necessary changes; and these are often of so delicateanature,thatthe
marksof the metronome would become superabundant, not to say
impossible. "

Czerny's metronome markings are also intended to convey the speedof a piece only in the first
few bars. Therefore, they should serve only as a guide. For example,the prestissimo section in
the third movement of Op. 53 is marked c)--88. Czerny then comments that this fmale "must be

the possible rapidity". " The same advice is given regarding the last
played with greatest

movement ofthe Piano Trio Op. I No. 3, also markedprestissimo. Here, the metronomemarking
is 152.'o Both metronome markings probably reveal the speedat which Czerny could play

those movements. It is unlikely that he meant them to be dogmatic indications which must be

followed slavishly.

36AIlgemeine (1821),pp. 53-56.

37Newman (1988),p. 111
38Schindler
(1841) (ed.Moscheles),p. I 11.Italicizationandcapitalizationoriginal.
39Czemy(1846),
p. -57.
401bid., p. 94.

116
4.7 THE METRONOME MARKINGS OF CZERNY AND MOSCHELES

As listed in the Appendixat the endof this chapter,Czemy'smetronomemarkingsfor the fast

movementsare fairly consistent over the five sets,with the exceptionof Op. 27/l/ii, Op. 27/2/iii

andOp. 78/i. His markings for thesemovements are significantlyslowerin ProperPerformance"

(a differenceof threenotchesor moreis consideredsignificant).Moscheleshadfaith in Czemy's
authority andapproved of his metronome markings in the Haslinger
I "
edition. The majorityof
the markings by Moscheles are similar to those of Czerny. About 25 % of the metronome
markings in I
Haslinger are very fast, while lessthan 10% of Moscheles'
markingsare quicker
than Czemy's. Today, mostof their markingsin the fast movementsappearto be too fast. The
lighter key-dipof the pianohasoften beencited as a possiblefactor. Moschelesstatesthat he
I
the fast
tries to avoid extremely speeds favoured by some,4' andyet his metronomemarkingsare
not significantly different from Czemy's. Tl-ýsimpliesthat the speeds by
suggested Czemy's

metronomemarkingswould havebeenconceivable.

Czerny'ssuggestedspeedsfor the slow movementsare ratherbrisk. This, of course,was the

norm in the century.

earlynineteenth The two setsof metronome by
markings Moscheles,which
either
are generally the sameor slightlyquickerthanCzerny's,
alsolendcredibilityto the latter's

markings.

On the whole, Czerny's slowest metronome markings are found mainly in Proper Performance.
Many of the markings in Simrock confirm those in Haslinger I, but the former occasionally has
indications. All the metronome markings in Czerny's Cocks edition are derived
slightly quicker
from Haslinger 1, except Op. 26, Op. 31/3, Op. 101, the prestissimo section of Op. 109, and the

maestososection of Op. I 11. Out of these, all the metronome markings, with the exception-of
Op. 26, are exactly the same as Haslinger IL Apart from the third movement of Op. 26, the

metronome markings of the other three movements are the sameas Sinirock's. In most cases,

4'Proper Performance, is
which madeup of chapters two and three of The Art, is the more
used title in referencebooks. I
Therefore, shallusethe former in subsequent
commonly
discussionsin this chapterfor the sakeof uniformity.
42Schindler
(1841) (ed.Moscheles),p. 107.
411bid.
117
the inconsistencies
arerarelysignificant.Perhaps
the most striking differenceis the metronome

rriarkingsof Op. 49/1 Haslinger

between I and Simrock. Czemy had completelychangedhis

conceptof this sonata.

In the majority of cases,the metronomemarkings of Czerny and Moschelesare internally

consistent.Discrepanciesover the seven
setsareusuallynegligible. It is thereforesafeto accept
that Czerny'smarkingsof theslowmovementsandmanyof the fastmovementsarebasedon the
speedat which Beethoven would haveplayedthem. fI

4.8 CZEftNY'S METRONOME MARKINGS COMPARED WITH THE DEDUCTIONS

I
MADE BY KOLISCII AND GELFAND

Rudolf Kolisch(1896-1978)wasa pioneerin the deductionsof the tempo for all Beethoven's

compositions,basedon thefew markings

metronome left by the Factors
composer. suchastime-ý
words, the of
character a time
piece, the
signature, prevalentnote valuesandthe textureof the
musicwere takeninto account. His resultswere first publishedin 1943. Eachcompositionwas
categorizedundera particularbroad range of speed. This method was refined,and whenthe
revised version was publishedin 1993,precisemetronomemarkingswere assignedto every
movement. " In 1985, Yakov Gelfandcarriedout a similar investigation,
but he useda slightly
different approach. He choseto calculatemetronomemarkingsby using his own elaborate
formula which took into accountthe same factors as Kolisch 4' Unity of the whole work,
.
especially in the last three pianosonatas,wasalso taken into consideration.

Such a study is relevantsinceBeethovenwas certainly aware of the relationship betweenthe time

tempo indication and the prevalent note values. On a draft for the minore of his song
signature,
"Klage", WoO 113, which dates from about 1790, he contemplates:
That which now follows will be sung still more slowly, adagio or, at
the most andante quasi adagio. Andante in 2/4 time must be taken
much fasterthan the tempo of the.song here. As it appears,the latter

"See Kofisch(1943)andKolisch(1993).
4'Gelfand(1985),pp. 92-129.
118
 cannotremain in 2/4 time for the musicis too slow for it. It appears.
ý
bestto setthemboth in time.
The first [part], in E major, must remain in 2/4 time, otherwiseit
be
would sungtoo slowly.
In the past,longernote valueswere alwaystakenmore slowly than
shorterones;for example,quartersslowerthan eights.
The smallernotevaluesdeterminethetempo;for example,sixteenths
and thirty-seconds in 2/4 time nbke the tempovery slow.
Perhapsthe contraryis alsotrue.46

The existenceof this relationshipis alsoimpliedin Maqlzel'schart.

A comparisonbetweenCzemy'smetronomemarkingswiththosededucedbyKolischandGelfand

revealmany similarities.Manyofthem complement thoseof Czemy. It is interestingto notethat

Kolisch andGelfandsometimesarriveat the samefigure asCzerny'smarkingin the HaslingerI

edition. The first movementof Op. 10/3 is an example(seethe Appendix). In twenty-one

instances,Czerny'smetronome markingsare significantlyquickerthan those by Kolisch and
Gelfand. In nineteencases,the significantdifferencesarein HaslingerI, with the majority in fast
movements. On the other hand, fourteen of Kolisch's markings of fast movementsare
significantly quicker than even Haslinger I. Gelfand's markings are more moderatethan
Kolisch's: only three fast movementshave a quicker marking than Czerny's. Gelfand's
interpretationof allegrettomovementsis differentfrom Czerny'sandKolisch's. His markings
are frequentlyon the slow side (Op. 10/2/ii,Op. 14/l/ii and Op. 27/2/iii). In the scherzoof Op.
31/3, his markingsare significantlyquicker. It is only in Op. 22/iv that he agreeswith Czerpy's
HaslingerI and Simrockmarkings. Many of Gelfand'sslow movementmarkingsare also not
within the rangeof CzernyandKolisch.

The investigationsof GelfandandKolischare by no meansinfallible. Someof the contrasting

results of Kolisch and Gelfand can be explainedby their different personalopinions when
groupingcompositionswith the same ideas.
musical However, the fact that they reinforcesome

of the quick markingsin the fastmovements

provethat Czerny'stempochoiceswere influenced
by Beethoven. Gelfand'smarkingsin the slow movementsare lesshelpful, for they displaya

strongbiastowardsthe trend in the twentiethcenturyfor slower in

speeds allegretto andslow

.
4'Kramer(1975),p. 75.

119
movements. Similarly, some of Kolisch's slow movement markings are also slower than
Czemy"s.

4.9 THE VALIDITY OF CZERNY'S METRONOME MARKINGS

NottebohmdescribedCzernyasanhonestandknowledgeablemusician,gifted with anexcellent

memory. He Czerny's
considered teachingreliable,but had doubtson the authenticity of the
latter's metronome markings in Proper Performance:
Although not of authentic validity, still these indications can lay claim
to a certain confidence, especially for those works of which we know
that Czemy either heard them played by Beethoven or studied [them]
under his instruction. Anyone who knew Czerny personally, who
...
had the opportunity to observe his nature, which was'above all
directed toward the practical, will believe him capable of impressing
fimily on his memory a tempo that he had heard, and will have
noticed the certainty that he had in such outwardly tangible musical
matters. 47

This is a curiouscriticismconsideringthat Nottebohm.did not hearBeethovenplay. He alsodid

not explainwhy he consideredthosemetronome markings "not of authenticvalidity". Had he

basedthis conclusionon performancetraditions in the mid and late nineteenthcentury? Or
perhaps,he chosethis term because the markings were not notated by Beethovenhimself.
Schindlerwasalsodissatisfiedwith Czemy'smetronomemarkings. His argument,however,is

very weak. He that

adnýiits thenewLondoneditionby Moscheles to
approximates the composer's
originalintentions.He thencompares thetwo setsofmetronomemarkings
of Czerny'sHaslinger
I editionwith the new London edition:48

Op. 27 No. 2

Haslinger, Vienna New London Edition

1) Adagio =60 =60

2) Allegretto =84 =76

3) Presto agitato =92 =92

4'Rosenblum (1988),p. 329. Translationand bracketinsertby Rosenblum.

(1841) (ed. Moscheles),pp. 109-112.
4ISchindler
120
 Op. 27 No. I

Haslinger. Vienna New London Edition

1) Andante =72 =69

J.
2) Allegro 6/8 =1 16 =104
J. 1=126
3)ARegro molto vivace 3/4 =138
4) Adagio -t=69 =76
5) Finale, allegro vivace 1 =160 J
=132

With the exceptionof the finale of Op. 27 No. 1,.aHthe metronomemarkingsare within three

notches. Sincethe differences

are largelyinsignificant,
accordingto Schindler'sopinion of the
markings in the New London Edition, Czerny's metronomemarkingsshould also resemble
Beethoven'sintentions. After all, Moscheleshimself had complete'confidencein Czemy's
metronomemarkings, in the HaslingerI editionat least(seep. 117). On the whole, there is only
a smalldifferencebetweenthe metronomemarkingsof the two men.

The metronomemarkingsdeducedby Kolisch and Gelfandalsocomplementmanyof thoseby

Czerny. The maindifferencelies in Gelfand'sdeductionsof the speedsin the slow movements.
His thinkingwas influencedby the twentiethcentury'spracticeof playingslow movementsat a
slower speed than they would normally have been played in the early nineteenth century.
Although thesecomparisonsare not fool-proof, they show that Czerny'smetronomemarkings
had been carefully consideredand they were basedon the knowledgehe received from
Beethoven.

Czernyhad great respectfor Beethoven. He was reluctantto alter Beethoven'smetronome

marking for the first movementof Op. 106 even though he found it "unusually quick and
impetuous"." Rather,he defendedBeethoven'smarkingsby declaringthat the suggestedspeed

was not impossiblein performance. He insistedthat the speedindicatedcould be achieved

throughpractice.

49
Czemy (1846), p. 64.

121
In spiteof Czerny'sbestintentionsto indicatethe "correct" speedsof Beethoven'spianosonatas
byuSingthe metronome,he mayhaveexperienceddifficulties oneway or the other. After the
HaslingerI edition,hepublishedat leastanotherfour setsof metronomemarkings.He mayhave

slowed down the ofthe

speeds fastmovements in HaslingerII andProperPerformance,because
he consideredthosemarkingstoo fastin HaslingerL The Cockseditionusesexistingmetronome
markingsfrom both Haslinger
editions, except for Op. 26. The suggestedspeedof the "Marcia
funebre"in the Cockseditionis strikingly slower than the two HaslingereditionsandProper
Performance.Did Czernythendecidein the 1850sthat his previousattemptsfailedto convey
Beethoven'sintentionssatisfactorily? Is that the reasonfor the more moderatemetronome

markings in the fast of

movements the Sinirock edition, which are generallyquicker than in
HaslingerII andin ProperPerformance,but are slower than in HaslingerI?

The difficulty in searchingfor a "correct" tempo does not necessarilyimply that Czernyhad
trouble recallinghis lessonswith Beethoven.Nottebohmandmodern-dayscholarsall agreeon
Czerny'sgoodmemory.A morelikely explanation,therefore,is Czerny'schangingperceptions

of the sonatas
at different stagesof his fife. As his view the
changes, "correct" speedalters
accordingly.This is why thereis a drop
significant in the speed
of Op.49 andOp. 14/2/iibetween
the Haslinger and the Simrock editions, even though Czerny had studied the latter with
Beethoven.It is alsopossiblethatwith maturity,Czemybecameincreasinglyconcernedwith the
beautyof tone (ratherthanspeed),evenin the fast movementsof the sonatas.As adjustments
were made, to project the tones of the piano and to strengthen the frame of the instrument,
the
key-dipsgraduallybecameheavier.This developmentwould havemadeveryfastplayingslightly
more difficult in the 1830s thanin the earlynineteenth century. These will explain why Czerhy's

metronomemarkings in the fast movements

of Haslinger 11,in ProperPerformanceand in the
Simrockedition are lessextremethan in the HaslingerI edition. However,Czerny'smarkings
for the slowmovements arelargelyconsistentoverthe five sets.Thelackof majordiscrepancies
in the majorityof casescommandssufficientconfidencefor oneto concludethat thesemarkings
the
resemble speeds intended
Beethoven in the slow movements.

122
 TEMPO FLEXIBILITY

Giventhe vagueandvaryingmeaningslinkedwith temporubato in the first half of thenineteenth

"
century, the term"tempo flexibility" wig be usedin the following discussion.

Czerny states clearly that

[m]any passageswill not producetheir intendedeffect, unlesstheyare
played with a certain gradual slackening; holding back, or retarding
of the Time: just as others require that the degree of movement shall
be gradually accelerated,quickened, or hurried onwards."

Contemporaries' description of Beethoven's playing, and that of the performers he approved

corroborate Czerny's teachingslonthe type of tempo flexibility to be used in the performancesof

Beethoven's piano sonatas. According to Ries, Beethoven generally

played his own compositions most capriciously, though he usually

kept a very steadyrhythm and only occasionally, indeed, very rarely,
speededup the tempo somewhat. At times, he restrained the tempo
in his crescendowith a ritardando, which had a beautiful and most
striking effect."

Dorothea von Ertmann (one of Beethoven's favourite pianists)" and the SchuppanzighQuartet

also employed tempo flexibility to highlight particular features or the climaxes in a piece.
Sometime between 1815 and 1816, the violinist Michael Frey witnessed a performance by the
SchuppanzighQuartet: -
They played it [Op. 59/2] with great precision and skill, so that one
need wish for nothing more. In menuetts in general, in the playful
places they sometimes exaggeratethe playful and casual [elements]
in the performance. They usually do it twice in a row, which doesnot
make a good effect since something like that can only be pleasing
in
once quick passing. "

'OFora history of tempo rubato andits meaningsin the early nineteenthcentury,seeHudson

(1994) andRosenblum(1988),chapter10.
"Czerny (1839E), i, p. 189. Capitalizationoriginal.
12Wegelerand Ries (1988), p. q4.
Schindler(1966) (ed. MacArdle),pp. 209-211.
13
'14Rosenblum (1988), p. 386. Translation
and square bracket insertsby Rosenblum.

123
In addition,Frey's commentsrevealthat tempoflexibility was not introducedhaphazardly.

Czemyalsodifferentiatesbetweenperformances with and without an audience.If a performer

is playingto an audiencewho is unfamiliarwith the piece,he mustplay in strict time. However,
if he is playingonly for his own amusement, he should play with greatertempoflexibility. He

stresse s that a between

difference the two typescan,and must, "
exist. If this is the case,perhaps
Beethovendid not normallyplay,as Schindlerclaimedhe did," with a high degreeof freedom

with regard to tempo (even to the extent of obscuring the basic pulse). It is true that
Beethoven'scompositionalstyle had developedto include greaterfluidity in his late works.
Terms suchas accelerando,ritardando and rallentando are also more numerous. However,
when Beethoven was playing in the presenceof he
Schindler, allowed himself greater freedom

since he was playing only to himself and a friend. Even then, it is'still highly unlikely that
Beethovencouldhaveallowedhimselfso muchfreedomasto makethemusicincomprehensible.
This would alsocontradictthe accountof Beethoven'splayingasgivenby Ries.

4.10ACCELERANDO

Beethoven's written indicationsof accelerando in his music are as sparingashis use of this effect
in his playing. Czerny's cautious use of accelerando, as mentioned in section 2.2.2, is therefore
in line with Beethoven's. This term is notated when tempo change is not apparent, such as the

unusual ending of Op. 90/ii (ex. 4.3), whereby Beethoven indicatesritardando, accelerando and

a tempo. In his comments,Czerny asksthe player to observe Beethoven's markings. He writes:

"The conclusion is remarkable, as the last eight notes almost disappear, strictly in time, but

unexpectedly, and thus the piece must close"." The difficulty lies in determiming
pianissimo and
where accelerando, when it is not indicated, can be introduced. Sometimes, Czemy requeststhat

"Czemy (1846),p. 38.

(1966) (ed. MacArdle),p. 412.
'6Schindler
"Czemy (1846),p. 62.

124
Ex. 4.3-
(S) 4, -----4 ---*- 4jt : IF
v-ALL a ff "
's, _
ýE.
P !I #
6-6-"
rt i -
dt'mt'n. - far
ýýl - 'It
F]Illl 1ýit::::1
dP.
- I "ý-.0- 1
- accelerando It4a 2
sfý17: A"A- a
- . 3
ý7

cresc. p pp
ufýdo
ýgElo
I. F
42
-V- -
A 4 4 a
a

be
an ending. playedquickerin orderto obtainthe maximumexcitementandintensityin a finale,
for example,the conclusionsofthe first andthird movementsof the "Waldstein"SonataOp. 53,
the third movementof Op. 57, andthe fourth movementof Op. I 10." He elaborates
on how this
be
can achieved:
The presentFinale [Op. 57/iii] must not be played too fast. The
passages areto beperformedwith distinctequalityandlightness,only
slightlylegato,andbut [sic) seldomimpetuously.Themovementand
power first continuallyincreaseon the repetitionof the secondpart
andtowardstheconclusion,andthe Prestowindsup the Sonatawith
all thepowerwhichcanbeelicitedfrom the Pianoforte,by employing
its
all means. "

In addition, Czemy uses accelerando to create tension, such as in the crescendo passage of Op.

31/2/ii/55-58 (ex. 4.4). Here, it is paired with ritardando. Czerny suggests that the crescendo

in bars 55-57 should be played with increasing rapidity, while bar 58 (markedp) should be slowed

down gradually. " Sometimes, accelerando is used on its own, for example Op. 27/2/i/32-35 (ex.

4.5),61in which the ascendingfiguration and dissonancesdemanda quicker pace. Beethovenalso

usesaccelerando in certain to
passages increasethe senseof excitement,such as Op. 101/iii/i6-
28, Op. 106/iv/10 and Op. III /i/I 28-131 (ex. 4.6).

"Ibid., pp. 56-57,60 and67.

191bid.,p. 60.
601bid.,p. 54.
6'Ibid.,p. 49.

125
Ex 4.4
co
3

rcrtcc.
6 3 -OL
Lwý r
it
Sf

On
I a A1314 41-,, I -SL
12 3 2
a

I
rl 0!ý

Rf
rrv ý, 1
I
HEEEýý ! Yl

iz rA
T: mý
u
ý-r7zzi
EN ;; --;;;
r!! ý IIi1 off 11-.
-....
Iii r4ý
1ad
i--11111--
ýl F
--
;ý.
16. -
i Pi
Eý-ý .dpl
1
4 3 5

t
"I 4
F V

m
7/-jJ
e
v
LU 0
-a

'Z)7

126
Eyt.4.6
4 4
&
r--ý 52
WA" r- Ap.
f) I t r
01 0 ýH- -- - --
: - - ,o IF
F/ I cresc..
rita? . dan do poi a poi sno? plit alle''-ro
- ý-Ls I.6
ol ýl -44ý IIssjt It. L
W4
4

Tentpo 1
CD ..................................................................................................................................
lmopg
AD10 1 lip lot
Fill F-I i4ý i twF-

dw

I I- 44

Although it is difficult to determineconclusively where Beethovenexpected unnotated

accelerandoto be introduced,
a certainamountof speedingup wasprobablyusedto increasethe
4 is
excitementofa passage. ccelerando thereforesuitablein certain crescendo
passagesor those
with a dissonant, line.
ascending Czerny'sadviceof introducing in
accelerando the concluding
bars of a movement,however,may havebeeninfluencedby the popular nineteenth-century
bravura styleof playing.

4.11 INSTANCES WHERE A SLOWING DOWN IS RECOMMENDED

Czemy explains that a slowing down is usually indicated by ritardando or other equivalent

expressions,such as rallent, ritenuto, smorzando,calando, etc. The difference lies in the varying
degreesof slowing down implied by "
eachterm. Both Beethovenand Czerny did not make any
distinction betweenrallentando and ritardando. In Op. 2/2/i, Beethovennotatcs rallentando in

the exposition and ritardapdo in the parallel passagein the recapitulation. Czemy also usesboth
in TheArt.
temis interchangeably

In general, Czemy suggeststhe use of rallentando to mark important structural junctures in a

piece, or to increaseits atmosphericor poetic effects. Examples of the former can be found in

62Czemy(1839E), iii, p. 34.

127
the few barsbeforethe quaversectionbeginningin bar 89 of Op. 13/i, duringthe smallclinm

of Op. 27/2/Hi/55-56,andthe three bars before the introduction of the allegro sectionin Op.
81a/i.63In Op.31/2/i,Czemysuggests someslowing down in the last tenbarsin orderto produce
dying in the 64
distance.
an effect reminiscentof thunder away

Czernywarnsthat the degreeof slowingdown shouldnot, in the majorityof cases,disturbthe

basicpulse;it shouldbeachievedthrough"a very small,gradual,andequallyprogressivedegree
that the prescribed time is scarcelyvaried by 1/4 or 1/6 part".'5 How do Czerny's
..., so
,q
recommendation on the following eleveninstances compare with Beethoven's markingsin the

piano sonatas?

(a) "In those passages which contain the return to the principal "
subject". In the transition

passageof Op. 2/2/i/221-224(ex. 4.7), Beethoven writes calando.

Ex 4.7

F==F=FFI
VL/ 41 :---II.. II-I
Ll P
nL IIII I- I '''
0, ý=- 4-

Lop?
CA-1211,1 mitr.
rlqtN-
FIN-

1.11r7'1
'. )-)'
I CL
FI
_________ ________ ________

pr..
__________

r7
_______
____________ (cZ
IIIII-I-I

(b) "In those passages,which lead to some separatemember of a melody". In Op. 2/2/i/48-53
(ex. 4.8) and Op. 90/i/54 (ex. 4.9), Beethovenrequestsa slowing down (respectivelyrallentando
to the idea.
and ritardando) to ensurea smooth connection new

6ICzemy(1846),pp. 43,49 and61.

p. 53.
611bid.,
65Czemy(I 839E),iii, p. 33. Incidentally,the sameprincipleappliesto the useof accelerando.
'Ibid.
128
Ex. 4.8

Ex. 4.9

ý5.3
-at-4- -f -1 ri1
:t_: -1 :fIItI-r _a
.i-VA m- --Il. --&- -0. -4b. --#.
w -10. -
-AL. lbb- Ap -Fý -ilb..
r- 12
r-
E)

-ý4
--f- 4 I

(c) "In those long and sustainednotes which are to be struck with particular emphasis,and after

are to follow". " Indeed, passagessuch as Op. 2/3/i/249-251 (ex. 4.10) *and
which quicker notes
Op. 101/ii/5 0 (ex. 4.11) would benefit from a slight holding back.
Ex. 4.10

6'Ibid.
129
Ex. 4.11
-I
u (D., J;;

(I NI 77ý ýh I la
"v 7

r
I'll
'.
\,., I.
lili
i171-III, ri 'iII LýFl
': - 19 i
III- IL I. -r
IvI ir---=l I-1
-'
-A 1,

VIJ I,
19f1 [J. Jj :11 _____ RJ I
LJ-1-4L-1=4=1 'I -Q'ý
-
-v r

(d) "At the transitioninto anotherspeciesof time, or into anothermovement,differentin speed

from that which precededit". " In Op. 106/ii/164-167(ex. 4.12), the 3/4 sectionendswith un

poco ritardando, and is followed by the alla brevesectionmarkedpresto.

i
Ex. 4.12
c6t un Foc-
[lili r
_______ ________ ________ ____
/i In 1,-1 -1 ý- I 1' -7 1It 1 -1 C1 -1 111, -1 k .1- 11, -, Ik -1 ,ei -II
If iiJ
I- ;II Hkil I( lilý iI ýi I -i ý9 911Iqj
k I/ .I 111

6)!11 1 -1 ý t, ýiý,
1. ,-ý-I :Iý
VT- L4 11 -
S4 119
I-f ,ýý1ýýIr,
--Ii
r- I(kiiIF ha IIh-.
"ý
-( :p16. j 11 -H

pmýý.
-0i
-* w
I
t-\ .II
1; 1% n I

(e) "Immediately after a pause".'9 Beethovenis very specific about the speedinu-nediately'after

a pausewhich serves to clarify the structure of a movement. In Op. 31/2/i/l -9, the tempo change
from largo or adagio to allegro, and vice versa,is carefully indicated. In other compositions,he

may require a return to the original speed,as in Op. 53/i/293-295. There are, however, many
instanceswhere no indication is given. In Op. 31/3/iv/317-322, the pausein bar 318 is followed
bypoco ritardando, then a tempo (the last line of ex. 4.13). The precedingpassage(bb. 308-318)
does not have any tempo indication eventhough it follows a pause. Does Beethovenexpect the

611bid.
691bid.

130
 in
original speed that passage,or should we take Czerny's advice, that is, to slow down
imperceptibly?If we wereto examineOp. 57/i/16 andOp. 78/ii/175-178(ex. 4.14),two out of
in thepianosonataswhichdo not havea tempoindicationimmediatelyafter
the manyoccurrences
a pause, thereis some truth in Czemy'sadvice. In all three it
cases, is plausibleto easethe speed
a little immediatelyafter a pause,beforeresumingthe original speedsoonafter that.
Ex. 4.13

- ___________
11 AL

i4il 0iýiIk4ý *-. i It. - - M9,1-;1ý; ý--4-4iIaIINIIi

i 1. r, I- '- 1,,
ivii, il ?D4 gw
et-lm? 1s1.1
-1ý Afff -. ---- .-
12* 1,, i3 mý2-h,--ii :Z:= ei i-1 lý 110
1pr

I.
_____

bL Lc
IýIuý-IwI PW
r Iv 4F
i.
11 II' __________ r1
-F
-NJ
Fr
rF1 MIff

i i2T+j
, 4. -j - .,0.4 :
:0

4n,0':t 4- -0.- .0. -t -

-0
--t -4 Ck

{
Fooo r, - 4wr
Crt SC.4
I
r', - I - -
01-IN

Ex. 4.14

11 1 41 9
(9 -. ýý
, e il 99-
-.
Ev I ý,-l h
I e-ý ,* IT wi 14 rI13-a
1) -1
.
II 04 (1)
- 1ý
C,
-V
4ý TT III ýIit I I- 1-1 11 -ý
v -j

I/-/ J/1
1
II-j
19 -4ýil ýAý 01Q -2
U __-

131
 "At the Diminuendo of a preceding very lively passage;as also in brilliant passages,when

there suddenly occurs a trait of melody to be played piano and with much delicacy"." The
following passagefrom the first movementof Op. 90 (ex. 4.15) is an instance. Beethoven does

not furnish such passageswith speedindications, but the use of a small amount of slowing down

cannot be ruled out.

Ex. 4.15

V LL
(CO
4D
JaE
':P0W hjhI,, IIII
CrUc.. . -;p
rr--,

E54
p -1
..i

(g) "In embellishments,consisting of very many quick notes, which we are unable to force into

the degree of movement first "

chosen7'. This is clearly exemphfiedby the elaborate right-hand

ornamentation in Op. II I/i/I 18 (ex. 4.16) which is indicated meno allegro by Beethoven.
Ex. 4.16

IOIbid. Capitalization original.

711bid.

132
(h) "Occasionallyalso, in the chief crescendoof a strongly markedsentence,leadingto an
important passageor to the '
close". In Op. 101/iii/214-223(ex. 4.17),thenumeroussfmarkings
'braking
act asa'. device"to the
emphasize build-uptowardsbar 232. As quotedon p. 123,Ries

recalled Beethoven
witnessing usingtl-ýseffect.
Ex. 4.17

5
4 42" 3
4 3
a a*
#_""
2

tI OPM
Ll 2ý

ff

.,I - P--m
4 4 - - I
i- ! --a
4
3 #ý-
2:: :; ýw
- -
Contra E

(i) "in very humorous, capricious, and fantastic passages,in order to heighten the character so
" Humour in the languageof the time means"whirif 'or "fancy", as seenin Czerny's
much more".
description of Op. I 0/l/iii:
This Finale is altogether written in that fantasticalhumour which was
so peculiar to Beethoven. This feature may be displayedparticularly
in the middle subj ect (from the 17' bar) by a humorous retardation of
single notes, though, in the whole, we must there also remain true to
the rapid time."'

Beethovenhimself asksfor retardationin a similar context in his late works, such as in Op.
I 10/ii/33-35andOp. II I/i/22-23 (seeexs.4.18and4.19respectively).Asmentionedonp. 123,
this effect was alsousedby the Quartet.
Schuppanzigh

711bid.
711bid.
74Czemy(1846), p. 40. Capitalization original.

133
Ex. 4.18
IV
F] ryr
U-1 -.,
111r, ME i ahl mi
19 12 ;...
11-1
-

k, iý.. PR i11
no 11
29'
i - 11ý
1,

:2' :a :i 11 '
h*--t -i M- w
..

A HE
a tempo IF2--i; ýIl
45 1-1 4--.
I-A 2 _7N 1
2.1 al .

17 dan do

5 I

Ex. 4.19
ARegro, con brio ed appassionato

-ii
----------------------- === -

11 I
ncrrffmr rrtvxy=l
ý&:
mezzop

1
0
occ ritenente cres_c.
Sf 5
4 it 3SaP.
g3 I -

ldpý ,-M do4w

-- dw . '-
' lj ' 10 70
-- -il
- fo
-
L-o
- - - -

r rl* 2".
"

-2i" 9

(k) "Lastly, almost always where the Composer has indicated an espressivo".". Beethoven

appearsto use espressivoin two ways. It can either be used to refer to a slight slowing down or
to tempo flexibility. The context in which the former occurs is easily recognisable since

Beethoven often writes a tempo to follow espressivo,for exampleOp. 109/ii/ 120-124(ex. 4.20).
Similarly, espressivoandpoco ritenente in Op. III /i/34 and 99 are followed by a tempo in bars
35 and 100 respectively. In most cases,tempo flexibility is implied. This is often apparent from

the music itself, such asthe openingbarsof Op. 79/ii and Op. 8la/i (ex. 4.21). WhereBeethoven

uses espressivo as a tempo heading, as in Op. 81a/ii and Op. II 0/i, it is a directive to the

"Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 34. Capitalization original.

134
performer to include an element of tempo flexibility.

Ex. 4.20

U LL (a 0

9 Qsve 0
1-Trý
U
f Ip- ILz=-

Ex. 4.21
TLt.
A4AA,
%o
kI

I
f
(1) "At the end of every long shakewhich forms a pauseor Cadenza,and which is marked
diminuendo"." In Op. 54/i/132-136(ex. 4.22), mezzavoce,ratherthandiminuendo,is usedto
indicatea suddendecreasein volumeandintensity.
Ex. 4.22

1) -t? I Ir a J.tj -fl-

vIIIv-, -I 790, - I I- I
L, +/ -M I- ý-l F I
Al 04 -
f 1 =: F-
\-V .H 1

Te--p" u: '

16Ibid.Capitalizationoriginal.
135
This alsoappliesto the trill in Op. 27/l/iii/26 (ex. 4.23). A perfectcadenceis formedwhenthis
dominant-seventhchord of E flat major resolvesto the tonic at the beginningof the next

movement. Beethoven again ends this bar

cadenza-Eke muchsofterthan it began.
Ex. 4.23

* .0-
AI.
yIVh 0 IPa--ý-
0 -l' a-)P. -,
't 0*& -f. a*-
-f-
IIIII
-#,
44 11
Rrý-- l et
'ý-I
pr .
1 0.

b
v -cl :1
t! ) At-Au Vh 11 & Pasro " VA (k
As4
pI q4C.. L
G
AA vI
-2
14

ir

I TTY Pu
gzpz:
L.::
i
Through their analyses,Barker andDrake" eachfound an instancewhich they do not consider

correspondswith Beethoven's musical language. Barkerbelievesthat Czerny'sstatementgiven

under (0 abovereflectspiano playing after Beethoven'sdeath,while Drake has doubtsabout
example (1). Their assertionscannot be accepted, becausemusical examples from the piano
sonatascan be found in every instancelisted by Czerny. The various markingsinsertedby
Beethovento indicatea slowingdown serveonly to strengthenCzerny'srecommendations.In
addition, even Schindler,given his tendencyto criticize the writings of his contemporaries,
78
approves of Czerny'sdiscussion
on tempomodificationin thethird part ofPiano Forte School.

4.12 INSTANCES WHERE TEMPO DEVIATIONS ARE DISCOURAGED

Although tempo flexibility was widely used in performances,Czerny did not encourageits
introductionin certainpassages:

"See Barker (1996),p. 71 andDrake (1972),p. 71.

71Schindler
(1966) (ed. MacArdle),pp. 411-412.

136
(a) passages character,suchasthe secondsubjectgroupof Op. 28/1"1
with a marked/march-like

for exampleOp. 31/3/i/177-182(ex. 4.24)."

(b) Passagework,
Ex. 4.24

I=

12 ojdo.; ý

Qiý
11 I- IIII

i0qv IV 'PP'Fi IIII.

F) Ad-jýtýj- F? I III
-IIý ,
IIIIII -L-L-L-I-J

"
(c) recitative-like passages. Thig is supported by Beethoven's direction in bar 8 of the last

movement of the Ninth Symphony: "[fln the manner of a recitative, but in tempo" (ex. 4.25).

"Czemy (1846),p. 51.

"Ibid., p. 55.
"Ibid., p. 53.

137
Ex. 4.25
8
I
Fl.
11

1
Ob.
11

I
ti
Clar in

II

Fag

11

cle

in Reil)
, 19
--ý- -Z--

Cor.
III
IV
Rdl)

clim.

li .0

1,1111P.

ff

I
Viol.
ý
11

Vic.

13.
VCc
tImi,si.
Sclon Ic car,icl&c d*un Rmitativ ilw%. in p
Aulopriph, rki lit I Lein lljltcNiVc,,,

(d) The secondsubjectgroup/expressivethemes. Czemy insiststhat secondsubjectgroups which

are melodious and have a tranquil character must not be played perceptibly more slowly. The
is through beauty o ftone, rather than an alteration ofspeed." In the three-bar
expression obtained
linking passageof Op. 106/i/198-200 (ex. 4.26), Beethoven asks for a gradual diminution in

volume and speed. This ensuresa smooth transition to the secondsubject group in bar 20 1. The

"'Ibid., p. 93.

138
a tempoat the beginning
of this melody that
suggests like
Beethoven, Czemy,
mayhaveexpected
to
melodies be playedin time.
Ex. 4.26
. .... .....................................................................
...............................................................
(1-292)0 ........................
9 * =ý 4K
5 :ý
RP

1
Cr

pil t
ýt

* '3
a lempo 4
pi
"#
fit: i o p [ý-
elm
dando

1
dinlin. poco i*ilar_- p cantabile
4p-, "\ i"\ 13 3, 3
ii . .,
Z2 si =4 F F: F: R :: v dp
II" -
L 4 4

1 4 I 2
P J_ 12 ?: j ""I 5
I II
H09
II
L Ei]. I
11
W-M G I_- 8
espressivo
v
mo SS ,i1i i-i-
+r- ad- mi--
TI 8 4 3 '2
-1 - --I 51

(e) If the characterof a passageis lesseffectivelyconveyedwhen tempo flexibility is used.

Czernyasksthat rallentandobe avoidedin the conclusionof Op. 31/3/ii (ex. 4.27)," probably
becauseany slowingdown would destroythe mischievoushumour.
Ex. 4.27

.0v w
crese.

2 52 4
4
2 5

. .-

bt
rih
__________________ -_-_I- __________
6 )! F
-lot I*-_. hmidoT ,: i 1ý iHIa
1,, _LZ I-6p- -111 mi, ,
I 1-2 12
--

"Ibid., p. 55.
139
4.13 SUMMARY

On the whole,BeethovenandCzemyusealla breveto imply a quickerspeed.Wherealla breve

is introducedduringthe courseof a piece,Beethovenappearsto haveadoptedthe new meaning

associatedin his day with that time signature. On the other hand,Czemymay have employed
both the old and new meaningsof alla breve,dependingon the context in which it occurs.
However,thereis a strongpossibilitythat Czernypreferredtheold meaningor employedit more
frequently.
I

Czemy'sdefinitionsof the maintempoheadingscorrespondcloselyto Beethoven's. Both of

themreactedagainstplayingadagiomovementstoo slowly. Czernyalsosucceedsin capturing
I
the spirit impliedby eachterm, for example,the vastemotionalrangeencompassed
by allegro.
in spite of his definition of andante,he probablyhad a similar understandingof the term to
Beethoven's.However,hisdeýinitionof assaias"very" insteadof "rather" or "enough"betrays
his allegianceto the tradition of Mozart andHummel.

Nottebohm praised the honesty and good memory of Czerny, but had less confidence in the
latter's metronome markings. Unfortunately, he did not explain why he considered Czemy's

markings in Proper Performance to be unauthentic. Although discrepancies

exist among the five
sets of metronome markings by Czerny, his markings for the slow movementsare trustworthy.
They show no sign of being influencedby the Wagneriantrend in the 1840s,where the speedsof

slow movementswere exaggerated.

Many of Czemy's metronome markingsof the fast movementsare also relatively consistent over

the five sets. Allowing for Czemy's varying moods on the different occasionsthe markings were

prepared, the discrepanciesare usually insignificant. Although some markings appear to be too
fast, this is not the casewhen comparedwith the two setsby Moscheles. Only a few in Haslinger
I are significantly quicker than those by Moscheles. One must bear in n-dndthat a quick tempo

was by no meansa foreign concept to Beethoven. Reichardt was astoundedby the very fast tempi
in which Beethovenplayedhis Fourth Piano Concerto. These,together with Moscheles' approval

of Czerny's Haslinger I metronomemarkings,confirm that most ofthe latter's markings area true

140
reflection of Beethoven's
style.

Occasionally,the discrepancybetweentwo of Czemy's metronome markings is so large, such as

Op. 49/1, that he must have changed his concept of this composition completely. This was
inevitable as Czemy's experiencesincreasedand the styles of performancechanged.The slightly
heavier key-dip of the piano from the 1830s,as compared with the earlier instrument, is also a

contributory factor. Unfortunately, the deductions of modem scholars, such as Kolisch and
Gelfand, fail to provide satisfactory answers. Although some of their results confirm Czemy's

markings, they are, on the whole, too subjective to be helpful. In some instances,Kolisch's

markings are so fast that they become impractical. Gelfand, who tried to avoid this problem in
his calcufation, produced markings for the slow movements which are more in the style of

modem-day performance than that of Beethoven.

If a literal adherenceto Czerny'smetronomemarkingsof the fast movementsresultsin manic

performances, that is unlikelyto be the intentionof Beethoven

or Czerny. Czemy'smetronome
markingscould serveonly as a guideto performers. It is the performer'sdecisionto choosea
"correct" tempothat would enablethe characterof a pieceto be conveyedsuccessfully.

Although George Barth accusedCzemy of creating a tradition of performers who play with

mechanicalrigidity throughout a piece, the numerous examplesof tempo flexibility recorded in

Piano Forte School and its supplementprove Barth wrong. Czemy, who is usually thorough in
his explanations, fails to make clear the meaningsof the metronome indications and the term
c4stricttime" in his writings. Their meanings may have been obvious to nineteenth-century

readers. Unfortunately, there is a tendencyto take everything literally nowadays. As Moscheles,

Maelzel and Beethovenexplained,the metronomemarkings were understoodto refer only to the
first few bars of a piece. Playing in strict time is an aspect which Czerny constantly emphasizes
in The,4rt. However, "strict time", when usedto refer to an entire movement, was not meant to
be taken literally. For example,Czerny advisesOp. 31/2/ii to be played in "strict time", but asks
for tempo flexibility later in the movement. This means that when "strict time" is apphed to a

whole movement, it is used to refer to the abilit y to maintain a steadyrhythmic flow throughout

the movement. Where appropriate, a slight acceleratingor slowing down should be introduced.

141
Theseare also characteristicof Beethoven'spiano playing, as described by Ries. The literal
.
meaningof "strict time" is only intendedwhen this term is usedin relationto shortpassages.

According to Michael Frey's descriptionof a performanceby the SchuppanzighQuartet,

unnotatedtempo flexibility was introducedat certain instances,

but thesehad been planned
beforehand.Czemymanagesto list numerousinstanceswhereaccelerandoand rallentando

would be cffective. This imperceptiblechangeof speedis to

necessary highlight important
features
structural to
or emphasize a particularcharacter,
suchas the evocationhe mentionsof
thunder dyingaway in the distance.
All his capture
guidelines Beethoven'sstyle,with thepossible
exceptionof the to
useof accelerando producea very high level of excitement
and intensity.

AlthoughCzemy'slist ofunnotatedrallentandois by
supported musical in
examples Beethoven's

music, it is difficult to determinewhetherthe type and degreeof tempo flexibility taught by

Czernycorrespondwith thoseof Beethoven.In this matter,Czernyreceivesendorsement from

an unexpectedquarter - Schindler.

in
With regard to those passages which strict time (in its literal sense)is preferable, the only

we have from Beethoven is on the treatment of recitative-like passagesand

confmnations
On the whole, Czerny's advice on this matter is convincing.
expressivemelodies.

In short, most of Czerny's advice on tempo and tempo flexibility (or the lack of it) is modelled
Beethoven's playing and teaching. Czerny may have made certain changes based on the
on
bravura style and perhapsthe frequency in which tempo flexibility occurs, but the essenceoThis

understandingwas shapedby Beethoven.

142
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0-4 0

ri
1

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C) m- 't
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czs 00
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u
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143
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144
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156
CHAPTER 5: STYLE AND EXPRESSION - DYNAMICS AND.
TONALCONTROL

Accordingto Czerny,"style" and"expressiorf'in interpretationareinfluencedby dynamics(that

is the varieddegreesof shading,loudnessand softness),attack, articulation,andby the use of
accelerandoandritardando. ' In the previouschapter,we sawhow tempoflexibility wasused
to heightentheeffectofa piece.Articulation(whichwill bediscussedin chapter6) anddynamics
to but
a pieceor passage,
were alsoused characterise in a different way.

0
5.1 THE RANGE OF DYNAMICS, THE CHARACTER REPRESENTED BY EACH
DYNAMIC MARKING, AND THE CORRESPONDING APPROACH TO PIANISTIC
TOUCH

Czerny does not describedynamicssimply in "mechanicar' terms of volume but, more

importantly,its impacton colour andexpression,astonal and interpretativequalities:
(a) The Pianissimo(pp) which indicatesthe gentlesttouchingof the keys, so
however,as not to becomeindistinct or inaudible. It bearsthe characterof
secrecy,mystery,andwhenexecutedwith the utmostperfection,it is capableof
producingon the hearerthe pleasingeffectof musicat a greatdistance,or of an
echo.

(b) The Piano (p) Loveliness, Softness, tranquil equanimity, or quiet sorrow,
manifest themselves by the still soft and tender, though yet somewhat firm and
expressivemode of touch with which the keys are to be struck.

(c) The Mezzavoce(m.v.) This degreelies exactlyin the middlebetweensoft

and loud, be
andmay comparedto the tranquil speakingtone usedin narration;
andwithout descendinginto a whisperor declaiming in a loud tone,it will interest
us more by the matterto be played,than by the styleof the performance.

(d) The Forte (/) denotesthe expressionof self-sufficingfirmnessand power,

without excess or presumption;Passion within the limits of proper dignity; as
to
also,according rule, whatever is brilliant andshewy, may be executedwith this
degreeof power.

'Czemy (I 839E), i, p. 184; Czemy (1848), p. 30.

157
 (e) The Fortissimo(ft) That eventhe highestdegreeof force must alwaysrest
within the limits of what is beautiful, and never be allowed to degeneratein a
coarse thumping, or ill treatment of the instrument,hasalreadybeensaid. Within
thesebounds,it expressedthe exaltationof joy to extacy,of grief to rage;just
it
as alsoelevateswhat is brilEant-toabsolutesplendorand Bravura.'

Czerny'sinsistencethat dynamicsareto beusedto conveymood clearlystemsfrom Beethoven.

However,this doesnot meanthat Czemyallowsonly the expressivequalitiesequatedto each
dynamiclevelasdescribedin the abovegeneralization.For example,all threemovementsof Op.
14No. I beginwithp. Insteadof followingthe generalguideabove,he commentson ihe tempo
andcharacter ofthe individual
movements,describing
the first movement
as "serene",
"noble" and
"lively", the secondas a kind of "sadhumour"which must be played "in an earnest,but lively
manner",while the finale is "very gay and lively, but with a certainplayful facility".' Even the

recurring themein the movement

second of Op. 90, markedpandis often by
accompanied either
dolce or leneramente,requiresdifferenttreatmenteachtime. Czerny'sadviceregarding the

performanceof this is
movement as follows:
The utmost sweetnessand feeling is here required, which can be
produced by a delicatetouch, fine cantabile, and a light performanceof
the quickernotes.As the themeis frequentlyrepeated,the playermust
each time endeavour to deliver it with a different gradationof tone, but
alwayswith delicacy.'

Although not expresslywritten into the score,the different gradations of tone are understood to
include a slight changein character,andthis ideais not unlike Schindler's description ofDorothea

von Ertmann's performance of this movement: he was impressed by the imaginative way she
introduced a different nuanceat eachrecurrenceof the main theme in this movement, so that it
times '
was sometimescoaxing and caressing,at other more melancholic.

Evenbeforethe turn of the nineteenthcentury,Beethoven'sextremeconcernwith tone colour

is evidentin his letter of 19November1796. He thanksStreicherfor the receiptof a piano,but
jokes that it is "far too good" for him becauseit "robs me of the freedomto producemy own

'Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 5. Spelling, italicization and capitalization original.

'Czemy (1846), p. 44.
4Ibid., p. 62.
'Schindler (1966) (ed. MacArdle), p. 210.

158
tone".' Accordingto CiprianiPotter,Beethovenproduceddifferenttonequalitiesby varyingthe
" ThusCzernyalso echoeshis teacher'smethodof producingdifferentqualities
fingerpressure.

of touch:throughvaried fingerpressure.Czemy the

considers second movement of Op. 10 No.

as
one of Beethoven'sgrandestbut most melancholy,and [one
...
that] mustbe playedwith the Aiostattentiveexpression.
In theperformanceof piecesof this kind it is not sufficientthat we
put ourselves into the proper disposition;the handsand fingers
mustbearon the keyswith a different, andheavierweight,thanis
necessary in fively, or tenderlyexpressivecompositions,in order
to producethat significantkind of tone, which may duly animate
the slow courseof an earnest.4dagio!

the touch shouldagainbevariedaccordingly.Czemyrecommends

In fastanalivelymovements,

a more "brilliant" touch in the "humorous,merry and facetioue'secondmovement

of Op. 78.9
In non-brilliantpassagework,he often prefers a pearl-like effect, reminiscentof Hummel's
manner of playing. Beethovendoes not disapprove of this, but reminds Czemy that sometimes

a "differentkind ofjeweV' is desired(an excerptof this letter is quotedon p. 241).11

Czerny'sinstructionson tonalcolourcanbetracedbackto Beethoven, but thevarietyof shadings

which Czerny proposes is a result of the improvementsmadeto the piano (for a discussion
of
someof these improvements, see section 10.2 below). He admitsthat the extent of tonal
modificationsin performanceis greaterbetween 1820-1830because of the improvement in
hammercoverings."' He evengoesso far as to declarethat "... we are ableto produceat least
one hundreddifferent degrees of loud and soft in striking any one note by the mere loqch
...
alonep912His advice on the colours of dynamics given above is thus an extensionof ivhat
Beethovencouldhaveachievedon thepianosat the beginningofthe nineteenthcentury. It would
be merespeculationto concludewhetherBeethovenwould haveendorsedthe useof a laricr

varietyof tonal colours.

6Anderson(1961), i, p. 24.
'Sonneck (1967), p. I 10.
'Czemy (1846), p. 42.
91bid.,p. 61.
(1961), ii, p. 742.
IOAnderson
Czemy(1846),p. 3.
11
Czemy (I 839E), iii, p. 3. Italicization original.
12

159
 havedifficultiesdefmingthe meaningof mezzavoce,asunderstoodby
Modem-dayresearchers
Beethoven.Rosenblumbelievesthat the term refersto a level of soft sound. Barkeris in partial
agreement. He argues that the more important connotationof Beethoven's
mezza voce is its
to
reference the "
singingqualityof a passage. Althoughmezzavoceis usuallyfoundin passages
which are melodious,expressiveand/orserene,this term was usedby Beethovento indicate a
level
restrained oftone. In the second
movement ofthe String Quartetin C sharp Op.
n-dnor, 131,

mezzavoceis introducedin bars194-195-a non-melodiouspassage (ex. 5.1). This impliesthat

Beethovenusesthis term as a dynamicmarking. In addition, Schindler,a contemporaryof
Beethoven,alsousesmezzavoceto indicatea relativelysoft dynamiclevel.14
Ex. 5.1

In the third. movement of Op. 106, its expressivequality is indicated not by mezzavoce, but by

appassionato e con molto sentimento. In the third movement of another late piano sonata, Op.
109, mezzavoce indications in bars .15 (ex. 5.2) and 31 are preceded-bya set of hairpins, again

suggesting its role as a dynamic marking. The expressive quality of the theme and the first
variation is marked by molto cantabile ed espressivoand mollo espessivorespectively.

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 58; Barker (1996),pp. 155-159.

"Schindler(1966) (ed. MacArdle),p. 283.

160
Ex. 5.2
Gesangvoll, mit Innigsi-WEmpfindung
Anda7zle mollo cantabile ed espressivo

. G)

IF
cs
ll

U TV
aw
5 I
4

© i's s43
R. J] u 8 2--A ý-
f) a
Cý Vý--
ti 41,1 --- iIý7.!
- ---_-i---- I IIII-
ý-
tIs
IT 11 1- '1 -11

i W- 11PRO EE2ýý
,I
W, i -IIIIT
F; 2 40 i el - =- -IH 40 1

1F =j Is
II _______ p"
____

3
4 2 8

The degreeof softnessimplied by this term, however, varies. In ex. 5.1 above, mezzavoce Hes
between p in bar 191 and pp in bar 197. This term is also used in the third movement of
Beethoven's last symphony. The opening melody, which is introduced by the first violin, is

markedmezzavoce, while the is

accompaniment markedp. In this instance,
the melody,although

soft, would have to be slightly louder thanp. Beethoven's mezzavoce, therefore, refers to a soft
dynamic level, ranging frompp to mp. This range, of course, is lower than Czerny's suggested
level: the "middle between soft and loud". On the other hand, the character Czerny associates

with this term "the tranquil speakingtone used in narration" - suitably reflects the character
-
is
of the passagewhere mezzavoce used.

5.2 ACCENTUATION

The importanceof correctaccentuationin Beethoven'smusiccanbeseenfrom thevastarrayof

markingsin his >,

compositions: sffz, fp, ffp, f, rinfor rf, andoccasionally
mfp. Reichardt
also

161
draws attention to the use of accentuation, among other things, in his description of a

performanceby the Schuppanzigh Quartetin 1808:

Herr Schuppanzigh himself hasan original, interesting[pikanl] style
that is very well suitedto the imaginative[humoristisch]quartetsof
Haydn,Mozart, and Beethoven;or rather, perhaps,it hasresulted
from the spirited [launig] mannerof performancesuited to these
masterpieces. He plays the most difficult passages clearly,although
not alwaysabsolutely in tune, about which the local virtuososseem,
on the whole, not to care. He also accentsvery correctly and
meaningfully. His cantabile, too, is often quite singing and full of
feeling. Likewise,he skillfully leadshis W'CII-chosen colleagues, who
truly enter into the spirit of the composer.... 's

This so-called"correct" and "meaningfur'accentuationwhich Schuppanzigh

employedwould
to
refer rhythmicandexpressiveaccents;both types are often unnotated. The context in Which
be
such accentuationcan appliedwill be in
discussed sections 5.4,5.5 and 5.6.

5.3 sf, rf ANDfp

While sforzando(sforzato or sj) andfp are used to emphasizethe note which carries the
indication,Czerny'sexplanationsof rinforzando (rinforzato, rf or rinfi areinconsistent.In the
third volumeof Piano Forte School, he equatesrinf to the accent,fp, sf, andft, that is, to

emphasize only onenote. He himself

contradicts later in an examplein Piano Forte by asking for

the rinf in bar 9 be for

to sustained two bars(ex. 5.3)."

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 386. Spelling and italicizationoriginal. bracket

Square in
Rosenblum.
i, p. 184andiii, pp. 6 and 76.
16Czemy(1839E),
162
Ex. 5.3

1ýý;
IV espress.
F LP I

" .ildagio FUYý II -I kd

H011
r--7
rop p0 gll -1
P
IIIL.. i...J 'IIII
_....., N

cri I

6711017.

Both meaningsof rinf were acceptablein the early nineteenth century. Although Czerny gave

only one of the definitions in Piano Forte School, ex. 5.3 above shows that he employed both.

An examinationof the piano sonatasrevealsthat Beethoven applies sf to single notes only (see
for example, Op. 53/iii/99,103 and 107 and Op. 53/ii/I 0 and 12), while rinf can be used ei!her

on single notes or on a succession of notes, depending on the context. Beethoven does not
appear to interchange sf and rinf haphazardly. Rinf, which is used much lessfrequently than sf,
in it
occurs mainly slow, expressivemovements,and only occasionally appearsin fast, flowing
movements. Rinf can be employed in a particular context in order to highlight the yearning
quality of a note, suchas Op. 27/1/iii/7 (ex. 5.4); the slur determinesthat the first of the two notes
is given a stronger, but (in this case)not harsher,tone. When rinfis used in this context, it is very

163
Ex. 5.4

-NI
/1
IiD.11 auIILIm.
hIjIA-. J L- IiI.
--. 4-- r--L
-.. 4, ad
-,
,1 -I
-'Ilv -1
.,.., ,..
ýIIýI&I#ImII
- -1. .I...
14
i
VV- IV V- -0- 1
I-,
ul,,ý*j41 i4l--, -
IrN.
P,
Eý144sly
II

IE
It4!
Iii i I",
it 'I OFor of-9 -
Iv 12 1v 4i; i Ir -W I114 --
IIII

Er
L)

I
likely thatBeethovenintendsrinfto signifya moredelicateaccentthan sf. In Op. 7/ii/59-65(ex.
5.5), the build-up of the phraseis determinedby the relationshipbetweenrinf and sf. The
accentuation increases every two bars until the climax of the phrasein bar 64. As stronger
are
accents requiredwith each sfmarks
statement, are chosenin preference
over rinf (seebb. 62
Ex. 5.5
4nut

r- I -I

IIIII.
_____
If .1i
-1 -I-.
.irk-. -. - II--

14) N, II
-01 M- I-U
04.1-fl 3

LI A
rT- 11W0-t,
IIIMaIPZ
11 -----r i ýto 0- 0' .,
lim %i-, ----.
I'
i f11 to 1rf- Mli,
1'. ,iI-1-1 15q-Hý_j Pý v i-i -
III
Jrt-. I-IIII
_ITrJr I'm-ý. ii rWII 1 p_. J V

ske
M-_- IýIA
WX= I L- rvr
_________________
LCN 10-v
'
It
J'1' 7
4:
and 64). In Op. 10/3/ii/44-48(ex. 5.6), on the other hand,the shapeof the right-handmotif as
well as dynamic
Beethoven's markings that
suggest the emphasis denoted by rinfis sustained over
a few notes. Whenrinf occursin fast movements, as in Op. 14/2/i/190and Op. II I/i/33-34, its

secondmeaning- to strengthena few notes - is intended.

164
Ex. 5.6

Whilefp does not appear as frequently as sf in Beethoven's music, it too has its own meaning.
In contrast to Czerny's convenientdefinition whereby all the markings which indicate an emphasis
hasthe samemeaning,Beethovenusesfp in two different contexts. The first is to emphasizethe

note it indicates, but it is a more deficateaccentthan sf (Op. 2/2/Hi/58-68 and Op. 28/i/40-62) or

even rinf (ex. 5.4 above). The second meaning, which is also used more frequently, is as an
abbreviation offorte followed immediatelyby piano. This is confirmed by the p marking which
is placed on the secondquaver in the bassof Op. 57/i/93: the note which immediately follows the
fp chord (ex. 5.7). Althoughfp is employed at the climax of a passagewhich incorporates a

succession of sf markings during the build-up, it would be erroneous to conclude that fp is a

stronger accent that sf. Occasionally,the two meaningsoffip may be used in the samepassage,
for example in Op. 27/2/iii/78-87 (ex. 5.8). In bar 79, it indicates that the first beat of the bar
be
should emphasized,while in bar 87, it not only crowns the climax of the passagecommencing
in bar 71, but also marks the sofl beginningof the next phrase.
Ex. 5.7

=p 4 iEEEý
I
p

165
Ex. 5.8

ED 42 I
do Iaop
dd L -J M-
-

crese.
-
II
III

3 4
917t ==-
aa
iiii
aI
-J==:
(5
44
pna ir.,
le It 5 =
ý: ý I

1 f)-A
17
Foii

àifL1id

Fo%i"k
24
I

F E=9 IF . IF rl-P11 -I
P-1##
_lu
IV 09
-

-E-
El
(-

r-
'ý -? Pit= P4== L-L-6w-LiLl. ý j II II L-3 II=
pi P! == I --L-.
-E-3
**

Pýý
(- 2---ý -

oue. FF-r9FF9, FFM P:Fýý r-fi: ý F:fý 1

Sf

:ý ;ý -e:ýte ýý-iý

5.4 UNNOTATED ACCENTUATION

Schindlerclaimsthat Beethovenlaid muchemphasison rhythmic accentsin his teaching. He

writes:
As for Beethoven'sparticularstyleof accentuation,the authorcan
speakpartly fromBeethoven's critical remarks on Czemy'splaying
andpartly from the pianoinstruction that Beethovengave to him
directly. It wasaboveall therhythmicaccentthat hestressedmost
heavilyandthathewantedothersto stress.He treatedthe melodic
(or grammatic,as it was generallycalled) accent,on the other

166
 hand,mostly accordingto the internalrequirements.He would
emphasize especiallythat of thediminishedsecond
all retardations,
in cantabilesections,more than other pianists. His playingthus
acquired a highly personalcharacter, very differentfrom the even,
flat performances that neverrise to tonal eloquence. "

The importanceof accentuationis further strt-,

ssedin the annotationsof Cramer'sEtudes(see
because, in Schindler's it helps I
section5.5below) opinion, convey thedeep poetryin Beethoven's
music." Although the annotationsare, given Schindler's reputationas an insecureandjealous
man who forged some of the entriesin the Conversation Books, viewed with suspicion,his
cornmentson accentuationarenot without basis. In his day, Cramerwasadmired for the vocal
quality and in
accentuation hisplaying;both arefeatureswhichprobablyattractedBeethovento
Cramer'splaying. In addition,.Beethoven's"Rolland" Sketchbook,which datesfrom the latý

summeror autumn 1823, contains"twomelodies in C majorwith theinscription'aufSylbenmasse

InstrumentalMelodien(schaffen)machen... (to createinstrumentalmelodiesaccordingto syllabic

meter).

5.5 ANNOTATIONS OF CRAMER ETUDES

The annotations of Cramer's Etudes are signed by Schindler, with some remarks attributed to
Beethoven. They deal mainly with rhythmic and melodic accents, which are derived from a

stronger touch and are often accompaniedby the prolongation of the accentednote. Beethoven
is supposedto have written the following instructions for Etude no. 3 (ex. 5.9):
The melody is nearly always to be found in the third note of each
group; but the rhythmical accent must be given uniformly on the
first note. On account of binding, the finger should dwell on this
accented note. 20

"Schindler(1966) (ed.MacArdle),p. 416. Barth correctlyobservesthat Schindleris mistaken

in equating"melodic" accentwith "grammatical"accent. SeeBarth (1992),p. 130.
"Cramer/Shedlock (1893),p. ii.
"Rosenblum(1988),p. 100. Rosenblum'stranslation.
IOCramer/Shedlock (1893),p. 7. Seealsothe commentsregardingEtudeno. 21.

167
Ex. 5.9

!
t .5-2'. 5 4. r== C== ==l
1
10
I 11 ýý IIICýZR ý
EMS ý EjEEJ -I- 2 2 2 = I II
...
1
ý L

{ a 4 3 4

These suggestedrhythmic accentsin the Etudes do not necessarilyfall only on the first note of
ME

each group, or conform. to the strong and weak beats suggested by the time signature. Rather,

it appearsthat there is more concernto place the accentsin strategic places in order to bring out

the melodic (or scalic) line. The suggestedrhythmic accents sometimesoverride the importance
in the following passagefrom Etude 16 (ex. 5.10)."
of the metrical accent, as shown no.
Ex. 5.10

J=132.
( Moderato con espressiorie.
D9 il. .

16.

5 4
'I
P. 0
I I
2f

12

r-
v TW
C= 4A34-2- Ti'50"* -4
a (Y)
CV) (V) (VS) (0 44
2'
CV) W (v)

"Ibid., P. 27.

168
Accentsare alsoinsertedto marksyncopation,for examplethe syncopatedC-E dyadsin Etude

no. I (ex. 5.11). In Etudeno. 6 (ex. 5.12), accentsare usedto help clarify the rhythm andthe

polyphony(accordingto the attributed

comments to Beethoven,
the studyup to bar 15 is in four
"
voices).
Ex. 5.11

B
mmtv--ý
Ij9m5 -F1F1FF
-11, I- ll: f- "-j ".
IM IIII in P

a212a2,

5
4
"I 8 4 I. -. 0

Ex. 5.12

ovivace 3 4

pi
6.
- .1
PýVý
I.- At -. 1"
-
a
.98
4 a -i
f: n i
r, A aA
F, ..
77!
'1
7,47ýýl
A

i- ;-- ;-- In P4iiil 1-P. -. -m ?V. -1

'j; sist. IrsII i 1T
- ý004 6-4--ý !i ,a si -i-- III1
-i 710
-t-1
4
..

"Ibid., pp. 3 and 13.

169
-Ex. 5.12 (con't)

.P

fj M=awoA i
MLVm
Fl
r- laý A2'3 -#-4.1--
is :;ý

III _LJ
ii-. II. II-

Dissonances are usually highlighted in this manner, as in Etude no. 21 (ex. 5.13):

Attention must be paid to the accent of the fifth note of each group
which mostly appears as a minor second. Trochaic measure fornis
the basis of each group: the first note accented and long, but less
so the fifth. 23

Ex. 5.13

Maerato. J-84-

c
-,Off 140 -1 135a12 .32 40

21. (V)HI 12
Cresc.
i4*4: i Od -ii. - t-:: j
I

231bid.,
p. 3 1.

170
Sometimes,the notated rhythms are altered so that a "melody" can be formed, suchasEtude nos.
7 (ex. 5.14) and 24 (see section 6.3). Since the first and third notes of each group in Etude no.
7 carry the melody, the first note must be held for the length oftwo quavers,thus giving the effect

shown in ex. 5.15.24

Ex. 5.14

92.
Pib
G- tosto moderato
13, P.-r-9 -
?-

dolce
7.. A 0- 1- t
=011
.
-9 ot
Z AI ul
M
II.
LA
I-I-.
I
-.. ý=
-o -1- ! i! 0.. 1
0
i - ii
1-. I
i
.
"L.
-
i-
J
-
AgUd
Ex. 5.15

/I KyII
VIIIII

This study is also consideredto be in four voices even if it is not explicitly notated thus, with the
tenor supporting the soprano, so the alto and bassshould be played with a lighter touch.

Schindler claims that Beethoven consideredthese Cramer Etudes "the best preparation for his

own works". " Beethoven is also believed to have written that "... all nuances cannot be

indicated, neither can they in other pieces. Thesestudiesprovide counseland help for all caseS-)2.26

When comparedto the functions ofaccents found in Beethoven's sonatas(seesection 5.6 below),

the "counsel and help" in the annotationsof Cramer's Etudes are rather limited; they deal only

with rhythmic accents, syncopations and dissonances. In addition, these Etudes are confined
largely to passagework,with a few studies in polyphony and cantabile melodies.

"Ibid., pp. 15 and35.

21Schindler (1966)(ed.MacArdle),p. 379.
26Cramer/Shedlock (1893),p. 27. Italicizationoriginal.

171
5.6 BEETHOVEN'S AND CZERNY'S USAGES OF ACCENTUATION

Czemy'scommentsin TheArt alsorevealhis concernfor correct accentuationin Beethoven's

Czemy's
piano sonatas. adviceon the use of unnotatedaccentuationcan be divided into the
following categories:

(a) to emphasizethe highestnote in a phraseor motif

In the third movementof Op. 14/1(ex. 5.16),Czemyinstructsthat the highestnotesin the right
be "
hand(in the majorsection)should well marked. This correspondswith thestaccatomarks
G
left by Beethoven.Before > becameuniversallyacceptedas the sign for the light accent,the

staccatoSign(both the dot andthe dash)

wasoneofthe indicationsused. If thestaccatonotation
hiccupsin thephrases.Sometimes,Beethoven
is understoodliterally,it would causeunnecessary

combines two types of notationfor In

accentuation. the minor sectionof Op. 2/3/iii, he marks
the highestnote of the arpeggiatedfigureswith both a staccatoandan sf.
Ex. 5.16

{ -0-

(b) to emphasizenotesof longerduration.

p

Among Czerny's manyexamplesof unnotated on

accents a long noteareOp. 14/2/ii/2and4, Op.

14/2/fii/3, Op. 26/ii/6, and Op. 57/i/37 and 39. The sign A in ex. 5.17 (an excerptof Op.

2,Czemy (1846), p. 44.

172
31/l/Hi/I and 5), a strong accent,is insertedby Czemy." Beethovenalso subscribedto this

usage,asshown in Op. 57/iii/228-256 the

where minimsare markedsf (in the rhythm 7

Ex. 5.17

. 411fgretto ==,gc .
/IJOW

(c) to highlightdissonances
Beethovenfrequentlymarksdissonances with accentsor sfmarkings,asin Op. 14/l/ii/3 and43
andOp. 14/2/iii/121and 123. Czerny's
Therefore, request for the emphasisof the a Pin thealto
voiceof Op. 22/iv/12-13 (ex. 5.18)" is valid because
it forms an diminished
unexpected seventh
with the bassandmakesthe g' an accentedneighbournote.
Ex. 5.18

CLI)
ýI- Fý I-T-7
V-
ifa IV
I-III-Ita-
i 11 of
-I -I ----I

\. L-/ iii
1 i1 -. f j) F-- 11 be
1 lk
-1 *-- W'-1 -11 -1-1
-II-,
P--Ir--r-l 1- t--ý
I.
ii -t I I L.- iif 4-4

Ioqý hjj4- 41

__

(d) to highlightnotesof harmonicinterest

Both BeethovenandCzemyemployaccentswhena noteof harmonicinterestoccurs,suchasto

mark the dominant(at the cadencepoints)of Op. 28/i/310-311, or to highlight the shift to the
dominantin Op. 14/2/ii/6-7(ex. 5.19). Czemy'scommentson the fourth movementof Op. 26

echothis idea:

211bid.,pp. 45,47,52, and 59.

29Ibid.,p. 46.

173
 17
IIII II

The two quavers in the bass,in the 6' bar, mustbe

markedwith a certa6degre"eof emphasis.Similarly,wherever
theyoccureitherasa perfector asanimperfectcadence asin the
-
12' 20' 28' 30' 32nd& 34' barsetc. In Beethoven'sworks we
often find that he groundsthe structureof hispieceson singleand
apparentlyunimportantnotes,andby bringingout thesenotesin
the performance,as he himselfwas accustomedto do, we shall
impartthe true unity andcoloaringto the whole."

Beethovenhimselfmarksthesenotesstaccato. As mentionedabove,staccatois oneof the signs

usedto signify an accent.

Ex. 5.19

0 (D
Iv 41Hý: j I1 :1
J

iizP!
b),-, ýw-,r, 41- .1W-i 41
02 1ý1 .1 71 iF, 'Vý 1E, 1
-; 1, ,a,
II-I
1 1
--1
, :91- P---, *-F-,
IL
)a , [:: I-
L'
I M-,
J
v

(e) to emphasizesyncopations
According to Czerny, the syncopatednotes in the last twenty-two bars of Op. 10/l/ii must be

slightly marked." Beethoven does not mark any accents in this syncopatedpassage, but in Op.
27/l/i/4 and 28 (ex. 5.20), he reveals that it is necessary to accent the syncopated b6l in the
treble.
Ex. 5.20

101bid.,p. 48. Punctuation original. Although Czerny correctly observesthat those notes at
cadential points must be accented, I do not agree with his reference to them as "unimportant
notes".
"Ibid., p. 40.

174
(f) metricaccents
Czernyadvocatesthe useof metricaccents,asshownin his directionson the first phraseof Op.
10/2/iii andthe bassof Op. 31/3/i/174-175(ex. 5.21)." The accentsin ex. 5.21 are Czemy's.
Metric accentsareoftenunderstood,andihereforenot indicated.OccasionaUy, Beethovenadds

accents to his musicto the

emphasize strongbeats,
as in Op. 90/ii/223-224, Op. 106/iv/102-110

and in the bassof Op. 78/i/20-23.

Ex. 5.21

fý
F- LeLA e---, 1F1Lii
-1W1F1M,
hev ý-ý- -- -Li-t
t-t-f-- tu -11d-1-

mmhmwm6-1--J
WD-
, fek h.- 11,, oi 1i-! Loi 1 Fopý i 0@! 1--Fi MirOR-00 0 m=
[I -Iý-ý-.
JL I T.. L1 r i..1..ý -1-
I1i2T -11
I II ý- L1' -1111- II

llý-
In contrastto the Schindler/Beethoven annotationsin the CramerEtudes, Czerny does not
mention lengthening the first of a group of notes in brilliant passageworkas a meansof
accentuation. It is in
only passages with arpeggiated
consonant chords that the lengtheningof
the first note is permitted, because
such would
passages benefitfrom full, resonant "
tones. He

also doesnot teachthe of

accentuations selected
notes (evenif they fall on weak beats)in order
to form a scahcor melodic line. his
Nevertheless, adviceon varyingthe placementof metric
accentsat the repetition of (see
passagework pp. 38-40) is supportedby an examplefrom
Beethoven'sOp. 109/iii/107-108(ex. 5.22).

121bid., 41
pp. and 55. The metric accentsin the bassof Op. 31/3/i must surelybeginin bar
170.
33Czerny(1839E), iii, pp. 3,9,12, and 19.

175
Ex. 5.22

> 5
Jýl
41,if It v4

M)
ý4 1111 -9[
j02 41
ii'''i'' ii Z 'Z-i1, : Ig u --x iß fb- -: ý
cmV.- --
I
It I-, Tl '1.1, r. rz CL IL I- m F- w W-F I ___________
I- L- I L- I I- II __
J. IlI
-
ii tiISJI--4--Th1
V.,..
"J
IfI'I"Ii
" J" I"1i
I -. .. erer
iIýICIII .1 I- Ipiiivi 4-1 r" 41 w04
IIIIIIII I_I IIIII
fl11 ILII1

OQ
l1wý ______ I_.........
L1I?! T!! Ii1 }I! I1I
(1111115 0* Ili .......
Iiii-!
41 * 0 i-- -1--
it lit .111iiiI
,;:41
& i -1
-1 s

-4
11I 1r4TI I II ii

G)A ii IIýIi. 1 IqIaImI A4 -

il
ý
it ,vvIý--
n*--l

(g) to highlight the lowest bassnotes when they forrn a meaningful line
Czerny gives Op. 31/I /iii/3 6-42 and 132-140 as examples.34 This is soundadvice,judging from

the staccato marks, evidently having their alternative function as accents,applied to the lowest
bass notes in bars 132-140 (ex. 5.23). Op. 26/i/I 11-116 and Op. 54/ii/37-44 are another two
instanceswhere Beethoven highUghtsthe bass lines.
Ex. 5.23

C,-s-
-
-2ý
F- 11(ý- ,IL 10 1L
-L .1
IVP F1F I

I n,. - At ---T- I..

i4l#

I. II. -..
IiIIIIIII. L--- i-- - L-L-j IIIII

35
Accordingto Schindler,Beethovenis saidto havecriticizedCzernyfor "false" accentuation.
This is mostprobablyanothermisleadingaccusation:the abovecomparisonsshow that Czemy
in
usedaccents the samecontextsas Beethoven.

"Czemy (1846),p. 53.

"Schindler(1966) (ed.MacArdle),p. 416.
176
5.7 CZERNY'S ADVICE ON DYNAMICS COMPARED TO BEETHOVEN'S USAGE IN
THE PIANO SONATAS

In general,Czemyasksfor the carefulobservance

of Beethoven'sdynamicmarkings,probably
becauseherecognises therelationshipbetweenBeethoven'sdynamicmarkings,the structureand
characterof a piece. Of Op. 31/2/iii, he remarksthat the movementcanbeenlivenedonly "by an
exact observanceof the piano, forte, crescendoand diminuendo...... Again, in Op. 57/ii, he
the
reminds reader that the "crescendo "
andforte must.-bewell observed".

Sometimes,Czerny'sstatementsserveto reinforcethe markingsalreadyin the score. He may

havefbuýd this necessaryeitherbecause Beethoven'sdynamicmarkingsproduceanunexpected

effect, or simply he
because wishesto emphasizethe importanceof observingthe large-scale
functioningof thedynamicmarkings.For example,Czernystatesthat the expositionof Op.53/i
endssoftly, thus confirmingthat the crescendo
must be cut off abruptly both times. He also
the
confirms unexpected soft ending of Op. 90/ii. In the Trio of Op. 2/l/iii, he the
emphasizes
importanceof maintaininga soft dynamic" (as indicatedby Beethoven).Czernyalso showsan

understanding of the musical

structure when he observes that bars68-89 of Op. 2/l/i "mustbe

performed with augmented

constantly power and vivacity"." Even though Beethoven doesnot
mark tliýis
passagecrescendo, his intendedbuild-upin thesebarsis clearfrom his useof insistent
sf markingsand until
sequences the climax in bar 90 when he the
releases tensionby writing
decrescendo.

Where no dynamic marking is given, Czerny (like Hummel, seep. 38) is fond of using crescendo
in an ascendingline and diminuendo in a descendingline, as is shown in his advice for Op. 10/2/H,
Op. 14/1/ii and Op. 26/i/var. P' Occasionally,he deviatesfrom this generalrule; in the first phreise

of the scherzoof Op. 2/3, he recommendsa crescendofrom bar 5 up to theforte in bar 13,4'even
though bars 7 8
and are madeup of a descendingline. Beethoven also follows this rule of using

"Czemy (1846), pp. 54 and 59.

"Ibid., pp. 33,56 and 62.
"Ibid., p. 33.
191bid.,pp. 41,44 and 47.
101bid.,p. 37. Seealso his musical exampleof the first phrase of Op. 14/l/i.

177
 and
crescendo diminuendoto different
suggest nuances
accordingto the fan
rise and of the fine
structures,suchastheshortmotifsat thebeginningof Op. 101A. Wherea passage
fok small-scale
hasa largerstructuralfunction,suchasthe descendingline in Op. 54/ii/61-65,Beethovenwould

choose the appropriate dynamic level. In this case,a crescendo is more suitable becausethe
descendingline leadsto a climaxin bar 65.

Occasionally,Czerny'sadvicecontradictsBeethoven'snotation. We haveseenon pp. 75-77that

althoughCzerny's on
comments thelasteightbarsof Op.26/i/var.His a legitimateinterpretaiion,
sincethe lastfour barsact asananswering to
phrase thepreceding four, his ideasarethe opposite
of Beethoven's. By not cancellingthe crescendoin bar 89 with another direction (seeex. 3.3

above), this impliesthat intends

Beethoven the crescendo to last until the endof this variation.
It is alsovery strangethat Czernyshouldaskfor the first note of the third bar of Op. 7/iii to be

playedvery loudly" whenBeethoven

clearlyindicates
p and dolce (ex. 5.24).
Ex. 5.24

On the whole, Czerny hasa very good understandingof the functioning of Beethoven's dynamics

and, where such markings do not exist in the composer's hand, he often knows when to introduce

the appropriate dynamics or accentuation. However, one must be wary of his occasional
deviations from Beethoven's indications.

411bid.,
p. 38.

178
 CHAPTER 6: STYLE AND EXPRESSION - ARTICULATION.
ANDTOUCH

6.1 THE BASIC TOUCHES USED BY BEETHOVEN AND CZERNY

From the three main type of touch specified by Czerny - prolonged, connectedand detached -
he and Beethoven exploit the numerous variations available, some of which arc described by
Czemy as foRows:
.

-LEGATO Gliding one into another; smoothly connected.

i

LEGATISSIMO andMOLTO LEGATO Very connected; nearly

approaching to the
prolongedtouch.

TENUTO (ten) Held on, is sometimesplaced over singlenotes,

which in that be
case,must struck with emphasis,
andthen be firmly held down.

STACCATO Detached, separated.

MARCATO and BEN MARCATO With peculiar emphasis; generally

united with staccato, though also
applicable to the Legato.

LEGGIERMENTE and LEGGIERO ftee, light, agile; is most

properly employed in quick,
movements and in the
somewhat staccato style or
touch; though it may also be
applied to the Legato as well
as to the Staccato.

MARTELLATO Hammered. The highestdegreeofStaccato;

this term is employedbut seldom,and but by
a few authors; although it certainly deserves
to be introduced into generaluse.'

'Czemy(1839E),i, p. 189. Italicizationandcapitalizationoriginal.

179
All the abovetouches,with the exceptionof martellato, can be found in Beethoven'spiano

soýatas. Czemy is more than

enthusiastic Beethovenabouttheuseofmartellato, a characteristic
touchin compositionsof thebrillianttype(seep. 46). Beethoven,on the otherhand,consistently
his
expressed disapproval
of introducingvirtuosity for its own sake(seepp. 16,231 and232).

6.2 LEGA TO OR NON LEGA TO?

SchindlerandMoschelestestifythat Beethovenalwaysinsistedon legatoasthe normaltouch.'

In 1796,Beethovenwrote a letterto Streicher,expressinghisobjectionfor thepianoto betreated
like theharp. This clearlyindicateshiswishfor a smoother,connectedsound.In the sameletter,
he strongly emphasizes the nd-cessity
of making the piano "sing".3 in ArchdukeRudolph's
instructionbook, Beethovenagainadmitsto usinggood singingasa model:
Good singingwasmy guide;I stroveto write asflowingly aspossible
andtrustedin my abilityto justify myselfbeforethejudgment-seat
of
soundreasonandpuretaste!

Schindleralsoconfirmsthat Beethoven"adoptedthe methodsof cultivatedsingers"in cantilena

sections.In addition,whenBeethoven is facedwith a difficult he

passage, would overcomethe
problem by assigning "appropriate words to a perplexingpassage and singingit, or listening to

a good violinist or wind player play it". ' The vocal quality of Beethoven's playing in slow
movements is confirmedby many of his He
contemporaries. wasnot the onlypianistto draw his
inspirationfrom excellentsingersandinstrumentalists.As wasmentionedin chapter2, C. P. E.
Bachhadgiventhis advicein his n-iid-eighteenth
centuryEssay,a treatisewhichBeethovenheld
in greatrespect.Sostrongwashisbeliefin this methodthat hepassedon this ideato Czerny(the
latter's idealshavebeendiscussedon p. 43).

It is therefore no surprisethat Czernyrecognisesthe singing, legato tones neededto perform the

slow movementsofBeethoven's piano sonatas. As mentioned on p. 3, Czerny recalled that in his

2Schindler
(1841) (ed. Moscheles),p. 129.
'Anderson(1961),i, pp. 25-26.
'Kerst (1964),p. 25.
'Schindler(1966) (ed. MacArdle),p. 416.

180
first lesson,Beethoveninsistedon, amongother things,legato technique.A cantabilepassage
in a Beethoven'spianosonata,eventhosewithout slur marks,therefore,shouldbeplayedlegato.
This certainlyappliesto the slow movementof Op. 57 (ex. 6.1). Czerny'sadviceregardingthe
performanceof the opening theme,asexpected,involvesthe useof "
legato.
Ex. 6.1

y
m'y v 1,
"V .v

7,
15 A
ýj . djo I-" " I ri la in

-4p
0'. kW
pvf-, l
V 10
rT=I = :=
r EJLIU r
v

The sameassumption,however,shouldnot be mad&tu passageworkwithout slur marks. The

in frequently
of slurs suchpassages
absence indicates
Beethoven's
wishfor thenonlegatotouch.
In Op.31/3/iv/275(ex. 6.2),for example,Beethovenusesthe termnonligato to confirmthat thý

ornission of slursin this is

passage intentional. Again, the shift from legatoto non legatoin Op.
53/i/l 96-215is conveyedthroughthe presenceandthe absenceof slursrespectively'.However,
Ex. 6.2

" -r

FI.

one hasto be awarethat it is not to

unusual haveslur marksinsertedonly at the beginningof a
stylisticallyuniformpassage, with the same articulationexpected in the restof the section. For
example, the lack of slur marksin Op. 53/iii/450-451(ex. 6.3) does not indicatea non legato
touch,ratherthesetwo barsareexpectedto be slurredin the samemannerasbars 442-443and
446-447.

6CZeMy (1846),p. 59.

181
Ex. 6.3
4-
-b.
r IP-f -i-
0
-0
3 3'
if
bý -C-ý
-ýý rýr_z
-s
UO
I---

Ll
y. e
(_1 _
0
.0.

On the whole, many of C2emy's adviceon the use 6f legato conform with Beethoven's notation.
Schindler's accusationthat Czerny "never sustain his notes", is without basis, considering the

emphasisand frequency with which Czemy recon-imendslegato playing in the performance of

Beethoven's piano works in TheArt. Sometimes,Czerny would sacrifice the rhetoric ofa phrase
in favour of an unbroken legato line (seesection 6.4 below). Even when he occasionallydeviates
from the composer's indications, as in Op. 22/ii, it is legato that he always asks for. In ex. 6.4,

the bass from Op. 22/ii is marked mezzostaccato, but Czerny states that it should be played
legato.' He is mistaken here becauseBeethoven most probably intends the accompanimentto

resemble soft, rhythmic drum strokes, rather than smoothly connected triads. These prove'that,
far from Czemy's playing showing, as Schindler claims, a lack of "binding", perhaps therg is

sometimesa danger that Czerny is over-fond of it.

Ex. 6.4 -
AA. 'ý.ý-.., m rkým 0<.f5fQSSIOV) 9.
Ul mw\t). W%.wl --I
f- Ia111
i ti y IV.
ti Y%44ý :31ý111111.1 J- :1 ; j,, I ýKj M
I= ly -1-
wVIJ1U dy -- .......... .-
-I

..
P _ I'
IILIIIIIIIII ii
________________

I""-l
1L'
_____

'Schindler(1966)(ed.MacArdle),p. 416.
ICzemy(1846),p. 46.

182
6.3 LEGA TISSIMO

theuseof legatissimoin certainpassages

In TheArt, Czernyrecommends eventhoughdirections
for it is not specifiedby Beethoven.Nevertheless,Czernyis carefulnot to overusetl-ýstouch,
it
reserving only for cantabile or
melodies choral-like (Op.
passages 2/3/iv/103-118,
Op. 13/ii/9-
16 and the themeof Op. II l/ii), arpeggiatedchords (Op. 27/2/i), and as a meansto project
counter-melodiesin the bass (Op. 7/iv/150-154). Sometimes, Czerny couplesaccentswith
legatissimo,suchasin Op. 7/iv/150-154(ex. 6.5).'
6)
Ex. 6.5 11.1%
%,.
n tempo.
ý >WC >ýi 09 . iý rM0 i
1-ý= mi 1 L=ý ., -120 »mý-i ii-! iil-
-'-, mimL..., 5220 - . --
it9'- 0- f9-0'Ge* -1 Mi--44 F;
[a 1 .
-+2ý7 R!EWIO M"W - blo rý- ftýi= RgMil "6wn

rIr-.. " umm

ritard. 0,,-PP,
r--NP.d: f
Ememm -r-T-" 0
!- 0,.
ý- !Pýq 014101 01 -f-- 01
ir -- -- .. ------ - ý_e ..

-EM
r cs R.
fý
rý-

Beethoven evidently wishesfor some degreeof sustainedtones in all thesepassagesbecausehe

marks them with slurs, or usesthe terms sostenuto (Op. 27/2/i) or cantabile (Op. II I/ii).

The notation of Op. 31/2/iii, with its extensive use of sustained notes, could perhaps offer an
insight into Beethoven's usesof legatissimo. Notes are lengthened to contribute to the overall

resonance, to highlight the bass line, to show the harmonic progression (note for example the
tonic and dominant harmonies supported by the sustained a in the bass of ex. 6.6a), and to
I
anddiminishedchords(ex. 6.6b).
increasethe impactof the dominant-seventh
p
Ex. 6-6a
1 -j Iv T----T-1-7ý
Fý-ý t: ý I L-ý-ý Iv- I'I

IIfa- Ir 9 1 -T, --t- r-

ip I
I
I (FINYI
FIj

i F4=- F F -1

91bid.,pp. 37,39,43,49, and 67.

183
Ex. 6.6b

PI-Ifd TP r" I I, -1i

-
lvýR
-zl
fj::: T
-1 11=8=4 ftýý
L-
Ilk
r,
-
IF 1 IF I IV M

12
FIpi4iiH, 11, aIk4: =P=ý1 1,
EP
4DIIaI 11
(Cly
IWI.
r- 510! 21 -1 1 his
w L---+, ý I-I-19

1--- 1110 77

L--r--

A_i
tlfi v r,
i3rH
-1 rl ItIIrIr
________
1111 111 1" -4 JT1
-_IF fII 1tzJ
ISý ipi!. - ,i -ý- 1-4, -101 10 21

r-I

WW,
--F- 1F
If
14ýT. 1F*-"i
K1 11 111
iý;:::
11
IT V,
ý-
I

Besidesaccents,which were discussedin the previbus chapter,the lengtheningofnotes is another'

aspectwhich is emphasizedin the Schindler/Beethovenannotations of the Cramer Etudes, for

example, Etude no. 2 (ex. 6.7). The annotation to this etude lends support to Czerny's use of
legatissimo in broken chord passages:
In the four introductory bars the thumb adheresfirmly to the fiindamental
note, so that the broken triad, and in a similar manner all broken chords,
be
may made clear. In order to obtain binding, the triplet figure in the left
band must be dealt with in the sameway. "

"Cramer/Shedlock(1893),p. 5.
184
Ex. 6.7
J-
Presto. wo.

dp
do

2.

0:,:
4
4
02
4- ýtr- #g , Ita- r--ýe r-
;
a--.
g',
-;; OL

Notes may also be sustainedto form "unwritten7'melodies,as seenin the commentsregarding

Etudeno. 24:
In the first five barsthe first noteof the first triplet andthe third noteof the
second triplet must be connected together in the bestpossiblemanner,so
that the melodymay standout thus:

*1 K

The fmger, therefore, must remain on the long note."

Etude no. 24, however, appearsas follows:

Ex. 6.8

4=ý2
a,,:r6

A
=71
tt 11

I'Ibid., p. 35. The rhythm ratherthan is probablymeant,seeingthat the

time signatureis 2/4.
185
Many of the annotationsof the CramerEtudesrevealthat noteswb&h carrythe metricaccents

andthose with melodic interest

are oftenheldlongerthantheir notatedvalue (seealsosection5.5

above). If the validity of these annotations

can be determined, they will confirm that Czerny's

adviceregardingthe useof accentsand legatissimoto bring out the melodicline in the bassof
Op. 7/iv/150-154comesto us directly from the tradition of Beethoven.

Legatissimo was a common early nineteenth-century practice but the reason or the context in
it
which was introduced may have varied from person to person. It is interesting to note that the

role ofthis touch in the Cramer annotationsis to give rhythmic or motivic clarity, while to Czemy,

it is to increaseresonanceeven when applied to arpeggiatedchords in fast movements. He adds

that legiwissimo is used mainly in fairly soft passages,rarely in forte or fortissimo ones"'
Instancesin Beethoven's piano sonatasreveal that the composer also usesthis touch to increase

the resonanceof a passage.However, unlike his pupil, Beethovenis not shyabout using it in loud

passages,such as Op. 53/i/1 14-115,118-119 (ex. 6.9) and similar bars. Here, and in numerous

other instances, Beethoven seemsto notate the lengthening of broken chords only when they

remain "static" for a bar or two. Why does he not sustainthe arpeggiatedchords in bars 116-117

or those in bars 104-113? Does he expect performers to sustain them instinctively, as Czerny

probably would have done?

Ex. 6.9

6f-,
4, ---

Ii
(5o
--4-
dO
mJ 1
-
4

.1a -
2
go -
.ýaI-0 tw-L !r1 64.0 ýý iý

ý"
; a I)-
do
1. I I vr II--
--L H--+- Eý -p
- *= OR -
- ON . ý ý -, -
1 2 214
do FI
4 I

4 $ 3 3 2
4 3
f) .25
L-ia
r-r-I II1I
2
-ti ETTk. p
ýpf 13-I
--
--jo -1- dp I-- ý-! -ýI e:j Hr. ri , 7- 1
v1J--- IIII -. Ili I III . II

Výa
:0
M 'IF
21' 4

"Czemy (1839E), fii, pp. 19 and2 1.

186
Beethovenwouldhaveexpectedperformersto lengthencertainnotesaccordingto contemporary
Unfortunately,
convention. only a few have
guidelines based
survived, on theSchindler/Beethoven

annotationsand Czerny'swritings. Czemy's advice on legatissimois not unlike the advice

containedin the annotationsand in the limited musical found
examples in Beethoven's piano
and
sonatas, thereforedemands
due consideration.

6.4 THE MEANINGS OF SLURS AND LEGATO

The difficulty in understandingslursHesnot in the touch they represent,but in whetherthe last

note of eachslur is to be detached.Of the two maintypesof slursfound in Beethoven's

music,
theperformanceof two- andthree-noteslursis morestraightforwardthanthatof the longerones.
Accordingto Czemy,the last note of a two- or three-noteslur shouldbe detached,especially
when it is marked staccato. He continuesin this vein in The,
4rl, giving the sameadviceon Op.
15/iii, Op. 27/l/ii, Op. 28/iii, and Op. 78/ii." Someof Beethoven'snotationindeed confirms
Czerny'steaching,for example,the dot on the last note of a two- or three-noteslur in Op.
7/iii/71-79,Op. 10/3/iii/74-85,Op. 28/i/448-453,andOp. 53/i/146-153.

Beethovenoftenconstructswholemovements from oneor two basicideaswhicharerecognisable

partly through his useof short slurs. In fast movements, these short basicmotifs are developed
in a way that increasesthe liveliness,excitementor intensityof theclimax. Czernyshowsan
understandingof this importantrole of short-slurred
motifs whenhe that the lastnote of
stresses
the two-note slurs in the scherzoof Op. 28 should be detached, " presumablybecausehe
it in
element
considers an essential conveyingthe fiveliness
andhumourof this movement.

It has been establishedthat the long slurs in Beethoven'smusic refer to legato rather than

phrasing." In additionto slurs,figato andsempre ligato aresomeof the common indicationsof

legato; the exact degreeof "binding", however,is determinedby the musicalcontext. These

"Ibid., i, p. 187;Czemy(1846),pp. 50,51,6 1, and 104.

14Czerny(l
846), p. 51.
"Newman(1988),p. 134;Rosenblum(1988),.p. 168.
187
differentdegreesof legatoarerecognisedby Czemy:his descriptionof this touch rangesfrom

a slight legato (Op. 57/iii) throughlegato (the trio of Op. 7/iii) to very or extremelylegato (the

vivacefrom Op. 109/i and Op. "'

106/iii).

SinceCzemyconsidersslur marksto indicateboth legato andlegatissimo," he often relieson

his musicalinstinctswhen decidingon the degreeof legato to be employedin eachpassage.
Thereis alsoa strongpossibilitythat Czernyequatespassages
which carrythe indicationsempre
ligato (or semprelegato),irrespectiveofwhetherlong slursarepresent,with analmostprolonged
a "very (or extremely)legato" touchfor thetrio in Op.
touch. For example,Czernyrecommends
whicharemarkedwith long slursandsempreligato
26/ii andOp. 57/ii/33-48;both arepassages
(or semprelegato). Similarly,he asksfor a "very legato" touch in Op. 109/i/2-3"-a passage
which also carriesthe indicationsemprelegato,but doesnot havelong slurs.

The most hotly-debated issue regarding the performance of Beethoven's long slurs is whether

the last note of the slur should be detached, as is the casewith the short slurs. This question,

which started in the nineteenthcentury, continuesto baffle to

researchers this day. A. B. Marx"

contradicts Czerny by stating that the last note of long slurs should be detached. Although the
latter recognisesthe importance of observing Beethoven's articulation in order to achieve the

appropriate style and expression, Czerny is also influenced by the change from non legato to
legato as the normal touch. He writes:
When, however, slurs aredrawn over severalnotes, although the slurs
are not continuous, but are broken into several lines, they are
considered as forming but, one, [punctuation sic] and no perceptible
separationmust take place.
011- I f

trill rr
Fi
N-V
) -=Fzw
I1
I 'i .1w
a-IIIII
--., H Lzý III LI rrrr
-t. .- ----. Lzk-- --- !1-ýIIa

16Czerny(1846),
pp. 38,60,64, and 65.
"Czemy (1839E), i, p. 186 andiii, p. 2 1.
"Czemy(1846),pp. 47,59 and65.
(1863),pp. 53-54.
19Marx
188
 Herethe last note of eachbar must not be playedshortor detached;
but it must, on the contrary, be connectedwith the following one.
Shouldthe Composerdesireto makeit detached,hemustplacea dot
or dash over it."

By endingthe long slursin Op. 28/i/20,39 etc. with a dot, Beethovenmakeshis intentionclear.
Unfortunately,mostof the long slursin his piano sonatasdo not endwith a dot. Beethoven's
notationof long slurs(which is a combinationof the old andnewwaysof writing)" alsomakes
it difficult to establishwhetherthe lastnote of everylong slur shouldbedetached.Someof his

relatively long slurs,suchasthose in Op. 10/3/iv/41-45(ex. 6.10),conformto the lateeighteenth-

century tradition by not crossingthe bar line. A separationat the end of each slur win
undoubtedlyresult in this phrasesoundingdisjointed. This passageis similarto the examplein
Czemy'sPiano Forte School,.quoted above,where he advisesthe use of continuouslegato
irrespectiveof the slurs.Others,especiallythe very long onesin cantabileor chordalpassages
Ex 6.10

---'--4 1 a- .1.
-O
decrese.
UL

t-w 1,
iE
I 4

dy
n
(I
116 10-11-1P, 11 ol H-A 011 +-
(q) 6-6ý ý-ý
IIIi

(the trio of Op. 26/ii and Op. 109/i/21-35), are akin to what beýamethe nineteenth-centurystyle

of slurring. Closer inspection of Beethoven's slur notation, however, suggeststhat there cannot
be a standardmethod of performing his long slurs. The decision on whether the last note of a
long slur should be detachedwill depend on the context in which it is used.

"Czemy (1839E), i, p. 187. Capitalizationoriginal.

2'Newman(1988), pp. 127,135 and 136; Draýe (1972),p. 122.

189
It is not unusualto find slursof oneor two bars'lengthin slowmovements,
and it is now believed
that suchnotationreflectsBeethoven'sintentionof creatingrhetoricalexpression." Someof the

slow movement themes(Op. 13/ii), and evencantabile passages in the fast movements(Op.
2/3/iv/103-110 andOp. 53/i/35-42),certainlybenefitfrom a slight feelingof "breathing"at the
endof the slurs. Althoughthe last note of eachslur in theseinstances be
should gentlydetached,
the overallshapeandphrasingof the melodymustnot bedistorted.In Op. 2/3/i (ex. 6.11),if the
last note of bar 47 is detached,attentionwill be focussedon the highestpitch of this two-bar

motif (tlýiis,
as was mentioned on pp. 40 and 172,was normalpractice). Sincethis ideais again
presented over the next two bars,a slight between
separation bars48 and 49 will clearlydefine
the beginningof the motif. Beethoventheninsertsa long sluroverthe secondhalf of this phrase,
from bars51 to 55, to balancetheprecedingfour one-barslurs. Thesmooth,continuouslegato
impliedby this long slur alsoprovidesa contrastwith the slightly"breathlese'effectcreatedby
the shorterslurs.
Ex. 6.11
(D 3w 41 2
A
r
2ý

)(ED

tj
2
dolce

6-"6.. 1
l0t dO .4

TI - w R-0- vq
0
4v
4
TI

In a lively passage,slurs can be used to enhancethe articulation and to highlight the harmonic

progression, such as the transition passagein Op. 2/3/i/27-37 (ex. 6.12). By detaching the last

notes in bars 27 and 33, the shortnessand crispnessof the acciaccaturein bars 28 and 34 will'be

emphasized. If the last note of bar 29 is discreetly separatedfrom the beginning of the following
bar, the pianist will help highlight the changeof harmony. Incidentally, the slurs in bars 35 and
36 have the samefunction.

2ISeethe discussion in Rosenblum(1988), pp. 182-183; Barth (1992), pp. 108-117; and Drake
(1994), pp. 17-32.1 agree with Newman, who rejects Mies and Grundmann's suggestionthat
the irregular slurring in Op. 13/ii servesto mask the regular eight-bar phrase.

190
r,
Ex. 6.12
n2 li 1 lý - O-r- 41 3 x-, p -ý- -7--- 1 V! - au m-1a
-4-ýmt; wl ?--. IL ý-l ýl Iý1. ýL A-um- I
Ci, r- Q.
==9=: r- -i .... i i........
1\']
-ii IL. 'II I' II II

F,.
ýýii

r I'
r,

rI
ti
-. I"-I-I Pr -W 12 --r-W

II
I--ýII--.

III1IIII1III1II
114 -- 111ii g-- I.
ýgm1i1g,
1
-1-
14
- -. ý... -.

L... -- L--. L-.. i L-L-L-j

9 --
4

3 f: i
-0-4 I-

-
9
- %F go--i1ýýLiý
- C- ,4- PR
ý
ow
ý
o- 4- dp 10
ý
10
h
kp .---. ip o-
r7jý ,. --i -.. ý-, --- -
FITI... iiiiiiiiIIIiiiiiiii,, iiI! ii00,,
L-j .I w- L-L-L-J L--L. IT11" Iai-
---d

41
I
Czerny's concept of long, seamlessmelodies originated in the decadesafter Beethoven's death,

probably as a result of Wagner's influence. In The Art, Beethoven's slurs for the opening themes

of Op. 57/i and Op. 101/i have been ignored in favour of longer slurs. In Op. 57/i, for example,
Czerny's slur marks indicate the phrase structure (ex. 6.13a), while Beethoven's common

practice, as is shown in ex. 6.13b, is to end a long slur before a cadence.The latter most probably
used the slurs to simulate vocal declamation because,as'was mentioned in section 6.2, good
singing was his guide. The intensity of this phrase is better maintainedby slightly detachingthe

end of bar 2 from the beginning Of bar 3 (according to Beethoven's ýlur marks) than by piaying
legato throughout the first four bars. Unfortunately, since the top of the page of theautograph
hasbeenslightly trimmed off, the first slur seemsto disappeartemporarily in bar 2. However, the

end of this slur can be discernedat the end of this bar. In addition, its from
sequence, bars 5 to

8, is slurred inexactly the samemanner,with the slur ending at preciselythe samejuncture in the

next phrase.
Ex. 6.13a

41tegro assai. -= 108 1! ý

1
i
rl
. -- TAIýI-I----.
60,19
I. --
--- --1
p- -- .. El -, L
ý"-I zu
WO-1 tý 11 91 f 70 II. ý-. -q-0 ! ý- i
-.

riTii
'It.
IIII IIIL... J.. J I L_J]
I vt Iq-) J-ýF-L ! I
I-I f
'Movement.
(OUR
. ., 99 ,- -ý,
,F_zzzzmlz:;
--4ý

191
 /. t... -

ýo

192
6.5 TENUTO AND SOSTENUTO

theoristswho equatetenutowith sostenuto(seepp. 43-

In contrastto somenineteenth-century
44), BeethovenandCzemyusethetwo termsdifferently. Theyemploysostenutoasanadjective
to the maintempoheadings.The indicationadagiosostenutoin Beethoven'sOp.27/2/i andOp.
106/iii prove that he usessostenutoas an adjectiveto adagio. The debatablefactor is whether
Beethovenconceivessostenutoasmeaning"holding on. Keepingback" asdefinedby Czerny."

Tenuto,on the other hand,canbe usedin two ways. The first is to indicatea deepertone (or a
slight emphasis)on singlenotesor chords. it
Secondly, is usedto indicatea smoothconnection
on a of
succession chords. The tenutomarkings in Op. 53/ii/l (ex. 6.14) andin Op. 81a/i/I 8 and
III are examplesof the former. Their functionis to enhancethe expression.Like Beethoven,
Czemy" alsoperceivesthat tenutoon singlenotessignifiesthat they shouldbe emphasized.In
later works, tenutoon singlenotesis also usedto mark a key change,as in Op. II 01iii/6(ex.
6.15). The tenutoin bar 9 from the Largo of Op. 106deservesspecialmention:it is placedoil
Ex. 6.14
klaý,
o "N

II.
Ex. 6.15

/-/\ ALLýto
A&tl a

Iv pA ýýj
kf 1ý11+1
"-"- ---,bý. k, I,
VKI
tlu- II K---KT--r
-t
t(j)
4,14it :K t%Fi. IýAIIrV
IWýýI rl1)vV9 1-0 1,0 14
u -a& ki- H- .
Lr ý
-I

I eýv IILI 0 k. uiIiII

VI
l9'
F-41
Ww
-IiIIV
9ý1
4il I-qHK
ý!ý-ýr, ýj
?II
-F

13Czemy (I 839E),i, p. 156.

2'lbid.,i, p. 189.

193
a tied chord (ex. 6.16). At a glance,this appearsto be a curiousand most unsuitableplace.
Wouldit not bemoreappropriateto introducetenutoon the first of thisseriesof chords(in b. 8)?
However,the significanceof this notationbecomesapparentif oneconsidersthe possibilitythat
Beethovenmayhaveusedtenutoto mark the point of modulationaswell asthe first beatof bar
9. Here,tenutohasceasedto bean expressivemarking. It hastakenon a differentmeaning:one
function.
with a structural
Ex. 6.16
=
-I-&Pvo t1vto
e
FA
1
0*A.
111W
r.) A2+- AA-
(AN
rz V

Ll -H Ll -T
IL- F ----v- fIII.. III1 11 IL

If tenuto is required over two or more chords, Beethoven would spaceout the marking, as is the

case in Op. 7/ii/50 (ex. 6.17) and in Op. 78/i/24 and 83. Alternatively, he usesthe term tenuto

sempreorsempretenuto to sustaina successionof chords, such as Op. 2/2/ii/1-5,13-16,32-36,

44-47 and 58-59 and Op. 7/ii/25'(ex. 6.18). In both instances,the right-hand melody, marked
tenuto sempre or sempre tenuto, has an accompaniment marked staccato sempre or sempre

staccato. Czerny also employs tenuto in this manner, as witness his instructions regarding the
FuneralMarch of Op. 26: I

As a funeralmarchion.the deathof a hero,this movementmustbe

performedwith a certainearnestgrandeur,whichis expressed not
II
only by the slow time, but alsoby a heavypressureof the chords
in the strictesttenuto,by whichthe fulnessof the sameisproduced
in everydegreeofpiano andforte.25

Ex. 6.17
Il -i Ii I'-, "

Jr
-*w, -#Vw I
pf
tQ - tq

2'Czemy(1846),pp. 47-48.

194
Ex. 6.18

p Ozýý.
-kkz"
AIII,, III
-TIT\ V4- ,,,
.11 rlo- or
ý-v kA
jv14. ,

.L
:ý"ýIp
ý; .- -1 4- 1i;it 1:9 F-ýý ii
-.v-_-v0
D
a 4011 Al- -1 11-iI
1 ip4p I-

r Sk'((

6.6 STA CCA TO

Much research has been conducted in the last one-and-a-half centuries in an attempt to decipher

Beethoven's staccato notation. The aim is to determine whether dots have a different meaning
from dashes. Nottebohm, Unger, Keller, Unverricht, Zaslaw, Newman, and Fischer suggest that

dots refer to a light staccato afid dashes a heavier one. Although Nottebolun states that
Beethoven made a distinction between dashes and dots at least from 1813 (possibly even by

1800), Newman claims that such distinctions already exists in an early work for four hands (179 1)
in bars 59-60 of Beethoven's Pariationen fiber ein Thema des -Grafen von WaIdstein,
-
Wo067.26

In 1957,Mies opposedthe ideathat Beethoven'sdotsanddashesrepresentdifferentdegreesof

He in
staccato. reasons, my opinioncorrectly,that Beethoven
would haveuseddots anddashes

"Nottebohm (1872), pp. 107-f25; Unger (1926),p. 2ý; Keller (1973),pp. 100-101;
Unverricht(1960),pp. 56-63;Brown and Sadie(1989),p. 210;Newman(1988),pp. 139-144;
Fischer(1990),pp. 154-166. Fischerclaimsthat Beeýhoven alsoemploysthe wedge.
195
in a systematicandconsistentmannerifa differencehadbeenintended.Nevertheless,
heobserves
that Beethoven'sstaccatonotation is sometimesaffectedby the expressionof the passage-
dashesbecomeincreasinglylongerandheavierin loud passages
while the staccatomarkingsare
oftensmallerandmore dot-like in soft It
passages. is this sameobservationwhichled Newman
to arriveat the oppositeconclusion- that Beethovenconsciouslydifferentiatedbetweendots
and dashes.
He insiststhat dots in
aremainlyused softer,gentlermusic,andin passages marked
ritardando and/or diminuendo. Dashes, in his opinion, are associatedwith brighter, more
accentedsounds." The example he uses,
quoted from Op. 26/i/77-81(ex. 6.19),unfortunately
to
serves contradict rather than supporthis theory. It is true that Beethoven'snotationwas
influencedby the emotionsof the passagehe was writing at the time, but the staccatoat the
beginningof this passageis clearlynotatedwith small dashesrather than dots as claimedby
Newman.
Ex. 6.19

p
Il,
ý,C-r-! - ýII-I .-tsI-

I- H1TT111I1 J]. J.jij. uj

H, -" li I?r[J1$LLki
11
-A41. I
Li t7,' 'V JI ""
i i,
Q .1 i"J"
0, P=ý-,
-F ijj.
-=f ,
:;;,
.1I
r--,-1-777ý
4ý4 Tý4:
iJ; i;
-1 ,T Tht .9; i4
II
.1---
I I.. 1

II" -I-4iII- 4- I-7II7.1

.-- i-
-I- -

'j
¶kT) IIi LI I 1-.-
s;t i4i . dr -
wý
F-fý --

I
q--Zzzý

___ .

-i -i iq
Lmj-IL: AI19
iiiý 4; Hj iI :1
.4 la'A -1-
I biq A, F, I,
ý Ol ,-
.-. - ). J. -Y-_J.# ---

I in 1 17 -.
I-i. 4.4/ I. .4"
I.. IIIIIýý
.4,
-1 1
'I
HIII)III1--i IJ i Ii J.. II L-I-Fi I r'Liit
tlý

haphazard
A convincingexplanationonthismysterysurroundingthesupposedly in
manner which

17Mies(1957), pp. 83-95; Newman (1988), pp. 143-145. -

196 1
Beethovennotateshis staccatomarks can be found in an unpublishedthesisby Riggs. He
that,
concludes the
on whole, Beethovenusesdashes to indicatestaccatooversinglenotes,while
dots areusedwith slursto indicateportato. His view is also sharedby Rosenblum,Drake and
Brown. They maintainthat dashesare employedin all instanceswheresinglenotesare to be
detached,irrespectiveof the degreeof staccatodesired. AlthoughNewman,who hadnot read
Riggs'thesis,hastheoppositeviewpointregardingstaccatonotationoversinglenotes,heagrees
that dots andslursareemployed to indicateportato."

Althoughthey arriveat opposing results,the two "groups" aboveoftenrely on the oft-quoted

letter whichBeethovensentto Holz in 1825(seepp. 68-69),andthe composer'scorrectionsin
parts
a set of Orchestral for No.
Symphony 7 in A major, Op. 92, to supporttheir arguments.
When commentingon the letter of 1825,Riggsand Brown clarify that Beethovenconsistently

replaceddashes under slurswith dots whencorrectingthe copyists'

work on the String Quartet
Op. 132, but did not make any changesto the dashesplacedover singlenotes. A similar
is
observation made regarding theorchestralpartsfor the Seventh Symphony: Beethoven changed
all the dashesunder slurs to dots. In addition, Riggs noticesthat when correctingthe parts
prepared by his Beethoý,
copyists, en was very careful to change dashesunderslurs (portato) to
dots,but wasnot concernedaboutalteringhiscopyists'dotsto dashes(to indicatestaccato)over
singlenotesunlessthe two typesof articulationoccur in close Investigations
succession. on this

subjecthave alsobenefittedfrom the discoveryof the manuscript

of Op. 132 which wascopied
by Holz (it wasunavailablewhen Nottebohm and Unverricht their
presented "
views).
II.

A page from the autograph of Op. 90/ii (ex. 6.20) shows how Beethoven clearly differentiates
between round dots under slurs for portato, and long dashesfor staccato. Allowance must be

given,however, for the in

irregularities the and
shapes sizesof Beethoven'sstaccatoandpor6to
indicationswhichcould be causedby writing fatigue,or the varyingsizesof the pennips,or the
"emotionaldrive" of the passagehewasnotating. Writing a dot with a quill pencanbe difficult,
if
especially the endof the nip hasbeen so
sharpened manytimesthat the hole becomes
rather

28i
Riggs(1987), pp. 245-269,308-319 and 348-349; Rosenblum (1988),p. 186;Drake1(1972),
136; Brown (1999), p. 252; Rewman (1988), p. 143'.
p.
"Riggs (1987),pp. 257-3 10 and 348-349;Brown (1993), p. 202; Brown (1999),p. 252;
Drake(1972),p. 136;Rosenblum(1988),pp. 186-187.
197
 large. In the autographof Op. 101/iii,the two dots undera slur towardsthe endof bar 17have
beenlengthenedto the extentthat they look like dashes(seeex. 3.6). If onestudiesthe writing
carefully,the ink is muchdarkerand the lines are muchthicker thanin ex. 6.20. This suggests
that the pennip at this stagewasmuchlarger. Consequently,it is muchmoredifficult to write
thedotsundera slur. Thisapparent"inconsistency"is obviouslynot intentionalon thepart ofthe
composer.
Ex. 6.20
"t
-....

Ij

1ý

Beethoven's staccato notation was also consistentthroughout his careeras a composer. NNUle
he was proofreading a work, the staccatomarkswhich were addedin pencil could shedsomelight

on this debate (the problems which could sometimes result ftom a large pen nip have been

discussedin the previous paragraph). In his corrections of the three early sonatasfrom about
1783(a set of sonataswhich he dedicatedto the Elector of K61nMaximilian Friedrich), the added

staccatomarkings to the first sonatais particularlyrelevant. In bars 19-21and againin bar 66

in thefirst movementof thissonata,longdashesareboldlyaddedin pencil. His staccatonotation

wasstill the thirty-three

same yearslater. Thestaccatomarkings, in
added pencil,in Op. 101/ii/54

198
(ex. 6.21) are also in the shapeof long dashes.
Ex. 6.21

Even though Beethoven does not vary his signs to indicate different degreesof staccato,

performersshould be able to decipherthe composer'sintentionsbasedon the musicalcontext.

Czcrny's solution is exemplary. In all his explanationsregardingthe choice of the different
degreesof touchesand articulation, it is the characterof the individual passagesand/or of the

overall movementwhich is the deciding factor. The third movemcntof Op. 2/3 and the bassin
the secondmovementsof Op. 28 and Op. 31/1, for example,are all markedstaccato. Czerny
correctly observesthat the staccatoin the lively schcrzoof Op. 2/3 mustbe"light andshort". In
contrast,the bassin the march-likcsecondmovementof Op. 28 shouldbe "very short, light, and
remarkablystaccato". In the gracefulsecondmovementof Op. 3 1/1,thestaccatois delicate,and
he likensit to the nccompanimcntof a guitar. "

6.7 Af EZ7,0 S TACCATO

Czcrnyconsidcrsviezzostaccato(usuallynotatedthus: *01-IN-, or whenappliedto singlenotes,

--ý- ) as a touch tx-t%%-ccn
the smoothlegato and the pointcdstaccato. Eachnote, struck Nvith

"'Czcrny(1846), pp. 37,51 and 52.

199
a slight emphasis,should be held for two-thirds of its full note-value. In slow movements,the
cffect of this touch would resemble "a speech interrupted by sigl&', 3' and would thus be

appropriatein Op. 27/l/iii/19. His advicecan also be appUedto movementsof moderatespeed,

for example,Op. 10/2,riV3840,4344,4748 (ex. 6.22) and Op. 26/i/209-212(ex. 6.23). Note
how effectively Beethovenchangesthe characterof bars 205-208 at its modified repetition in
bars209-212 of ex. 6.23, prirnarily through the use of a different articulation.
Ex. 6.22

11 tI
A w0l

Ifny r

.
-. --T -
4
-j-;
- fe __ ___
-f
6): 1 1. +1 1
'vk' :ii1 E11 ______ Lu
4-i.

Ex. 6.23

In addition to the "sighing cffect", Beethoven rnay have used this notation to convey a

psychologicalmessage.I Ic often usesit on repeatedchords,for instance,in ex. 6.22 aboveand

inOp. 53/iV4,18,20,26, and27. In this context, Beethovenimpliesthat an almostlegato cffect
is neededeventhoughthe finger hasto be liflcd beforethe secondchord is played. Sometimes,
by
mezzostaccato chords arc separated rests, as in Op. 2/2/V221-224 (ex. 6.24) and in Op.

"Czemy (1839E), iii. pp. 20,24 and 25.

200
7.5ii/82-83.It is obviousthat Beethovendoesnot intendthat the chordsin ex. 6.24 shouldbe
psychologicallysegregated eventhoughtheyhaveto bephysicallydisconnected, becausethey
forma vital finkbetweenthedevelopment Theslursoverthedots,
sectionandtherecapitulation.
therefore,referto a coherentphrasingleadingto the recapitulation.
Ex. 6.24
lb
4
I-- L
111 1 op
len 30
C& -
A
r- -
F-6
.0

In florid figurations,suchasthosefound in Op. 31/1/ii/2,4 (ex. 6.25) andsimilarbars,and in Op.

53hill I and 13, anothertype of mezzostaccato is used. CzCrnycalls it the lingering staccato.
He describesthis methodof playing as follows:
I 1crcthe fingersmust rest on the keysfor onehalf the durationof the notes,
and the hand must remainas tranquil as in the legato; so that the notesare
by
shortenedonly a gentlewithdrawing of the tips of the "
fingers.

Ex. 6.25
ýIrA%Csfj
0

1ý e---N .
i E9 ff I I P, i 'JI F
I
M W.
'ýT--vl- ýýý
-4. O. j
r-iana *ýti
1v IF-
i's -.
I -
4=4= -r

Czcrny also states that mc=o staccato should be employed in very fast passagcsmarked
kgglermente or k=1crissimo. To achievethis touch,
[c]ach finger mustmakecontactwith the keyswith its soft and fleshy
tip. By a rapid action, makea movementlike that usedin scratching
or tearingoff something. I'lic be
tone must clear,pearlyand equal."

Apart from Op. 78/i/8-10 and 60-64 and Op. 79/i/12-23 and 134-144 which are in fast

"Ibid., i, p. 186.
"Ibid., iii, pp. 26-27.

201
movements, leggiermente
usuallyoccursin derniserniquaver passagesof eitherslow movements
or thoseof moderate for
speeds, example in Op. 3 I/l/ii/1 0,12,74, and76, Op. II 0/i/12-19and
Op. 11I/ii/72-80 (ex. 6.26).
Ex. 6.26

III
1!

Even though it is difficult to assessthe authenticity of Czerny's instructions on mezzostaccato

owing to a lack of contemporarywritings on this matter, his advice is plausibleand seemsto suit
the various passagesin the piano sonataswith this touch.

6.8 SUMMARY

BothBeethoven and Czernyemployeda wide rangeofarticulation (from legatissimoto staccato),

but elected legato as the normal touch. Beethoven also taught Czemy the important lesson of

obtaining a good tone when playing the piano, especially one that imitated excellent singers.
Czemy's enthusiasmfor the use of martellato, however, was probably not sharedby his teacher.
The latter repeatedlyvoiced his objection on composersand pianists who introduced virtuosity
for its own sake.

In The Art, Czerny shows a strong understanding on the performance of short slurs in
Beethoven's piano sonatas. By asking for the last note of thesetwo- or three- note slurs to be
detached, the appropriate character of the movement (such as humour) will be successfully

conveyed. However, his advice for a smooth legato in cantabile or chordal passages is

questionable. By extending Beethoven's longer slurs, Czerny chooses to sacrifice rhetorical

for
expression continuous legato.

202
CzernyandBeethoven,in contrastto manyof their contemporaries,
treatedsostenutoandtenuto
as two differentterms. Sostenuto
was usedas an adj ectiveto the maintempoheadings,while
tenutowas applicableto either singlenotes(or chords),or to a short chordalpassage.When
tenutoappearsover singlenotesor chords,this signifiesthat the note or the chord shouldbe
Beethoven
emphasized. alsoemploystenutoas an indicationto sustaina succession
of chords.
Beethoven'stwo mainusagesof tenutoare correctlyunderstoodby Czemy.

Czernyrecognisedboththedashandthedot asindicationsofstaccato. Beethovendifferentiated

betweenthe two signs,but only as far as using dashesfor staccatoand dots under slurs for

portato. The degree of shortnessof a therefore,

staccato, is derivednot from the notation,but
froin the contextit is usedin the music.

on legatoandstaccatoconformwith Beethoven's
On the whole,manyof Czerny'ssuggestions
notation. His advicealso reflectsa strong understanding
of Beethoven'sstyle andthe,distinct
of
character each In
movement. some however,
instances, Czemy's betray
comments a personal
in
especially
preference, the of
performance long slurs.

rI,

203
 CHAPTER 7: ORNAMENTATION

7.1 THE RELEVANCE OF BACH'S ESSAY IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF

BEETHOVEN'S ORNAMENTS

The general survey of early nineteenth-centuryperformance practice, as outlined in chapter 2,

reveals their state of uncertainty in many areas. By no means the smallest issue is that of

asthe role andrealizationsof ornamentswereundergoinga periodof transition.

ornamentation,
Suchchangeis clearlyreflectedin Beethoven'streatmentof ornaments.In spite of his high
regardfor Bach'sEssay,
someof the ornaments in Beethoven's earlycompositionsshowthat he
to
was, someextent,already departing from the tradition Bachhad established.

The first obviousdifferenceHesof coursein the notationof ornaments.During Bach'slifetime,

indicationsof ornamentswerefew, sinceperformerswereexpectedto introduceembellishments

at their own discretion,

'includingthose but
unnotated obligatoryornamentsat the cadentialtrill
and the fermata.Beethoven wasmore particularin his indications
asto thetype of ornamentand
the contextin which eachoccurs. WhileBachusedsmallnotesto indicateboth the long andthe
short appoggiatura(the difference between the two ornamentshad to be deduced from the
musicalcontext),Beethoven preferredto notatehis long in largenotes. Only the
appoggiaturas
shortappoggiaturas were indicatedby smallnotesin orderto avoidanyconfusionthat mayliave
arisenas a resultof the dual functionof thesesmallnotes.
fI.

From his first set of piano sonatas with opus number, there is already a hint that he did not

necessarilyagreewith Bach on the context in which he should introduce his ornaments. Theway
the Schneller is employed is an example. Bach states that this short trill (which he calls a
Pralltriller) in
appears only a descendingsecond. It is found either over the second note of a

two-note slur (ex. 7.1a) or in descendingpassagesof three or more notes (ex. 7.1b) and should

never appearover detachednotes.' Since it is placed over rapid notes, its function is to add "fife
brilliance to a performance".2
and

'Bach(1974),pp. I 10-112.
2Ibid.,p. I 10.

204
Ex. 7.1a

Ex. 7.1b
4,

Although Beethovenretainsthe quick and brilliant characteristicsof this ornament,the Schneller

in his piano sonatasalways begin on the first rather than the second note. For example, Op.
2/2/iv/27 and 29 (ex. 7.2), Op. 7/iv/43 and 136 and Op. 79/iii/7 and 41. He even uses the
Schneller in ascendingfigures in two of his piano sonatas - Op. 2/3/i/58-59,190,191-192 and
Op. 22/i/10 and 137 (ex. 7.3). 'In addition, Newman concludes that Beethoven;s Sqhneller

consists not of four notes as suggested by Bach (ex. 7.1a above), but of three (see also the
discussionon the placementof the Schneller in relationto the beatin section 7.3 below).3

Ex. 7.2 /

/-Xlý
%r_v
^V II
0
I r ýw
f
v ip a-&
I
WA
1 bid I 1--+-t--i :prI-II it 1
I . -- IIrIvIi
['--:7-ý EFif: t

'Newman(1976),pp. 446-450;Bach(1974),p. 110.

205
Ex. 7.3

G,
h -E :t_ :t
-F-ý
/i I" ,
41 i ýj
Iý
111
1ý
lqý ztII
'4/ y Id II ______

Beethoven'streatmentof slides,however,is lessradical.Bachdividesslidesinto two categories-

one consists of two notes and the other of three. The two-note slide,which is usuallyplayed
quickly,is "alwaysused in a leap which it helps to fill iW'. The three-noteslideis alsoused to fill
the gapin a leapbut its speedis determinedby the characterof the movementandthe tempo. It
is suitablenot only in rapidmovementsbut alsoin slow andexpressive
ones.Thetwo-noteslide
can be indicatedby smallnotesor by"v (ex. 7.4). Similarly,the three-noteslidecaneither be

written out or indicatedwith a cn (ex. 7.5). This slidemay be followedby a leapor a note in

stepwisemotion. Both types of'Slideareperformed beforethe beat.4

Ex. 7.4

or wi,iter% 0'so

fII

Ex. 7.5

The three-noteslide, as describedby Bach, is used frequentlyin Beethoven'spiano sonatas

written by 1800. It appearsalongsidemodifiedversionsof this ornament,such as
sometimes,

4Bach(1974),pp. 136-138.
206
thosederivedfrom triadsor brokenchordsin Op. 10/1A/9-13(ex.7.6). Suchslidesarerelatively
Ex. 7.6

A16o-- cin it --N 594 ip %-I --, II,

PA Pi 1,1 ý1 -IPj L
It( J)v yI
-Ff1P01 10-11,1
1, kA
IF-
a11"1F1114j'
IIA lot, I -6
I I-T 1 -1 !IFF
-10- n
rýnl,

common in all his piano sonatas. It is also observed that many two-note slides in the piano
do
sonatas not conform to Bach'srules,with the exceptionof thosein Op. 3 I/l/ii/42), 44 and46.
While Bachusesthe two-note slideto fill the gap of a leap,Beethovensometimesusesit as a
decoration(often without a leap),as in Op. 13/iii/5-6,66-67,125-126,and 175-176,and Op.
of two-noteslides,againasdecorationsto
3I/l/ii/33 and97 (ex.7.7). He alsousesa succession
Ex. 7.7
4
G
I;
-. -ýý T- I&
-1
P4

{
the main notes, for example in Op.
16

7/ii/3 8 and
IF

40-41 (ex. 7.8), Op.

7vv

27/2/iii/61-62,155-156 and
,
194-196 and Op. 11 0/i/25-26 and 84-85. Although Bach is
statesthat the two-note slide often

performed quickly, Beethoven's two-note slide in Op. 7/ii/14 and 74 (ex. 7.9) appears at. the

climax of the phrase,which invites a natural broadening of the tempo. Beethoven also extends
Ex. 7.8
A
-+Qr,

r f
Q9 nt
1117-
-0-
11-ý
: 44 All;1111T
14DJ

ý:i

207
Ex. 7.9

IK fl' ell

-f
the numberof notesin a slide,turning it into a florid figurationwhichfills the gapin a^leapin Op.
10/l/ii/17,19,21,62,64, and66 and Op. 31/2/ii/5 and 94 (ex. 7.10).
Ex. 7.10
I
ýI ", f-
-p-.. - t- e-11
. - -j

IL

Cý 1 I1: r F
i -U-- IL -

A number of Bach's rules governing the appropriate contexts for the inclusion of particular

ornaments, their realizations and characteristics, are only loosely observed by Beethoven.
Sometimesthey are modified, as is the casewith the Schneller and the sl*. This has serious
implications, for it calls into question the extent to which modem scholars can rely on Bach's
Essay as a basis of understanding the realization of Beethoven's ornaments, espeoially,trius.
Even in an early composition such as Wo04O (seeexs. 7.29a and 7.29b below), his fingerings for
the three trills indicate not only an upper-note start (as Bach practised) but a main-note one as

well. A lack ofuniversal consensuson the realization ofornaments in the early nineteenthcentury

makes it equally unhelpful to consult contemporary treatises. Even some of the few fingerings

which Beethoven added over his trills have given rise to more questionsthan answers,as will be
discussedin section 7.4 below. The only alternative, therefore, where Beethoven's instruction is

unavailable,is the study of the musical contexts in which these ornaments occur (even ifthis may

sometimes be rather subjectiveý. Unfortunately, it is not possible to compare Beethoven's and

Czemy's realizations of every ornament, since the fori-ner did not leave sufficient directions

208
regardingtheir realizations.For this reason,discussionof the performanceof the turn is not
includedhere.

7.2 APPOGGIATURAS

While manyof Beethoven'slong appoggiaturasare written out, heprefersto usesmallnoteswith

3' X)
or without a stroke acrossthe stem ( and to indicate the short appoggiatura. The two

signs seem to be used interchangeably. In the exposition of Op. 13/i/51-71, for instance, he

notates the short appoggiatura with aP but in the analogous passagein the recapitulation (bb.
ý. Czerny acceptsthe two signs to representthe short appoggiaturaexcept
221-241), he uses
1.5
in the contextsshownin ex. 7.1
Ex. 7.11

E
A :I--I-I1 .0-1.1 l- 1-III11iAI
r, W- IF 11 f' 1141? -IW-II-
rII rtT vr
OP-2-1 11 Dý, II11iiiii
I Li iii II II I LJ II fl't I II I dJjJ
') I. i'II F-UII1 1E1 IIP-I -Uiii
_____I

A few years later, Czemy again asks for the samerealization of an appoggiaturasimilar to the
third instancein ex. 7.11 above. With regard to the passagein Op. 10/3/i/53-55 (ex. 7.12), he
that"the
spSFifies little note is a long appogiatura [sic) and must therefore beplayed as a quaver
6 Unfortunately,it is not possibleto deduceBeethoven'sintentionsherebeýause
he always assignsthe appoggiatura sign to the samedescendingfigure.
Ex. 7.12

II ii

'Czemy(I 839E),i, p. 161; Czemy(1846),p. 42.

6Czemy(1846),p. 42.

209
 Czerny'sinstructionthat the shortappoggiaturashouldbeaccentedon the second
Nevertheless,
be
note'can safely appliedto Beethoven'scompositions. Thesfor > markingson the mainnotes
of Op. 2/l/i/5-6, Op. 2/2/iv/4,28 and 125, Op. 7/iii/36,38 and 40, and Op. 13/i/53-54and in

similarbars (ex. 7.13) determinethat the secondnote of the short appoggiaturareceivesthe

accent.
Ex. 7.13

7.3 THE SCHNELLER

Accordingto Czerny,the Schneller(he refersto it as the transientshake)is madeup of three

notes. The two small notes added to the written note must be playedvery quickly, with an
emphasison the third or written note! He consistentlygivesthe sameadviceregardingthis
using
ornament, the same explanationfor this ornamentin the third movementof Op. 31/2. His

recommended realizationof the ornament beginningin bar 43 is in

shown ex. '
7.14.
Ex. 7.14
I
01 A ý:, "*-- -I- A
11F7-ý r, --, \
I It -7-
I-F 40 0-1 1
LL lb
wv

-3
1_J__IL

c;111
4-1 r Hfpl

Tzemy (1839E), i, p. 161.

'Ibid., i, p. 163.
lCzemy(1846),p. 54.
210
By suggestingthat the bass"mustcomeout smartlyafter the two smallnotes"," he is implying
that the Schnellershouldbe playedbeforethe beat. As mentionedin section7.1, Beethoven
introducedtlýiisornamentin a differentcontextfrom Bach,suggestingthatthe formermighthave
hada differentrealizationin mind. However,do Czerny'srecommendations aboverepresentthe
way in whichBeethoven would haverealizedthe Schneller? Althoughscholarsof performance
practiceaccept Czerny's that
suggestion this ornamentconsists of threenotes, theyquestion his

claim that it should be playedbeforethe beat andthat the accentshouldfall on the third note.
Newmancites Op. 7/i/ 109-110(ex. 7.15) in which, he believes,the semiquavers In bar 108

preventthe first two notesof the Schnellerfrom being introducedbeforethe first beatof the
following bar."
Ex. 7.15

A&-
OYV
e. bo
ý -L *F. 2- - -q
IV4
e",%
-t -9 t: ý :t-ýtj
pII
t
. 4- &-I

tý, -1--] 11 I
A
Rý4 ý- ii Wý4Ett
'if

Kullak andNewmanalsobelievethattheaccentshouldbeon the first beat,ratherthanthethird."

Their doubt is not without basis. If Czemy's in
adviceregardingthe passage ex. 7.14 is io be
takenliterally,playingtheSchnellerbeforethebeatandplacinganaccenton thethird notewoLuld
shorten the length of the ensuingquaver. The rhythm of the two equal quavers would be
distorted. In this case,it is moresuitableto placethe accenton the first note. In addition,the

positionin whichthey occur in Beethoven's musiccould further clarify this matter. Many of his
Schnellerare on the first of a two- or three-noteslur, so accordingto the rule governingshort

slurs as in
discussed section6.4, the first note of the slur (and thereforethe first note of the
Schneller)is to be slightlyaccented.

101bid.
"Newman (1988), pp. 213-214.
IlKullak (1973), pp. 77-78; Newman (1988), pp. 213-ý14.

211
7.4 THE TRILL

Czernyliststhreepossiblewaysof startinga trill - on the note above,on the mainnoteor on the

notebelow. Unlikehisinvariable
advice on the realizations ofthe appoggiaturaandtheSchneller,
his view on the performance
of the trill in the 1830sand 40s differs from that in the 1820s,
as is

outlinedbelow.

Accordingto Czerny'sPianoForteSchool,a trill maybeginon themainnotewhenit is preceded

by restsor by any note apartfrom the principalnote itself If the latter occurs,a start on the
is
uppernote advisable. The trill mayalsobegin on the lower it is
auxiliarynotewhen preceded
by a lower appoggiaturaprefix. Double trills also begin on their "
respectivemainnotes. A
summaryof these rulesappearedtwo yearslater, in his introductory remarksto the Schoolfor

the Practice of the Shake,Op. 632: a work which contains twelve for
exercises the practiceof
the trill. The notabledifferenceis his adviceon the startingnote of the trill whichaccompanies
a melody, to beplayedby the same hand. In the Piano Forte School,his advice is to startthis trill
" In Op. 632, he for trills of this type to beginon the "
mainnote.
on the uppernote. asks

Although Czerny is insistent in the Piano Forte School and in Op. 632 that most trills should
begin on their main notes,his earlier emphasis, as specified in his prefaceto the Grand Exercise
for the Practice of the Shake, Op. 151 (cl 828), is to begin them on their upper notes. Of the
,
three possiblebeginnings for a trill, he expressesin Op. 151 a preferenýefor the upper-note'start.
The vast majority of fingering in the exerciseof Op. 151 refers to an upper-note start-,including
those which accompanya melody to be played by one hand, and a successionof trills quitted by

skips (ex. 7.16). By the time Piano Forte School was written, he had decidedto adopt a main-
for trills which were quitted by "
leaps.
note start

"Czerny (I 839E), i, pp. 171-175.

i,
"Ibid., p. 176 and ii, pp. 128 ,130.
1lCzemy (184 1), p. 4.
"Czemy (0828), preface and p. 5; Czemy (1839E), ij, p. 129.

212
Ex. 7.16

4... 4Y
-rf* Tr -
0 11 IF -01. :r q-t- ly

Sf

Czerny'sview on the automaticinclusionof a suffix to enda trill wasalsodifferentin the 1820s.

In theprefaceto Op. 151,hestatesthatwhena suffix is not notated,thetrill shouldbcrperformed

without it. Elevenyearslater,he had changed his mind. In the Piano Forte School,he instructs
that irrespectiveof whethera suffix is notated,the trill shouldendwith it. 17As mentionedin
chapter 2, there wasa definite trend in the earlynineteenthcenturytowardsadoptinga main-note

start for the trill and ending it with a suffix. Although Hummel embracedboth upper-noteand
main-note starts,he expressed a preferencefor the latter. He also beganembracingthis new
practiceahead of Czemy. In the same yearthat Hummel publishedhis Germantreatise(1828),
Czerny'sOp. 151still endorsesthe upper-notestart,with thetrill finishingwithouta suffixunless

notated.

A comparison of the preface of Op. 151 with Czerny's comments in the Piano Forte School
further reveal subtle changesto the rapidity and the qualities which he claims constitute a good

performanceof a trill. In his explanation on the realization of a descendingcýain of trills in Op.

151 (ex. 7.17), eachtrill consistsOf five notes. The samerealization in the Piano Forte Sýhool

shows each trill with nine notes (ex. 7.18), " suggestingan increasein the rapidity of the tri.11.His

choice ofadjectives also confirm this changein approach. ýn Op. 151, he instructs that successive
trills in the grand exercisemust be played "quite legato, and in a light, graceful, style". By 1839,
he is more concerned with trills being "quick, equal and distince'. " This shows a significant

changein attitude evenafler considerationis given to his qualifying statementfollowing ex. 7.18
in the Piano Forte School - the number of notes in a trill varies dependingon the context.

IlCzemy(cl 828),preface;Czemy(I 839E),i, p. 171.

"Ibid.
"Ibid.
213
Ex. 7.17

fIA34
-tr
h -a 1111,11 WI -. -- fl_ »
III U]
. I__IIIIIIlIIIIrrIr--'-I
ý (I-N I
;I! P-. 1-4=hd 1rr I: ri
-AwT-: p, p--:,
iiiP .11
- 11-' IIIII-1-1
'-a En! ± 01t! 1-4-4
ý4:::J 11 -4-1-1 111111 F- I LU
u III 11111
- "Lzl--I= rzr=tzl=L

Ex. 7.18

M
D 131 t 3.1
ill
LflJ

%
L iiii [AýJý X a.:t 31 %1 4123 1
r pro

0
1.1 4-% f9

ý:f 0"00WW.--
I

II
Czerny's theoretical writings display his conscious efforts gradually to incorporate tho newNyays

of performing trills. Unfortunately, his fingerings in some of the examples in the second volume

of Piano Forte School contradict his guidelines in the first volume of the same treatise. For

example, according to the first volume, single trills over double notes should begin on their
in 7.19 below. "
respective main notes, as shown ex.

2'Czemy(1839E), i, p. 174.

214
Ex. 7.19

--4
-vy

ýy -I- +

F- '4' -4
h

nIý, i
I
F1-Fi

ilbll
2.
tt1II-f'llI!!! II-lI-IIII1IJ
41
.j 41, ý 'I ýj
I1.1 ý
ý llý 11 -1, .1
12.3lý
jjj ititiuli iiititii"
i

'1
10-0-0,0-0-4-0-0-0

rrniiti -
-ei - 0, , all

iiiriirrrnimi
i ei 20i 11 20jý. .ý1j,
1,1.1j111
-Lý
__

The sametype of trill in the secondvolume, however, begins on the upper note (ex. 7.20).
Ex. 7.20

Incidentally, it is common for Czemy to add prefixes to trills in his theoretical writings (such as
in Op. 632) and in his arrangementsof Beethoven's compositions, including the "Kreutzer"
Sonata, Op. 47, and the Septet, Op. 20. In the third movement of the Septet, Czerny adds the

upper appoggiatura prefix in bar 20 (ex. 7.21). Beethoven's original score does not have a trill

at this point, but unlike wind instruments,once a piano key is struck, the tone decaysvery quickly.
As a result, a trill, insteadof an unembellished long-held b62, is more appropriate in the piano

arrangement. The addedupper-note prefix clearly confirms Czemy's position with regard to the

starting note of the trill.

ii, p. 132.
211bid.,
215
Ex. 7.2ý

e-, %
9-0- -0 _, -.
tý 1=
-

-ff
IF
-W IF 1'
F ý r

All Czemy's double trills in the secondvolume of Piano Forte School, except the ascendingand
descendingchainsof double trills, begin on their upper notes. This is in direct opposition to the

precepts he himself listed in the first volume of his treatise. Discrepancy also existswith regard
to Czerny's realization of a trill which is sandwiched vertically between two notes in the same
hand. In the first volume of this 1839 treatise, he insists that the double trills should start on the

main notes (ex. 7.22) in

while the second volume, the same'type of trill begins on the upper
note.22

Ex. 7.22

iý-
-L. F-
L9 1.
U--
-1 4-d-

ew 4--#

c'. 14
3 14- 1 P3 ZL
II
I Y::ý
I
-!

-f t f-!
--'-t±I I I --_j

-1 N 1

The fingering in ex. 7.23 below, from the secondvolume of Piano Forle School, not only

contradictsCzerny's instructions in the first volumeof the sametreatise(seeex. 7.24),it is also

inconsistentwithin thepassage itself" The fingeringin the first bar of ex. 7.23pointsto a main-

note start (both in the right hand and the left) while in the third bar, an upper-notestart is

i, pp. 175and 177andii, pp. 130and 132-134.

211bid.,
i, p. 176andfi, p. 138.
211bid.,

216
intended.In contrast,hestipulatesanupper-notestart in ex. 7.24irrespectiveof whetherthetrill
a melodyaboveor below it.
is accompanying
Ex. 7.23

Ex. 7.24
I

V4 SAr 5
. I'. ItIi'
"_..;;.
'Fm4li ! III 'I .I 'I 1 2-1 1111
p0e0 po ?0M0 OJ
/I 9-0-9p-9-"-9-0-0-4-0 i fl- 9,09i 1- ar In !'0T0 f- apd. 0 0.ýff
tz 0-v-0-v. II II IIIIIII III I till_I Ill III It_I_I__I__i_i
pI L....
LU_I IIIIIII LULLLUIUJLLUflJJJJ
L I--t I! 1iIiJ1-11I FIlFTF1I I1'-l-"UI I I 11
L: ýý]

This mixture of main-note and upper-note starts within the samemotif is a common feature in
Czemy's writings on the subjectof trills. According to the fingering of an ascendingmotif in
Op. 151 (ex. 7.25), it appearsthat no consideration is given to maintain tlýs stepwise rise by

employing the samestarting note for all the trills. The sameinconsistencyis still prevalent in the
Piano Forte School, as can be seenin ex. 7.26 below. This example,as well as exst 7.19 and
7.22, has different starting notes and an uneven number of notes in each trill. In these three
he
examples, notates seven notes in the first trill while all subsequent trills have eight notes. It is
he only occasionallyopts for such an "uneverf ' realizýationof certain trills. "
unclear why
Ex. 7.25
-9=-

ON
TL., -. +I ý
t17 -0-
aly ý- 14ý
L
-1

(cl 828), p. 9; Czerny(I 839E),i, p. 172.

14Czemy
217
Ex. 7.26

iA
0
T- :-:T-
ý;,Vý 31 13 2.32,4143_
. .
-, 2 3.41 2%
24
III H'

FranzKullak wasoneof the first to observethe inconsistencies

in Czerny'srealizationsof trills.
He initially consideredCzemy'sremarksin the Piano Forte Schoolto be valid adviceon the

realizations of trills in Beethoven's

pianomusic,but the resultsof his investigations
convinced
him otherwise. He was shockedand disgustedthat Czerny's fingering of the trills in the
"Kreutzer" Sonata,Op. 47, differed in two separateeditions. The majority of the trills in
Czerny'sarrangement
of the Variationsfrom the"Kreutzer" Sonata(Kullakdatesthepublication
date c1821),which havedoublefingeringsor addedprefixes,beginon the uppernotes. Later,
in his scoreeditionof the samesonata(publishedby Simrock),Czernyhadremovedmanyof tfie
doublefingeringsandtheaddedprefixes,replacingthemwith singlefingerings.Onlyonepassage
in the Simrock edition (from výr. 4) has double fingerings. In contrastto Czemy's earlier
preference for upper-notestarts,the doublefingeringsin this Simrockedition indicatethat the
trills shouldbegin on their main notes. Kullak assumesthat the other trills with only single
fingeringsin this passagewould alsobeginon their mainnotes." We haveseenin the previous
how this be,
erroneous assumptionmay given Czerny'sfondness for different ýrting
st,
paragraph
notes. In addition, the secondvolume of the Piano Forte School revealsthat when siogle
fingeringsareindicated,theymaynot necessarily referto the startingnoteof the trills. To aid his
discussionon the appropriatefingeringsfor trills, Czernyrecommends the combinationof 42-31
for a trill in thirds,but his singlefingeringdoesnot refer to the startingnote (ex. 7.27)."
Ex. 7.27

-i

"Kullak (1973),pp. 83-86.

16Czerny (I 839E),ii, p. 133.

218
In spiteofa gradualchangetowardsthepreferencefor a main-notestartin histheoreticalwritings
from the 1830s,Czemyshowsa lack of consistencyin practice.His fingerings,and his own
addition of prefixeswhich may vary from one arrangementto another(as is the casewith the
"Kreutzer" Sonata),often contradictthe very ruleswhich he emphasizedin Op. 151andin the
Piano Forte School. The addedprpfix to the trill in his arrangementof the Septet,Op. 20 (ex.
7.21 above)indicatesan upper-notestart. It is noted with interestthat this arrangementwas
madeabout a year before the publication of the Piano Forte School, in which he strongly
favoureda main-notestart. Theseinconsistencies raisemanyquestions. Could hd merelybe
recalling how this trill was realizedduring Beethoven'slifetime? Are Czerny's inconsistent

of startingnotesa reflection
suggestions of Beethoven's
own practiceor arethey simplydictated
by his own fancy?

Unfortunately,Beethoven'spracticeon thismatteris not entirelycleareither. The commentand

the few fingeringsheleft on thematterhaveservednot to secureagreement but to divideopinion

amongmodem scholars. In bar 8 of the piano part from the Piano Trio in B flat, Wo03§,
in
published fingering
Beethoven's
1812, is a directionfor the trill to beginon the upper note(ex.
7.28).
Ex. 7.28

(ý)ý-4-1-1
, I
II 'S I 2
IIvIJIIIII .1
r- r

Cre-SX.
- vI.

Beethoven also inserts fingerings for three trills in his Variations for Piano and Violin, Wo04O
(1793). Even in an early work suchasthis, only two of his three fingerings reveal an upper-note
The trills in bars 59-60 (first in the treble, then in the bass)both begin on their upper notes
start.
(ex. 7.29a). In contrast, his fingering in bar 74 implies a main-note start (ex. 7.29b).

219
Ex. 7.29aThe triH beginsin bar 49.
a

I.

Ex. 7.29b
4-
-41
4: F
Ll
(I.

Su

ta',

The fingering of the trill in Op. 119/7/1-2 in Starke's Mener Piano-Forte Schule (1819-182 1)

and in the authentic English by

edition published Clementi (1823) are the same. They are befieved
I,
to have been inserted by Beethoven but, here again, the two trills begin on their main notes (ex.
7.30).
Ex. 7.30
5,
--
(0 Jý,
_________
. ___

J JJ
7

"1 220
An earlymiscellaneoussketch by Beethoven (no later than 1792)containstwo double-notetrills
in whichthe secondfinger crossesover the thumb(ex. 7.31)."
Ex. 7.31
-pahr IM- riLxt Wlbd*%4t%
iý 54
2 ýun rýrtt, £cäz. nld(31en .
,x, v4ý

The trills, accordingto Beethoven'sfingerings,begin on their upper notes. Although he

the
considered second trill to be impossible
with the 51-42fingering,he musthavedecidedthat
it was the most suitable for double trills of smaller intervals. In two of his published
he
compositions, againreturns to this fingering:a double trill in thirds in Wo04O (seeex. 7.29a
above)anda doubletrill in fifths in Op. III (see ex. 7.32 below).

One fingering by Beethoven wl-iich have causedthe most debateis that of his double trill in the

treble of Op. II Mill 12 (ex. 7.32). Winter, Beyschlag,Drake, Grundmannand Mies believethat
the fingering (52-41) indicates a crossed fingering as shown in Beethoven's early illustration in

ex. 7.31 above, where both notes of the double trill begin on their upper notes. Newman,
however, is unconvinced. He suggestsa rather peculiar alternative, that the trill on the soprano

a 62should begin on the upper note while the alto d2 should begin on the main note.2' The

realization of this double-note trill should be viewed within the context of its modulation to E6
The lower to the trill in bar 106 would result in d2e2d2e2d2 being its firs,t few
major. prefix C02
notes. If one then chooses to begin the trill two bars later on the upper note (with, an 06? as
indicated), this will lead smoothly into the double note trill in bar 112 (with upper-note starts for
both notes). The faint fingering (1-2) in the tenor part of this bar hasalso beena source of debate,

this time it
regarding whether was inserted by Beethoven 2' Assuming that the fingering is by
.
Beethoven,the trilling of this chord, with the upper-note starts, will act as V4ý". The music then

passesbriefly through the first inversion of the tonic in bar 118, W in bar 119, V in bar 120, and
finally the resolution to I in the following bar.

21Newman (1988),p. 194;Nottebohm(1887),p. 359.

Winter (1977),pp. 492-494;l1eyschlag(1908),p. 217; Drake(1972),p. 167;Grundmann
28
andMies (1966), pp. 125-126;Newman (1978),p. 100;Newman (1988), p. 194.
29Fora list of sourceswhich containsthis argument,sqethe list in ffi. 28.

221
Ex. 7.32

os&!& 229

Qoi)
11 12
L. 1bllý-
=fF k1
ON IrT.:.
ib ); -. -. 1 iý 1! YW0.0.
di
----
--- ----
I----------
-.
1
pp
-- -.
qý 0. ý 1.1 V.

ESh I? a 13

L121

Various hypotheseshave beenput forward in an attempt to discover how Beethoven,may.luave

intendedhis trills to be performed. Although Rosenblumrecognisesthat the starting note ofa trill

can be determinedby the melodic he, sheis convinced that dissonanceis the most important and
influential factor. Winter also placesmuch emphasison the importance of dissonance.Although
Newman acknowledges the function of trills as dissonant appoggiaturas in Beethoven's early

compositions, he prefers to deducethe starting note of a trill from melodic and technical factors.
He considersthat using dissonanceas a factor is too subjective and therefore unreliable."

"Rosenblum(1988),pp. 250-2ý5;Winter (1977),pp. 483-504;Winter (1979),pp. II 1-116;

Newman(1988),pp. 196-202;Newman(1976),pp. 440-446and451-453;Newman(1978),
pp. 98-103.
222
Theseexplanations,thoughintelligent,areall subjective.Takefor exampleBeethoven'sfingering
for Wo039 (ex. 7.28 above). FollowingNewman'sandRosenblum'sguidelines,which would
line andtheharmonicprogressionin bar8, theywouldprobably
takeinto accountthedescending
advisea main-notestart. In askingfor the trill to beginon theuppernote,Beethovenclearlydoes
not follow the samerules. Consider his suggestionregarding one of the trills within the long
seriestowardsthe endof the third movement
of Op. 53 (ex. 7.33).
Ex. 7.33

I I

E:t
JJ JI
V2))) cr

: I I

11
0.

j J. ýj
ýt- 2-
.61 I

-dP6

2
i13 I i Iýa-
*

At the endof the autograph,Beethovensuggeststhat the trill in bar 485 shouldbeginon the

uppernote (exs.7.34a and 7.34b) but doesnot provideany instruction on the startingnote of
the trill beginningin bar 477. It also offers the insightthat he, unlike Czerny,is not unduly
concernedaboutplayingthe trill (which a melody)at a slowerpacethanusual:
accompanies

223
 N. B. Thosefor whom the trill is too difficult, herewherethe theme
is joined with it, may facilitatethe trill in the following manner[ex.
7.34a],or, accordingto the extentof their capability,alsodoubleit
[ex.7.34b]
Ex. 7.34a

Ex. 7.34b

Of these sextupletstwo are played to each quarter in the bass.

Generallyit is not importantif this trill also losessomethingof its
usualspeed."
I

If onewereto apply Newman'sargumentsthat Beethovengenerallypreferredto beginhistrills

on the main note and his (as well as Rosenblum's) guidelineregardingthe preservationof the
melodic line, the trill in bar 477 should beginon the mainnote. Althoughthe trill in bar 485 has

no prefix, Beethoven's
suggestion shows the trill beginningon the upper note. This would give
to
rise an apparently indiscriminatechoiceof a main-note start in bar 477 followed by an upper-
note continuationin bar 485. Thereis, however,
another solution. A closer examinationof the

scorereveals that the Rondo theme accompanied by a lower trill in the right hand has been

announcedthree timespreviously(bb. 55,168 and 337). Each time, the entry of the theme is
by
preceded four barsof descendingsemiquavers in the bassanda trill on a held in
g' the right
notatesanupperappoggiatura(a4) to
hand. In all threeinstances,Beethovenconscientiously
eachtrill. The trill on g' in bar 477, is
however, bý
not preceded anupperappoggiatura,perhaps
becauseBeethovenconsideredit to beunderstood.Therefore,by startingthe trill in bar 477 on
the upper note, one will be able to maintaina consistentpatternwherebythe Rondo theme
"appears"
suddenly from a long, sean-dess trill. In addition,the tiejoining g' in bars484 to 485

showsthat Beethovenwishes for thetrill to continue smoothly into bar485. This canbe achieved

"Drake (1972),p. 165. Drake's translation.

224
only if the triH in bar 485 wereto beginon the upper note.

By initially startingthe trill in bar 485 on the mainnote,beforecrossingit out andopting for the

uppernote (seeexs.7.34aand 7.34b above), Beethoven givesthe impressionof beingindecisive.

Drakereasonsthattheshadeof the ink on the g2naturalandthe slantof thehandwritingsuggests
irill
that Beethovenautomaticallythoughtof the beginningon the mainnote.32This is a perfectly

plausible except
explanation that it doesnot reveal why Beethoven eventuallydecidedto starton
the uppernote.Onereasoncouldbe,asis explainedin the previousparagraph,that he expected
this trill to be treatedin the samemannerasthosethreeearlierstatements.

Although Czerny's usageof a combination of starting notes in exs. 7.25 and 7.26 above is now

consideredeccentric, the possibility remains that Beethoven himself might have done the same.
In the long trill passagefrom Op. 53/iii (bb. 493-514), the latter requestsfor an upper-note start
in bars 493,501 and 507, but a lower-note start in bar 511. Similarly, the trills in Op. 57/i/44-46
have different starting notes; the trill in bar 44 is preceded by a lower appoggiaturawhile those
in bars 45-46, by upper appoggiaturas. Beethoven leavesno doubt as to his intended starting

notes of trills when they by

are pre6eded appoggiaturas, but how does he expect performers to
realize those trills without prefixes? Could the "inconsistent" starting notesin the passageswhere
trills are precededby appoggiaturasbe a clue that the performer has the freedom to choose the

starting note of the trills which are not preceded by a preffix? I

The views of Winter, Rosenblum, Drake, Newman and other present-dayscholarscannot be

entirely conclusive. The fact that the limited fingerings which Beethovenleft do not favour one

starting note over the other suggeststhat he did not strictly practise either the cighteenth-century

or the nineteenth-centurysystem. He continued to use all three ways ofstarting a trill throughout
his creative output. The theory that the starting note of a trill (without a prefix) can be chosen
by studying the harmony (often the starting note of the trill is expectedto createdissonancewith

the harmony) or by following the logical path of the melodic line doesnot seemto apply to every

trill which has been fingered by the composer. PerhapsBeethoven, Re Czerny, employed one

of the three starting notes according to his "fancy".

I

"Ibid.

225
 CHAPTER 8: FINGERING, HAND POSITION AND
TECHNICAL EXERCISES

As discussedin section1.2,Czerny'sfirst I&ssonwith Beethovenwason correcthandposition

and fingering. That correctfingeringis a fundamental
aspectof playingis againemphasized
in
Beethoven'soft-quoted1817letterto hispupil.' Beethoven'scontemporaries,
includ,ing SirJohn
Russell,GerhardvonBreuningandFriedrichWieck,all agreethatheplayedwith curvedfingers,
and in Schindler'swords "[h]is handsand the upper portion of his body wereheld [in a] quiet
[manner]"? ThereseBrunsvik,who hadlessonswith Beethovenin 1799,relateshow Beethoven
"nevergrewwearyof holdingdownandbendingmy fingers,whichI havebeentaughtto lift high

andhold straight"! WillibrordJoseph

Mahler,a proniinent
portrait painterwho heardBeethoven
in 1803,laterrecalledhow he"playedwith hishandssovery still; wonderfulashisexecutionwas,
therewasno tossingthemto andfro, up anddown; they seemedto glideright andleft overthe
keys,the fingersalonedoingthe work".' Evenwhenthe musicis not in a closefive-fingershape,
in
asshown anearlysketchwhichdatesfrom about 1793(ex. 8.1), direction
Beethoven's reveals
that he expectsthe hand to be always held in a close position.
J" QXI "Z
all 7-ISAMIOP -
-V\
Ex. 8.1 a
blý- ,., ,.,, r-
Sqý,

E 11 .1
iAii1v1
1(%I
ýýL4 0p
Iv11.
N II III I HI
-I

ký
S4.1vq- .4
Fr'N-') II
-4. I

*,- -iiii ir i ,, i,, i/iI/i

isý,
r--777=1

tl t: &
. -1

'Anderson (196 1), ii, p. 742.

'Sonncck (1967), pp. 115 and 128; Breuning (1992), p. 78; Czemy (1956), p. 307.
'Schindler (1966) (ed. MacArdle), p. 415. See also Czemy (1970), p. 15.
4Thayer (1969), p. 235.
'Ibid., p. 337.

226
Usingcorrectfingering,adoptinga quiet handposition andplayingwith curvedfingersare also

aspectsof playingthe pianowhich are frequently in

stressed Czemy'swritings. In his Lettersto
A YoungLady, he showsthe relationshipbetweencorrect fingering,a quiethandposition and
playingwith curvedfingers:
In general,that modeof fingeringmust be chosenby whichwe may
most easily and naturally be'able to maintain a tranquil and fine
positionof the hands,a firm andperpendicularpercussion,aswell as
a correctholding down of the keys, and a beautifulandconnected
performanceof the melodyand of the scalesandruns.6e

Oncethe art of ffigering is mastered,Czernypromisesthat the pianistwill be able

to executethe mostrapidruns,the mostintricatepassages, consisting
often of numberlessnotes, the boldest skips,the most delicateand
[ ]
complicatedembellishments... with the sameperfect equality,
if
connection,andvolubility, as naturehadbestoweduponhimat least
fifty fmgers.'

The largecollectionof Audiesby Czemyfurther testifiesto the importanceheplaceson correct

fingeringwhenpractisingtechnicalexercises.He tirelesslyinsertsfingeringsin all the exercises
in the Piano Forte School,right'from the very first pages.In the secondvolumeof this treatise,
he evenpreparesa comprehensive Est of the fundamentalrules of fingering. However,since
Czernyconsidersthe rules of fingering to be influencedby the developmentof mechanical
dexterity,' this chapter(from section 8.2 onwards) will comparehis teacyirtgwith the few
fingeringsprovidedby Beethovenin compositionswhich involvethe piano.
FI.

8.1 SOME TECHNICAL EXERCISES FROM BEETHOVEN'S SKETCHES

Throughouthiscreativeyears,Beethovenexperimented with varioussoundworldsandtechnical

difficulties, noting down some of the results in sketchbooks. He sometimesresorted to
to
means
unconventional achievehis goal, suchas usingtwo fmgersto play a singlenote for a

6Czemy(1848),pp. 25-26. SeealsoCzemy(1839E),i, pp. 2 and44-46andH,p. 5.

Tzemy (I 839E),ý, p. 2. Italicizationoriginal.
'Ibid.
227
 strongerandfuller tone, in
asshown bars25-31 from a sketchof 1793/early1794(lines3 and4
in ex. 8.2). This methodof playingremainedin useevenafterhis death,asit wasstill mentioned
in Czerny'sPiano Forte School.'
Ex. 8.2

.f-
I
4 115"
A
I
W -4 -0. -. -

I Olok WtýzAr 'v) -Ar"Xlcyý&

-;F- jj 't

4-1
PIy II'I"/ ---U-

-J I/'I

I 4 CA Vu-t 9 -1 -iý I ---I-

!«/' C

1-1

91bid.,ii, p. 169.

228
In the first nine bars of ex. 8.2 above (see the first two lines), Beethovendemonstratesan

understanding of the natural characteristicsof the fingers. In order to obtain a powerful

fortissimo on the singlebassnotes,henot only choosesthe strongestfinger,but by assigningone
fingerto all thesenotes,heis alsousingthe weight of the armto makethenoteslouderandfuller.

Many of Beethoven'ssketchesfrom 1790-1803containinnovativefingerpatterns,accompanied

by remarkson effectivewaysto executethesepatterns(including the art of fingering). The

resultsof these which

explorations, benefittedCzemy,provide the foundationfor his numerous
In
studies. addition to training technicalfacility through all conceivablepassages and finger

patterns,Czemy the
also encourages repetition of such to
exercises develop the strengthand

agility of the fingers,and to strive for greater in

evenness playing. His preoccupationwith
practisingrepeated figurescanalso be tracedto Beethoven,who in his sketchof October1790
(ex. 8.3), indicatesthat the motif is to be playedmanytimes.
Ex. 8.3

iot-PA- -A -C f 441, a

k
v',a\ma. I
H
The finger patternsin the varioussketchesby Beethovenbelow, obtainedfrom his Kafka and
Kesslersketchbooks,aswell asfrom a miscellaneous canbe
leaf in Nottebohm'sBeethoveniana,
found in anyof Czerny'sstudiesfor the advancedpianist.As a youngmanof abouttwenty-pne,
Beethovenmadea sketchon rapidstaccatooctaves(ex. 8.4). Thisexercise,to beplayed"up and
down throughall majorandminorkeysin asfasta tempoaspossible"" is practicableonly if one

playswith a flexiblearm. The sameappliesto his exercise

on octaveleaps(ex. 8.5) whichhasto
be playedby throwingthe hand. Exs. 8.6,8.7 and 8.8 below requirethe combinationof light,

agile finger actionanda relaxedarm for the leaps.

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 207. Her translation.

229
Ex. 8.4

SýraccAN 9-"nvm

mo\l-AA c-ý tzw44

Ex. 8.5

it it h
5. A
I :t

Ex. 8.6

MTEEEErsads
-- Ji I" I-I

1- 'I --.

Ex. 8.7

1)
m

vo
MW
// Al
I

230
Ex. 8.8

Nevertheless, Beethoven was mindful not to neglect the training of the left hand.' He wrote

exercises in contrary motion based on the pattern in bars 7-8 from ex. 8.7 above. In another
contrary motion exercise(ex. 8.8 above), the left hand is again expectedto match the virtuosity
of the right. Even as early as 1790, Beethoven already required the left hand to be as agile asthe
right (ex. 8.9). Czerny not only emphasizesthis training of the left hand in his Piano Forte
School," but also provides ample studies, including a few which are written specifically for this

purpose.12

Ex. 8.9
m.sWqnz 0.
a
1w
.
]c
I * -9 :t
"I
I/I
2..
-N!
k via
I

-*-f
D C!,
-it
-4 .I
M, Lk it I

ýT Icl
"-
I I-A I

-p Lf91fl1
ii i.
j

However, as was mentionedon p. 16, one must bear in mind that Beethovenneverallowed
to bemoreprominentthantheexpressionofmusic. ErnstPauer,apianist,
technicalshowmanship

"SeeCzerny(1839E),i, p. 51.
"Grand Studiesfor the Improvementof the Left Hand,Op. 399; EasyStudiesfor the Left
Hand,Op. 718; andEtudes,in Thirds,for the Left Hand,Op. 735.
231
writes:
They saythat his performancewas not so much "playing" as"painting
with tones," while others express it as recalling the effect of
"reciting," all of which are attempts to state the fact that in his
playing, the means, - the passages, the execution, the technical
appliances,- disappeared before the transcendenteffect andmeaning
of the music. ... He was not particular in polishing and refining his
performance, as were Hummel, W61ffl, Kalkbrenner, and others:
indeed, such "speciar' artists he satirically calls "gymnasts," and
the
expresses opinion that the "increasing mechanismof pianoforte
playing would in the end destroy all truth in
of expression music. "

Czernyis oftenaccusedof embracingthe idealdescribedin the lastsentence.It is true that, as

in
was mentioned chapter 2, he thought more highly of the clarity andneatness of Hummel's

playingthanof Beethoven's.
'He alsoplacedmore emphasison good than
technique Beethoven
(seepp. 11-12). However,onemustnot automaticallyassumethat Czernywasinterestedonly
in drilling the fingers.His commentsin TheArt regardingthe performance
of Beethoven'spiano
musicreflect his to
sensitivity the distinctcharacterof eachsectionandthecompletemovement.
By insistingon goodtechniqueandan understandingof the composer'sstyle,hetries to get the
bestof both worldsby expressingthe poetic contentof the musicthroughtechnicalskill.

8.2 FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF FINGERING

t

Czerny declaresthat
II.
[e]very passagewhich may be taken in severalways, shouldbe played
in that mannerwhich is the most suitable and natural to the casethat
occurs, and which is determined partly by the adjacent notes, and
partly by the style of execution."

Indeed,his choiceof fingeringfor the exercisesand examplesin the secondvolumeof Piano

Forte Schoolandin thesonataexcerptsin TheArt oftenhelpsthepianistto obtainthe smoothest

connectionof notes. He takesinto the

account highest
note of eachfigure,thecharacterof each

passage,andits style(polyphonic for

passages, example,
requirea fingering).
particular He also

"Quotedin Gerig(1974),p. 98. Punctuationoriginal.

14
Czemy(1839E), ii, p. 4.

232
sympathizeswith pianistswho has smallhands" and, therefore,find it difficult to play broken

octave passagesin Op. 2/2/i/84-85,88-89,304-305 and 308-309 (ex. 8.10a) or the octave
glissando in Op. 53/iii beginningin bar 465. For these pianists,he offers alternatives:either
dividethe passage betweentwo hands(asin Op. 2/2/i) or play singlenotesinsteadof octaves(in
Op. 53).16Nevertheless, he remindsthe readerthat the suggestedalternativeway of playingthe

octavefigurein Op. 2/2/i (ex. 8.1Ob) the

shouldnot alter characterof the "
passage. Beethoven's
Ex. 8.10a
.r8
e 41
S
1F:51
Fjst
15
, ii
131
5..
3
fýýI 2 2a2 25.1f 51 -.... de
.e
Fmý

iL i

(MI. 8 v
a

Ex. 8.1Ob

"He evendedicatestwo setsof studies(Opp. 748 and 749) to those hands.

with smaU
IlCzerny(1846),pp. 34 and57.
"Ibid., P. 34.
233
fingeringsrevealthat he too consideredall thesefactorswhen choosinga suitablefingering. In
Wo05O/i/13-17andWo039/5,10,13, and 15(ex. 8.11),he arrangeshisfingeringin sucha way
to
so as allow the fifth fingerin theright hand to play the highest
noteof eachphrase.Very often,
to
so as accommodate hands of different sizes and shapes, he providesmorethan one set of
fingering,for exampleOp. 28/iv/205and208 (exs. 8.12aand 8.12b)andOp. 90/ii/132.
Ex. 8.11

Allerr4tto
Viatioe

Vialoaccllo 1-- Ii ýQ
1 Alle FA tto
9 a-t 14
(V
Klavier il wp dolce 14
444t1 ststst
FFF

,y mký -
--

d. h.

ý5,41 Tie
5/1-3 2aIIIt -- I It
r I"J
I i-ri"; i- ( t I, jI
_____
____
I Crete. _____
____
p I
II 41 fftI l .a

A
5E EtT. J. I
F-7
m r. --
Eý
- --
24 3'32
101 Alp *Pao :.'1.1-1.
r
FLLjj' JFHILfJ I

Z4
!wV zt
13S4
I

E=E-l

si
11 LIN
iF:

p"""..
I p "
-f
Iii nl

234
Ex. 8.12a

114- -.
A 14-1L -91

pPr1rA

JL

1+1 AN

Ex. 8.12b

u JII4
F-71 16
4D

II

1F
,/ .ý6 1F1
Ia

Czerny's rules on fingering in the passagebelow, quoted from the Letters to A YoungLady, are
the sameas those in the Piano Forte School:
First. When severalkeys are to be played one after another, either in
ascendingor in descending, and that [sic] five fingers are not sufficient
for this purpose,the four longer fingers must never be turned ovdr one
another; but we must passthe thumb under, or passthe three middle
fingers over the thumb.
vI.

Secondly.The thumb must never be placed on the black keys.

Thirdly. We must not strike two or more keys one after another with
the self-samefinger; for each key must retain its own finger.

Fourthly.In runs,the little fingershouldneverbeplacedon theblack

keys.

Fifthly. In chordsandwide extensions,however,the thumb,aswell

as the little fmger, fall
mayoccasionally uponthe blackkeys.

Sixthly. The fingering given for the scales must be resorted to

everywhere,and as much as possible.

235
 Seventhly.At eachnotethat we strike,we mustconsiderwhether,for
"
the fbHowingnotes,the appropriatefingersstandin readiness.

Both Czemy(rule (2) above)andBeethovenconformto the generaltaboosurroundingtheuse

of the thumbon blackkeysexcept

whenthereis no alternative. indicates
Beethoven 1-5- 1 or 2-5-
1 in the octavepassageof Op. 2/2/i/84-85,88-89,304-305and308-309whenthe first andthird

notes are on white keys,but chooses2-4-2 when the two outer notesareon blackkeys (see ex.
8.10 above). Similarly,he uses5-1 to connectthe gapsin the passageworkin Op. III /i/27-28

exceptwhen the second note of the leap is on a black key. Whenthis happens, he employsthe
secondfinger(ex. 8.13). However, in a piecewith many sharps,
such as in Op. 78/ii, hedoesnot
Ex. 8.13
0
Vi i
'14
yl)v
ý4ý
I/
-IU041-j iII
171

R-ok ! FZPý4--. -I--' jr-I ir' -tý9

-'t-FF
rI111jiI- IIII
"Vill 'llmd,
Ill]:-;-j li 1 4-hi 13
L=:: ;1151 'A a.
.
ZLI 51
a 1 39

have any choice but to employ the first finger on black keys where necessary(seehis fingerings
in bb. 116-117 and 120-121 in ex. 8.17).

Newman suggeststhat, in his later compositions,Beethoven appearedto prefer placing the thumb

on black keys. He quotes Op. II 0/ii/7 1, in which he reasonsthat by indicating 4 on the first right-
hand note, the following note (a 6) would undoubtedly be played by the thumb (ex. 8,14)), ve
have seen in the previous paragraph how in the next piano sonata, Op. I 11, Beethoven still

avoided the thumb on black keys. One must also bear in n-dndthat the passagein Op. II 0/ii/64-
72 is in E flat minor, so as in Op. 78/ii, it would be almost impossibleto play fast passagework

without the use of the thumb on black keys.

"Czemy (1848),p. 25. Italicizationoriginal;seealso Czemy(1839E),ii, pp. 2-4.

19Newman (1988),p. 288.

236
Ex. 8.14

-A-

:-I-- 4F:a:.4 ff

(4)

As shownin ex. 8.15 below, Beethoven'sfmgering in the right handof Wo039/95 confirras
Czerny's rule (6) above,that one shouldemploy the normal fingeringfor scalesas much as

possible.The systemof fingering as

scales we know it todaywas during
established Beethoven's
Ex. 8.15 The pianopart only.

't -iv
ýr !ýý
% 2.3
-0
-4, iÄ Dýý

0-- -3Ai
%2%IIiý. II

and Czerny's lifetime. The main difference between this system and that of the first, half of the

eighteenth century is the role played by the thumb, as described in Czerny's rule (1) above. By

passingunder the fingers, the thumb is the all-important finger which enablesthe smooth and easy

execution of passagework. " Although tl-ýsmethod was already known to a few in

musicians the
early eighteenth century, including Francois Couperin and Marpung, it was not widely adopted.
The generalpractice then was to usethe thumb and the fifth finger sparingly, choosing insteadto
heavily on the three middle fingers and frequently vaulting a long finger over a shorter one.21
rely

'OThismovementof the thumbis constantlyemphasizedin Czerny'swritings,seefor example

Czerny(1839E), i, p. 43.
"Bach (1974),pp. 12-13.

237
Althoughturningthethumbunderthe fingerswasthe preferredmethodof fingering,Beethoven,
from time to time, continuedto usethe old systemof vaultingthe third finger over the fourth.
In his WienerPiano-ForteSchule,Starkehadpublisheda shortenedversionof Beethoven'sOp.
28, with fingeringsin the excerptsattributedto the latter. In bar 77 from the secondmovement
of this sonata(b. 31 in Starke'sshortened he
version), that
specifies the third fingershouldcross
the fourth from a white to a black key (ex. 8.16). The Variationson "Es war einmalcin alter
Mann" (Wo066/ix/8-9) is another instancewhere Beethovenusesthis type of fingering:the
fourth finger crossesthe fifth, againfrom a white to a black key. Although thisýmethodof
fingering is not includedin Czerny's list of rules above,he neverthelesscontinuesto use it
in
sparingly practice. In OP. 7/iv/68-69,76-79, etc. (seeex. 3.9 he
above), repeatedly asksfor
the fourth fingerto crossthe fifth (from a blackkey to a white andfrom a white.to anotherwhite
key). Similarly,in Op. 13/ii/5, he indicatesthat the fourth finger shouldcrossthe fifth from a
to
white a black "
key. did
Beethoven not leavefingeringsfor eitherpassage.
Ex. 8.16

ii. --o3"-I*

ii ui ii ii
I -r iHmu
tI

Modem scholars such as Bamberger and Hiebert insist that Beethoven's fingerings must be

considered within the context in which they occur. They are convinced that his fingerings are
based on musical considerations. Bamberger believes that his fingerings help define phrase

structure, show metrical stress,convey the characterand are a way to generatedynamics,accents

and articulation. Hiebert agrees and adds that Beethoven's fingerings also enable scalesto be

executed fluently as well as provide clues as to the starting note of trills (as discussedin the

previous chapter). Newman agrees but adds that the composer's fingerings help clarify the
"
emphasisof particular rhythmic groupings.

12Czerny(1839E), ii, p. 34 andCzerny(1846),pp. 39 and43.

2'Bamberger (1976),pp. 242,245,249,250, and261; Hiebert(1985-1986),pp. 5-6; Newman
(1988),p. 290.

238
Thetrio from Op.2/l/iii/59-62 is a much-discussed
case,andonein whichBeethoven'sfingering
is believedto contributeto the crescendo.Barnbergerconcludesthat Beethoven'sconsecutive
5-1 fingeringof the doublefourthsin bar 60 (seeex. 3.11 above)will generatea forward push
with the whole arm, thus a
generating crescendotowards thefortissimo in the following bar.
Although the doublenotesarenot physicallyconnected,the movementof the armwill give the
impressionof legato. Shecorrectly observesthat it was commonpracticein the nineteenth
century to indicateuniform fingerings which were easy to learn and easyfor the fingers to
memorize. Hiebert agreeswith her on theseissues,
and goes on to criticize Czerny'sfingering

of this passagein The Art (see ex. 3.13above). Shearguesthat in his quest for fingeringswhich
enable long smooth legato finesto be played,Czemy ignores the role of fingering to clarify
" Czerny'sfingeringis exactlythe sameasBeethoven'sin bars61-62. However,he
dynamics.

slightly alters fingering

Beethoven's in bars59-60 in order to avoid the fingering
consecutive in
bar 60 (seeCzemy'srule (3) above). Beethoven'sfingeringis not includedin TheArt because
Czernymust haveconsideredhis suggestionto be better. Although a differentset of fingering
is offered,Czernywould still expecta similarmusicalresult,wherebythecrescendois createdby
the fingers(seethe discussionon tonalcontrol in chapter5), ratherthanby the armasimpliedby
Beethoven'sfingering.

8.3 THE FINGERING OF REPEATED OR SIMILAR FIGURES

I

in certain passages,such as the successionof double fourths in Op. 2/3/iv/269 and in. Op.
lol/Hi/248-250, Beethoven employs a consistent pattern of fingering. In both cases,he usesa

combination of 5-2 and 4-1. Even when the intervals vary, as is the casewith the semiquaver

motif in Op. 78/ii/I 16-117 and 120-121 (ex. 8.17), his decision to use a consistent pattern of
fingering is further proof of the importance of maintaining a quiet hand position.

(1976),pp. 250-254;Hiebert(1985-1986),pp. 9-10.

14Bamberger
239
Ex. 8.17
e-I%aI 3.4
d2x I 14 t:::l *L
.. Ll ,-
M4114T.. i
gz::
..-. 111. II A- I
A-ii OR, 9R lN j 071

Rlýý Atl 1ý6 [I E

Eý

It is thereforeperplexingthat the ffigering for the secondinversionof a tonic major seventhin

Op. 106/i/96-97shouldbe inconsistent(ex. 8.18).
Ex. 8.18

a sketchof a diminished-seventh
His instructionaccompanying arpeggioon B (ex. 8.19) - "in
long, wide rangingor extendedpassages[keep] the samefingeringas much as possible"" -
gives the impressionthat he expects
uniform fingeringthroughout. He is true to his word for
virtually the whole but
arpeggio, for someunknownreason(possiblya scribalerror), he fingers
the last note of the sketch2 insteadof the expected3, thus disruptingthe consistent1-2-3-4
patternhe hadbeenusing. /

Ex. 8.19 ,
II.

Perhapshis letter of 1817to Czemycouldprovide someanswers.He asksfor all the fingersto

be trainedand advisesCzernythat pearl-likeruns, althoughdesirable,shouldbe varied. The

clarificationin bracketswhich follows this description,

"i. e. with only a few fingere', imply that

"Rosenblum(1988),p. 212. Her translation. Seealso GrundmannandMies (1966),p. 117

andNewman (1988),p. 288.

240
he wasreferringnot only to tonal colour (seep. 159)but alsoto uniformity in fingering:
In certain passages,such as
n- -f- - t----
pF --

I shouldlike him alsoto useall his fingersnow andthen,andin such

passages too as

so that he may shp one finger over another. Admittedly suchpassages

to
sound, so speak, as if they were "played like (i.
pearls e. with only
a few fingers) or like a pearr' - but occasionally we like to have a
different kind ofjewelry. "

This letter also demonstrates that in spite of his annotation accompanying the sketch of the
diminished-seventharpeggio mentioned above, Beethoven sometimeschoosesto use irregular
fingering in repeated or similar figures to obtain a different effect. Sometimes,there may be
interpretive or technical considerations, as Newman and Bamberger point out. According to
Bamberger, the irregular fingering in Op. 2/l/iii/60-62 is necessaryto implement the irregular
to emphasize the dynamic climax." We have also seenin section 8.2 how Beethoven
slurring and
changes the fingering in the octave passages of Op. 2/2/i to avoid placing the thumb on black
I

keys.

71.
In addition, Beethoven's caution, mentionedabove, implies that Czerny prefers to use the same
'fingering for repeated motives, a suspicion which is confirmed by the latter's fingerings in the

exercisesof the Piano Forte School and in his studies. Czerny provides two sets of fingering

for a repeatedmotivic pattern in his Piano Forte School, as shown in ex. 8.20 below. In one set,

the fingering is
pattern regular. The other is modified, so as to avoid placing the thumb on black

keys. All passagesderived from dominant-seventhanddiminished-seventharpeggiosin the Piano

"Anderson(1961), ii, p. 743.

(1976),p. 252; Newman(1988),pp. 28ý-289.
2'Bamberger

241
Ex. 8.20
113
LIZO SI1 4113 'i ( 41 '23 4
UAI -1
4x 14 5 nLII1 41 ;ý aI
1,1t7.1-,11 ýý I
PEEiEý 14F*ý
ýIpIv! Iq 1!, 1
-1 0:
-1 1-1
L1 I
1j3.3
I 2. S 2.It.
C .
'3 is - 24-
043 r- 0 P., 1e311 of 32t it -& ),
. 14
ILi-
Forte School are also given consistentfingerings throughout. However, Czerny again provides

alternative fingerings where black keys are involved, so as to avoid placing the thumb on them
(ex. 8.21).
Ex. 8.21
III ur 2.
2,3 s aIILI
01 ýý I 'I ks -0.
4. 151 0ý 161 :),
4H - -ý-
7: 1
ý !I -- Id 0i
6ý- llý
E-.j -, iii1
- irt-L-1 --t7tt7ý--

V,-00 L +-
-1-- D
-6-! .0 ---I
1F
------ .1--p- --
5 ts, ). l gill
4 31 1 aIý. -aa; I; I 5113.5 1 as

! -1 1z3

8.4 CHROMATIC SCALE

In an early sketch, Beethovenoffers two ways of fingering a chromatic scaleýeghu-dngon B flat.

The first is to finger every note while the secondmakes use of finger sliding (ex. 8.22). '
Ex. 8.22

ýtA--
Itill A

21 -2 31 lk -5 IIzI- +- 5

Newmanobservesthatthechromaticscalewith thefingerslidingis markedwith a slurandarrives

at the conclusionthat the finger sEdingenablesa "super legatonot unlikethe velvety,slithering

identifiedlaterwith theChopin "
style". Nevertheless,
Beethoven'sfingeringin Wo039/114,
sort
115and 118(ex. 8.23) indicatesthat the first systemof fingeringcanalsobe usedto obtaina

-'Newman(1988),pp. 292-293.

242
smoothlegato.
Ex. 8.23 The piano part only.

% %, 1ý
_l-
pl
mi11 iL'o6iu -: j- 1

______Fi
M WP.
II
I- f :1If! .1-1-1
P-I III =-

E-,-- ---7-. CVZV-q

. 7--k3 Sý
ç7
L Jbi -0

The fingeringof the chromaticscalein ex. 8.23aboveis the onemostcommonlyrecommended

treatises,but Czemyis lessthan enthusiasticaboutit. In his Piano Forte
in nineteenth-century
School,helistsfour waysof fingeringa chromaticscale(includingthe onechosenby Beethoven,
shown but
above), favoursthe fingeringwhichreliesheavilyon thecombinationofthe thumband
the index finger," as shown in ex. 8.24.
Ex. 8.24
I

KO

I
At
V. -

2. % 2. f

8.5 PASSAGESIN THIRDS

As is the casewith chromaticscales,Czernyspecifiesfour waysof fingeringpassages

in thirds,
the
explaining advantages and disadvantages
offered by each:

"Czemy (1839E), i, p. 49 andii, pp. 30-31.

243
(a) right hand: 1-3-1-3-1-3-1-3;left hand:3-1-3-1-3-1-3-1(ex. 8.25)
Ex. 8.25

:n
11

He commentsthat this fingering,which is applicableto thirds in C major only, will enablethe

handsto remaintranquilandthe notesto beplayedwith equalpowerandrapidity. In-otherkeys,
be
the thumbmay placedon the lower if
notes they are on white keys. Otherwise,the second
finger shouldbe used(in combinationwith the fourth finger). The right handfingeringfor an

ascending third inB flat major,for should

example, be 2-4-1-3-1-3-2-4 1-3-1-3-1-3-2,while for

the left handit is 3-1-4-2-3-1-3-1 3-1-4-2-3-1-3.

(b) right hand: 2-4-2-4-2-4-2-4; left hand: 4-2-4-2-4-2-4-2

Although this fingering will also maintain a quiet handposition, Czerny believesit is more difficult

to play a passage which requires much power. It is also inconvenient and therefore not

recommended. I

(c) right hand: 1-3-2-4-1-3-2-4 (accent on the thumb); left hand: 4-2-3-1-4-2-3-1 (ex. 8.26)
This is suitable mainly for the right hand in passageswhich require an emphasison the first note

of each crotchet beat (played with the thumb). Czemy elaboratesthat it is applicable onlý in C

major, because the thumb cannot be placed on black keys.

Ex. 8.26
cavil
0
nt314

-0

[Ctj3 ý' -). II- -2.3

(d) right hand: 1-3-2-4-3-5;left hand:5-3-4-2-3-1

Accordingto Czerny,this fingeringcannotbe employedin keyswith morethan two sharpsor
flats. However,if the accentednote is a blackkey, the thumbmaybe used(ex. 8.27).30

"Ibid., fi, pp. 36-37.

244
Ex. 8.27

Ll.i43

Ofthe four wayslistedinthe PianoForteSchool,the first methodwasprobablypreferredby both

Czemy and Beethoven. In the ascendingbassfigure at the beginningof Op. 81a/iii, Czerny
the combinationof 3-1." Similarly, Beethoven that
specifies 1-3-1-3-1-3should
recommends
beusedinthe ascendingthirds
of0p. 31/l/ii/10 and74, apassageinC major, thuslendingweight
to Czerny'sexplanationsabove.

8.6 THE FINGERING OF REPEATED MONOTONES,

Czerny fists three main ways of fingering repeatedmonotones, all ofwhich makesuseofdifferent
fingers. The first way (ex. 8.28d) is usedto repeat an even number of notes, such as 2,4,6, etc.
The second(ex. 8.28b) is suitable for fingering triplets or when the samekey is to be struck three
times. When the key is to be struck twice, the third type of fingering may be employed (ex.
32
8.28c). Unfortunately,Czerny'sthird example(ex. 8-28c)is not asclearbecauseit lists four
I
notes, like the first example,rather than two. The only example of Beethoven's fingering of
I
repeated monotones, Op. 28/ii/9 (ex. 8.29), supports Czerny's suggestion of using different
fmgers. 33

Ex. 8.28a Ex. 8.28b Ex. 8.28c

[RI41
Ep'"I *12.1
Wkil 4Z-11 ý6!%1

4
) r-r--"
III1 I I_I I II
--
AIIII
IM 1111
I *1 1%% 'A aI
Z, 1 .21 ZK.,2
[LI4] --* -- - EL141

I' Czerny(1846), p. 61.

"Czemy (1839E), ii, p. I 11.
"Starke (1819-1821),H,p. 56.
245
Ex. 8.29

1 11 1%I

Czerny suggestsusing the same finger occasionally, especially in portato passagesor if it is

impossibleto employ different fingers (ex. 8.30)."
Ex. 8.30
55

3"

II

b-IA3 c

8.7 SLIDING FROM, ONE KEY TO ANOTHER ON THE SAME FINGER

Although Czerny prefers not to bse the samefinger successively,this is sometimesunavoidable.

In such situations,he recommendsthat the finger slide from a black key down to a white because
it is more difficult to slide from one white key to another. The latter, in his opinion, should be
in to be played legato.35
used only contrapuntal passages j

Beethoven was also familiar with this technique. In the bassof Op. III A/12 and 14, he asks for

the fifth finger to slide from a black key to a white one. A shnilar finger action is intended in his

sketch of a chromatic scale beginning on B flat (see ex. 8.22 above) in which the third and the
fourth fingers slide from black keys down to white ones. Sometimes,he usesthe samefinger to

slide from one white key to another. The five instanceswhere this technique is used in his piano

sonatas - Op. 28/ii/70 or bar 24 in Starke's shortened version (ex. 8.3 1), Op. 2/l/iii/60, Op.

81a/i/5, Op. 81a/iii/53 and 61-62, and Op. II 0/iii/1 07 - all endorseCzerny's guideline above in

that they occur in legato polyphonic passages.

34Czemy (1839E), ii, p. 120.

H,pp. 159-160.
311bid.,
246
Ex. 8.31

Incidentally,Beethovenalsousesthe 1-1fingeringin Op. 81a/i/5 andin Op. 81a/iii/146-147even

thoughit is impossibleto slidefrom a white key to a black one.

8.8 GLISSAADO

Czemy statesthat octave glissando played legato, is applicable only in C major and is generally
in
effective only quick passages. In order to execute an ascending octave glissando, the fifth

finger should be slightly bent, with the thumb following on its fleshy surface. The reversetakes
in
place a descendingglissando: the thumb leads by gliding on the nail. The fingers must be stiff,
but the hand and the arm should remain relaxed and flexible.36 The context in which this type of

glissando can be used, as describedby Czemy, is remarkably similar to Beethoven's Op. 53/Hi/

465-475 (ex. 8.32), so it is nýtural that Czerny should recommend this technique there.37
Beethoven's seriesof 1-5 fingering, and the fact that Czemy sight-read the manuscript of this

sonatato the composerhimself in 1804, strongly suggest that Beethoven may have intended an

octaveglissandohere.
Ex. 8.32

4- 111 -F-- ý= ii =i 190

tgggw 5 LI

.5
Ii5

311bid., ii, pp. 29-30.

37Czemy(1846),
p. 57.

247
8.9 THE IIBEBUNG" EFFECT"

Regardingthe scherzoof Beethoven'sSonatafor 'cello andpianoOp. 69 (ex. 8.33), Czemy's

oft-quotedcommentregardingthe performanceof a slur bindingtwo notesof the samepitch
(frequentlyreferred to as bebung).remains controversial. The 4-3 fingering below is by
Beethoven.
Ex. 8.33
mo"o
fl 30 III '. 1,
-LRr
I1 :9111 Vý 0- jr-- -I Ir
L---1

F?N--= -1 11 1 r, vn P is I
1L-4, -P V11; v11-4, :ýiV F-- R --mmleii., III I Tic
'''I"l I I
1HI. 1
-0

Czernywrites in TheArt:
The ties in the right handand the fingeringplacedover them,here
signifysomethingwholly peculiar. Thus,the secondnoteis repeated
in an audiblemannerwith the 3' finger, so that it soundsnearlyas
follows:- II

that is, the first note (with the 4' finger) very tenuto,andthe other
(with the 3d finger) smartly detachedand lessmarked: and so
elsewhere. The 4' fingermust therefore -
glideasideandmakewayfor
the third."

"Newmanobjectsto the misuseof the term bebungandproposesthe name"repeated-note

slur" to describethe peculiarsituationwhereBeethoven indicates
a 4-3 fingeringover what
appears to be two tied notes. See Newman (1988),pp. 295-297. Bebungis usedhereasthe
term is generallyunderstoodto describethis notation.
"Czemy (1846),p. 88. Punctuationanditalicizationoriginal.

248
Schnabel,Tovey,Newman,andBarker acceptCzerny'sadvice,but othersconsiderthe bebung
as tied notes Bamberger
(Schenker, and Badura-Skoda). Bamberger
agreeswith Schenker's
explanationthat the two tied notes carry psychologicalimplications. They believethat the
notationwould help performers feel the required"restlessness"of the passage.Badura-Skoda
this
alsosees notationas having a psychological effect,but he believes
it to be a directionfor the
performerto the
sustain note for a legato effect. Drake, in his 1972book, agrees with Badura-
Skoda. However,two decadeslater,he changeshis mind. He is now of the opinionthat the 4-3
fingeringin Op. I 10/iii, for example,is insertedto conveythe "speakingqualityof the passage".
The secondnote, therefore,hasto be played. Badura-Skodaalso wrongly reasonsthat since
Czemyhadnot studiedOp. 69 with Beethoven,this techniquemaynot havebeentaughtby the
composer.40In fact,Thayer that
reveals Czernyhadplayedthis composition
at a concertin 1816,
by
graced the presenceof the composer."

Czerny's suggestionfor the second note of the 'lie" to be sounded can be produced on early

nineteenth-century pianos. As an innovative composer, Beethoven did not always follow

traditional rules. In an interesting early sketch, dating from 1793, Beethoven asks for the third
finger to lie acrossthe fourth uritil the latter withdraws and the third takes its place (ex. 8.34).
Ex. 8.34

wý
wý41 ... ý% W"I " QUICI
AA-
-1. Cýnf% GAVýr ý- - Cln
STiL Sj!;, InLý -. -
)b 1 %Uý4 ,.
lit 6
r, 6jTVj-jt

1)
I tiI
LM Sý
ji .

p
V1 4- 3
C.-S. Z-ý% oà a-

This .fingeringis not a precursorof the bebungbecauseboththe secondmonotone(d' in b. 2 and

e2 in b. 6) are not tied to the first note. The second d2 is also accompanied by a sf mark,
confirn-dng that it should be struck. In addition,noneof the bebung in the piano has
sonatas a
double fingeringover the first of the two "tied" notes,becausethere is insufficienttime to

4OBeethoven(1935),ii, p. 808;Beethoven(1931), H,pp. 68-69andifi, p. 216; Newman

(1988),pp. 295-299;Barker (1996),p. 295; Beethoven(1972),pp. 64-72;Bamberger(1976),
pp. 246-249;Drake (1972), pp. Drake
125-126; (1994), p. 21; andBadura-Skoda (1988), pp.
84-88. Seealsothe discussionby GrundmannandMies (1966),pp. 126-131.
47hayer(1969),p. 641.
249
withdraw the fourth finger,asdirectedby his annotationto the sketchshownabove.In bars3-4,

the repeated s areto be playedby two different fingers(the secondandthe third), but which
C2

29
finger shouldbe usedto play the following d. If the fourth finger is used,d' will be detached
from the note in the next bar. Alternatively,Beethovenmight haveenvisageda legatoline by
playingthe & with the fifth finger,while the tl-drdand fourth fingerscrossit to playthenextnote,

a technique not unfamiliar to Beethoven (see section 8.2 above). This sketchraisesmany
questions, but it Eke
shows, many of his sketchesmentioned at the beginningof ti-ils that
chapter,
he did not alwaysadhereto convention.Therefore,the bebung,probablythe resultfrom oneof
his manyexperimentswith fingeringandtechnique,mustbe treatedasa specialcase,andnot a
tie.

Beethovenmust have intendedthe secondnote of the bebungto be sounded,becausehe

indicates
conscientiously a different finger over each second 'lied" note. Such careful and
fingerings
consistent would not have been necessary if the "tie" was to be playedaccordingto
normalconvention. Why did he also takethe trouble to notatetwo semiquaverswhenonequaver
would suffice? All thesesuggest that he was trying to notatea mannerof playingwhich was
different,perhapsthe slurringof a monotone(with the secondnotejoinedto the first, but to be
played lessstrongly). Sincethe slursin Op. I 10/iii/5 and 125(ex. 8.35andex. 8.36respectively)
it is likely that eachpair of semiquavers
do not extendto the followingpair of serniquavers, is to
be slightly detachedfrom its neighbour. Although the secondnote in eachpair of serniquavers
is weakerthanthe first, this articulationmustnot hinderthe overallphrasingof the passage.In
exs. 8.35 and 8.36 below, eachpair of semiquavers
must be carefullygradedto'create.the
crescendo anda diminuendo indicatedby Beethoven. In Op. 106/iii/165(ex. 8.37),the bebungs

are at the peak of the crescendo which beginsthree barsearlier. Here,onemustguardagainst

losingthe intensityat this climaxasa resultof the secondnote of the slurbeingweaker.

250
Ex. 8.35
kltýlo r%Tar
I-
-1'. r, % rs_ r- --aw-%N
r% r-. ý r-,
R±L-t *
i4lliý i
f" i=ý i=ý III-III
If
kq -1, -RiI pv 1-=ý=1
6--". ,ýýP lb g--= L-4
-- tý- -1
tm±
mMI-II -A

kQnu

0 xnr. fJ
1-%Lno
ýAAt44
K 4- . ": -
I (I '11 S
r, 01
IM it 1

UIZS(--

q-)
:

Ex. 8.36

os
v H, Be 36 E--l
--
v"rrrrrr.
-
- -
UIII -1 I-FVIIIIIII
-j D mi
I ýe - __-n , P=4=4 II I- iIII -- -

/-\. 1vaaa3; ýlPt It t 1v

3 i- i Fý P.
.
PM PIE
ra
PC i- A
12
rFIý- W
0-0 14 to t ti ,

r=EýEýLf t4EEý r4=4 I ý, ýmr 1111d L-7ý-'"' V=ý

-=-ý
I I

.
L1
Iý-.
LI .H II LI 'I

251
Ex. 8.37

"0"
-C= --ý-
P" p -i ;I II- ýli I,

cresc.
02

54 A tutte ie ,, a,

i
--

ýý
b; 0,
lit

t- t- r-
: la-
cresc.
4
r 7"] r7l

5
As

I
I; ý-i D- r4.TI
- -;-Z- -[ý; dO
i
=
-t=: ib

j 4-3 If--, j
41-13 .4,_,

5ý-,
IIýIiii i- iii! I
.,
#t
f pillt
una corda.

i- .II

ý1ý2
(*)

252
8.10 SUMMARY'

Onthewhole,Czernysharesmany.of Beethoven'sviewsregardingthebasicplayingpositionand
rulesof fingering.Theyemphasizethe importanceof maintaininga "quiet" hand
the fundamental
position,usingeconomical body andhand movements,andchoosingcorrectfingeringto ensure
I I
that passageworkis executedaccuratelyandfluently. Czemy'sstudies,whichdealwith a variety
of finger patterns, octave passages and trills, are intended to train in
evenness playing as well as
,
to develop strength and agility in the fingers througlý repetition. This idea of training technical

competencethrough repetition, of course, was already known to Beethovenby the time he was
twenty. Czemy, therefore, prepared the necessary"training materiar'for this idea to be put into

practice. However, they differ in their choice of fingering of repeatedmotives. AlthoughCzerny

sometimesprovides an alternative fingering so as to avoid piacing the thumb on a black key in

he
such passages, generallyprefers to use uniform fingering. In contrast, Beethoven's fingering
of repeatedmotives may be irregular. His decision may be basedon technical considerationsor
those of a more expressivenature.

While Beethoven may not have beenas fastidious as Czerny in following a strict set of rules, his
fingerings of numerouspassagesare not unlike Czerny's. Of passagesin thirds on white keys,
for example,they prefer using the pattern 1-3-1-3 or 3-1-3-1. Their suggestedfingeringsof scalic

are
passages often basedon passingthe thumb under the fingers and crossinga longer finger over
the thumb. They avoid, where possible, placing the thumb on black keys. They also encourage

using different fingers when playing repeated monotones. Finger sliding is used sparingly.
Although it is more common to slide from a black key down to a white, they occasionally slide

a finger from one white key to another in polyphonic passages.They evenoccasionallyresort to

using the eighteenth-centuryfingering of vaulting a long finger over a shorter one. It is also very
likely that Czerny's description ofplaying the bebung, in which the secondnote is slightly audible,
is exactly how Beethovenwould have expected it to be played.

Although heavily influencedby his teacher,.Czerny was also a progressiveman. While

Beethoven'sfingeringin Op. 211/iii/59-62suggeststhe useof the arm to createthe crescendo,
Czernyprefersto usethe fingers. The latter's fingeringwRlalsoavoidBeethoven'sconsecutive

253
fingering in bars 61-62, another taboo in Czerny's rulebook. Czerny also disagreeswith
Beethovenon the bestfingeringof chromaticscale. Beethovenprefersthe fingeringwhichuses
mainlythe thumbandthe third finger. Czerny,
who is ratherdismissiveof this fingering,chooses
insteadto recommendthe fingeringwhich relieson the partnershipof the thumbandthe index
finger.

In conclusion, Czerny's choice of fingering largely reflects that of Beethoven. It is only in a very

small number of casesthat he disagreeswith his teacher, either becauseBeethoven's^fingeringis

old-fashioned, or simply becauseof a different personal preference.

II.

254
 CHAPTER 9: PEDALLING

Of the numerouspedalsavailableon early nineteenth-century pianos, Beethoven indicates only

two in his compositions - the damper and the una corda. In addition to these, Czerny

recommends the occasional use of the buff (also known as the muffle or piano pedal) in
'
tremolando passages. All the other pedals,he declares,are "childish toys of which a solid Player
disdain to avail himself '.2
will

In his compositionsbefore1802,Beethovenemployedthe termssenzasordino to indicatethat

the dampersshouldbe raised,and con sordino when the dampersshould be returned to the
originalposition. Czemyexpliinsthatthis the
was caseonlywhenBeethovenmeant '
knee-levers.
The indicationsPed and 0 first appearedin the autographof the "Kreutzer" Sonata,Op. 47
(composedbetween1802-1803),but there is a possibility that Beethovenadoptedthe new
indicationsin an earlierwork. Indicationsfor the foot pedalare found in the first edition of the
PianoSonataOp. 31/2 (composedin 1801-1802);but with the holographlost, it is impossibleto
determinewhetherthe markingswere insertedby Beethovenhimselfor by Nageli the Swiss
'
publisher.

Even as a young composer,Beethovenalready realized the potential of the pedal. In a sketch of

1790-1792, he asked for the dampers to be raised with the knee during a'series of repeated

chords. Newman believes this to be the earliest known request by any composer for damper
II.
control. ' We also have Czerny's testimony that Beethoven usedthe pedal extensively,evenwhen
it has not been indicated in his compositions.'

As will be seenin section 9.2, the damper pedal is given a prominent role in the piano sonatas,

carrying out a variety of functions. As an accomplishedpianist, Beethoven knew the precise

ICzerny(1839E), iii, p. 57.

'Ibid., iii, p. 65. Capitalizationoriginal.
'Czerny(1846),p. 57.
'Rosenblum(1988), p. 118.
'Newman(1988),p. 66.
6Czemy(1846),
p. 2.
255
 he
effect wishedto create. He was very meticulousin his pedaldirections,
markingthe exact
positionwherethe pedalshouldbe depressed and released.In Op. 57/i/218-221,
the pedal is

alwaysreleasedon the quaver

penultimate rest (bb. 219 and221) beforethe changeof harmony,
while in bars222-223,
wherethe harmonychanges
at everyhalf bar,the is
pedal releasedon the
lastquaverbeforethe introductionof the new harmony(ex. 9.1). KennethDrakepointsout that
Ex. 9.1

71F13

ML 11
Ii--
il. iI ----t ar 4p
r1v-
I- r-I
1
it M. M tz r, II-
go IvI :3-11V4 11 rý= II:: r- II-II19
r-7-LTT VJLP, -= -- - -- - ý--l II cr, r- IKjI - .11TI ki -I
r-ý m L. --:l --v IIý-I-II -t
L-1

1( 1 1
Hf fl
14 FtfV
I L-1 :I =1 t--l I
C: Jý 11 6ý4 1 -f I -I --F I-I

In
all
Lip! i 14
It II -! =A

,-1f141'
-

in theautographof Op.53/iii, Beethovenchangedthe crotchetrestin bar 113to two quaverrests

to
soas place thepedal releasesignprecisely on the second
quaver '
rest. Rosenblum alsonotices
other correctionsin the autograph of this movement. Beethovenmoved the beginningof the

Trake (1972),p. 151.

256
pedal indicationfrom the last in
serniquaver the bassof bar 8 to the first note at the beginningof
the following bar. In bars57 and 174,he decidedagainstthe initial ideaof startingnew pedal
markings for the continuationof the descending scale, choosing insteadto havethemwithout the
pedal! Very often, his pedalmarkings in analogous passages are also consistent. The two
staccatoquavers in the opening motif of Op. 27/2/iii, for example,are always accompanied by

senzasordino.

9.1 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF BEETHOVEN'S PEDAL MARKINGS

Whilethenumerousinvestigationsinto Beethoven'spedallingin the secondhalf of the twentieth

centuryhaveled to a clear understandingof their functions, many important questionsremain

unanswered. Did Beethoven notatepedallingonly when they differ from the norm,asproposed
by Kochevitsky,GoldsteinandBarker? Shouldwe refrainfrom pedallingpassages
whichdo not
the
carry composer's pedal as
markings, by
suggested Grundmann and Mies?" Or shouldwe, as
encouragedby Martin Hughes," apply the principle of Beethoven's
pedalling,
which has been
deducedfrom his markings,to'sirriilar passagesin his other works? The answerto this last
questionmust surely be of the because,
affim-native as mentionedabove, Czernyrecallsthat
Beethovendid not confinepedallingsolelyto passages
with pedalmarkings.Thisdoesnot mean,
however,that one could usethe pedal indiscriminately. of the two arpeggiateddiminished-
chords
seventh in bars163-166 of Op. 27/2/iii, only the secondoneis (ex.
pedalled 9.2).'2 Since

all four barsalsoshare the same dynamic level (that is, p), the aim of the pedalin bars 165-166
must be to providea differenttimbre from the preceding two bars,whichareunpedalled. This
is an instancewhere Grundmannand Mies' caution againstthe employmentof the pedal in

passages without pedalmarkings is justified.

$Rosenblum (1988),p. 122.

9Kochevitsky(1962),p. 24; Goldstein,(1988),pp. 104-105;Barker(1996),pp. 266-267.
"GrundmannandMies (1966),pp. 27-28.
"SeeStowell(1994),pp. 236-237.
"In the autograph,bar 163is markedcon sordino.
257
Ex. 9.2

In contrastto the view held by Kochevitsky,Goldsteinand Barker, Beethovendid not indicate

only which
pedallings weredifferentfrom contemporary
practice. As shownin 2.2.7,
section the

practiceof depressing
the on
pedal tonic chordsat the endofmovements,
eventhroughrests,can
also be found in the compositionsof Clementi,Cramer, Dussek, and Hummel. They, like
Beethoven,sometimesallow the resonanceto decaynaturallyat the endof movementsby not
indicatinga releasesign. Sustaininga bassnote with the pedalwhile the left handplaysanother
line, and pedallingarpeggiatedpassagesto help increasethe resonance,are two of the most

common usesof the in

pedal the early century.
nineteenth Even the pedallingof alternatingtonic
and dominant harmonies over a common bass note (thus causing blurring), excessive by
Hummel's standard,are not extravagantwhen comparedwith Clementi. An exampleis the
revisedversionof Clementi'sOp. 34/2/i/125-130(ex. 9.3), publishedabout 1807,in which he

addedpedalmarkings. The lengthypedallingin his Op. 37/3/iii/1-31(ex. 9.4), in

published 1798,
is further evidenceof hisboldnessin usingthepedalto achievecolouristiceffects.Thesespecial

effectsareunusualonly becausetheydepart from the normalpracticeof changingthepedalwith

the harmony. In both 9.3
exs. and 9.4, the pedalremains depressed throughchangesat the two

oppositeendsof the dynamic a

range, device later adoptedby Beethoven in the lastfifteenbars

of Op. 53/iii (see ex. 9.16 below). There is another similarity between the pedallingof
Beethoven'sOp. 53/iii andClementi'sOp. 37/3/iii: the openingthemesof thesetwo movements

258
 by the pedal.
are alwaysaccompanied
Ex. 9.3

a
-I .1

..;ýi .1
k-,,,
ten ..
-I*- 1-1 - ý! ten
II'k - é=I 4. hII 1' 1? ['t1 rzzmiý
H
--
44
o'-ft.

-"W,
4
-6- 40-
ý. re... W Pod
Fe d: W, pedl in , nut M, P-11 ,I
--.... go; It&
Lt!
btfgo. lest I td
-!.....
to. .-.

ft-gm%--

JUT hP ýL I -d&- 4- 1 -P
.-- -
J,
2
t ., aca'0451.64 -4 -ig --
- -. J 'I!
Alu

Ex. 9.4

FINALFt
rý-

19#. . 5::
: o op 094--q-- '_ft-1-
- .
69 114 Lai ii01
, Piano
=19
FWiLLIIr1I
'Presto 'Open Pedal
el
-- -!
ii--i 4--4 iii

.-
.-

P= r, 1 7--13 A
1ý. l II. -I I III . -.. ml
r----ý r -,, IIIIIIIII- -ýII-. --- I.
-I - -..... -iI
1i0'Lj II IT IL_1_IIIrvI L_L III I'-
liii IJ-H

- i-I I_ I-I i-I I i-_I II-IJII-iJ l-_ III- 1T1 i

1-1293 gp ii93 qr !! 93 ep 319- 0- r191 lu 1 19 10 391 0- 1--t73zýý 111i
et a
69: ý
7 --IT 7-': ' -'T.. -CT -cr
944 90

If..
ý 3! 0 :1iiýi =1 iiý, j1 1-7ýj 1iQ E-=l
Qi ,iI- -1 -,. -, -I. -I
- -
i !9

'IT,, 7 7.*-. 7 --T "7* 7,

Rl
r- -Lý-
.-- --jtý .* .
zi. -,

-riIii-el IIIfI-I ii
II
III
I

E:;;ýý-
--r.1 1
II"I
L-AL-
I TJJ I L-T4
I.
-
r-j--1--I IIII

-wiihout Ped .
al
...J1JI...
,-,,,
----
LJfIIJII__
-,, ,vII-T1W1 =1 t-- t7t! - t7 1 -1 =1 f100ýii1 4- ii;! =i- i 4ý
--i -.
_I-_"_I__1_ II I'I-I-'1-i

'IT
259
9.2 THE FUNCTIONS OF THE DAMPER PEDAL

In this section,Beethoven'sexploitationof the pedalto help achievelegato,to enhancedynamic

to
contrasts, increasethe resonanceof a to
passage, highlight importantstructuralelements,and
for specialeffectswill be discussed.Theseprinciples will also be comparedwith Czerny's
instructionsin his Piano Forte Schooland TheArt.

The damperpedalcanassistin connectingnoteswhen this cannotbe achievedwith the fingers.

Without thehelpof thepedalto connectlargeleapsin Op. 101MY14-16,for example,Beethoven
would not havebeenableto achievelegatofrom the endof one bar to the beginning
of the next.
Sometimes,he usesthe pedalto link two contrastingsections(Op. 57/i/238from adagioto p1h
allegro) or two (the
movements end of the first movement
of Op. 109 to the beginningof the
second). In both instances,
the lingering from
resonance a soft chord increases
the elementof
surpriseat the entry of the chord,
ensuingfortissimo accompanied by a changein characterand
speed. In Op. 109, Beethoven springsanother surpriseby introducingan abruptmodulationto
the tonic minor (ex. 9-5). Czernyalso usesthe pedal to achievelegato. In his Piano Forte
School,he showsandexplainshow this canbe done,that is, by depressing
the pedalat the same
time asthe first it the is
chordandreleasing when next chord struck (ex. 9.6)." His techniqueis
exactly the same as for
Beethoven's, the indicationsin ex. 9.6 correspondto Beethoven's
(comparewith ex. 9.5).
Ex. 9.5
f

f)IIITIM
A.RI'T 6- r-r-I
?-KZ AIA, I
IV k1j
I IIF'% 1ý
----4
ý-L Ii1
I-I-
11 tfý
11 :ý2v
I- Cý AI-IrJ.
"--IIIIaII-iIn
- "i
vil

"Czemy(I 839E),iE, p. 63.

260
Ex. 9.6

thepedalcanalsobeusedto sustainlong-heldchordsor passages

In slow movements, with slow-
moving harmonies, asshownby Beethoven'spedalmarkingsin Op. 57/ii/96-97(ex. 9.7) andOp.
8la/ii/37-42. Althoughhedoesnot insertanypedalmarkingsin Op. 31/2/ii(seeex. 7.10above),

some pedalling is for

necessary, exampleon the dotted minim chords in bars 1,3 and 5.
Therefore,Czemy'sadviceto usethepedalin suitableplacesin thismovementto helpsustainthe
harmonies"is within the style.
Ex. 9.7

u
Qn
74ý k-R
I ýý d
111, \V uh ý.
%ý6r ýl
.N..
V v4 6tt ZIA- --I
64 U

cc
.
1444
vU

c
01 .

A favouriteeffect,usedfrequentlyby both BeethovenandCzerny,is to createthe impressionof

richertexturesby the
sustaining bass
notewith the damper
pedal while the left handplaysanother
fine. Op. 53/Hi/251-284and287-312(ex. 9.8) andOp. 79/i/67-74,91-98and 111-118aretwo

14
Czemy(1846),p. 54.

261
Ex. 9.ý

;: r.,!n
F

instanceswhereBeethovenemploysthe pedalin this manner. Czemyundoubtedlyvisualizesa

similareffectin Op. 31/l/i/170-193." Although this has
passage no pedal the
marking, dynamic

markings in the bassof Op. 31/l/i/170-193 (ex. 9.9) offers vital cluesas to what Beethoven's
intentionmightbe. All the low bassnotesin bars 170,174 and 178aremarkedf,whilethe notes
Ex. 9.9
a
2
VIIF Z=..!
"W.., -I6. --. 6-. h-.. i 1 6-... 6-6--. 2 1 6--; a--6--= I L-=M-L--=
F ILIF =--L--=
FE F IF
II--

I -V a ir 2
8
h'' r9I
a1 W -f-
'712
r- 11 14
I 2
p
f
I
I
i'l
;--q:,:
Eli! P--j i
-
r- C- ý r- r--=- r- i 9--
4. -g-t
P. pPi
- ;ýý- ýf
-.::
---
.--
p- PPP Mýt=-
-'-rl
I r-
I' 'M
ýf
=k

-i ii .4i .4ii .4ý-. 4 ii-! Hý- i E7ý i E7ý-ý -4 iiHii0iiWiiHI

A
rl 1'III I
ir
-A[:

2
I
--L&--
II 'I-11 ýw III
IýI dlý -I

a
-r ii P 9Jj'
2
4
8 2
jP S a a
5
.

I (e r
AU -U LI I II II

IH; I. II

"Ibid., P. 52.
262
immediatelyfollowing themare markedp. This confirmsthat the threelow bassnotesmarked
f shouldbe sustainedwith the pedal,thuscreatinga richer texture. Czerny'spedaltechniqueto

achievethis effectis alsothe sameasBeethoven's.In the following example (ex. 9.10) from the
Piano Forte School, Czemy declaresthat the pedal must be depressedat exactly the same

moment as the note which is to be in

sustained: this the
case, bassoctaves. Otherwise,
theywin
remain shortanddry. In order for the octavesto be sustainedthroughoutthe bar,thepedalmust
not be releasedbeforethe last quaver of eachbar. It must then be immediately
resumedwith the
16
next octaves. Czerny'sinstructionhere(andhis pedallingin ex. 9.10) is remarkablysimilarto
Beethoven'spedalmarkingsin similarcontexts(includingex. 9.8 shownabove),indicatingthat
Czemymusthavelearnedthis pedaflingtechniquefrom histeacher. With this in mind,Czerny's
suggestedpedallingof Op. 31WWI70-193must obviouslybe acceptedas reflecting the intention

of the composer.
Ex. 9.10

em --------------------------------------------------- ----
An- Alý d9. -
-da- - -Air

1.. Li

I
* __
+* S:
: 4- .+

Lr
. ...... ............ :ý.......... I ---------------- .......................

Beethovenoften usesthe pedalto differentiatebetweenalternatingloud andsofl passages,

as in
Op. 78/ii/57-63 and 116-122and Op. 106/i/I7-23 and 176-197(ex. 9.11). Similarly,Czemy

employs the to
pedal highlightdynamic
contrasts.He that
recornmends inOp. 31/2/i/21-41,
only
theforte passages be
should pedafled."

"Czemy (I 839E),iii, pp. 58-59.

"Czemy (1846),p. 53.

263
Ex. 9.11

-j
(9) 6
,Is;,

I
f 0p,
40,'wv I
P.0,6ý:
.
a
7w
1ýý

......... . ................ ....... .... [ ............

....... .......................
i
................... c................
......
rim m

1
f 1-efill ýl * f p
L-: 190,0"do, cresc..
.4
ýýAt ly 9-
ý5 !V III
2YFFF -

'Ra- Iya me
Idim
Thepedalcanalsobeusedto increasethe powerof a crescendo,aswitnessBeethoven'smarking
in Op. 106/i/403-405(ex. 9.12). Czerny'sexamplefor this type of pedallingis found not in the
Ex. 9.12

L lum
1
v-W

piano
-l
-1
v

but
sonatas,
f

in the 32 Variations in C
44

minor.
-4

He advises
ý"

that, in the lasttwo variations,the

pedal shouldbe used to intensifythe crescendo leading to theff. " Another functionof the pedal
is to enhanceaccentuation, by
asshown Beethoven'spedalindicationswhichaccompanythe C
majorchordsin Op. 106/1/91
and 93 andthe E6 major chords in bars323 and325 from the same
movement. In the autographof Op. 27/2/ifi, he carefullyandconsistentlymarkssenzasordino
on the two sforzando chords
quaver in the openingthemeandconsordinoimmediately
afler these

"Ibid., P. 70.

264
quavers. The pedallingof thesetwo quaversthroughoutthis movement is confirmed by Czerny
in The Art. He also asksfor the sf B6s in Op. 26/iii/33-34 to be pedafled,'9 eventhough
Beethovenleft no such indications. Although he usesthe pedal to emphasizeaccentuation,
Czemyappearsto haveoverlookedthis functionin his Piano Forte School.

Increasing the fullness of a passage,especially if it is chordal or arpeggiated, is one of the most

common and popular usesof the pedal in the early nineteenth century. This application, which
Czerny describesasharmoniouspedaHing,is frequently recommended,even in Beethoven's early

piano SonataS.20As he explains, this term refers to the use of the pedal for the duration of a
harmony. 21Op. 2/3/i/218-223, Op. 31/2/Hi and the trifl passagetowards the end of Op.
consonant
53/H?2are only someofthe many instanceswhere he suggeststhe useof "harmonious pedalling".
Examples of Beethoven's pedal indications in the piano sonatasshow that he too usesthe pedal

to enrich the harmony in arpeggiated (Op. 57/i/123-132,218-233 and 228-232, and Op.

8la/iiV29-30,33-34,122-123,126-127, and 193-195) and chordal passages(Op. 106/i/1-4).

They also support Czemy's counselofchanging the pedal when a different harmony is introduced.

Czerny's pedalling of the first four bars of an arpeggiatedpassagein his Piano Forte School (ex.
9.13) also bears a striking resemblanceto that of Beethoven's Op. 57/iii/176-204 (see ex. 3.36

above). Both composers direct that the pedal be depressed on the first note/chord of the
arpeggio, sustainingthe resonance until the rests. By maintaining the same pedal pattern in both

loud and soft passages,they are sharingthe idea that fullness of harmony is not restricted to loud

passagesonly. rI-

191bid.,P. 48.
100p.26 is the first pianosonatawhereBeethovenrequeststhe useof the damperpedal.
Czerny(1846),p. 113. Seealsop. 2.
21
211bid.,
pp. 36,54 and 57.

265
Ex. 9.13

n ri llý
i goIiw _rllm
.Ii LTh
i4) ,, 40 Wm. '10! "aid
f±: ý ao.
-I, pI- LHM iý I
VA

-H. -I

1tý)! -io 1 ý- i-M 6- i b-i b L--JZN--L-ld

ý% j 1..
0! i
EJOO ,. iajj
L.Pl kit
L-. --

Q
L'1.-1
>j1
r
i ýE i. i "I
SIILorz:
+
_______

Hill
alp1
G;ý -1
. Vo

Pedalling through rests, and allowing the resonance to die away naturally at the end of

movements,are two specialeffects frequently exploited by Beethoven. In achieving both types,

he always changesthe pedal with the harmony. In Op. 53/iii/98-113, Op. 57/iii/176-191 (seeex.
3.36 above), Op. 81a/iii/1 30-137, and Op. 106/i/I 33-137, the resonancefrom the chords/notes
is prolonged through the rests. The dynamic may be soft, or loud, or may even cover the whole
dynamic range, as in Op. 53/iii/98-113. Interminable pedal markings at the ends of movements

which consistofonly one harmony,such as Op. 26/iv/1 66-169 (ex. 9.14), Op. I 101ii/I55-158 and
Op. II I/i/157-158, are anotherfavourite with him. Occasionally,he may wish for the resonance

of only the tonic chord to linger on, as in Op. 31/2/i/226-228 and Op. 109/iii/203 (ex. 9.15).

Although all the examplesquoted thus far have a soft dynamic, Beethoven doesnot restrict these

266
 to
effectssolely softpassages. Otherinstancesinclude thefortissimo A flat majorarpeggiofinale

of'Op. II 0/iii/209-213andtheexuberant F minor ending in Op. 57/iii/353-361. Thesetwoeffects

be
canalso seen from bar529to the end of Op. 53/iii (ex. 9.16)whereBeethoven markspedalling
throughthe C majorchordand its inversions(some of themstaccato)acrossthe wholedynamic
range,and throughrests,and allows the full resonance
of the tonic chord to vibrateat the end.
By pedallingthroughstaccatochords,he makesit clearthat his aimhereis for a massof sound
ratherthanprecisearticulation.Czemy'sexplanationof suchpedallingsat the endof movements
Ex. 9.14

I
ý-47ý

Ex. 9.15

-W4t
FU '- 1
pwýj ý =h--.
,
.
11
Fý

Ex. 9.16
5ý1ý8 45 I
r
Iýý:: :]; ýiiiii-i)-
Gir7:
ýý t-
FE . -- - -44 11

f-ý i, ý decrese.
r-L-1
.. :14-6 5ý.!., mm,
ad i-S i14
ýEý-
-!
I- i0 --. do i-I-. 1. iIIi-,
.. - -1 . ap I12
24 2
4

5
Glý)

-tv. IYD
267
with only oneharmony the
where resonance is allowed to dissipateby itself, however, is confined
tosoftpassages. In the foRowing from
example the Piano Forte School (ex. 9.17), he asksfor
to
the pedal remaindepressed
at the end"so long as the last chord soundsdistinctV'. ` This is
Ex. 9.17
Andante dint:
J C smorzando.
0<
01. H

40 -I.^-- .
.L -M- -e- ..

+ r--, )
ý--a. i ;N2

cI.

the sameeffectasBeethovenwouldhaveintended,exceptthathisnotationoftenomitstherelease
signat the end. Czemy alsoappUes this principleto Beethoven's earlypianosonataswherethere
areno pedal indications.His adviceregarding the pedallingof the last four barsof Op. 7/iv (ex.
9.18)" is in accordancewith Beethoven'sstyle. This passage,with its arpeggiatedtonic chord
anda decrescendo
topp, is not unlikethe lastfew barsof Op. 26/iv (seeex. 9.14above). He also
"gently murmuring"effectat the end of Op.I 0/l/ii " (presumably
he the
means last
visualizesa
five bars)throughthecombinationofthe damperpedalandthe unacorda. AlthoughCzemydoes

not elaboratewhetherthe resondnce shouldbe allowed to linger on indeýinitely

at the endof the
two movements, there is a very strong based
possibility, on existingexamplesmentionedabove,
that Beethoven
would have for
wished suchan effect.
Ex. 9.18
M
(9 0

ae-

vv

2'Czerny(18 39E), iii, p. 63.

Czemy (1846), p. 39.
24
2'Ibid., p. 40.

268
In addition to aiding legato, highlighting dynamic contrasts and increasing the resonanceof a

passage, pedalling also provides Beethoven with a means to underline important structural

elements. He employs it to colour main themes (such as the Rondo theme of Op. 53/iii), to link

sections or movements(as discussedon p. 260), to enhancea change in the characterof a motif,

and to highlight a modulation or the introduction of an unexpected chord. In Op. 101/iii/87-90

and 276-279, the pedalhelpsto emphasizethe contrast between a very soft, melodious motif, and

a strong, energeticidea. In the secondmovement of the samesonata,the pedal at bars 30-34 (ex.

9.19) marks not only the change from a strong, march-like character to one of repose, it also

coincides with the arrival of the flattened submediant. Similarly, the unexpected move to a
diminished chord in Op. 57/ii/96 is also accompanied by a pedal marking. The harmonic

progression of the passagebeginning in bar 89 is identical to that beginning in bar 9, but instead

of a resolution to the subdon-dnantin bar 96, as in bar 16, Beethoven introduces a diminished

chord. Czerny is also aware ofthe use of the pedal in emphasizing structural features,asreflected
in his advice regarding the use of the damper and the una corda in the unexpectedmodulation
5.16
of Op. 7/iv/ 15
Ex. 9.19
4 3
(S) --,
-dP6
611P

a -,

7't;
p so-inpre lig
dim.

Vsý 1, v1-r 0* -ý
:ýa.
34 4___ .2
2 -0 2 ILIA
4
4-:
84
W-fý ......................................................................
-ý I-'----- -,
A4 a
-ýt .ý 4ps-
i-i - I F,91
!11F:
pp

7::ý b7 f
4
*

As the pedal undoubtedlyadds a different character to the sound, nineteenth-century

experimented
enthusiastically
composers/performers with different colouristic effects. In

tremolandopassages,Czernyinsiststhat the pedal was"almostalwaysnecessary" but it mustbe

the "
harmony. In addition to the tremolandopassages in Op. 26/iii, Beethoven
changedwith

p. 39.
261bid.,
27
Czemy(1839E), iii, p. 61.

269
indicatespedal indicationsin tremolando-likepassages,such as Op. 106/ii/I 13-115and Op.
109/iii/105-107and 112(ex. 9.20).
Ex. 9.20

[ 2.. 1
C-4)
Af i
Rp. pt I" Pvc-F111' ! Fl P, inPFqF I! 41 Lh --Ih 41
-1
-j-A im
1--T--F--r--T-i

4im allLIAaI

ru-T-[- rl
ýIi
I li
L-I. "it'
-
it-4 PIE,
-- ---i
P. .-9 h-
:1rI
I
I'l
4,It
ppit "I

P6.
It I- F- I
IIIIIIII

,
ON
!1i, -t -- IIII
''
EEJ
OR I

,4
-4, pe.
P-6
-+ -I
fl 4+ -1 it IF.t* T, t-
-F-14 1111w,
-I!
ýl

U2 9-v h==Z;L--i I- w al
ml ii- I is Ida 10
'V00 ----
sa"ll, H
I I-i- I {T II I iI
1.1 0i1011
a-w 11 i9i- fIa10H- 1--l-
ý-Wwm
j! 'A P
1 -1-M IwI lp Ia
-4w
IIIIII
ýo-A -* rd . Pal
Pd.-

In all these three sonatas, confmning Czemy 1)

s assertion, Beethoven changes the pedal with the
harmony. Another special effect which Beethoven employs is the blurring ofsoft, dissonant notes,

for example Op. 106/iii/44 (ex. 9.21 a). It is, however, surprising that he does not pedal the whole

of bar 129 (ex. 9.21 b) to achieve the same effect. The result of this blurring would be similar to
28W,hich Czemy has in
the "soft undulating effect of the Eolian Harp, or of very distant MUSiC,,

n-dndwhen pedalling through a succession of soft, dissonant chords, without a common bass note

(ex. 9.22). rI

Ex. 9.21a

n
!ýk11
41 lh-L
W. 1 =
-w
tl
li ýt

Lýllis-
11 1ý Ii .
iý iI
01 III!:4R 7-i r- AIIit i 1w ýp Aý I- ,
-i II -
.11.;5 ýý1 rl 111-fF, ie
t

"Ibid.
270
Ex. 9.21b

ii
Mll
Ilm nII
IM
tv
WLR
P Itopl-
'Ili
p
-it
ý tnr, I IV
IIIrIIIrI1 1ý .I...
-1 111 1- 11
.I

Ex. 9.22

Lento.
................. . ...................
ri,
W-H I
Iý 0sim -LI'
05h ib1 H
lap

iýI 1
_1ii b"CF+-I i sl 5-1
1:
11 11S ki-
- -- - =X
i Z73i
.

Apart from occasionalspecialeffects which involve blurring, Czemy's fundamentalrule is for the

pedal to remain depressedonly as long as the harmony is the 29

same. This is because"[c] tear and
distinct playing must always be considered as the Rule, all the rest is merely by way of

exception". " The majority of Beethoven's pedalling, some of which are quoted in the numerous

examplesabove, also follow this rule (the harmonic blurrings will be discussedbelow). As the

treble was weaker on early pianos, it is permissible for the pedal to remain depressedthrough

various passingnotes in the treble, as long as the harmony in the left hand is static. This is clear
from Czemy's recommendedpedalling in Op. 7/iv/155-157 (see ex. 3.10 above). Beethoven's

pedalling in Op. II 0/iii/ 114-116 (ex. 9.23), beginning with the G minor arpeggio, followed by

chords, and fmally a melody (including two non-harmony notes in the treble) over the same
harmony, is also basedon the sameprinciple.

"Ibid., iii, p. 59.

"Ibid., iii, p. 63. Capitalizationoriginal.

271
Ex. 9.23
rcth t&hU
oisýtsso tQnv & VOSO
6p Aý %k
liorzt,aolent
u 1. -
11 c-rtt( ,
%'. %'%, .-- 01%M
.

ALýý F-IJi-, ýRo* il ý411,1".

j1p 4-4

= CM=
--
6 Zi mi
r'"r. 'i
rr
[Z,X.l ff

Therecitativepassages in Op.31/2/i/143-148and 153-159(ex. 9.24)presenta muchlargerscale

of blurring causedby numerousnon-harmonynotes in the treble. Beethoven'spedalling will

sustainthe basschord,announcedat the beginningof eachrecitative,whilethe soft dynamicwill
help reducethe harshnessof the.dissonance. The wash of soundin thesetwo passagesis
intentional,a fact confinnedby Czemy.31
Ex. 9.24

1) (a Lo*--Op -:I

IJ

cm Qqms-ý%Ot
Q,

4u

Kuoýý

(1846),p. 53.
31Czemy
272
According to Czerny, it is sometimespermissiblefor the pedal to be sustainedthrough two
harmoniesin a soft passage.In spiteof the V6/4 - V1 -I harmonyin Op. 7/iii/3-4 (seeex. 5.24
he
above), states that the may
pedal be depressed
for the two bars." In ex. 9.25,takenfrom his
treatise,no pedalchangeis requiredhalf-waythrough bar 7 (at the introductionof a different
harmony)because,asheexplains,the octaveEs in the basshaveto besustained.
" This is further
Ex. 9.25

....... . .... . ................................. ....................

T-7
-T-T-1 --I- AF.Li --
-.. II--I.... II
Jkq
lof-t -f 0 1- I! E1,11 ý-ý; 4 Fý im Fý A1ýI.. P5 01 OR
..
PL-
-i!!! -I II III

---------- -----------

-------------
IF
-
espress:
-. .01-

--------------------- I ............................................................ --------------

%-;/ --.
-0 .%

F "I F-,
. 87nol«Z:

of
evidence influence,
Beethoven's seefor Op.
example, 101/ii/30-34(ex. 9.19 above)and Op.
53/iii. The pedalin the openingRondothemeof Op. 53, for example,not only sustainsthe low
bass,it alsoblursthe alternatingtonicanddominantharmonies.In bars13-23,Beethovenfurther

32
Ibid., p. 38.
33
Czemy(1839E), iii, p. 60.

273
 the
varies effect by between
alternating dominantandtonic minoror tonic major(ex. 9.26). That
he fully intendeda wash of soundfrom two harmoniesis confirmedby his annotationat the
beginningof the autographto Op. 53, a cautionagainstusingthe split pedalmechanism:"Nb.
Wherever 'ped.' occurs,the whole damping,that is, treble and bass, shouldbe raised. '0'

signifiesthat it should be allowedto fall ""

again. The functionof thepedal
as feature
anessential
of this movement is fully recognisedby Czemy. "

Ex. 9.26
Rondo
Allegretto moderato ------
-; ------'-

-i .
0 0";-- 10-" , mr-t=
.,--/ -- ýF; . 10.
"1 ý
LLLJ ILLU 1$I /14! I '1L4dJ-JLJ I LLLJ LLtt

16zr.
-
M

2
I
m
L-
-47;
1ý
ý7- J
IIý
3 2
11

190,
1- II R

c2eb.
(9)
4'l ON
/ /1.1
F-4 iIi! H! "-6-4 esp
14 If ýý H fl II NI II yizp
- 1

1 ol
AVP

ýi (n I
p
pin
V-=ý# _________ l.

Most of Beethoven's harmonic blurring occur in soft passages. Sometimes,as in Op. II 0/iii/4

and 5 (ex. 9.27), he employs the una corda to help reduce the effect of the dissonance. Strict

14Stowell(1994),p. 59. Rowland'stranslation.

"Czerny (1846),p. 57.
274
Ex. 9.27

Adagio ma non troppo

S- S-.
r

plA adagio
Recitativo Andante
3

L,
F- I- I Ll. "II IV r' XL --1 2r'1i
r-=I. I A-ý
=wwýý I-I I M_flPIT1 .1L
*

Adagio ritar dando

. cantabile
4f uw. - w. W. W. 1w W. -
FA11 ý 10. Rp :D-
ýý
-V .., -ILA
AW--ILL p- I

tutte le corde dimin.

una corda
Frrxrlý- LU u

pre fenuto
seM,,.
Ta

with the harmony is always the norm in loud passages,such as Op. 57/i/218-223,
pedal change
Op. 106/i/34-38 and 176-197, and the theme of Op. 53/iii. As shown in ex. 9.26 above,-the
blurring of the tonic and don-dnantharmonies,an inherent part of the theme's identity, is found
in soft passages.When the theme entersfortissimo in bars 55 and 168 (ex. 9.28), only the
mainly
tonic harmony is pedalled. However, there is one exception, where Beethoven takes the liberty

of allowing extensive blurring in a very loud announcement of the opening material - bars 313-

320 (ex. 9.29) presumably to increase the resonance. But he again shows restraint in the
-
bars (bb. 321-328). Such blurring, even on an early instrument, is quite noticeable.
subsequent
A lighter touch on the bassnotes, apart fromthe Cs in bars 313 and 317, may be necessaryto help

the "muddinessý'ofthe sound, and to allow the weaker but penetratingtreble to be heard.
reduce

275
Ex. 9.28

n
i.
FN ý1
Ii-I ýlt:q 04
ý:4 .9
. di
il iEý
14! i- -1

;.;; wr
-1.-6-14

1 fl
IpýF
31 - 6.4 i5; 1; 6) iIIl4M-I-. -'
.1--wI

Ex. 9.29

====
-11--L- ---

f ___

1JT-rrHiii

.1V'
ff - --.. -

16)l r
t-

It
TV-

{
ý

t* & lk p- PZIZI
da la , .
-'
-

C_ý
112z1.
*)Dyn. Zeichen T. 314-327 noch Eigenschr. (s. aber Fußn. *)Dyn. Markt b. 314-327 as in autogr. (but *)Signes
Im 2%ZZZIW
de dyn. Mes. 314-321 d,
apr. autogr. (v. ann.
S. 104); in Orig. A. frhien sie. T. 321. pp, wie in fast a. fooLn. p. 1041 NuL in orig. ed.. Bar 321: pp p. 104) manquent dans id. orig. MAN: pp, comme
sämtl. Drucken, weder in Eigenschr- noch Orig-Aleig- es in most print. ed., nnt ineutoor. ororig. ed. danz presque 0- impr.. ni danz autoir. ni id. orig.

276
AnotherinstancewhereBeethovenavoidspedallingthroughtwo harmoniesis wherethelow bass
note is insistently at
sounded the beginningof every bar, evenif the dynamicis p, as is the case
in Op. 79/i/67-74,91-98and 111-118(ex. 9.30).
Ex. 9.30

HII1 04-1

I--
J"i! chJ Ju
r., 0
.
L-
-ir 04 -t 4t
i_IIIF
-* :ý0
_

-4.:t, 4 -4 --

/-% - 1. r, -IIv
X)IM .A(CDIi
Ag

I
H

The much-discussed caseof Op. 27/2/i, however, is different from the qbove examplesof
harmonicblurring. Beethoven'sdirectionfor the dampersto beraisedthroughoutthemovement
hasraisedmanyquestions.Shouldit be takenliterally, that is, depressthe pedalthroughoutthe
movement? Or shouldthe be
pedal usedthroughoutthe movement,but with changes,asdictated
by the changein harmony?

The harmonicblurringsfound in the otherpiano sonatasare in passages

wherea low bassnote
is sustainedby thepedalwith changesof harmonyaboveit (asin Op. 53/iii, seeex. 9.26above),

or in thosewith no morethantwo different but

harmonies arenot in
announced closesuccession
(Op. II 0/iii/5, seeex. 9.27above). Beethoven'sdirection,togetherwith thepredon-driantly
soft
dynamicthroughoutthe first movementof Op. 27/2, stronglysuggests
that he intendsthe pedal
be
to usedto blur the Since
harmonies. he hasneveraskedfor a wholemovementto bepedalled

277
 thereis a strong possibilitythat he intended the pedal to be depressed
for
without anychanges,
the durationof eachphrase,ashe did with the theme of Op. 37/ii, or for largesections.Czerny's

recollectionthat Beethoven pedalled through the entire theme of the slow movementfrom Op.
37 (ex. 9.31) corroboratesthe latter's pedalindicationsin this concerto. The numerouschord

changesin the basswould havesounded painfully confusedon the more resonant

pianosof the
1830s. Czerny'ssolution,therefore,is for "the damperpedal to be employedanew;at each
importantchangeof harmony;but in such a mannerthat no cessationof the soundmay be
for the whole thememust soundlike a holy, distantandcelestial "
harmony".
observed:
Ex. 9.31

bý
2, Ldxovem,, t. Largo. JI-se
strisa sordivio e sempre rp
___________________ I ': --f-- . t.. I.J 'J WèII -_____
1
I-MA 3ý 3i
'--

-r I
C; dd -... - I- -,. - ?--I
.. -1

# 4-t2 M: 1:10
ýi ' =6ii '-#Tý -... Lý--

the
Czernyalsooffers sameadvice for Op. 27/2/i by requestingthatthepedalbere-taken"at each
in the V
base,. Although he accepts the blurring in passages with a bassaccompanied by
note
changing harmoniesabove it (Op. 53/iii) and thosewith a succession
of soft, dissonant
chords
(seeex. 9.22 above),the extensiveblurring that resultedfrom Beethoven'sinstruction in Op.
his
27/2/i and pedalmarkings in Op. 37/ii hadbecome unacceptable on themorepowerfulpianos
of the 1830s. This is the beginning of the departurefrom the original blurring ofharmopies
intendedby Beethoven.

Nevertheless,even taking into account the bigger andmore resonantpianosafter Beethoven's

death,theprinciplesof pedalling,astaughtby Czerny,still haverootsdeepin theearlynineteenth
Both composers usethe damperpedalto obtain legatowhen it is physicallyimpossible
century.
for the fmgcrsto do so, to sustainslow-movingharmonies,to sustaina low bassnote while the
left bandplaysanotherline, to or
connectmovements to
sections, dynamic
emphasize contrast,

Ibid., pp. 107-108.

p. 49.
311bid.,
278
to strengthena crescendo,to intensify an accent or sforzando,to increasethe resonanceof
arpeggiatedpassages,to allow a natural decay at the end of movements, and to highlight
importantstructuralelements,modulationsor a changeof mood/character.The damperpedal
is alsousedfor colouristicpurposes(asin tremolandopassages).In manyoftheseinstances,
both
BeethovenandCzemyobservethe acceptedfundamentalrule of pedalling,that is, to changethe
pedalwith the harmony.As a result,blurring can be successfully
used asa special
effect.Czemy

acceptsBeethoven's requestfor the blurring of passingnotesin the trebleover one harmonyin

the bass(Op. 31/2/i) andthe blurring of with

passages changingharmonies
over a loiv bassnote
(Op. 53/iii). However,herejectsBeethoven'slengthypedallingthroughdifferentharmonieswith
frequentchangesin the bass(Op. 27/2/i and Op. 37/ii), which would result in suchextensive
blurring asto makethe passageindistincton the increasinglyresonantpianosafter the latter's
death.This is the only instancewhereCzemyknowingly ignores Beethoven'spracticeand his

original intention. Apart from this, Czerny's pedalling techniqueis virtually identical to
Beethoven's,includingwherethe pedalshouldbe depressedandreleasedto sustaina bassnote
to
and achieve legato. Sorneof Czerny'sexampleson pedallingin his Piano Forte Schoolare
similar to from
passages Beethoven'spiano for
sonatas; instance,the pedallingof arpeggiated
which
passages are followed by restsis remarkablysimilarto Beethoven's
Op. 57/iii/176-204.

Severalof Czemy's instructions in TheArtalso reaffirm Beethoven'spedalmarkings,for instance,

the pcdalling of theffchords in the opening motif of Op. 27/2/iii, and the pedalling in the last ten
bars of Op. 31/2/i. Czerny also requests that the pedal be depressedfrom the largo to the
beginning of the allegro section in Op. 31/2/i, as marked by Beethoven. In Op. 1101/iii; he
Beethoven's indications by requesting the use of both the una corda and the damper
reinforces
Czerny's pedal markings in the first four bars of Op. 106/i and at the beginning of the
pedal.
largo of Op. 106/iv are also the sameas Beethoven's. " Czerny's remarks on the pedalling of

Beethoven'spiano sonatas,with the exception of the "clearf 'pedalling he suggestsfor Op. 27/2/i,
be to be a true reflection of Beethoven's intentions.
can thus considered

311bid.,
pp. 49,53,63, and 64.

279
9.3 THE UNA CORDAPEDAL

Evenbeforethe unacordabecamea standardpedalon VienneseandGermanpianos,Beethoven

had askedfor it to be madeavailable. In his letter of 1802to Nikolaus Zmeskall,he praises
Walter's pianos but expressesa wish for the maker to includethe devicewhich enablesthe
"tensionwith one string" effecton his 39
instrumentS. WhenBeethovenwaspresentedwith the
Erard in 1803,a pianowith four pedalsof whichthe una corda wasone,hesoonmadeuseofthis

pedal - in the performance of the Third PianoConcerto in the same year. Indications for this
pedalare also insertedin hisnext pianoconcerto, wherehe asks for the unacorda to be employed
the
throughout secondmovement, as well as due epoi Ire cordeat bar 54, a3 cordein the next
bar, and due,poi una corda four bars later. The-changingcolours obtainedas a result of a
gradual shift from one string to three, and vice versa, are also used in his late piano sonatas,
namely Op. 101/iii, Op. 106/iii and Op. 110/iii. All these three instances of una corda are
faithfully observedby Czerny. He instructs that Op. 101/iii must alwaysbe played with this pedal,

while the indication una corda appearsin the excerpts of Op. 106/iii and Op. II 0/fii in TheArt. "

Although he does not mention the gradual shifting from one string to three and vice versa, he is

aware of this cffect, as he usesit in an exarnplein his Piano Forle School."

Beethoven uses the in

una corda sparingly, generally soft passages,and as a device to alter the
tone colour rather than the dynamic level. The contrast between una corda and tutte le corde,

as well as the gradual shifting from one string to three and vice versa, is exploited to the full in
op. 106/iii. If Beethovenhad associateduna corda with a soft dynamic,he would havdreqtiested
le
wite corde at the of
appearance the first lengthy crescendo(bb. 8-12). In bar 27, he introduces

a new idea with detached accompaniment and a sentimental melody. This provides a sharp

contrast from the tranquil, chordal first section. Beethoven's decision to indicate tutte le corde
in bar 27 shows that the two pedals are used to highlight the different moods. Similarly, he

the use of tutte le corde through the dimin. and thepp G minor chord in bar 59. Again,
maintains
the indication una corda is introduced only at the beginning of the next section, in bar 60 (ex.

39Anderson(1961), i, p. 82.
IoCzerny(1846), pp. 63,64 and 67.
41Czerny (I 839E), iii, pp. 64-65.

280
9.32).
Ex. 9.32

0) 11 -el -
-. ý F=

una corda crese. tuffe le corde 9ý5.1

I dimin. EiEEý pp
It 2- j; P..
-, 1
Tl
LW! -1 1- 1-
43 -1 ---I Ica
4
2 3
a* Iya *
(ID 5

W.
Jdim. una ce
9- Me
1 :0, ii 4 3ý owl
=1 llý
i"J i 0elm-
F- F=
I-- --
P
111
kI
-
#- Eýý
3
1-5
-ea
The useof the una corda in soft legatopassages,
asa meansof providinga difTerenttimbre, is
stronglyemphasized by Czemy. He alsowarnsthat the pedalshouldbe usedsparinglyandnot
" All of thesepointsarein accordancewith Beethoven's
in everysoft passage. own usageof the
una corda.

The una corda, in Czerny's opinion, may be usedeffectively in delicate, melodious passages
with
slow-moving harmonies, especiallyoneswith a polyphonic texture.43 How does this compareto
Beethoven's practice? His frequent request for the una corda in soft, chordal or polyphonic

passages, such as Op. 101/iii, Op. 106/iii/1-26 and Op. 109/ii/83-104, serve only to
confirm
Czerny's advice. In addition, Beethovenusesthis pedal to highlight the contrast between
a calm
passageand an energeticor lively one (suchasOp. 106/iv and Op. 109/ii) and to obtain a different
tonal colour in fugal sections (Op. I 10/iii).

Czernyalsosuggestsusingthe unacorda,in combinationwith the damperpedal,in arpeggiated

"
wl&h resemblearpeggios. Thethird andfourth barsin his accompanying
chordsandpassages

411bid.
43
Ibid., iii, p. 64.
44Ibid.,iii, p. 65.

281
illustration (ex. 9.33) in the Piano Forte School, for example, with the arpcggiatcd

accompaniment in the bassanda scalicfigure in the treble, closely a

resembles from
passage the

second of
movement Fourth
Beethoven's PianoConcerto:bars47-50 (ex. 9.34), like the restof
tl-dssecondmovement,are to be playedwith the una corda, in accordancewith Beethoven's
directionfound at the beginningof the movement. Indicationsfor the damperpedalshowthat
it is to be changedon the lastsemiquaverprior to the introductionof a new harmony,a practice

carefullypreserved by Czerny in his as

example, shown in ex. 9.34.
Ex. 9.33

leg-ato. . P., 0-
jii I, I I
f--4-- -i ff i 2d i :Ji =1 i0ii--
--" do -00
do .90 do

lla-&Illlil

Ex. 9.34

fl
ri:: ai=-: =ý
1i f5i t9 1i, G),IFIi -*1,
IIaimii ti iag i -a r
cýI1 .1vIII

is
It clearthat Czerny's of
explanations the unacorda in thePiano Forte School area truerecord
Beethoven's
own practice. Czemy's for
suggestions usingthis pedalin compositions which
of
do not containsuch for
indications, thepp
example in
passages Op. 53/iii andOp. 57/ii/33-48'45
likely to be of
accuraterepresentations Beethoven'sintentions. As for compositions
are most

"Czemy (1846), pp. 57 and 59.

282
published before 1803, Beethovenwould probably have approved of the una corda being

employedsince,as mentioned on p. 280, he was enthusiasticfor it to be madeavailableon

Walter's pianos. Czemy'sdirectionfor this pedalto be usedin the lasttwenty-two barsof Op.
10/l/ii, " a melodioussectionwith polyphonicwriting (which is the type of passageBeethoven
the
would use una corda),can thereforebe safelyadopted.

9.4 CZERNY'S AUTHORITY ON PEDALLING CONSIDERED

The resultsof this studyclearlycontradictRobert Winter's claim that Czerny'sviewpointwas

influencedby the changingtastesof theI 840S.47Rowland'sdoubt regardingCzemy'sauthority

on this be
subjectshouldalso reviewed. He arguesthat, in the 1790s,
whenpedaltechniquewas
very quickly, Czemy wasnot yet a pupil of Beethoven4' There is no denying that the
advancing .
rangeof effectsofferedby the pedalwas enthusiasticallyexplored in the 1790s, but this was by
the
no means climax or the endofthe periodof experimentationand development.Czerny'searly
instructionfrom the violinistKrumpholz,who wasalsoa goodfriendofBeethoven(seepp. 2-3),

would have given the young boy an advantageous starting point in Beethoven'smannerof
performance,if perhapsnot in
specifically pedaltechnique. And in any his
case, direct contact
with Beethoven from 1800onwards would have providedhim with ample opportunityto learn,

either through instructionor from his teacher'splaying. It would havebeen surprisingif a pupil
as eager as Czerny did not acquainthimselfwith Beethoven's pedal technique.

As has been shown throughout this chapter, Czerny abides by the same general principles as
Beethoven in the way they both employ the damperpedal and the una corda. Czerny also accepts

all Beethoven's pedal indications except those which would causean intolerable wash of sound

more resonant later pianos. In short, in spite of the considerable lapse of time between the
on
Piano Forte School and The Art, Czerny's remarks on pedalling remain
publication of the
essentially faithful to the composer's practice.

46Ibid.,p. 40.
4'Brownand Sadie(1989),p. 353. SeealsoRowland(2001),pp. 2-3.
48Stowell (1994),p. 57.

283
 CHAPTER 10: THE PIANO SONATAS IN THE HANDS OF
FRANZ LISZT AND HANS VON BULOW

Czemy'seffortsto preservetheperformingtraditionof Beethoven'smusicareindeedverynoble.

His writings and editionsof the pianossonatasare informativeand offer later generationsof
a
performers glimpseofthat tradition. Oneof Czerny'smostcelebrated
pupilsFranzLiszt (1811-
1886)alsoworkedtirelesslyto promotethe compositionsof Beethoven,especiallythe latepiano
sonatasand theNinth Symphony. In 1851,he encouragedhispupil Hans von Billow (1830-1894)
to beginan in-depthstudyof Beethoven's large-scale '
sonatas. Liszt andBillow were eminent
and
conductors
pianists, teachers
whoseinterpretation
of Beethoven's
musicwasinfluentialand
widely respected. Theyalso their
Prepared own editions of the pianosonatasin the half
second
of the nineteenthcentury. However, how far did Liszt and Billow continuethe performing
tradition which Czernytried so hardto preserve?

10.1 LISZT'S APPROACH TO BEETHOVEN'S PIANO SONATAS

Liszt, like his teacher Czemy, held Beethoven in very high esteem. When Liszt was ten years old,

he even attempted to play the "Hammerklavier" Sonata, Op. 106. He admitted that he played it

"very badly, but with passion - without anyone being able to guide me in it. My father lacked

the to do it, and Czerny feared 2

confronting me with such a challenge". )However,
experience
from 1822 to 1823, Czerny instilled the understandingof Beethoven's style in the young Liszt'

and this formed a useful foundation for Liszt in later life as he continually sought to understand
Beethoven's late piano sonatas.

By the time Liszt was twenty, all Beethoven's piano sonataswere in his repertoire. However,
Liszt was not content to be simply able to play well. He had a hunger to understandeverything

as the author intended it, be it music, reEgion or literature. Joseph d'Ortigue (1802-1866), a

'Wilfiams (1990), p. 274.

2Walker(1985), p. 218.
3CZeMy(1956), p. 315.

284
friend, critic andmusicologistrevealsthat Liszt would reada dictionaryin the "samevoracious
manner
and restless ashe did a poet, bringingthe same investigativeand inquiring mind to bear'

upon Boiste as upon Lamartine, and reading both for four hours at a time. Then, when he
believed he had enteredinto the author's thought, he would go and ask him for his own
explanationof what he had "
written. Those who heard Liszt play were all touchedby the sheer
beauty,magic and fife that he brought into his performances.Such captivatingand moving
performances were a resultof his intenseandprofoundstudyof the music. Oncehe understood
the characterof themusic,hewouldthenattemptto communicatethýisunderstanding throughhis
playing. He also found inspiration in literatureand his environment. In order to understand
everyemotion, he would even visit hospitals,lunaticasylums and '
prisons. After hearingPaganini
in March 1832,Liszt worked evenmorefeverishly,studyingHomer, the Bible, Plato, Locke,
Beethoven,Bach, Hummel,Mozart, and Weberand
Byron, Hugo, Lamartine,Chateaubriand,
meditatingon them. In he
addition, would practise in
exercises thirds,sixths,octaves,tremolos,

repeated notes, and cadenzas for four to five hours a "

day. In his quest to understandan
unfamiliarpieceof music,Liszt would in
experiment variouswaysuntil he found a satisfactory
solution,even if this meantchangingthe expression markings on the score. Thuswhen Wilhelm

von Lenz (1809-1883), a Russia'n

amateur pianist,calledon Liszt in 1828,he recalledthat when
Liszt was facedwith Weber'sSonataNo. 2 in A flat for the first time, he experimentedwith
differentarticulationin orderto achievethe desiredeffectandalsowith waysto makethe music
soundcoherent. Lenz wrote:
The first part hetried out againandagainin the mostdifferentways. At
the passage(in the dominant)in E flat at the endof the first movement,
he said:"It is markedlegato,but perhapsit would be betterto makeit
pianissimo and staccato? It is also marked leggermente. " He
in
experimented all possibleways.

"It is verydifficult", saidLiszt, "but still moredifficult the coda,andhow

to pull the wholething together,herein the centrifugalfigure" (13 bars
beforetheend). "This passage"- in the secondsection,naturaIly in the
key flat "we ,
main ofA - accordinglyshan'tmakestaccato,whichwould
be too affected,not yet legato, for which it is too thin; we'll makeit

4Wifliams (1990), p. 4 1.
51bid.,pp. 49 and 282.
61bid.,pp. 50-51.

285
 1,7
spiccato,andthus swim betweenthe two waters.

Liszt may haveapproachedBeethoven'slate piano sonatasin a similarway, but when he did

eventuallyunderstand them,his performancecould, if he so be

chose, completely faithful to the
score. When Liszt playedthe Sonata,
"Hanunerklavier" Op. 106for the first time in publicat the
ageof twenty-five,Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)was impressed
by the youngvirtuoso pianist's
of
understanding the sonata. He alsoshowedgreat for
respect the by
composer refrainingfrom

omitting or adding any notes or expressionmarks. Berlioz wrote in the Revuq et Gazette

musicalein 1836:
In supportof my opinionI appealto thejudgementof all thosewho have
heardhim playthe greatBeethovensonata[Op. 106],that sublimepoem
which until now has been the riddle of the Sphinx for almost every
pianist. Liszt, a riew Oedipus, has solved it in a mannerwhich would
havemadethe composer,hadhe heardit in his grave,thrill with pride
and joy. Not a note was ornitted,not one added (I followed, scorein
hand),not a singlealterationmadeto what wasindicatedin the text, not
an inflexion or an ideaweakened or changed from its true meaning.In
the Adagio above all ... he remainedconstantlyat the level of the
composer'sinspiration!

As was discussedin section 3.2, Czerny was told by Beethovento play his music the way he had

notated it, a lessonwhich was still fresh in Czerny's memory a few decadeslater when he wrote
The.4rt. PerhapsCzerny instilled this respect for Beethoven's scoresin Liszt in the early 1820s.
After his successfulperformance of the "Hammerklavier" Sonata in 1836, Liszt continued to
develop. His performancesof Beethoven's works in Vienna in 1839 were so convincing that his
interpretation was hailed as a model. Heinrich Adami (1807-1865) wrote in the ýIlgemeine

Theaterzeitung (4 December):
For younger listeners in particular, who never had the opportunity of
hearing Beethoven himself in his piano sonatas and concertos, Liszt's
renderings are of exceptional interest, and from them they are best able
to study theseworks, often capableof so multifarious an interpretation,
form for themselves. '
and to a correct view

Nevertheless,if Liszt were in the mood to enthralhis audience,he would not hesitateto take

71bid.,pp. 37-38. Italicizationoriginal.The text hasbeencompressed.

"Ibid., p. 78.
91bid., P. 115.

286
libertieswith the music,eventhat of his idol Beethoven. Carl Reinecke(1824-1910),a pianist,
givenby Liszt in Hamburg in 1840. He wasimpressedby the sensitivityshown
attendeda concert
by Liszt in the first two movementsof the "Moonlight"' Sonata,Op. 27 No. 2: "His marvellous,

unsurpassedbravura and virtuosity were always blendedwith poetic feelingand the keenest
intelligence.
musical Boldness, passion, grace,elegance,humour,simplicityof expression- all

weretherewhenappropriate, compelling a boundless However,

admiration7'. he wasastonished
by the rhythmic libertiesLiszt took in the last movementof the 'o
sonata. Two yearslater,
Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857)had a similar experience. Sometimes,Liszt's playing was
inspirational,at other times,it wasunsatisfactory he
because distortedthe expression,stretched

the tempi,andaddedtasteless
and frivolous to
embellishments the compositions
of Beethoven,
Chopin, Weber,andBach. "

In later years, Liszt's performancesof Beethoven's works were again faithftil to the text. At the

Beethoven Festival in Bonn in 1845, Karl Schorn (1818-?), a law student and music enthusiast,
that Liszt conducted Beethoven's Fifth Symphony strictly according to the original
observed
Moscheles was also satisfied with Liszt's energetic and spirited performance of
score.
Beethoven's Fifth Piano Concerto. Also present was Charles HaI16 (1819-1895), a German

that Liszt "adhered scrupulously to the text, and a finer and grander
pianist, who remarked
the be imagined".12 Liszt also insisted that his pupils observe
reading of work could not
Beethoven's expression marks carefully. In 1883, Siegfried Ochs (1858-1929), a German

witnessed Liszt telling one of his pupils that Beethoven considered

composer and chorus-master
to be very different frompianissimo while the difference frompiano tojorte was large
so-
piano
be to the distance between North and South "
that it could compared poles.

Liszt always took into accountthe different stylesof the composerswhen interpreting their music.

if a pupil played a sonataby Beethoven, Liszt always insisted on a performancewhich reached

If by Chopin were played, it had to be delicate with exquisite
the soul of the composition. a piece
but restrained rubato at the places marked by the composer and never at the player's fancy.

101bid.,p. 145.
"Ibid., p. 187.
"Ibid., p. 218.
Ibid., p. 62 1.
13

287
However, with Liszt's own Rhapsodies,he would encouragehis pupil to play with "careless
if
bravura7'even that was not specificallynotatedin the "
score. Liszt's lessonswith Czerny
he
where was taught to differentiatethe characteristicstyles of various leadingcomposers,
includingBeethoven,Bach,Clementi,andHummel(seep. 11), would haveprovidedhim with

a very good startingpoint.

Liszt treated the piano as if it were an orchestra, extracting a large variety of tonal colour and
" encouraged by both Czerny and Beethoven (see-
section 5.1
emotions, an aspect of playing
The expression in Liszt's playing is derived not only from an understanding of the
above).
of the piece and the style of the composer, but also through his sensitivity to the
character
harmonies and, where appropriate, accentuation.Caroline Boissier, whose daughter Val6rie had
been taking lessons from Liszt in 1832, wrote in her diary that when Liszt played, he was

"plumbed so deeply [into] the depths of art and the mysteries of harmony" that "under his fingers
sounds"." A vivid account by William Mason (1829-1908),
the piano rendersup unaccustomed
from America, demonstrates how Liszt brought life to his performance through
a pianist
Mason had played Chopin's Ballade in A flat major followed by a fugue in E minor
accentuation.
by Handel during his first lesson with Liszt in 1853. He recalled how Liszt taught him the
importance of accentuation:
I found at this first lesson that he was very fond of strong accents in
order to mark off periods and phrases, and he talked so much about
strong accentuation that one might have supposed that he would abuse
it, but he never did. When he wrote to me later about my own piano
method, he expressed the strongest approval of the exercises on
accentuation.

While I was playing to him for the first time, he said on one of the
occasions when he pushed me from the chair: "Don't play it that way.
Play it like this." Evidently I had beenplaying aheadin a steady,uniforrn
way. Ile sat down, and gave the same phraseswith an accentuated,
elastic movement, which let in a flood of light upon me. From that one
experience I learned to bring out the same effect, where it was
appropriate, in almost every piece that I played. I eradicated much that
was mechanical,stilted, and unmusical in my playing, and developed an

Ibid., p. 552.
14

"Ibid., pp. 342-343.

161bid.,p. 47.
288
 elasticityof touchwhich has lastedall my life, andwhich I havealways
tried to impartto my pupils-"

From Liszt's editingsof Beethoven'spianosonatas,it is clearthat he consideredaccentuation

to
be a very importantelementin performance.He addedaccentsin numerousplacesto highlight
the beginningof phrases,rhythmic groupings,dissonance,syncopation,noteswith long note
values,andnotes of melodicinterest. In short, his is
accentuation in line with that of Beethoven

and Czemywhich were in

discussed section5.6 above.

10.2 THE CHOICE OF PIANOS

The rapid developmentofthe piano throughout the nineteenthcentury meantthat the instruments

available to Beethoven, Liszt and Billow were all rather different. Although Beethoven was

presented with an Erard grand piano in 1803 and a Broadwood grand piano in 1818, he had

always preferred the Viennesepianos. The early nineteenth-centuryViennesepianoshad a lighter

action and a more effective damping system than the English and French pianos. While the
majority of Viennese pianos were bichord-strung, English and French pianos (including
Beethoven's Broadwood and Erard) were triple strung throughout to give them more resonance.
The frames of Viennese,English and French pianos, however, were made of wood.

In Bonn, Beethoven had played on Stein's pianos.'s When Czerny auditioned for Beethovenin
1801, he noticed a Walter piano in the composer's room. 19 Anton Walter (1752-'1826)'and
Johann Andreas Streicher (1761-1833) were the two most prominent piano makersin Vienna at

the time. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Beethoven certainly preferred Walter's

pianos over Streicher's. In a letter to Nikolaus Zmeskall, dated November 1802, Beethoven

expressed his willingness to buy a piano by Walter even though he could have a piano free of
from other makers.2' From 1809 onwards, however, Beethoven consideredStreicher's
charge

pp. 287-288.
171bid.,
IsThayer(1969),p. 105.
19Czemy (1956),p. 306.
2OAnderson (1961),i, p. 82.

289
pianosto be the best. Although did
Beethoven not own a pianomadeby he
Streicher, rentedhis
full
instrumentsandwas ofpraises for "
them. Beethovenwasdissatisfiedwith the relativelydeep

and heavytouch on the Erardpiano and evenaskedStreicher

to alter it. Unfortunately,the result
22
was far from satisfactory. By the time Beethovenreceivedthe Broadwood piano, he was
alreadyquite deaf andcould not fully the
appreciate tonal qualitiesof the instrument. Since he

was unhappywith the actionon the Erard which is based

essentially on the Englishmodel, it is

very likely that he would have had the samecomplaint about the Broadwood piano. He had to
thump on the piano because
of his hearingimpairment. As a result, Streicher'sbrother-in-law
Matthdus alias Andr6 Stein (1776-1842) was given the task of completely overhauling
Beethoven'sBroadwoodpianoin 1824.Two yearslater,the pianohadto berepairedagain,this
time by AndWs sonKarl AndreasStein 23
(1797-1863).

The pianos favoured by Beethoven those by Walter and towards the end of the first decadeof
-
the nineteenthcentury, by Streicher offers us an insight into his sound ideals. Walter's pianos,
-
powerful than Streicher's, were more suitable for virtuosic playing.
which were more robust and
Strcicher's pianos, on the other hand, had a sweeter tone. Soft, melting tones and a range of
be achieved on them. In 1796, the writer in the Jahrbuch der Tonkunst von
expression could
Wien und Prag describes the player who prefers Streicher's instruments as those who seek
"nourishment for the Soul").24

Czemy also preferred Viennesepianos,especiallythose madeby Streicher (see also pp. 64 - 66).
However, the demand for stronger and louder pianos forced piano makers to inrrease-the
heaviness of their hammers and dampers, as well as to strengthen the soundboard structure.
Streicher even used a system of iron bars in his pianos in 1835 but, on the whole, Viennese

to use wooden frames. Therefore, the pianos which Czerny used the 1830s
makers preferred
than those played by Beethoven.
onwards were more resonant

At the sametime, the mostprominentmakersin Paris,Sebastian

Erard, (1752-1831) and Pierre

21See Anderson (1961), i, pp. 292 and 300 ii,

and p. 686.
2'Cole(1998),p. 140.
2'Clive(2001), pp. 58 and351.
24Kon-d6s(1995),pp. 11-12.

290
Erard (1794-1855)werealsoconstantlylooking for new waysto strengthenhis pianos. Apart
from the last few yearsof his life whenLiszt was introducedto overstrungpianosby Steinway,
he had alwaysfavouredpianosby Erard. Theseinstrumentshada
Bechsteinand136sendorfer,
double-escapement
mechanism whichallowed rapid repetitionof notesto beproducedaswell as
enhanced the keys' to
responsiveness the player's touch, a devicepatentedby Erard in 1822.
From the 1830s,the framesof the pianowere enlargedand strengthened, the hammersbecame
heavier,thicker stringswere used,and the string tensionwas increasedin order to makethe
instrumentmorepowerful,durableandresonant.In theprocess,thedynamicrangeahdthe range

of tones availableto the pianistbecame larger.

progressively As a result, Liszt could vary his

tones and expressionrangingfrom very soft ghostly or celestial-liketonesto very powerful,

majesticones,a rangewhich. was much larger than that on the Viennese pianosavailableto
Beethoven.

century,theinfluenceofErard, StreicherandBroadwoodbeganto wane

Fromthemid-nineteenth

and was gradually replaced by Steinway and other companieswhich embracedthe new
technology. BOlow playedon one-piece
overstrung, iron framepianossuchas thosemadeby
Bechstein,SteinwayandB6sendorfer.Althoughhepreferredthe tonalflexibility andthe timbre
of the Bechstein he
pianos, felt it his duty to encourage
other "worthy and industrial
respectable
including B6sendorfer
Steinway, and "
Chickering. These pianosweremuchmore
endeavour"
powerful thanthe wooden frame pianosavailableto Beethovenandto some extent,Liszt.

Although Beethoven used the piano when composing, his compositions were not baýsedon the
tones of specific pianos; rather, his ideas were derived from the sound world of his imagination.
His frustration with the limitations of the early nineteenth-century Viennese pianos are well
known. However, the more mellow English and Parisianpianos did not satisfy him either. As a

result, Liszt and particularly Bfilow were justified in using the larger and more powerful pianos

of their time as they could more successfully convey the character of the pieces. However,

adjustments had to be made, especiallyto tempo and pedalling, and thesewill be discussedin the

following section.

Mfldebrandt (1988),pp. 140-142.

291
10.3 A REVIEW OF LISZT'S AND VON BULOW'S EDITIONS

Liszt's editionof Beethoven'spianosonataswaspublishedin 1857,a yearafter Simrockbegan

publishing Czcrny's new edition. In his edition, Liszt insertedmetronomemarkingsat the
beginning of movements,accents,nuances,and fingering. In 1894, BUlow, togetherwith
SigmundLebert,publishedaneditionof the sonatas.Theysharedthe workloadandBalow was
for
responsible the editingof Op. 13,Op. 26, Opp. 27, Op. 31/3, Op. 53, Op. 54, Op. 57, Op. 78,
Op. 79, Op. 81a,Op. 90, Op. 101, Op. 106,Op. 109,Op. I 10, andOp. I 11. Billow"s cditings
than
aremoreextensive Liszt's. Besides
adding accents, nuances andfingerings,
healsoinserted
for
comments eachsonata (includingways ofpractising difficult passages),
metronomemarkings
to convey the openingtempoaswell as fluctuationsof tempowithin the movementandpedal
markings.

Although Billow's edition was published towards the end of the nineteenthcentury, someof his

cornments still echo Czerny's ideas. Billow's referencesto Czemy in his commentsshow that he

was certainly aware of Czerny's thoughts on the performance of the piano sonatas,either through
the latter's writings and editions, or through Liszt. Billow recommends using Czerny's

preliminary rhythmic exerciseto practise the awkward passagein bar 10 from the last movement
of Op. 106 (ex. 10.1)." To those who lack a senseof pulse, Billow, like Czerny and Beethoven
Ex. 10.1

njlý
V H-I"
.
I
a
r4

(seepp. 3 1,111 and 112),suggeststhat they usethe metronomein their practiceto helpthem

overcome this "

problem. Although BUlow expounds the virtues of usingtempo flexibility to

2Teethoven(1894),ii, p. 596. Czemy'sexercisein TheArt (p. 65) is notatedan octavelower

thanBOlow's.
(1894),
-'7Beethoven ii, p. 476.

292
enhance the expression of a he
passage, alsowarns,that the performershouldalwaysmaintainthe
overaHtempoandmood throughout a pieceor movement. 28As wasmentionedin section2.2.2,
Czemyalsofollowedthisprinciple.SomeofBillow's editingsaresimilartoCzerny'ssuggestions
earlier in the century. In Op. 31/3/iv/20-34,Billow accentsthe e6s in the bassasCzernydid in
his Hastinger11andCockseditions(seep. 75). Billow insertspedalmarkingsin Op. 57/i/17-22,
the barswith thefortissimochordsin order to increasethe resonanceof the passage.This is in
line with Czerny'sWesseleditionandhis advicein TheArt (seep. 98). In the four barsleading

up to the secondsubject group of Op. 53/i in bar 35, Czerny "

suggestsusing ritardando.
Similarly,Billow insertspocoritardando in bars33-34 (ex. 10.2).
Ex. 10.2

c3o)
decres-c. POCO
rilardando.
.
5ý ýH iI.
n+R =0 II ---o ..

decrese. do!
04
-ý
#; ý 1 1. let# i 9ýý
-, Iit
W- III

4
p
1
(d Z 152. )
-
4, ____
4.2
i, ! 2e
ýb "ti ýý,I
.- J4J
go-i i LAW"
P'l 44-ý--
.2
ff
j I" IFlega
dolee e molto*
4- e
.

;: t53 Tr

BfIlow also cautions againstaltering passageswhich Beethoven had to compromisebecauseof

the limited range on his then five- to five-and-a-half-octave piano, a warning emphasizedby
Czerny in The Art (see section 3.2). Their reasons,however, are different. Czerny, after his

reproach by Beethoven, issued the warning out of reverence and deferenceto the composer.
Balow's caution stemsfrom his admiration for the imaginativevariantswhich Beethoventhought
30
of as alternatives.

IgIbid, ii, p. 506.

29Czerny(1846), p. 56.
"Pfeiffer (1894), p. 35.

293
WhenCzemywaspreparinghis editionsof the pianosonatasandthe commentson performance
in The.Art, hewastryingto recordBeethoven'sperformanceidealsasheremembered
themalbeit
to
with somemodifications take into accountthe relativelymoreresonantpianofrom the 1830s.
However,Billow's approachwas ratherdifferent. Although he respectedCzernyfor his first-
hand knowledgeof Beethoven'sperformingtradition, Billow's aim was not to preservethe
teachingsof Czemybut to presentan effectiveway of playingthe sonatas.Many of Billow's
commentsreflect his own decisionon how the sonatasshould be played. His suggestionsto
thicken the texture of a passage,to adopt a slower tempo, or to modify Beethoven'spedal
markingswere madeto suit the late nineteenth-century
pianos which were, as outlined in the
previoussection,
more powerful and resonanttheir Czemy's. In his edition of Op. 57, Billow
octave
recommends doublingsin the bassof bars 130-134(ex. 10.3). In somecases,suchas
Ex. 10.3

ýýI. Lz 3 do
---iaia

1 p. 1
go 41

9: ',
I

9 777
F=F:::

Beethoven'smetronomemarkingsof Op. 106,Billow proposesa differentmarkingwhich,in his

opinion,would be moreappropriate.Regarding
the metronome marking of the first movement
of Op. 106,Billow declares:
In hismetronomicmarkings,whichcoincideessentially withthe character
of the principaltheme,the Editor standsin decidedoppositionto Carl

294
 Czerny (in his "Kunst desVortrage', Part IV of the Pianoforte Method,
Op. 500), who, in his capacity as the first and contemporary interpreter
of Beethoven's latest pianoforte-works, deservesto be consulted as an
if
authority, even not a whoHy infaHible one. Czemy's tempo 6= 138,
so little in harmony with the ponderous energy of the theme, and
apparently too rapid even for such divisions of this movement as are
capableof considerable acceleration, may be justified in a senseby the
lack of sonority in the Vienna pianos then in vogue. On one of our best
modem concert-grands and suchan one (a substitute for the orchestra,
it is _
for
as were) requisite a proper execution of this sonata the Czerny
tempo would have blurring " _
a confusing and effect.

In the secondmovementof Op. 106,BUlowacknowledgesBeethoven'smetronomemarkingof

80 but suggestsa slightlyslower tempo: 66. In his opinion, this tempowill not only

enable the to
performer bring out the animatedcharacterof this movementbut alsomakeit more
distinct." He also permitsthe performer to take a slower tempo than that suggestedby
Beethovenin the third movementof this sonataif a very sonorouspiano is used."

Since the heavierkey action on the pianosof BUlow's day also doesnot permit playingthe

octaveglissando in the lastmovementof Op. 53, he decides

to simplifyit andoffersthefollowing
passageas alternative (ex. 10.4):
Ex. 10.4

tIt,

pp TP

.
i-vý

4v rI
.-E-fij-9 it.0. ;; I
- ;: if .0-0
tj etc.

L. " - b--6-6-d
r ý:

Liszt retainedtheglissandoin his editionbecause,on his Erard,this mannerof playingwasstill

possible.

"Beethoven(1894),ii, p. 563.
32
Ibid., ii, p. 577.
33
Ibid., ii, p. 582.

295
Czerny's influenceis also evident in Liszt's edition of the piano sonatas. Liszt's choice of
fingeringin Op.7/iv/68-69and76-77wherebythe fifth finger crossesoverthe fourth is identical
to Czemy's solution(see ex. 3.9 above). Liszt also usesCzemy's suggested fingeringfor Op.
22/iii/12-13(ex. 10.5)in his "
edition. In the trio sectionof this movement,Liszt marksthe first
beat in the bassof bar 39 with an sf marking. In TheArt, Czemyalsorecommends this noteto
be accented. " In the fourth movementof Op. 22, Liszt accentsthe a 61in the alto part of bars
12-13to highlightthedissonance.ThiswasalsoCzemy'sadvicein TheArt (seeex. 5.18above).
Ex. 10.5

crese.

Czerny's articulation of two-note slurs and staccato in the bass of Op. 57/i/25-32 (as shown in
3.29 above) are retained in the editions of BUlow and Liszt. Liszt's and Balow's dynamic
ex.
articulation marks in Op. 57/i/53-54 and 57-58 are also similar to thd editing in
markings and
Czerny's Hastinger 11edition (see ex. 3.31 above).

in the leggieraniente passagesof Op. 31/1/ii, however, Liszt prefers a different finger pattern
from Beethoven and Czerny. This is one of the few passages where Beethoven inserts fingerings.

His preferred fingering of 1313 was replaced with 1324 in Liszt's edition. BUlow is in two minds.

He suggeststhe pattern 1324 in bars 10 and 12 but in bars 74 and 76, he offers 1313 as an

alternative.

ii,
-141bid., p. 178.
3'Beethoven(1857), p. 179; Czemy (1846), p. 46.

296
Specialeffectswhich involveblurringofdifferent harmonieswith the pedal,suchastherecitative
passagesin Op. 31/2/i andthe Rondo theme of Op. 53/iii havebeenshortened by Liszt. In both
the
passages, pedal markingin Liszt's edition prolong only one harmony at a time. Similarly,
BUlow alsoencourages
pedalchangewith the harmony at the beginningof Op. 53/iii (ex. 10.6)
in order to reducetheblurringon themoreresonantlatenineteenth-century
pianos.Comparethis
pedallingwith Beethoven's as is shown in ex. 9.26above. As was discussed in chapter 9, Czerny
that blurring with the pedal is an inherent element of the Rondo theme (see pp. 273-274).
reveals
he
Although was not keen on the extensive blurring of Op. 27/2/i, he did not try to changethe

pedal markingsin Op. 53/iii. BUlow's commentregardingthe Rondo theme does not take into
the pedalling. Instead,hemerely the
expresses importance
of viewing the first
account extensive
36
bassnote aspart of the theme.
Ex. 10.6
Rondo.
Allegretto moderato. (J - lorW
-*-..

_____
irJ I
____ II riLh r-
O-Mý blwýý III I-

01
Jill
r-_ -II

3Teethoven(1894), ii, p. 405.

297
As wasdiscussedin section10.1above,Liszt's performancesof Beethoven'smusiccouldeither
be faithful to thetext or it couldcontainsomeadditions. A commentby Bolow regardingthe last
movement of Op. 106 the"touching
reveals up" which Liszt and BOlow himselfcould introduce

shouldthe fancytakethem. Balow hadgreatrespectfor his teacheranddedicatedhis editionof

the piano sonatasto "FranzLiszt, as the fruits of his teaching". Insteadof the notatedsingle
notesin Op. 106/iv/388,BUlow recommends introducing "Liszt's octaves"(ex. 10.7)in orderto
add brilliancyto the an
passage,
crescendo effect he had learnedfrom Liszt. However,Liszt, in
his own edition,hadnot alteredthis bar to includethe octaves."
Ex. 10.7 1

As aneditor,Liszt's approachto Beethoven'spianosonataswasdifferent. Czernyheldthe view

that it was importantto learnthe pianosonatasaccordingto the order that they werepublished
of Beethoven'sdevelopmentasa composer.
in order to increasethe performer'sunderstanding
He classifiesBeethoven'scompositionsinto threestylisticperiods:
up to his 28' work (about 1803) he adhered, in a certaindegree,to the
styleof Mozart and Haydn; from then however until abouthis 90' work
(from 1803to 1815)he fully displayedhis true peculiarity,andfrom that
time until hisdeath(in 1827)heagaintook a new direction,whichis not
lessgrand,thoughit differsmateriallyfrom the two former."

Liszt, on the other hand, arrangedthe sonatasin his edition in order of difficulty, beginningwith
op. 49/2 and ending with Op. 106.

On the whole, even though the editionsof Liszt and Balow still displaysome elementsof
Czerny'steaching,the emphasisis on the preferencesof the editors rather than authenticity,
even
sometimes to the extentof overridingBeethoven'smarkings. The development
of more
powerful and pianos
resonant the
throughout nineteenthcenturyalsocontributedto a changing

"Beethoven(1894),ii, p. 614;Beethoven(1857),p. 556.

IlCzerny(1846),p. 32.
298
perceptionon the way Beethoven's
piano sonatas
shouldbe playedso that in spite of Czerny's

untiringefforts to recordBeethoven's performing styles,his writings andeditingsdid not make

sucha lastingimpression on future as
generations he had hoped.

299
 CONCLUSION

Carl Czernywasundoubtedlyan importantwitnessto the characterandmannerof Beethoven's

performingstyle. The questionis, how much of Czemy's piano treatiseis really basedon this
tradition? The is most
answer probably: of it. Czemylearnedtheproperplayingpostureandthe
hand
most advantageous position from Beethoven. Both men encouraged pianiststo avoid
.
hand
unnecessary and body movements whenplaying. They produceda varietyof tonalcolours
by varyingfingerpressure.Theytrainedthe left handto beasagileasthe right. Whenfingering

a passage,whereverpossiblethey avoidedplacing the thumband the fiflh finger on black keys.

Legato,in their opinion,wasthe normaltouch. They insistedon the useof tempoflexibility and
a carefulobservance of dynamicand articulationmarkingsin order to conveythe full rangeof
expressionof a piece. Czerny's definitions of the main tempo headingsand their speed
implicationswere broadly the sameas Beethoven's. The speedsdenotedby the former's

metronomemarkings for the slow movements of Beethoven'spianosonatasarewithin the style.

Many of the principlesof pedalling and its techniqueas expoundedin Czerny'sPiano Forte
Schoolcanalsobe tracedbackto Beethoven.

However, sincethere was not one universal performing style in the early nineteenthcentury, but

many styles characterised by the personality, musical training and ideals of the individual

this could sometimes result in hybrids of styles. The spirit and grace in Mozart's
performer,
playing causedClementi to re-think his approach to performance and he eventually abandoned

sheervirtuosity to embracea more cantabile and refined mannerofplaying. Czerny also adopted

a hybrid of style, combining the power, energetic, expressivelegato playing of Beethoven with
the clarity and neatnessplaying of Hummel, a pupil of Mozart. Even in the performance of

Beethoven's piano compositions, Czernysometimesrecommendsa light, evenand"pearly" touch

in passagework, to some extent reminiscent of Mozart's and Hummel's playing. Czerny also
Hummel's definition of assai as "very" instead of Beethoven's "enough" or "rather".
shared

The improvementsmadeto the constructionof the piano,the useof thicker stringsand better
hammercoveringsandso on, not only madethe instrumentsturdierandmoreresonant,it also

offereda wider dynamicrangeand a larger compass

of tonal colours. These in
advances piano

300
technologywere welcomed andexploited by Czemy. Sometimes,however,he hadto adaptor

modify piano techniquein order to incorporatethe new sonic resourcesof these changes.
is
Pedalling anexample. Although he recognisedthat Beethoven hademployedthedamper pedal
in order to create specialeffects through blurring, the increased by
resonancecreated the
Viennesepianosin the 1830sand 1840smade extensiveuse of this techniquedifficult and
The trend of curtailingBeethoven'spedalmarkingswhichcaused
sometimes,evenundesirable.
blurring continuedwith Liszt and his pupil Billow. Czerny,Liszt and Billow were
considerable
by and accepted that, with the increasinglypowerful pianos at their
progressivemen nature
disposal,changesto the of
performance Beethoven's piano had
sonatas to made.However,
with
the emergenceof overstrung,one-pieceiron framepianossuchasBechstein
andSteinwaywhich
by Billow, the changeswhich he had to makewere far greaterthanthat by Czerny.
were used
The sonorouspianoswith a heavierkey dip meant that Billow preferreda slowertempothan
Czemy and Beethoven,and had to abandon the octave glissando in Op. 53, a practicewhich
be beyondCzernyand Liszt.
could not preserved

Apart from pedalling, Czemy also made other changes to keep up-to-date with contemporary

styles. On the whole, the metronome markings for Beethoven's piano sonataswhich
perfom-dng
he published in The,4rt (1846) were significantly slower than his other setsofmark-ings. Thismay
have resulted from the trend for slower a
speeds, trend begun by Wagner. Between the 1820sand

the 1830s, Czerny his

also changed mind about the starting note of the trill and whether it should

with a turn. In 1828, Czemy was still teaching that the trill should begin on the upper note;
end
is specificallynotated, the trill should not have one. But by the 1830s, Czemy
and unlessa suffix
adopting main-note starts, and the confused state of affairs during this transition
was gradually
is clearly recorded in his Piano Forte School, in which his fingerings sometimes contradict his

He also emphasized that all trills should end with a suffix, whether or not it
written guidelines.
is specifically notated. Fingerings were also modemised. Czerny preferred to use uniform

fingering in repeated patterns, arpeggios, din-iinished-sevenths

and dominant-seventh figures.

Beethoven's fingerings in on
such passages, the other hand, were often irregular. Although

Czemy occasionally resorted to the old system of fingering (where a long finger vaults over a

one), most of his fingeringswere basedon the modem systemofpassing the thumb under
shorter
longer finger the thumb. In his editions ofthe piano Czemy
sonatas,
the fingers or crossinga over

301
normally retained fingerings.
Beethoven's In the Cockseditionof the trio of the F minor sonata
(Op. 2/l/iii), however,Czemychangedthe composer'sfingeringin orderto avoidusingthesame
fingers consecutively.The useof an alternativefingering in this awkwardpassageof double
fourthswaslaterconfirmedin TheArt. WhileCzemyobservedmostof Beethoven'sarticulation

marks, he lengthened
sometimes Beethoven'sslurs, in
especially By
overtlymelodiouspassages.
so doing, Czernychoseto sacrificehighly articulate,rhetoricalexpressionin favourof a smooth
legato line.

SomeofCzerny'sdecisions,ofcourse,wereinfluencedby personalpreference.Beethovenwould
finger a chromaticscaleby alternatingthe thumb and the third finger. Czernyexpressedhis
objectionto this fingeringandsuggested
a fingeringwhichusedthecombinationof thethumband
the indexfinger. AlthoughBeethovenwasoneof the pioneersin the trainingof fingerdexterity,
as we have seen,Czerny placed still more emphasison the attainmentof such skills. His
numerousstudiesbearwitnessto this. He was also interestedin the bravura styleof playing,a
style which did not meet with Beethoven's approval. However,this doesnot meanthat Czerny
was interestedonly in thedisplayofvirtuosity for its own sake.Whendiscussingtheperformance
of Beethoven'spiano sonatasin The Art, he constantly emphasizedthe importance of
and
understanding communicating the character
of a piece. Conveying
the spirit of a piecewas,
of course, by
considered Beethoven
to be one of the most importantaspectsof pianoplaying.

Czerny's wish to preservethe "correct" mode of performing Beethoven's piano music resulted
in numerous editions of the latter's piano sonatas. Czerny's editorial markings in these editions
display a certain consistencyfrom the late 1820sto the 1850sand are therefore reliable. Many

of them also correspond to his suggestionsin The Art and in the Piano Forte School. Inaddition,

some ofthe ideas in TheArt are the sameas his editorial markings in the Haslinger 11edition from

the late 1820s. This edition was publishedsoon after Beethoven's death,so the editorial markings

in it, and many of the remarks in The Art, probably reflect the composer's ideas and, in part at

least, his intentions. Another source which anticipates some of the ideas in the Piano Forte
School is Czerny's edition of MOIler's Grosse Fortepiano-Schule (1825). This is not as

comprehensive a treatise as Piano Forte School, but Czerny's concepts regarding the
interpretation of classical compositions, pedalling and the classifications and descriptions of

302
dynamicandarticulationmarkingswerealreadyestablishedby the mid-I 820s.

On the whole,Czemy'seditorialmarkings,especiallythosewhich appearedin morethanoneof

his editionsovera periodoftime, areinvaluablein giving usaninsightinto certainofBeethoven's
habits of thought. Czemy obviously modified some of the principles he had learnedfrom
Beethoven,but themajorityof histeachingsarea loyal recordof that performancetradition. But
within thirty yearsof death,
Beethoven's the gradualmodification of aestheticoutlook, and a
decisive departurefrom his performingstyle had alreadybegun. With eachgeneration,this
departurebecameincreasingly moremarked. However, while Czerny'sinterpretationwas largely
basedon hisrecollectionsofBeethoven'steachingandperformances,Liszt andto a largerextent,

Balow had to discoverthe meaningsof the sonatas(especiallythe late sonatas)for themselves.

This togetherwith the new technology of piano constructionled to effectiveinterpretations
of
Beethovenworks but which were not necessarilyentrenched in the early nineteenth-century

performingstyleof the composer.

In short, Carl Czemyis the only reliablewitnesswe have of Beethoven's style. We can learn
Beethoven's intentions and performanceidealsfrom his writingsand editingsaslong
muchabout
bearin mind the areaswherehe had departedfrom this tradition.
as we

303
 SOURCES OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
N. B. indicatesthat no bar numbershavebeengiven in the original,but, for the sakeof

clarity, I haveaddedthemto the musicalexamples.

CHAPTER 2

Ex. 2.1a Hummel (1829), iii, p. 61.

Ex. 2.1b Czemy (I 839E), iii, p. 12.

Ex. 2.2 Ibid., iii, p. 11.

Ex. 2.3 Bach (1974), pp. 155,156 and 160.

Ex. 2.4 Hummel (1829), U,p. 8.

Ex. 2.5 Ibid., ii, p. 67.

Ex. 2.6 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 19.

Ex. 2.7 Ibid., iii, p. 28.

Ex. 2.8 Bach (1974), pp. 90-9 1.

Ex. 2.9 Clementi (180 1), p. 11.

Ex. 2.10 Bach (1974), p. 160.

Ex. 2.11 Cramer (cl 820, treatise), p. 4 1.

Ex. 2.12 Ibid., p. 50.

Ex. 2.13 Czemy (I 839E), iii, p. 56.

Ex. 2.14 Ibid.

Ex. 2.15 Ibid.

Ex. 2.16 Ibid.

Ex. 2.17 Hummel (1829), ii, p. 245.

Ex. 2.18 Ibid., ii, p. 255.

Ex. 2.19 Cramer (1819), Introduction and Variations [bb. 1-19] of var. 8, p. 12.

Ex. 2.20 Dussek (1807), (Euvre 64/iv/[308-31 I], p. 18.

Ex. 2.21 Hummel (1829), iii, p. 63.

Ex. 2.22 Cramer (1820, variations), New Variations [bb. 28-34] of var. 8, p. 10.

Ex. 2.23 Dussek (1807), (Euvre 64/ii/[104-106], p. 30.

Ex. 2.24 Hummel (1829), fii, p. 63.

Ex. 2.25 Ibid.

304
Ex. 2.26 Clementi (c1807), Op. 34/2/iii/[104-107], p. 34.

Ex. 2.27 Czemy (I 839E), iii, p. 6 1.

Ex. 2.28 Dussek (1807), (Euvre 64/iv/[ 117-120], p. 24.

CHAPTER 3

Ex. 3.1 Beethoven (cl 835-1880), Op. 31/3/iv/[20-24], ii, p. 18.

Ex. 3.2 Beethoven (1828-1840?), Op. 26/i/[86-102], i, p. 5.
Ex. 3.3 Beethoven (1895), Op. 26/i/[85-102], p. 6.
Ex. 3.4 Beethoven (cl 835-1880), Op. 109/iii/[203], ii, p. 19.
Ex. 3.5 Beethoven (1828-1840?), Op. 101/iii/[ 1-20], ii, p. 7.
Ex. 3.6 Beethoven (1998), Op. 101/iii/[ 1-22], pp. 13-14.

Ex. 3.7 Beethoven (cl835-1880), Op. 8la/iii/[1-4], ii, p. 10.

Ex. 3.8 Ibid., Op. 7/iv/[76] and [83], i, p. 23.
Ex. 3.9 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 7/iv/[68-69] and [76-77], p. 29.
Ex. 3.10 Beethoven (cl835-1880), Op. 7/iv/[151-159], i, p. 26.
Ex. 3.11 Beethoven (1980), Op. 2/l/iii/59-63, i, p. 15.
Ex. 3.12 Beethoven (0835-1880), Op. 2/l/iii/[59-63), i, p. 11.
Ex. 3.13 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 2/1/iii/[59-63], p. 23.
Ex. 3.14 Beethoven (197 1), Op. 57/ii/[ 13-14], p. 20.
Ex. 3.15 Beethoven (1852-1854), Op. 57/ii/[8-16], p. 14.
Ex. 3.16 Beethoven (1828-1840?), Op. 57/i/[14-18], ii, p. 2.
Ex. 3.17 Beethoven (1971), Op. 57/i/[14-18], p. 2.
Ex. 3.18 Beethoven (1828-1840?), Op. 57/iii/[133-137], ii, p. 22.
Ex. 3.19 Ibid., Op. 57/iii/[108-117], ii, p. 21.
Ex. 3.20 Beethoven (1856-1868), Op. 57/i/f 105-108], p. 333.

Ex. 3.21 Ibid., Op. 57/i/[205-208], p. 337.

Ex. 3.22a I bid., Op. 57/i/[3 5-39], p. 331.

Ex. 3.22b Czerny (1970), Beethoven Op. 57/i/[35-39], p. 49.

Ex. 3.23 Beethoven (1828-1840?), Op. 57/ii/[33-42], ii, p. 16.

Ex. 3.24 Beethoven (1971), Op. 57/ii/[33-42], p. 21.

Ex. 3.25 Beethoven (1856-1868), Op. 57/ii/[32-43], p. 340.

Ex. 3.26 Beethoven (1971), Op. 57/iii/[68-97], pp. 28-29.

305
Ex. 3.27 Beethoven(1828-1840?
), Op. 57/iii/[74-97], ii, pp. 20-21.
Ex. 3.28 Beethoven(1856-1868),Op. 57/iii/[76-96], p. 344.
Ex. 3.29 Beethoven(1828-1840?
), Op. 57/i/[25-32], ii, p. 3.
Ex. 3.30 Beethoven(1856-1868),Op. 57/i/[92-95], p. 333.
Ex. 3.31 Beethoven(1828-1840?
), Op. 57/i/[53-54], ii, p. 4.
Ex. 3.32 Beethoven(1856-1868),Op. 57/i/[147-151], p. 335.
Ex. 3.33 Ibid., Op. 57/i/[134-135],pp. 334-335.
Ex. 3.34 Beethoven(1852-1854),Op. 57/i/[238-239],p. 12.
Ex. 3.35 Beethoven(1828-1840?
), Op. 57/i/[236-238],ii, p. 13.
Ex. 3.36 Beethoven(1971), Op. 57/iii/[ 176-191], pp. 32-33.
Ex. 3.37 Beethoven(1856-1868),Op. 57/iii/[175-192],p. 346.
Ex. 3.38 Beethoven(cl835-1880), Op. 57/iii/[172-192],H,p. 23.
Ex. 3.39 Beethoven(1852-1854),Op. 57/Hi/[173-195],p. 23.
Ex. 3.40a Ibid., Op. 57/i/[15-24],p. 2.
Ex. 3.40b Ibid., Op. 57/i/[149-161],p. 8.
Ex. 3.41 Ibid., Op. 57/i/[122-143],pp. 7-8.
Ex. 3.42 Beethoven(1856-1868),Op. 57/i/[122-134],p. 334.

CHAPTER4
Ex. 4.1 Cocks (1853), Op. 55/Ei/[381-385], p. 30.
Ex. 4.2 Ibid., Op. 55/iii/[372-385], p. 30.
Maelzel's Chart Albrecht (1996), ii, pp. 140-141.
Ex. 4.3 Beethoven (1980), Op. 90/ii/278-290, ii, p. 210.
Ex. 4.4 Ibid., Op. 31/2/ii/54-60, ii, p. 38.
Ex. 4.5 Ibid., Op. 27/2/i/31-36, i, p. 250.
Ex. 4.6 1bid., Op. III /i/ 127-132, ii, p. 315.
Ex. 4.7 Ibid., Op. 2/2/i/220-227, i, p. 27.
Ex. 4.8 Ibid., Op. 2/2/i/48-58, i, p. 23.
Ex. 4.9 Ibid., Op. 90/i/53-56, ii, p. 197.
Ex. 4.10 Ibid., Op. 2/3/i/249-252, i, p. 54.
Ex. 4.11 Ibid., Op. 101/ii/49-52, ii, p. 215.
Ex. 4.12 Ibid., Op. 1061ii/163-168,H, p. 244.
Ex. 4.13 Ibid., Op. 31/3/iv/307-324, ii, p. 72.

306
Ex. 4.14 Ibid., Op. 90/i/104-113,ii, p. 198.
Ex. 4.15 Ibid., Op. II 1/i/l 18, ii, p. 315.
Ex. 4.16 Ibid., Op. 101/iii/214-226,H,p. 223.
Ex. 4.17 Ibid., Op. II 0/ii/21-40,fi, p. 297.
Ex. 4.18 Ibid., Op. III /i/ 17-23,ii, p. 3 10.
Ex. 4.19 Ibid., Op. 109/ii/l 20-125,ii, p. 279.
Ex. 4.20 Ibid., Op. 81a/i/1-4,H,p. 179.
Ex. 4.21 Ibid., Op. 54/i/132-138,ii, p. 124.
Ex. 4.22 Ibid., Op. 27/l/iii/25-26 andiv/1-2, i, p. 240.
Ex. 4.23 Ibid., Op. 31/3/i/176-183,ii, p. 53.
Ex. 4.24 Beethoven(1999),Op. 125/iv/8-16,p. 196.
Ex. 4.25 Beethoven(1980),Op. 106/i/l93-208,H,p. 233.
Ex. 4.26 Ibid., Op. 31/3/ii/162-171,ii, p. 63.

CHAPTER 5
Ex. 5.1 Beethoven (1955), Op. 131/ii/[189-1981, iv, p. 8.
Ex. 5.2 Beethoven (1980), Op. 109/iii/I - 16, ii, p. 28 1.
Ex. 5.3 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 76.
Ex. 5.4 Beethoven (1980), Op. 27/l/iii/5-8, i, p. 239.
Ex. 5.5 Ibid., Op. 7/ii/59-64, i, pp. 82-83.
Ex. 5.6 Ibid., Op. 10/3/ii/44-48, i, p. 135.
Ex. 5.7 Ibid., Op. 57/i/92-93, ii, p. 135.
Ex. 5.8 Ibid., Op. 27/2/iii/76-87, i, p. 257.
Ex. 5.9 Cramer/Shedlock(1893), Etude no. 3 [bb. 1-5], p. 6.
Ex. 5.10 Ibid., Etude no. 16 [bb. 1-5], p. 26.
Ex. 5.11 Ibid., Etude no. I [bb. 7-11], p. 2.
Ex. 5.12 Ibid., Etude no. 6 [bb. 1-15], p. 12.
Ex. 5.13 Ibid., Etude no. 21 [bb. 1-2], p. 30.
Ex. 5.14 Ibid., Etude no. 7 [bb. 1-5], p. 14.
Ex. 5.15
Ex. 5.16 Beethoven (1980), Op. 14/1/iii/47-5 1, i, p. 173.
Ex. 5.17 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 31/1/iii/[ 1-5], p. 42.
Ex. 5.18 Beethoven (1980), Op. 22/iv/I 1-14, i, p. ý08.

307
Ex. 5.19 Ibid., Op. 14/2/ii/5-8, i, p. 184.
Ex. 5.20 Ibid., Op. 27/l/i/3-4, L p. 234.
Ex. 5.21 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 31/3/i/[174-177], p. 45.
Ex. 5.22 Beethoven(1980), Op. 109/iii/106-109, ii, p. 286.
Ex. 5.23 Ibid., Op. 31/l/iii/132-134, ii, p. 24.
Ex. 5.24 Ibid., Op. 7/iii/1-4, i, p. 84.

CHAPTER 6
Ex. 6.1 Beethoven(1980), Op. 57/ii/1-8, ii, p. 146.
Ex. 6.2 Ibid., Op. 31/3/iv/273-276, ii, p. 71.
Ex. 6.3 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/442-451, ii, p. 117.
Ex. 6.4 Ibid., Op. 22/ii/1-3, i, p. 202.
Ex. 6.5 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 7/iv/[150-155], p. 29.
Ex. 6.6a Beethoven(1980), Op. 31/2/iii/215-224, ii, p. 45.
Ex. 6.6b Ibid., Op. 31/2/fii/167-180, U, p. 44.
Ex. 6.7 Cramer/Shedlock(1893), Etude no. 2 [bb. 1-5], p. 4.
Ex. 6.8 Ibid., Etude no. 24 [bb. 1-3], p. 35.
Ex. 6.9 Beethoven(1980), Op. 53/i/l 12-117, ii, p. 93.
Ex. 6.10 Ibid., Op. 10/3/iv/41-45, i, p. 142.
Ex. 6.11 Ibid., Op. 2/3/i/46-55, i, p. 46.
Ex. 6.12 Ibid., Op. 2/3/i/27-41, i, p. 46.
Ex. 6.13a Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 57/i/[1-4], p. 48.
Ex. 6.13b Beethoven(1971), Op. 57/i/[1-13], p. 1.
Ex. 6.14 Beethoven(1980), Op. 53/ii/I -2, ii, p. 102.
Ex. 6.15 Ibid., Op. II 0/iii/6-7, ii, p. 300.
Ex. 6.16 Ibid., Op. 106/iv/8-9, ii, pp. 256-257.
Ex. 6.17 Ibid., Op. 7/ii/50-51, i, p. 82.
Ex. 6.18 Ibid., Op. 7/ii/25-28, i, p. 81.
Ex. 6.19 Beethoven (1895), Op. 26/i/[69-84], p. 5.
Ex. 6.20 Beethoven(1993), Op. 90/ii/[23-40], p. 16.
Ex. 6.21 Beethoven (1998), Op. 101/ii/[46-54], p. 9.
Ex. 6.22 Beethoven (1980), Op. 10/ii/39-46, i, p. 117.
Ex. 6.23 Ibid., Op. 26/i/205-212, i, p. 223.

308
 Ex. 6.24 Ibid., Op. 2/2/i/220-226, L p. 27.
Ex. 6.25 Ibid., Op. 31/l/ii/1-3, ii, p. 12.
Ex. 6.26 Ibid., Op. II I/ii/72-73, ii, p. 322.

CHAPTER 7
Ex. 7.1a Bach(1974),p. I 10.
Ex. 7.1b Ibid., p. I 11.
Ex. 7.2 Beethoven(1980),Op. 2/2/iv/27,i, p. 36.
Ex. 7.3 Ibid., Op. 22/i/10-11,i, p. 193.
Ex. 7.4 Bach(1974),p. 136.
Ex. 7.5 Ibid.
Ex. 7.6 Beethoven(1980),Op. 10/l/i/9-15, i, p. 96.
Ex. 7.7 Ibid., Op. 31/1/ii/33, fi, p. 14.
Ex. 7.8 Ibid., Op. 7/ii/37-41,i, p. 82.
Ex. 7.9 Ibid., Op. 7/ii/13-15,i, p. 81.
Ex. 7.10 Ibid., Op. 31/2/ii/1-7,ii, p. 36.
Ex. 7.11 Czemy(I 839E),i, p. 161.
Ex. 7.12 Czemy(1970),BeethovenOp. 10/3/i/[53-55],p. 32.
Ex. 7.13 Beethoven(1980),Op. 13/i/51-55,i, p. 148.
Ex. 7.14 Czerny(1970),BeethovenOp. 31/2/iii/[43 p. 44.
-45],
Ex. 7.15 Beethoven(1980),Op. 7/i/108-111, i, pp. 73-74.
Ex. 7.16 Czemy(c1828), p. 5.
Ex. 7.17 Ibid., preface.
Ex. 7.18 Czerny(1839E), i, p. 171.
Ex. 7.19 Ibid., i, p. 174.
Ex. 7.20 Ibid., ii, p. 132.
Ex. 7.21 Czemy(1838), p. 25.
Ex. 7.22 Czemy(1839E), i, p. 175.
Ex. 7.23 Ibid., ii, p. 138.
Ex. 7.24 Ibid., i, p. 176.
Ex. 7.25 Czemy(c] 828),p. 9.
Ex. 7.26 Czemy(1839E), i, p. 172.
Ex. 7.27 Ibid., ii, p. 133.

309
Ex. 7.28 Winter (1977),Wo039/7-8, p. 489.
Ex. 7.29a Rosenblum(1988),BeethovenW6040/59-60, p. 250.
Ex. 7.29b Ibid., BeethovenWo04O/74-75,p. 250.
Ex. 7.30 Winter (1977),BeethovenOp. 119/7/1-2,p. 491.
Ex. 7.31 Newman(1988),p. 194.
Ex. 7.32 Beethoven(1980),Op. III AV106-121, ii, pp. 325-326.
Ex. 7.33 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/473-494,H,p. 118.
Ex. 7.34a Drake (1972),p. 165.
Ex. 7.34b Ibid.

CHAPTER 8
Ex. 8.1 Rosenblum(1988), Sketch Fischhof 4r, p. 205.
E x. 8.2 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 139v, p. 207.
Ex. 8.3 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 88r, p. 204.
Ex. 8.4 Ibid., p. 208.
Ex. 8.5 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 89v, p. 208.
Ex. 8.6 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 40r, p. 208.
Ex. 8.7 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 40v, p. 209.
Ex. 8.8 Ibid., Sketch Kessler 23v, p. 209.
Ex. 8.9 Ibid., Sketch Kafka 88v, p. 204.
Ex. 8.1Oa Beethoven (1980), Op. 2/2/i/84-9 1, i, p. 24.
Ex. 8.1Ob Czerny (1970), Beethoven Op. 2/2/i/[84-91 ], p. 24.
Ex. 8.11 Hiebert (1985-1986), Wo039/1-18, p. 15.
Ex. 8.12a Starke (1819-182 1), Op. 28/iv/[205], ii, p. 63.
Ex. 8.12b Ibid., Op. 28/iv/[208], ii, p. 63.
Ex. 8.13 Beethoven (1980), Op. II I/i/27-29, ii, p. 3 10.
Ex. 8.14 Ibid., Op. II 0/ii/65-72, ii, p. 298.
Ex. s. 15 Hiebert (1985-1986), Wo039/95-96, p. 19.
Ex. 8.16 Starke (1819-182 1), Op. 28/ii/["3 I "], ii, p. 57.
Ex. g. 17 Beethoven (1980), Op. 78/ii/I 16-118, ii, p. 168.
Ex. 8.18 Ibid., Op. 106/i/96-97, ii, p. 230.
Ex. 8.19 Grundmann and Mies (1966), p. 117.
Ex. 8.20 Czemy (1839E), ii, p. 23.

310
Ex. 8.21 Ibid., ii, p. 78.
Ex. 8.22 Newman(1988),SketchKafka 39v, p. 292.
Ex. 8.23 Hiebert(1985-1986),Wo039/113-119,pp. 20-21.
Ex. 8.24 Czerny(1839E), ii, p. 30.
Ex. 8.25 Ibid., ii, p. 35.
Ex. 8.26 Ibid.
Ex. 8.27 Ibid., ii, p. 37.
Ex. 8.28 Ibid., ii, p. I 11.
Ex. 8.29 Starke(1819-1821), Op. 28/ii/[9], ii, p. 56.
Ex. 8.30 Czerny(1839E), H,p. 120.
Ex. 8.31 Starke(1819-1821), Op. 28/ii/["24-25'1, H,p. 56.
Ex. 8.32 Beethoven(1980),Op. 53/iii/462-469,ii, p. 118.
Ex. 8.33 Czemy(1970),BeethovenOp. 69/ii/[1-8], p. 78.
Ex. 8.34 Rosenblum(1988),SketchKafka 39v, p. 206.
Ex. 8.35 Beethoven(1980),Op. II 0/iii/5-6, ii, p. 300.
Ex. 8.36 Ibid., Op. I 10/iii/125-127,ii, p. 305.
Ex. 8.37 Ibid., Op. 106/iii/156-167,ii, p. 254.

CHAPTER 9
Ex. 9.1 Beethoven (1980), Op. 57/i/218-223, ii, p. 143.
Ex. 9.2 Ibid., Op. 27/2/iii/163-166, i, p. 261.
Ex. 9.3 Clementi (c 1807), Op. 34/2/i/[ 115-131], p. 25.
Ex. 9.4 Clementi (1798), Op. 37/3/iii/[1-38], p. 36.
Ex. 9.5 Beethoven (1980), Op. 109/i/97-99 and Op. 109/ii/I -4, fi, p. 276.
Ex. 9.6 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 63.
Ex. 9.7 Beethoven (1980), Op. 57/ii/96-97, fi, p. 149.
Ex. 9.8 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/251-258, ii, p. I 11.
Ex. 9.9 Ibid., Op. 31/l/i/168-196, ii, p. 8.
Ex. 9.10 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 58.
Ex. 9.11 Beethoven (1980), Op. 106/i/l 6-25, ii, p. 227.
Ex. 9.12 Ibid., Op. 106/i/402-405, ii, p. 239.

Ex. 9.13 Czemy (1839E), iH, p. 62.

Ex. 9.14 Beethoven (1980), Op. 26/iv/1 64-169, i, p. 233.

311
Ex. 9.15 Ibid., Op. 109/iii/202-203, ii, p. 290.
Ex. 9.16 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/528-543, ii, p. 119.
Ex. 9.17 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 63.
Ex. 9.18 Beethoven (1980), Op. 7/iv/1 80-183, i, p. 95.
Ex. 9.19 Ibid., Op. 101/ii/28-36, H,p. 215.
Ex. 9.20 Ibid., Op. 109/iii/104-107, ii, p. 285.
Ex. 9.21a Ibid., Op. 106/iii/44-46, ii, p. 246.
Ex. 9.21b Ibid., Op. 106/iii/l 29-13 1, ii, p. 252.
Ex. 9.22 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 6 1.
Ex. 9.23 Beethoven (1980), Op. I 10/iii/l 14-116, H, p. 304.
Ex. 9.24 Ibid., Op. 31/2/i/143-149, ii, p. 33.
Ex. 9.25 Czemy (1839E), iii, p. 60.
Ex. 9.26 Beethoven (1980), Op. 53/iii/1-24, ii, p. 103.
Ex. 9.27 Ibid., Op. II 0/iii/ 1-5, ii, p. 300.
Ex. 9.28 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/55-62, U, p. 104.
Ex. 9.29 Ibid., Op. 531HV311-325,ii, p. 113.
Ex. 9.30 Ibid., Op. 79/i/67-75, ii, p. 171.
Ex. 9.31 Czemy (1970), Beethoven Op. 371ii/[1-8], p. 97.
Ex. 9.32 Beethoven (1980), Op. 106/iii/57-63, ii, p. 47.
Ex. 9.33 Czerny (1839E), iii, p. 65.
Ex. 9.34 Beethoven (1996), Op. 58/ii/47-51, iii, Band 3, p. 49.

CHAPTER10

Ex. 10.1 Beethoven (1894), Op. 106/iv/[ 10], ii, p. 596.

Ex. 10.2 Ibid., Op. 53/i/[30-40], ii, p. 390.

Ex. 10.3 Ibid., Op. 57/i/[130-136], ii, p. 448.

Ex. 10.4 Ibid., Op. 53/iii/[465-475], ii, p. 421.

Ex. 10.5 Beethoven (1857), Op. 22/iii/[9-14], p. 178.

Ex. 10.6 Beethoven (1894), Op. 53/iii/[ 1-22], ii, p. 405.

Ex. 10.7 Ibid., Op. 106/iv/[388-391], ii, p. 614.

312
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