INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BODY
ANATOMY- branch of science that deals After knowing the structure or part of the
with the structure of body parts, their forms, and structure, function should also be known.
how they are organized One single structure of the body can’t function, so it
needs to coordinate with other structure
PHYSIOLOGY- deals on how the systems
of the body work, and the ways in which their Ex: LUNGS need to coordinate with cardiovascular
integrated cooperation maintains life and health system & NS
of an individual
Each part of the body has a role/ job/ responsibility
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY- study of to MAKE the body operate as a WHOLE because the
disorders of functioning, and a knowledge of normal different part or system of the body is functioning
with other systems or organs
physiology makes such disorder easier to
understand Ex: HEART to coordinate with NS or blood or blood
vessels
→The topics ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY are NOTE:
difficult to separate because You must know what’s the NORMAL about the
system before determining about the
• Anatomy is about structures/ organs
DISORDER/ DISEASE of the ORGAN.
• Physiology talks about the functions
of structures/ organs
→Also, because the structure of body • Pathophysiology
parts is closely associated with their -study of DISEASE/ DISORDER of the organ
function -study of the functioning & a knowledge of NORMAL
PHYSIOLOGY, makes such DISORDER easier to
understand
-help determine that a structure has a disorder
----2 DISCIPLINES---
They are interrelated because the function or
role of a part depends on how it’s constructed SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
1) ANATOMY- branch of science that deals
AND PHYSIOLOGY
with the structure of body parts, their 1. Gross anatomy: has easily observable structure
forms, & how they are organized (liver, pancreas, lungs)
• Ana= up 2. Microscopic anatomy: opposite of Gross
• tomy= process of cutting anatomy
-study of small structure with the use of
MICSROSCOPE/ MAGNIFYING INSTRUMENT
2) PHYSIOLOGY-delas on HOW the systems -as a very small part of an organ that can’t be seen
of the body work & the way in which their by a naked eye (cells, tissue)
integrated cooperation maintains life and 3. Developmental anatomy: from fertilization of
health of an individual sperm & egg cell
• physio= “nature” of organs/ structure in -FERTILIZATION from implantation until birth
the body -study of structural changes from CONCEPTION to
• logy= the study of birth
4. Pathological anatomy (PATHOLOGY): deals
with the CAUSE & NATURE of the disease; changes in
structure from the disease
→SO, know Normal function to determine the
Abnormalities to be compared
5. Neurophysiology: study of the working of NS
-the function of the NS
6. Cardiac physiology: study of the function of
the heart 2) Cellular level- consists of cells.
---heartbeat is caused by the alternating -bigger than chemical level
contraction & relaxation of the MYOCARDIUM -consists of cells, the different parts of the cells
----myocardium is stimulated by ELECTRICAL IMPULSE that are microscopic in nature
for a natural pacemaker
→There are trillions of cells.
7. Cellular physiology: the study of the
INTERACTION of the cell parts & specific function of 3) Tissue level- group of similarly specialized
the organelles cells and their intercellular material.
→Cells have many parts. -formed by groups of similarly specialized cells in
their intercellular materials
8. Developmental physiology: study of
functional changes that occur as organism tends to 4) Organ level- consists of organs, structure of
develop definite form and function; composed of two or
-changes during embryonic development more different tissues comprising an organ
-(fertilized egg cell→zygote→ implanted to the -consists of organs of different forms & structure
which are composed of two or more different
uterus→embryo→fetus→baby) tissues
-also occur in the lifespan of the ORGANISM
5) System level- associations of organs and has
9. Pathological physiology: study of the
coordinated function or a common function---
functional changes that occur as the organs got ORGANISM.
disease or changed -formed by systems
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LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION
• It’s how an individual organized as a WHOLE SYSTEMS of the body
organism 1) INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
• From the smallest part to the biggest
➢ Skin and the hair covering.
• LARGE structures are made from smaller -external covering of the body
parts ➢ Protects the deeper tissues from injury.
1) Chemical- simplest level of organization ➢ Minor excretory organ (eliminates salts from the body)
-includes building blocks that make life possible ➢ Regulates body temperature
Composed of: (skin, hair, nails)
a) Atoms-simplest and most fundamental unit of
MATTER
b) Molecule- 2 or more atoms held by chemical
bonds
c) Macromolecules- bigger than molecules; large
biologically important molecules in the cells
d) Organelles- aggregate of macromolecules
used to carry out a specific function in the cell
2 MAJOR CATEGORIES of
CHEMICAL LEVEL
2) SKELETAL SYSTEM
1) Inorganic Chemicals- molecules -consists of different bones of the body
made up of 2 or more elements other than
carbon (H2O, O2, minerals) ➢ Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.
2) Organic Chemicals- very complex ➢ Supports the body; serves as a framework for the
elements containing Carbon & Hydrogen attachment of the skeletal muscles.
(Carbohydrates, nuclei acids, proteins)
3) MUSCULAR SYSTEM
➢ THIS is for the function of movement.
-for the skeleton to move
5) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
➢ Endocrine glands that secrete hormones, which control
bodily activities.
o Hormones- poured into blood & travel to the
TARGET ORGANS (where the action will happen)
➢ Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, thymus,
pancreas, pineal, ovaries and testes.
4) NERVOUS SYSTEM
➢ Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
• Nerve impulse- electrical impulse that produce action of
the nerve cell
➢ For irritability and conductivity
o Irritability- receives & responds to the stimulus &
change it to IMPULSE
o Conductivity- ability to transmit impulse that
produce action of the nerve cell
6) CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
➢ Heart, blood vessels, and
blood.
➢ The blood transport
oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
and other substances to and from tissue cells where 9) DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
exchange is made.
-for break down of food & deliver product to the blood
• The components of blood are erythrocytes/ RBC, for dispersal to the body cells
leukocytes/ WBC, plasma, and platelets.
• Heart pumps blood through heart vessels to all body tissue ➢ Digestive tract (such as mouth/ oral cavity, esophagus,
o Vein (carry oxygenated blood) stomach, small intestine, large intestine/colon, rectum &
anus) and the digestive gland.
7) LYMPHATIC SYSTEM ➢ The digestive tract: mouth (oral cavity), esophagus,
-uncommon; works & coordinates/ compliments with the stomach, small and
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM by cleansing the blood & enhouses large intestine, rectum, and anus.
the cells needed for immunity ➢ Digestive glands: salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
• Immunity- ability of an organism to resist ➢ Breakdown foods.
infection/ toxin by the antibodies
➢ Compliments the cardiovascular system
➢ Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and other lymphoid
organs.
10) Urinary system/ Excretory System
➢ Excretory system: kidney, ureters, bladder, and urethra
➢ The main function of this system is to eliminate nitrogenous
waste products so that toxins will be ELIMINATED from the
body
• kidney- eliminates nitrogenous acid (such as urea)
• ureters- carry urine from kidney to urinary bladder
8) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM • urinary bladder- storage of urine
• urethra- passage of urine from urinary bladder out of the
➢ Consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, body
trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
-for the exchange of gases
11) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
➢ For the perpetuation or multiplication of species Homeostasis imbalance
• Perpetuation—reserving from extinction
referring to the human body → Body organs become less efficient or can’t function
➢ Male reproductive system: testes, scrotum, penis, well
accessory glands, and the duct system. ~Internal conditions become less and less stable
➢ Female reproductive system: ovaries, which * Factors: disease, disorder, stress/ pain
produce egg (ova)
➢ Female duct system: uterine tubes, uterus, and
vagina.
Feedback
-occurs whenever an ADJUSTMENT that a person makes in
the present affects the future state of the body
-Returns the body to its normal state
by→perspire—when the weather is hot, sweat
glands are activated
→shiver—weather is cold, then muscles contract
( to reserve heat & increase temperature of the
body) & relax
TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK
1) Negative feedback mechanism -
HOMEOSTASIS produces a response that is opposite to the
initiating stimulus.
➢ Balance of internal environment/ equilibrium of the body even if -the body response REVERSES the stimulus→ to
there are changes in the external STABILIZE the system to its normal state
-some books refer this as HOMEOSTASIS
➔ If balanced, not much of sickness; however, if there’s
sickness, it will heal immediately or recover immediately. Ex. If blood pressure is high, the (-) feedback is to
➔ CONSTANCY/ DURABILITY decrease the BP.
---Every organ plays a role in playing the constancy of the
internal environment of the body. If blood pressure is low, (-) feedback is to raise the
➔ Body is in a homeostasis when body adequately met the BP
need of the body & thus, the internal condition is functioning
smoothly. • Insulin- produced by pancreas to lower
blood sugar of the blood in the blood
stream
➢A person in a good health is under the state of
• Blood sugar rises, a receptor in the cell
EQUILIBRIUM/ Homeostasis. senses to change
➢ Homeostatic imbalance- body organs become less efficient
and internal condition become less stable.
DIFFERENCE Between Homeostasis
& Pathophysiology
*Homeostasis- balance of the body/
health
*Pathophysiology- refers to disorder
functioning of organs in the body
2) Positive feedback mechanism
Example:
- operates where the initial stimulus is reinforced.
-rarely happens in the body The lips are anterior to the front teeth.
-originates where the initial stimulus is REINFORCED
-exaggerates the disturbance The chest is on the anterior side of the body
-keeps the sequence going
Ex. Blood glucose level is decreased-------- (+) feedback is
it lowers it further. → A person can have a heart
attack & if condition continues without STRAINT, the 4)Posterior (dorsal) - nearer or at the back or backbone
person may EVENTUALLY die surface of the body, or the opposite of
THAT’s WHY---break is needed (it is the controlling anterior.
point)
Ex: Uterus (UTERINE contraction) expands during childbirth, Example:
then Oxytocin hormone stimulates contraction of uterus
• Oxytocin hormone- produced by posterior pituitary The pharynx is posterior to the oral cavity.
gland; produces pain
The lumbar area is posterior to the umbilical area
Ex: Infection affects the body, WBC (acts as the
controlling point) fights the infection. The occipital area is on the posterior side of the body
5) Medial- nearer the midline of the body or a structure.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Example:
1. Superior (cephalic or cranial) - toward the head of the
The nose is medial to the eyes.
upper part of a structure:
The heart is medial to the lungs
generally, refers to structure in the trunk.
The genital area is medial to the inguinal area.
Examples:
6) Lateral- farther from the midline of the body or a
The kidneys are superior to the urinary bladder
structure.
The heart is superior to the liver
Example:
The nose is superior to the lips
The ears are on the lateral side of the body/The ears
are lateral to the head
The shoulders are lateral to the neck.
7) Intermediate- between two structures.
Example:
2) Inferior (caudal) - away from the head or toward the
lower part of a structure; generally The digit two are intermediate to the digit 1 and digit 3.
refers to the structure in the trunk. The elbow is intermediate to the brachial and
antebrachial.
Example:
The cervical area is intermediate to the head and trunk.
The neck is inferior to the head.
The liver is inferior to the lungs
8) Ipsilateral- on the same side of the body.
Example:
3) Anterior (ventral)- nearer to or at the front or belly
surface of the body. In the prone The right eye is ipsilateral to the right ear.
position the body lies anterior side down, in the supine The right shoulder is ipsilateral to the right hand.
position the body lies anterior 9) Contra lateral- on the opposite side of the body.
side up.
Example: 16) Visceral- pertaining to organs within a cavity.
The right ear is contra lateral to the left ear.
The right eye is contralateral to the left eye.
The right lung is contralateral to the left lung.
10) Proximal- nearer the attachment of an extremity
to the trunk; farther from the point of
origin.
Example:
The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
The brachial is proximal to the antebrachial.
11) Distal- farther from the attachment of an
extremity to the trunk; farther from the point of
origin.
Example:
The digitals are distal to the wrist.
The antebrachial is distal brachial.
12)Superficial (external) - toward or on the surface of
the body.
Example:
The epidermis is the superficial layer of the skin.
13) Deep (internal) - away from the surface of the body.
Example:
The dermis is the deep layer of the skin.
14) Peripheral – extending from the main part
(describes the location of certain blood vessels
and nerves).
Example:
Nerves in the arm are part of the peripheral nervous
system.
15) Parietal- pertaining to the wall of a cavity.
Example:
The parietal pleura lines the chest cavity.
Planes in the body
-shows relationship of the structure of one
another
-shows anatomical relationship of several
structure of one region to one another
Commonly used planes are:
1) Sagittal- vertical plane that divides the body into
right and left portions.
a) Midsagittal (median) - A vertical
plane that passes through the midline of the
body and divides the body /organ into equal right
or left sides.
b) Parasagittal- vertical plane that does
not pass through the midline of the body and
divides the body or an organ into unequal rights
and left sides.
2) Frontal (coronal) - A vertical plane at a right
angle to a midsagittal plane that divides the body or an
organ into anterior and posterior portions.
3) Horizontal (transverse) - A plane that is
parallel to the ground and divides the body or an organ
into superior and inferior portions.
5) Cross section – a plane perpendicular to the
long axis of an organ.
6) Longitudinal section- a plane on long axis of
an organ.
3) Pelvic Cavity- contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs
Body cavities
• Female: uterus
• Male: prostate gland --spaces within the body that contain the various
internal organs
~peritoneum lines this cavity
o Cavities- no content inside; lines the body
o Membrane- a thin, soft pliable sheet of
tissue that lines a tube/ cavity to avoid
--2 Kinds of Peritoneum— friction & adhesion
1) Parietal peritoneum—lines the abdominal wall to
prevent friction & adhesion
2) Visceral peritoneum—refers to an organ; lines or
invest the abdominal organs
✓ Mediastinum- the space is between the
pleurae of the lungs extending from the
ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
1) Subcostal line- an upper horizontal line that
passes just below the bottom of the rib cage
through the pylorus (found in lower portion of
stomach) 1. Right Hypochondriac: to the right of the
2) Transtubercular line- a lower horizontal line that epigastric region.
joins the iliac crests o Organs: liver, gall bladder
-top portion of hip bones
3) Right midclavicular line- drawn through the 2. Epigastric: directly above the umbilical cord
midpoint of the right clavicle slightly medial to
the right nipple o Organs: R & L kidney, R & L ureters, spleen,
4) Left midclavicular line- drawn through the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, transverse colon,
midpoint of the left clavicle slightly medial to left R & L adrenal gland
nipple
3. Left Hypochondriac: to the left of the
epigastric region
o Organs: stomach, tip of liver, tail of pancreas,
small intestine, transverse colon, descending colon,
L kidney, spleen
4. Right Lumbar: to the right of the umbilical region.
o Organs: tip of liver, gall bladder, small intestine, R
kidney, ascending colon
NINE REGIONS of THE 5. Umbilical: which is centrally located
ABDOMEN o Organs: stomach, pancreas, small intestine,
transverse colon, R & L kidneys, R & L ureters
6. Left Lumbar: to the left of umbilical region
o Organs: descending colon, tip of L kidney, small
intestine
7. Right Iliac (Inguinal): to the right of the
hypogastric (pubic) region
o Organs: small intestine, appendix, cecum,
ascending colon, right ovary, right fallopian tube
8. Hypogastric (Pubic): directly below the umbilical Regional terms
region.
(descriptive terms for body parts & areas)
o Organs: Male: vas deferens, seminal vesicles,
prostate gland ANTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS
Female: R & L ureters, R& L ovaries, R & L
fallopian tubes 1. Abdominal-
-small intestine, sigmoid colon, rectum, urinary 2. Antecubital: anterior surface of the elbow
bladder 3. Antebrachial: forearm
4. Axillary:
9. Left Iliac (Inguinal): to the left of the 5. 5) Brachial: __________________
hypogastric (pubic region) 6. 6) Buccal: check area
7. 7) Carpal: wrist
o Organs: small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid 8. 8) Cervical: neck
colon, L ovary, L fallopian tube, colon/ large 9. 9) Cranial: __________________
intestine 10. 10) Digital: __________________
11. 11) Femoral: __________________
12. 12) Frontal: __________________
13. 13) Inguinal: __________________
14. 14) Mammary: breast
Abdominopelvic 15. 15) Nasal: __________________
quadrants 16. 16) Orbital: eyes
17. Parietal: __________________
*Quadrants names- are used in locating the site 18. 18) Oral: __________________
of an: -abdominopelvic tumor 19. 19) Patellar: __________________
20. 20) Pectoral (Thoracic): ____________
-abnormalities located in abdomen 21. 21) Pedal: __________________
-pain 22. 22) Perineal: __________________
23. 23) Plantar: sole of the foot
24. 24) Peroneal: __________________
25. 25) Pubic: __________________
26. 26) Sternal: __________________
27. 27) Tarsal: __________________
28. 28) Temporal: __________________
29. 29) Umbilical: __________________
30. 30) Volar (Palmar): ________________
1) Right Upper Quadrant- liver, gall bladder, head of
pancreas, right adrenal gland, upper lobe of right
kidney, hepatic flexure of colon, section of
ascending colon, section of transverse colon
2) Left Upper Quadrant- left lobe of liver, stomach,
spleen, upper lobe of left kidney, pancreas, left
adrenal gland, splenic flexure of colon, section of
transverse colon, section of ascending colon
3) Right Lower Quadrant- lower lobe of right kidney,
cecum, appendix, section of ascending colon, right
ovary, right ureter, right fallopian tube, right
spermatid cord, parts of the uterus
4) Left Lower Quadrant- lower lobe of left kidney, 1
sigmoid colon, left ovary, left fallopian tube, left
spermatid cord, left ureter
POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS Suffixes
1. Cephalic: _____________________ 1) Centesis (puncture, usually for drainage)
2. Crural: leg *Paracentesis- puncture fluid needle to remove excess
3. Deltoid: ______________________ fluid
4. Gluteal: ______________________ *Pericardiocentesis- remove excess fluid from around
the heart
5. Lumbar: _____________________ 2) Ectomize, ectomy (excision/removal of)
6. Occipital: _____________________ *Appendectomy -remove of appendicitis
7. Popliteal: _____________________ *Cholecystectomy -removal of the gall bladder
8. Sacral: _______________________ 3) It is (inflammation)
9. Scapular: _____________________ *Sinusitis- inflammation of the sinus
10. Sural: calf of the leg 4) Megally (enlarged)
11. Vertebral: area of the spine *Cardiomegaly- enlargement of the heart
5) Oma (tumor)
**Descriptive terms used for the organs** *Myoma- benign tumor of the muscle tissue
6) Ostomy (create an opening)
1. 1) Cardio: heart *Colostomy- surgically established fistula between the
2. 2) Cutaneous: skin colon & the surface of the abdomen for important
3. 3) Gastric: stomach purpose
4. 4) Hepa: liver
5. 5) Pulmonary: lungs
→Fistula- an opening on the anterior & posterior
6. 6) Renal: kidney part of the abdomen for important purpose;
7. 7) Thorax: upper part of the abdomen can be permanent or temporary
8. 8) Neuro:nerves
9. 9) Hema: blood
10. 10) Chole: ribs
**Important prefixes and suffixes**
Prefixes
1) Anti (against)---antibiotic
2) Bi (two)---bilaterla
3) Brady (slow)---bradycardia
4) Cirrh (yellow)---liver cirrhosis
4) Contra (against, opposite) ---contralateral
5) Crypt (hidden, concealed)--cryptorchism
7) Cyano (blue)—cyanosis (bluish of skin)
8) Dys (painful, difficult)-- dysmenorrhea
9) Ecto (exo- outside) –ectoderm (outermost layer of the cell
in an early development)
10) Hemi (half) –hemiplegia (half body paralyzed)
11) Hyper (over, above, excessive)
12) Hypo (under, beneath, deficient)
13) Macro (large, great)
14) Micro (small)
15) Neo (new)
16) Oligo (small, few)
17) Tachy (rapid)
