Methodology of Second/Foreign Language Teaching
Introduction
Though the terms “approach”, “method”, and “technique” are sometimes used interchangeably, they are
clearly distinguished in the literature on language teaching. An “approach” encompasses a set of views
and assumptions about the nature of language and language learning and teaching. It also comprises the
philosophy and beliefs that guide the instructional behavior. Moreover, it provides theoretical knowledge
of linguistics and psycholinguistics which guide in developing and selecting the techniques and strategies
in language teaching. The term “method” ts a procedural plan for presenting and delivering a certain
language material for instruction. It is established on the basis of the selected approach. Method is
generally inconsistent with approach but not necessarily. The term “technique” refers to such activities
and instructional practices which the teacher actually adopts in a specific classroom in order to achieve
better results of his instruction. The technique goes in consistence with both the assumption and plan of
the instruction, i.e., approach and method. (See Anthony, 1963; Anthony and Norris, 1969). For the sake
of simplicity we will use method and approach interchangeably.
The method of teaching a second/foreign language can be classified into two major groups: those old
approaches which emphasize form and those innovative approaches which emphasize communication.
Form oriented methods include: Grammar-Translation (Sweet, 1899; Kelley, 1969), Direct Method (de
Sauze, 1929; Hester, 1970); Reading Approach (West 1926), Audio lingual Method (Brooks, 1964;
Moulton, 1961), and the Cognitive Approach (Chastain, 1969). Communication oriented methods
encompass Total Physical Response (Asher, 1982), Suggestology (Bancroft, 1972; Lozanov,
1979),Counseling Language Learning (Curran, 1972, 1976), and Natural Approach (Terrell, 1983a).
Objectives of Methodology of Second/Foreign Language Instruction
1. To familiarize students with the common traditional language teaching approaches.
2. To familiarize students with the major innovative language teaching approaches,
3. To enable students to outline language teaching approaches in terms of their emphasis and
deemphasis on language skills, language patterns and classroom activities.
4. To acquaint students with the practical procedures applied in traditional language teaching
approaches.
5. To help students learn the practical procedures of communication oriented approaches.
Traditional Language Teaching Approaches
1. Grammar-Translation Approach
The Grammar-Translation Method places significant emphasis on reading. It makes an extensive use of
the native language of the learner to explain and discuss the target language. This method also
concentrates on direct instruction of grammatical rules and memorization of isolated words. Vocabulary
is controlled and grouped by frequency in reading. Students are expected to respond in L1. Error
correction is minimal. Written grammar exercises are given in class and as homework assignments.
Adequate attention is not given to listening and speaking skills. Shaikh (1993:11) states that “a person
who learnt the target language by this method is commonly found to be deficient in speech”. Ovando
and Collier (1985:27) claim "this method is seen as extremely inappropriate for teaching modern second
languages, given our concern today for full communicative competence in languages". While this claim
may be true for second language teaching, that does not mean the method is inappropriate for foreign
language teaching, because the goal of the curriculum and instruction, particularly in Saudi Arabia, is
focused more on reading (i.e., literature) and writing.
2. Direct Approach
The Direct Method strongly emphasizes the use of the target language in the classroom (Benseler and
Schultz, 1980). The use of the native language is not permitted in class at all. All discussion and
explanation is carried out through the target language. It focuses on inductive teaching of grammatical
patterns and on meaningful exercises, instead of rote drills. Question answer practice and open-ended
response to the instructional materials are critical features of this method. Language learners may suffer
from "language shock and culture shock" since the use of this method plunges them into a native like
situation (Schumann, 1978).
3. Reading Approach
The instructional objective of the Reading Approach is to improve EFL reading ability and reading
comprehension. The new reading material! is introduced orally and with significant attention to the
accuracy of L, (i.e. the target language) pronunciation. It makes great use of techniques developed for
native language reading instruction. Reading vocabulary is strongly emphasized, controlled and grouped
by frequency. It also stresses the limitation and gradation of vocabulary for the foreign language
learners. Moreover grammar is strictly limited. Comprehension of the reading text is achieved through
translation and grammatical explanation. This method lays maximal emphasis on L1. Reading types i.e.,
intensive and extensive and rapid reading techniques i.e., scanning and skimming are frequently used
and greatly stressed in and out the classroom.
4. Audiolingual Approach
The Audiolingual Method is often seen as a reaction to the failure of the Grammar Translation Method
which concentrates on reading and writing skills. The Audiolingual method views language as a set of
habits which require repeated exposure to specific forms. The target language is presented orally in a
dialogue form. Language competence requires knowledge of conventions: grammar and vocabulary.
It attaches great emphasis on the instruction of primary manifestations (i.e., aural-oral) before the
secondary (i.e., reading and writing). Mimicry, memorization, pattern drills are the essential techniques
proposed by this method. It emphasizes the use of audio and visual aids in teaching.
5. Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive Approach pays great attention to conscious instruction/drills rather than to mechanical
ones. Rules of grammar are taught through dialogues and are presented in a sequential basis. The
deductive method is used for explaining the rules of grammar and L1 is permitted for clarifying the
meanings of vocabulary. It also attaches equal importance to the four language skills. Error is permissible
and acceptable for teaching purpose. Writing is used to enhance oral performance of the target
language. Affective variables and social interaction are regarded as important ingredients in this
approach. Novelty and creativity in developing new sentences are significantly stressed. The language
teacher is viewed as a cooperative facilitator.
Innovative Language Teaching Approaches
1. Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach (CA) is originated from the work by the Council of Europe and applied
linguists (Wilkins 1972; Van EK and Alexander 1980). The Communicative Approach is also known as
Functional Notional Approach. The primary goat of Communicative Approach is to enable EFL learners to
communicate in the target language fluently and freely. It greatly emphasizes the communicative use of
language in everyday real world situations. This approach also concentrates on communicative
functions(greeting, | making appointments, sharing wishes, making excuses, etc.) and notional concepts.
Wilkins (1972, 1976), Van EK (1977) and Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983), distinguish numerous functions
of communication.
The Communicative Approach is based on a set of principles: (a) communicative competence is the goal
of language teaching, (b)
language skills are equally emphasized from the first day, (c) speaking through the use of situational
dialogue of a particular topic is sought, and (d) minimal concern is placed on grammatical competence.
The Communicative Approach also focuses on effective communication and comprehensible
pronunciation. It makes a wise use of the native language of learners. It attaches a salient emphasis on
functional expressions, meaning elements, contextualization and cultural understanding. Moreover,
linguistic variation and sequencing of materials and methodology are important. However, the
Communicative Approach gives almost no attention to the acquisition of rules, accuracy of grammar and
grading of structures.
2. Total Physical Response(TPR)
This is not an actual method; however, due to its active contribution in teaching EFL, it is usually grouped
within the frame of methods. TPR attaches great importance and emphasis to listening and
comprehension skills. A language teacher utters an order in the foreign language and then models it with
physical action. Learners are encouraged to execute the order with the appropriate body movement.
Leamers normally utter the same commands unintentionally and make a correlation between sound and
movement when they respond to the commands physically. Advocates claim that the method enhances
memory. Gradually they begin to speak L2 freely and move to other language skills i-e., reading and
writing. Abstract vocabulary and tenses are taught through the use of pictures and a combination of
familiar orders. Novelty and creativity in the creation of commands are extremely stressed.
3. Suggestology/Suggestopedia
The instructional objective of this method is defined in semantic and communicative terms. Students
initiate the foreign language learning with the assistance of the language teacher. The affective filter
must be lowered and the class setting should be favourable and relaxing. A furnished classroom with
easy chairs, beautiful pictures and a set of taperecorders lead to informal communication and natural
language acquisition. A long story is introduced in stages with intervals of silenceand classical and pre-
classical music. There is minimal use of L; to explain and discuss the new material. Finally, students are
involved in verbal activities in which they are encouraged to incorporate vocabulary and form the story.
This method gives minimal emphasis to error correction. The language teacher is characterized as
friendly, cooperative and competent.
4. Counseling Language Learning
Counseling Language Learning (CLL) is also referred to as Community Language Learning in EFL literature.
Its instructional objective is defined in semantic and communicative terms. It aims at encouraging
mutual cooperation and assistance between learners. Confidence, support, attention and security of
learners receive great attention and emphasis.
Students are asked to sit in a circle and the teacher to stand outside. A student (i.e., the client) initiates
the language lesson expressing what he wishes to say to the group in L}.The teacher (i.e., the knower)
translates it into Lz in gentle and supportive voice and then uses a tape to record the entire conversation.
A student will turn to the group to repeat in L2 the previous conversation between him and the teacher.
Help from the teacher is offered when it is sought. The group repeats the conversation and then listens
to the recorder for several times. Students are encouraged to speak freely with each other and the
teacher assists them if he feels it necessary. Afterwards, students are involved in roleplaying and are
stimulated to incorporate the vocabulary and structure of the conversation in their interaction. Students
are proven to be helpful to each other. Student-teacher interaction is characterized as friendly, flexible
and cooperative. The language teacher is viewed as an expert in both L} and L2 and a psychologist.
5. Natural Approach
The Natural Approach views language as a means of interpersonal communication skills. Terrell
(1983a:119) identifies two basic principles of the Natural Approach: "(1) speech is not taught directly,
but rather is acquired by means of ‘comprehensible input’ in low-anxiety environments, and (2) speech
emerges in natural stages". Competence in the target language involves the ability to exchange
meaningful messageswith native speakers to understand what is said and to make oneself understood.
Vocabulary items are emphasized and semantically grouped. Inductive and deductive processes are used
in the instruction of grammar and Lj and L2 are permitted in the explanation of the material. The four
language skills are emphasized equally and taught simultaneously.
