Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No.

1, 3-16, February 2005 / Copyright © 2005 Japan Concrete Institute 3

Invited paper

The Way Concrete Recycling Should Be

Fuminori Tomosawa1, Takafumi Noguchi2 and Masaki Tamura3

Received 20 September 2004, revised 1 December 2004

Abstract
Providing excellent performance as a structural material, concrete has long been deemed essential for modern civilization
and recognized as a material that will continue to maintain and support the development of human society. Now that
recycling of concrete in a completely closed loop has become technically feasible, concrete is being seen in a new light.
This paper reviews the background to this development referring to changes in social systems and the introduction of new
technologies. In view of the fact that consideration of the global environment will be required in the future at every step of
the production of concrete and concrete structures, this paper goes on to overview the methods for identifying social needs
related to concrete structures, the manner in which production systems of structures should meet such social needs,
lifecycle design techniques for structures, and techniques for expressing the environmental performance of structures.
The authors finally discuss the nature of true recycling and a truly recycling-oriented society, based on the
above-mentioned discussions.

1. Introduction the establishment of a full-fledged recycling system, as

the recycling process principally consisted of simply
Concrete is a useful cast material that has a close affinity crushing the waste concrete, which inevitably entailed a
to natural materials, consists of only common compo- degradation in quality. Nevertheless, the goal of technical
nents, and hardens by itself just by being in contact with development shifted in the mid-1990s to recycling of
water in a natural environment. After hardening, it turns concrete into a material having qualities equal to those of
into a material with sufficient strength and durability to normal concrete, and recycling of concrete in a com-
be applicable to various structures. Recent technology pletely closed loop has now become technically feasible.
for high-strength concrete has realized a compressive This paper reviews this development and introduces
strength exceeding 150 N/mm2 for reinforced concrete the new technology while discussing the meaning of true
skyscrapers. recycling and a truly recycling-oriented society.
Concrete has thus grown to be an essential material for
modern society with great commonness, usefulness, and 2. Current status and problems of
excellent performance characteristics as a structural construction waste
material, and will continue to be vital for maintaining and
developing human society. 2.1 Analyses of construction waste
However, the sheer amount of concrete in use and in According to a White Paper on the Environment, the total
stock compared with other materials brings up the issue material input of Japan ranged from 2.0 to 2.2 billion tons
of the enormous amount of waste generated when con- annually in 1999 and 2000, of which 1.0 to 1.1 billion
crete is disposed of. This issue has existed for a long time, tons (50%) were accumulated every year in the form of
as concrete has conventionally been regarded as being buildings and civil structures. These figures indicate the
difficult to recycle. Being a major user of concrete, the enormous consumption of resources by the construction
construction industry has addressed this problem and car- industry compared with other industries. The production
ried out research and development regarding the recy- of concrete, a primary construction material for forming
cling of concrete since the 1970s in cooperation with the modern nations, amounted to approximately 500 million
public sector. However, the uses of recycled products tons (including 300 million tons of ready-mixed con-
have been limited to road bottoming, without leading to crete) in 2000 in Japan, accounting for nearly 50% of the
annual resource consumption of the construction industry.
In other words, concrete accounts for nearly 25% of
1
Professor, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Nihon Japan's total material input. Incidentally, the construction
University, Japan. industry's consumption of steel and wood, two other
E-mail: tomosawa@arch.cst.nihon-u.ac.jp primary construction materials, amounted to 32,530,000
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Architecture, Graduate and 17,000 tons (34,219 m3 volume, converted by as-
School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan. suming the density to be 0.5), respectively, in 2001, both
3
Research Associate, Dept. of Architecture, Graduate far less than concrete consumption.
School of Engineering, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Furthermore, the amount of waste in Japan totaled
Japan. approximately 458,360,000 tons in 2000 (general waste:
4 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

Non-industrial
Other
waste
Output Input 7300 (16%) 5236 (11%)
Chemical industry Elec.,Gas,Heat, Construction
Output 1700 (4%) waste
Input Total waste Water supply
Check Steel industry
Do
2700 (6%) in Japan industry Final disposal of 1280 (28%)
9200 (20%) Illegal dumping
45836 industrial waste of industrial Construction
Pulp,Paper Other
2700 (6%) 10,000 tons Other 4500 waste waste
Plan Action (Ratio) 3220 (72%) 10,000 tons 16.2 (40%) 40.3 24.1 (60%)
Output Input
(Ratio) 10,000 tons
Construction Agriculture (Ratio)
Input Output 7900 (17%) 9100 (20%)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1 Construction waste analyses.

52,360,000 tons; industrial waste: 406,000,000 tons) as shown in Fig. 2, an enormous amount of demolished
shown in Fig. 1 (a). Waste from construction accounted concrete lumps will be generated in the near future from
for approximately 20% (79,000,000 tons) of the indus- concrete structures mass-constructed during Japan's
trial waste. Moreover, in 2000, construction waste ac- rapid economic growth being, which are doomed to
counted for nearly 30% (12,800,000 tons) of the demolition due to durability problems. Moreover, road
45,000,000 tons of industrial waste destined for final construction is decreasing and the method of repair is
disposal sites as shown in Fig. 1 (b) and approximately expected to shift from replacing to milling and applying
60% (241,000 tons) of the 400,000 tons of illegally an overlay. These trends will lead to an imbalance be-
dumped industrial waste as shown in Fig. 1 (c). As con- tween the supply of demolished concrete and the demand
crete lumps account for approximately 42% (35,000,000 for road bottoming. Also, the volumetric reduction of
tons) of total construction waste, approximately 8% of future infrastructures based on population estimation and
total waste in Japan therefore consists of concrete lumps. the extension of the service life of the existing stock by
As stated above, concrete accounts for large percent- increased succession, utilization, and conversion will
ages of both resource input and waste discharge. Thus keep on reducing the amount of new construction of
promotion of the recycling of demolished concrete is a structures and concrete production. Accordingly, this
pressing social issue in Japan where the remaining ca- will culminate in the need to recycle aggregate into ag-
pacity of landfill sites for industrial waste is diminishing gregate for concrete, and it is no exaggeration to say that
every year. recycled aggregate can account for the greatest part of
future aggregate for concrete. It is therefore vital to
2.2 Destinations of demolished concrete convert recycling from quantity-oriented to qual-
With the aim of solving the construction waste problem, ity-oriented recycling as proposed in the Promotion Plan
the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and for Construction Waste Recycling 2002 formulated by
Transport (MLIT, formerly the Ministry of Construction) the MLIT in 2002. In other words, it is necessary to find
formulated an Action Plan for Construction Byproducts optimum recycling methods with due consideration to
(Recycling Plan 21) in 1994, which called for halving the the material balance, while promoting the production and
amount of final disposal of construction waste by 2000, supply of high-quality recycled aggregate.
and a Promotion Plan for Construction Waste Recycling It should also be noted that a large discrepancy exists
in 1997, which includes principles, objectives, and between the amount of demolished concrete generated at
measures for further promoting recycling of construction
waste. Thanks to such active and continual policies,
6
construction waste discharge began to decrease, with the Concrete production
recycling ratio of concrete lumps and asphalt concrete 5
lumps exceeding 95%. In view of the still low recycling
ratios of waste wood, slime, and mixed waste generated 4
by construction, the MLIT then enforced the Basic Law
Demolished concrete
for Establishing a Recycling-based Society, the Con- 3
struction Material Recycling Act, and the Law on Pro- From buildings
moting Green Purchasing. 2
However, concrete lumps, which boast a high recy-
1
cling ratio, are entirely destined for bottoming and
From civil structures
grading adjusters for arterial high-standard highways,
0
urban expressways, and general roads designated by the 1950 2000
year
2050
Road Bureau of the MLIT. The quality of recycling is
therefore completely different from that of asphalt con- Fig. 2 Estimated amount of demolished concrete (Iida, K.
crete lumps, for which level-cycling is accomplished. As 2000).
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 5

450
produced the Standard for the Use of Recycled Aggre-
Estimated generation of aggregate and
400 stone per unit input gate and Recycled Concrete (Draft) in 1977. This stan-
Statics discharge of concrete lumps
350 from demolished concrete structures dard requires that the oven-dry density and water ab-
300
sorption of recycled coarse aggregate be not less than 2.2
g/cm3 and not more than 7%, respectively, and those of
250
Potential generation recycled fine aggregate be not less than 2.0 g/cm3 and
200 not more than 13%, respectively. This was followed by
150 research and development under two projects promoted
100
by the Ministry of Construction (1981-1985 and
Discharge 1992-1996), both titled the Comprehensive Technology
50
Development Project, as well as the investigation of
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 recycled concrete for the suspended World City Exhibi-
Year tion in Tokyo (1994), the investigation into authorization
Compiled from field survey of construction byproducts, field survey of
demand for labor, etc. criteria by the building Center of Japan (1999), the es-
tablishment of a prestandard (TR A0006: Concrete con-
Fig. 3 Estimated generation and discharge of concrete taining recycled aggregate) by the Japan Standards As-
lumps from demolished buildings (Takegahara, K. 2002). sociation, and the organization of the Standardization
Committee for Recycled Aggregate in the Japan Con-
crete Institute (2002), which is tasked with formulating a
demolition sites and the amount discharged from such
draft JIS for recycled aggregate for concrete.
sites. This may result from the reuse of demolished
Table 1 gives the quality criteria established through
concrete as a material for road bottoming or backfill on
the above-mentioned organizational activities, showing
site and its disposal as part of mixed construction waste.
the progressive improvement in the qualities of recycled
This discrepancy poses no problem if all the dissociation
aggregate achieved by advances in the technology for
results from reuse on site, but if it includes mixed waste
producing recycled aggregate, finally reaching a level
and illegal dumping, then the amount of discharged
comparable to natural aggregate.
concrete may rise by a corresponding amount when such
The Recycled Aggregate Standardization Committee
practices are rectified in the future. Recycling of demol-
classifies recycled aggregate into three classes -- H, M,
ished concrete as aggregate for concrete will then be-
and L -- by water absorption and oven-dry density, each
come even more compelling.
being recommended for concrete structures and seg-
ments as given in Table 2. This classification urges a
3. Current state and problems of recycled shift to a design system that permits the use of each class
aggregate for concrete for suitable structures and segments. High-quality recy-
cled aggregate is suitable for structures and segments
3.1 Quality standard and uses
requiring high durability and strength, while middle- to
Research and development aimed at using demolished
low-quality recycled aggregate, which can be produced
concrete as recycled aggregate for concrete began in the
with minimal cost and energy or powdery by-products, is
1970s, dating back to a three-year study from 1974 suitable for other structures and segments.
conducted by the Construction Waste Disposal Reuse
Committee of the Building Contractors Society, which

Table 1 Quality standard for recycled aggregate and uses for concrete containing recycled aggregate.
Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
Year Formulated by Name of standard Density Absorption Stability Density Absorption Stability
3 3
（g/cm ） （%） （%） （g/cm ） （%） （%）

of Construction Provisional quality stan- Type 1 － 3 or less 12 or less － 5 or less 10 or less

1994 Ministry
(MOC) dard for reuse of concrete Type 2 － 5 or less 12 or less － 10 or less －
byproducts by use
Type 3 － 7 or less － － － －
1999 Building Center of Japan Accreditation criteria of recycled 2.5 or more 3.0 or less － 2.5 or more 3.5 or less －
aggregate for building concrete
2000 Ministry of International JIS TR A0006（Low quality recycled
Trade and Industry (MITI) aggregate concrete） － 7 or less － － 10.0 or less －
2.5 or more 3.0 or less － 2.5 or more 3.5 or less －
Draft JIS (Type H recycled aggregate
(high quality) and its uses) No limitations are put on the type and segment for concrete and
The Committee of stan- structures with a nominal strength of 36 or less
dardization for structural － 5.0 or less － － 7.0 or less －
2004 Draft JIS (Type M recycled aggregate
recycled aggregate, Japan (medium quality) and its uses) Members not subjected to drying or freezing and thawing action, such
Concrete Institute as piles slabs on grade, and concrete filled in steel tubes
Draft JIS (Type H recycled aggregate － 7 or less － － 13 or less
(low quality) and its uses) Backfill concrete, blinding concrete, and leveling concrete
JIS A 5005（Crushed stone and sand for concrete） 2.5 or more 3.0 or less 12 or less 2.5 or more 3.0 or less 10 or less
JIS A 5308（Ready mixed concrete） Annex1 2.5 or more 3.0 or less 12 or less 2.5 or more 3.5 or less 10 or less
6 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

3.2 Production methods and equipment twin cone are scrubbed by one another. This process is
Single toggle-type jaw crushers are generally used for the automatically repeated several times according to the
primary crushing of demolished concrete regardless of required quality. A wet scrubber/levigator, shown in Fig.
the ultimate quality of recycled aggregate. Impact 4 (d), incorporates a mechanism whereby concrete lumps
crushers are used for secondary and tertiary crushing crushed in multiple stages using a crusher and wet
when producing middle- and low-quality recycled ag- scrubber are moved up and down in water to separate
gregate. While the quality of recycled aggregate pro- mortar and wood chips with a low density from coarse
duced by using such equipment is improved as the aggregate.
number of treatment processes increases, the recovery
percentage of recycled aggregate decreases with in- 3.3 Importance of quality control
creased amounts of powder byproducts as the aggregate A quality control system for construction materials has
itself is crushed. Special equipment is therefore neces- been established, to ensure that materials, particularly JIS
sary for efficient production of high-quality recycled products and products conforming to JIS, are supplied
aggregate. Other equipment in practical use for produc- with constant qualities that meet the specifications under
ing middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate includes strict quality control, so that contractors and citizens can
self-propelled or vehicle-mounted jaw crushers and im- carry out construction and use the resulting structures
pact crushers that save the energy normally expended to with peace of mind. While it is essential to establish such
haul the demolished concrete. a system for promoting the wide use of recycled aggre-
Equipment in the stage of practical use for the efficient gate, a distinctive difference exists between crushed
production of high-quality recycled concrete is shown in stone/sand for concrete and recycled aggregate with
Fig. 4 (a)-(d). A heating grinder, shown in Fig. 4 (a), regard to material procurement. Whereas crushed
incorporates a mechanism using a tube mill to separate stone/sand that is deemed uniform to a certain extent can
aggregate from cement paste embrittled by heating con- be procured in large quantities, the grading, density,
crete lumps roughly crushed to 40 to 50 mm in diameter water absorption, alkali-silica reactivity, etc., of demol-
to 300°C. This is the only device capable of also pro- ished concrete may naturally vary from one lump to
ducing fine aggregate for concrete. An eccentric ro- another, particularly when the recycled aggregate pro-
tor-type mechanical grinder, shown in Fig. 4 (b), has a duction plant is located away from demolition sites
mechanism whereby concrete lumps charged into a space (off-site plant) and accepts demolished concrete from
between the inner cylinder that rotates eccentrically and various structures. To promote recycled aggregate as JIS
the outer cylinder are made to scrub one another to re- products or JIS-conforming products, it is therefore
move cement paste adhering to aggregate surfaces. It is necessary to (1) produce recycled aggregate from only
capable of producing 60 tons of recycled aggregate per specific structures at on-site plants; (2) carry out material
hour. A screw mill, shown in Fig. 4 (c), has a mechanism control by separately storing concrete lumps from each
whereby concrete lumps charged into a cylinder having a structure at off-site plants; or (3) carry out quality control

Concrete lump feed

Filling heater Recovery System Bag filter
Grinding
Eccentric rotor totates Outer cilinder
Sieve
Motor
Tube mill type

Fine aggregate Fine powder

Coarse aggregate
Recovery Power transmission

a) Heating grinder b) Eccentric rotor-type mechanical grinder

Cylinder casing
Inlet Middle cone Discharge cone Concrete lump
450mm×2200mm
Surface water level
Drum Low density zone
High density zone
Inlet
Rot bar Outlet Low-density recycled aggregate

Water level range

High-density recycled aggregate
in air chamber
Rotary blade Outlet

c) Screw mill d) Wet scrubber / levigator

Fig. 4 Equipment for producing recycled aggregate for structural recycled aggregate concrete.
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 7

by substantially increasing the frequency of acceptance

inspections and product inspections at off-site plants. “Element of an organization’s (1.4) activities,
products or services that can interact with the en-
3.4 Future issues vironment (1.1)”
Apart from the above-mentioned quality control, quite a
few problems remain unsolved, warranting further in- *1.1 environment
vestigation of methods of recycling demolished concrete Surroundings in which an organization (1.4) operates,
into aggregate for concrete, which will be inevitably including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna,
required in the future as stated above. These include humans, and their interrelation
measures against the alkali-silica reaction and applica- *1.4 organization
tion development for powder byproducts. How to deal Company, corporation, firm, enterprise, authority or
with the amount of alkali yielded from cement paste institution, or part or combination thereof, whether in-
adhering to recycled aggregate is a serious problem for corporated or not, public or private, that has its own
middle- and low-quality recycled aggregate. The alkali functions and administration
content of concrete made using such aggregate will be
well over 3 kg/m3, the limit set by the regulation for total Figure 5 shows a classification and targets of sus-
alkali content. It is therefore also necessary to review the tainability considerate of global environmental aspects.
effect of Type B blended cement in a highly alkaline According to the above definition, the environment is a
environment. Since the production of high-quality recy- concept to be recognized as a factor covering a wide
cled aggregate entails a large amount of powder by- range. As environmental aspects are composed of wider
products, research and development are necessary for the concepts, possible events to be considered can increase
effective use of such powder. The uses under study in- in the future. It should be noted that the construction
clude addition to road bottoming, cement material, addi- industry, which is responsible for the activities using
tion to concrete, ground-improving material, asphalt products made using recycled aggregate and recycled
filler, and inorganic board material, which always com- aggregate concrete, is by nature prone to be involved in
pete with other inexpensive natural resources. It is social and environmental events through industrial ac-
therefore necessary to stabilize the quality of byproduct tivities due to the properties of the materials and the mass
powder and reduce the quality control cost. circulation systems the industry uses. In other words,
extensive social responsibilities may be assigned for the
4. Environmental aspect of concrete production of finished articles and raw produce. Stake-
structure production holders may therefore be required to monitor market
expansion while maintaining continuous awareness of
4.1 Introduction of environmental aspect for the boundaries of environmental aspects. Such practice
concrete structures will ultimately lead to risk management for producing
Environmental aspect is defined in ISO 14050 (Envi- concrete structures.
ronmental management – Vocabulary) as follows: Meanwhile, an essential concept for considering social

Social
Small

The "environment" dealt with in ISO 14001 People in developing nations

Individuals People in industrialized nations
Earth Economic Environmental
Groups
Self-transcendence
(religious people, etc.)
Targets of
Scale of organization, Public utility

Economic Environmental Social sustainable development

Hydrological aspect aspect aspect Profit
cycle Social /nonpublic-interest corporations
Social (business corporations)
Nonprofit
Humans, flora Economic Corporations /nonpublic-interest corporations
and fauna
Human life aspect (labour unions)
/public-interest corporations
Material Atmospheric Economic Environmental
Economic Environmental
cycle (NPO, public corporations)
cycle /public-interest corporations
Primary aspects of Targets of (national and local gorvernment)
Environment sustainability sustainable buildings
Manufacturers Building
Social
Civil Structure
The Big Bang 20th century Global environmently Mass Products City
society Age
Rocal level
Society Nation level
Economic Environmental Region level (Asia, Globe, etc.)
Large

Targets of
sustainable society

Fig. 5 Classification and objects of sustainability with consideration to global environmental aspect.
8 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

activities deeply related to the environment is sustainable

development. The first comprehensive proposal was Individual stability Developing
nations
made in Our Common Future, a report prepared by the Group stability Industrialized
World Commission on Environment and Development nations
that was published in 1987, in which the following prin- Local stability Environmentally
conscious
ciples were included. Regional stability industrialized
nations
1. Social equity (social aspect)
Global stability
2. Environmental prudence (environmental aspect)
3. Economic efficiency (economic aspect)
The environmental aspect is regarded as being com- Fig. 6 Order of dependence for stability conditions on a
posed of a social aspect, environmental aspect, and global scale.
economical aspect. This suggests that conscious consid-
eration of the social aspect and environmental aspect in factor. Stabilization on the individual and organizational
addition to the conventional economic aspect will be- levels, for instance, is important for social stabilization in
come an important part of production activities. This developing countries, whereas in developed countries,
means that any development may be inappropriate from where environmental consideration is mandated by rati-
the viewpoint of sustainability unless it is based on these fied treaties, it is necessary to give consideration to sta-
three principles to ensure sustainable development. bilization on the regional and global level rather than on
The Sustainability Reporting Guideline in the Global the individual and organizational levels.
Reporting Initiative (GRI), which is highly regarded for Stabilization on the global level can be achieved by
the formulation of environment reports, names three maintaining the three cycles, i.e., the hydrological cycle,
factors of sustainability rating, i.e. economic, environ- atmospheric cycle, and material cycle, to maintain
mental, and social aspects, and stresses the need for without damaging it the self-cleaning action of the earth
extracting specific factors and clarifying their mutual as inferred from the ISO 14000 series. It is
relationship. self-explanatory that stability on the global level as a
As stated above, the conventional practice of produc- superordinate concept is essential for ensuring stable
tion falls short in terms of holistic strategy, specifically conditions in smaller regions as a subordinate concept on
the application of a manufacturing strategy in consid- a long-term basis while maintaining equitability between
eration of social and environmental aspects in addition to generations.
the economic aspect. To put it plainly, an essential condition required of
concrete structures for the stabilization of the earth is that
4.2 Grounds for identifying social needs for a system for assuring the three cycles, i.e., the hydro-
concrete structures logical, atmospheric, and material cycles, should be
From a broad perspective, even in the era of the global inherent in such structures. Focusing on the material
environment, the world as a whole makes its way under cycle, which is closely related to the act of production,
the banner of the human-oriented goal of leading a sus- the condition is consolidated into a commitment to en-
tainable social life premised on the development of sure resource circulation of the structure and its materials
economic activities. It is predicated on the theory that a beforehand. As recycled aggregate concrete is a factor
system for distributing goods produced through eco- that strongly affects the material cycle of structures, it is
nomic activities to markets and benefiting from them is important to extend the radius of influence from indi-
necessary for satisfying (or stabilizing) people, in order vidual consumers to organizations/groups and to dis-
to achieve an affluent social life in the future. (It has been tricts/regions to give develop efficient resource circula-
made clear through past discussions that this cannot be a tion of structures and materials and to capture related
universal and optimum form of human activity consid- needs.
erate to the global environment.) Systems for such sta-
bility and affluence become more complicated and hard 4.3 Factors of social systems composing envi-
to accomplish as the range expands from the level of ronmental aspects
individuals to organizations, regions, nations, and to the The environmental aspects of concrete structures are
earth[8]. It is now vital to recognize that we are, for better embodied by focusing on their social and environmental
or worse, at the ultimate stage of active worldwide efforts aspects in addition to conventional economic aspects
aiming for global stability, including measures against with respect to various types of information (interna-
global warming committed to by the Kyoto Protocol. By tional treaties, laws, rules, policies, and guidelines) that
way of explanation, Fig. 6 shows the order of dependence serve as factors for extracting environmental aspects.
for the conditions of stability of a global system. This Figure 7 shows the order of dependence for environ-
figure does not imply a hierarchical relationship but mental aspects in the broad sense of the word. Although
shows an order of dependence in which the upper factor this figure classifies the environmental aspects into three
is realized depending on the support from the lower factors (needs of individuals/society, formative factors of
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 9

Extract essential functions of structures Stakeholders as a whole

Desire for self-fulfilment

Inherent desire
Desire for acknowledgement Needs of individuals
of individuals
Desire for affiliation and society
and organizations
Desire for safety
Physiological desire
Primary
Technique aspects of
Technical Information Technical factors sustainability
Specification
Guidelines ・Social aspect
Principles, Policies Formative factors
National policies Policy factors of social systems
・Environmental
Domestic laws (regulations) aspect
Domestic laws (constitution) Legal factors
International treaties ・Economic
aspect
Local environment
National environment Area factors
Regional environment Formative factors
of global systems
Material, Hydrologic, Atomosheric cycles Cycle factors

Fig. 7 Order of dependence for environmental aspects in a broad sense.

social systems, and formative factors of global systems), factors primarily comprise specifications, methods, and
this section deals with the formative factors of social techniques, whose contents and spread steer social trends.
systems that can be used to clearly define environmental Note that information on the needs of individuals and
aspects. Note that the global systems at the bottom of the society can be fed back to design techniques for struc-
pyramid consist of the three cycles of the earth and re- tures through technical factors (e.g., architectural design
gional factors, but that the environmental aspects may briefing). These permit investigation in specific terms
vary widely depending on the country and area. The into the needs of individuals and society derived from
radius of influence of the same environmental aspect can their inherent desires.
vary widely depending on the effect of factors on the
regional level. It can therefore be said that the contents 4.4 Formative factors of individual and social
and degrees of the needs of individuals and society based needs
on such global and social systems can also vary from one The factors forming the needs of individuals and society
society to another. are considered to be the inherent desires of individuals
The formative factors of social systems are roughly and organizations. It is therefore desirable to extract
classified into three categories. The first category con- various needs from the inherent desires of individuals
sists of legal factors primarily comprising international and society to identify the needs for structures, which are
charters/treaties, domestic laws (fundamental laws and to be ultimately reflected in the essential functions of the
normal laws), and local regulations. In a law-abiding structures. Figure 8 shows the order of dependence of
society, the boundaries of acceptable social/economic inherent desires of individuals and society that affect the
activities and industrial activities are defined by these essential functions of structures. Inherent desires of in-
legal factors. dividuals can be objectively grasped by Maslow's theory
The second category covers policy factors that are of motivation and human needs and the concept of the
deeply involved in the formation of actual social order. need for self-transcendence to change oneself into
Policy factors, which form a concept smaller than that something beyond one's present state. Maslow's theory
formed by legal factors, comprise national poli- of motivation and human needs consists of levels of
cies/measures, principles/strategies, and guidelines. needs for physical safety and security, social safety and
Since these factors directly affect the boundaries of security, communication and response, self respect and
activities, they concretely shape the way society func- acceptance, and fulfillment of goals and dreams, in
tions. which the fulfillment of the lower level is essential for
The third category comprises technical factors for fulfilling the next higher level.
conducting social activities safely and rationally under It is not easy to grasp inherent desires of organizations
the influence of the legal and policy factors. Technical and society, but the existence of such desires is indubi-
10 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

table. Their needs can be clarified to a certain extent by 5. Lifecycle design techniques for concrete
research. For instance, when an enterprise, a typical structures
social group, is explained as integrating production fac-
tors and continuously operating a business with the aim 5.1 Future production systems
of production and profit making, or the subject of such This section objectively discusses the production system
activities, the fundamental desire of enterprises corre- for existing concrete structures. A conventional manu-
sponding to the needs on the bottom level as defined by facturing system can be regarded as a system focusing on
Maslow (physical needs of enterprises) may be the desire cost saving and efficiency without consideration of ease
to conduct a business operation that is economically of disassembly of the products and component materials,
viable and does not cease to produce profits, and this is based on which most existing concrete structures have
considered to be an essential desire of enterprises. En- been produced. Since the technology for recycling the
terprises are therefore understood as groups that seek for products of such a system is inevitably required to treat
their identities driven by the bottom needs defined by used products not intended for recycling at the design
Maslow (physiological needs of enterprises). In this case, stage, recycling can be regarded as an alternative for
the likelihood that their activities will fulfill the desires waste disposal. This is a typical end-of-pipe approach
of the upper levels is considered very low. This explains leading to down-cycling, but is still essential, as the
the difference between individuals and organizations enormous stock of existing concrete structures will
from the aspect of needs. somehow demand treatment of concrete lumps in the
A large number of firms recently carry out their in- future. If, recycled products happen to be in great de-
dustrial activities while promoting environment protec- mand with a low level of performance requirements,
tion. These can be recognized as activities for fulfilling down-cycling can be an effective solution for a certain
the desire for self-respect and acceptance, which com- period until such demand disappears. Road bottoming
plements the physiological desire of enterprises. On the can be regarded positively as an instance of such a solu-
other hand, the activities of environmental nonprofit tion. Despite continuous research and development since
organizations can be recognized as activities for fulfilling the early 1970s, structural recycled aggregate has not
their desire for self-transcendence placing top priority on been actively used. This is presumably due to the absence
the global environment. Although the desires of organi- of application development based on social needs for the
zations and societies differ from the order of dependence product or technological development in view of equi-
of individual desires as explained above, organizational tability between generations.
activities are important, as they produce large-scale and In consideration of the problems inherent in the con-
immediate effects on actual activities for solving envi- ventional end-of-pipe approach, a new solution should be
ronmental problems. an integrated inverse manufacturing system defined as a
The production of structures generally has a strong manufacturing system in which downstream processes
impact on society. Moreover, interests in structures in- are consistent with upstream processes for the purpose of
clude individuals as well as their relationships with so- ensuring resource circulation using component materials
ciety. It is therefore important to simultaneously extract that can be assembled and disassembled by similar work
the needs of individuals and society and fulfill them in loads. This system is characterized by ease of disassem-
the form of essential functions of structures. bly as well as assembly incorporated at the design stage.
Figure 9 shows a model concept of integrated inverse

Desire for self-fulfilment Raising of profits

for corporations
Desire for acknowledgement through affiliation

Desire for affiliation Expend stakeholders

Desire for safety

Physical
Physiological desires Physiological desire for corporations NPOs, etc.
desire

Self-transcendence desire Metaphysical Self-transcendence desire

desire
a) Inherent desire of individuals b) Inherent desire of organizations

Fig. 8 Inherent desires of individuals and society affecting the essential functioning of structures.
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 11

a) Forward-process b) Forward-process manufacturing c) Integrated forward-and -inverse

manufacturing system system with added inverse process manufacturing system

Physical performance Physical performance Physical performance

Metaphysical performance Metaphysical performance

Metaphysical performance
Ease of Ease of assembly
Ease of assembly Ease of
assembly disassembly Assembly/disassembly
performance

Ease of
disassembly
Design of maximizing integrated process

Fig. 9 Concept of integrated inverse manufacturing.

manufacturing. A characteristic of construction products Accordingly, the resource recycling through concrete
distinctive from those in other industrial segments is that structures based on integrated inverse manufacturing
their overall performance can be brought into full per- suggests the possibility that concrete can be efficiently
spective by substituting the quality of the members and recycled, inspiring hope for the closed-loop recycling of
component materials for physical performance and the concrete structures.
quality of human work and deeds for metaphysical per-
formance. 5.2 Inherent needs of structures
In view of this characteristic, the application of the Generally speaking, if a structure can retain the required
concept of minimizing the number of separate processes performance throughout its lifecycle, then it can be used
in the design method by aiming for ease of assem- semi-permanently without losing its value. In the lifecy-
bly/disassembly to concrete structures is attempted in cle design technique taking into consideration the re-
this section. This design method includes common source values of materials to be discussed in this section,
processes whereby the ease of disassembly is propor- an integrated inverse manufacturing system should be
tional to the ease of assembly, with easy-disassembly derived while achieving long service life for structures
design leading to easy-assembly design, and and component material conservation. It is therefore
counter-processes whereby the ease of disassembly is necessary to clarify the essential functions the structures
inversely proportional to the ease of assembly, with possess.
easy-disassembly design making assembly difficult. Table 2 gives the relationship between the essential
Minimization of counter-processes is a design technique functions of the components and the individual design
whereby the effects of the latter design factors are factors for reinforced concrete buildings. Figure 10
minimized to derive a rational disassembly-assembly shows the order of dependence of lifecycle design
performance. Assuming that various metaphysical per- composed of individual design factors. From the bottom
formances are included as information among the mate- up, the order of dependence of building components
rial performances as the structure that is the ultimate consists of raw materials, materials, member elements,
result, (a) the disassembly performance is not included in members, and buildings. Focusing on the elements of
the metaphysical performance in a conventional system structures, eight functions ((1) to (8)) are derived as
through the end-of-pipe approach, as the ease of disas- essential functions, as well as four individual design
sembly is not considered by the designers; and (b) in a factors (A to D) to introduce the functions to structures.
conventional system with an added inverse manufactur- In other words, the essential functions of buildings and
ing approach, the work load at the demolition stage in- member elements lead to reducing design under items (1)
evitably increases, as the ease of disassembly, which is a and (2); the essential functions of buildings, members,
metaphysical performance, is introduced a posteriori. On and member elements lead to maintenance design under
the other hand, (c) in an integrated inverse manufacturing items (3) and (4); the essential functions of member
system, disassembly and assembly are carried out with elements and materials lead to reuse design under items
similar levels of work load, as the ease of disassembly is (5) and (6); and the essential functions of materials and
ensured at the design stage without significantly altering raw materials lead to recycling design under items (7)
the ease of assembly. and (8) (see Table 2). The four individual design ele-
The metaphysical performance integrated by the sys- ments permit the composition of a lifecycle design hier-
tem is thus rationalized, resulting in a manufacturing archy in consideration of the resource values of the ma-
system with an excellent resource-recycling capability. terials.
12 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

Table 2 Essential functions of components of structures and individual design factors derived from the functions.
Building elements Fundamental functions of building elements Design contents
Long life, stable and durable against earthquakes (1. Long life)
Structural frame Reduce
Use of suitable amount of natural resources in construction (2. Resource saving)
Structural frame, Maintain quality toward required performances (3. Maintain quality)
Maintenance
Beams and Columns Easily changed into a high grade level at replacement (4. Upgrade)
Beams, Columns and Reusable as member with no degraded quality (5. Level-cycle reuse)
Reuse
Concrete Reusable as member with degraded quality (6. Down-cycle reuse)
Concrete and Constitu- Recyclable as material with no degraded quality (7. Level-cycle recycle)
Recycle
tion materials Recyclable as material with degraded quality (8. Down-cycle recycle)

Order of dependence for building Order of dependence for life-cycle-design contents Design aims (Targets)
Whole
Building Reduce design (for structure) Long life (Skeleton)
construction
Reduce materials (Infill)
Unit Maintenance design (for skeleton,infill)
assembly Maintain quality (Parts of skeleton)
Factors of unit Upgrade (Parts of infill)
manufacturing Reuse design (for member) Level-cycle reuse (Structural member)
Intended material Down-cycle reuse (Non-structural member)
manufacturing Recycle design (for material) Level-cycle recycle (Aggregate, Cement)
Raw material
Part Down-cycle recycle (Low-quality aggregate)

Fig. 10 Order of dependence of lifecycle design composed of individual design factors.

Long life, Resource saving Maintenance, Upgrade

5.3 Lifecycle design technique

Table 3 gives the properties of structures derived from
lifecycle design. Component details and reuse techniques
after renewal can be clarified to a certain extent by de- Short life, Resource disposing Maintenance free
A) Reduce design B) Maintenance design
termining the eight design objectives representing the
essential functions in the physical performance hierarchy Level-cycle reuse Level-cycle recycle
and establishing the basic components to be designed.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between design objec-
Waste
tives representing the essential functions of structures. Waste

This schematically expresses the eight design objectives

included in the four individual design elements while Down-cycle reuce Down-cycle recycle
incorporating the side factors of the essential functions C) Reuse design D) Recycle design
(resource wasting, disposal, etc.). This scheme serves as
the basic factors for indexing the degree of satisfaction of Fig.11 Relationship between design objectives repre-
the essential functions of structures while permitting the senting the essential functions of structures.
assumption of appropriate methods of renewal and dis-
posal of the structures and their components. For in-
stance, when a structure is produced with the design the introduction of recycling technology to accelerate
objective of level-cycling (D7), materials that permit resource cycling within closed systems.
recycling into structural concrete at the time of renewal
are selected, and methods of demolition and disposal 5.4 Examples of lifecycle design
with low work loads are selected and carried out. Application examples of the lifecycle design technique
The lifecycle design taking into consideration the are described in this section. The following two social
resource values of materials thus succeeds in realizing a needs derived from the environmental aspects closely
mechanism to incorporate the essential functions derived related to current concrete structures in Japan are ex-
from the environmental aspect the structure is involved tracted: 1) the durable use of structural framing premised
with. As a result, the lifecycle design technique inher- on resource conservation to address the issues of re-
ently incorporates the concept of recycling, which is the source depletion and the global environment; and 2)
so-called inverse manufacturing and which characterizes active recycling into structural concrete when the de-
the technique and distinguishes it from existing manu- mand for road bottoming disappears, in view of the di-
facturing. In other words, this technique can be recog- minishing capacities of final disposal sites. Let us now
nized as a factor of recycling design strategy aiming for try to find the essential functions of structures to meet
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 13

these needs and carry out lifecycle design giving priority degree, is applied, leading to level-cycling concrete
to these functions as the design objectives. The design structures.
procedure begins with the specification of the design At level 3, resource-conserving and life-considering
level determined from the combination of the individual design with limitations as to the uses of recycled mate-
design factor and the design objective, through selection rials is applied, leading to down-cycling concrete struc-
from the combination matrix. Select A1: Service life tures from which low-quality recycled aggregate and
extension of the structure in reducing design and B3: road bottoming are produced after demolition.
Performance retention of the structure components in At level 4, resource-conserving and life-considering
maintenance design to satisfy the first requirement, and design premised on material disposal is applied, leading
select D7: Level-cycling of concrete materials in recy- to concrete structures to be disposed of after demoli-
cling design to satisfy the second requirement. Select D8: tion. Note that for structures made of level-cycling con-
Down-cycling of concrete materials in recycling design crete, the use of a concrete capable of material conser-
and Final disposal result as secondary factors of essential vation as given in Table 5 is a prerequisite for retaining
functions. Therefore, four design levels were finally the resource value of the materials in consideration of
specified including these two. equitability between generations.
This permits the estimation of the recycling conditions Cement recovery type completely recyclable concrete
and product properties (see Table 4). was applied for the first time to an actual structure in
At Level 1, resource-conserving and life-extending 2000 (Fig. 12). The target structure consisted of the
design, which permits the use of recycled materials with foundations of a residential building constructed as part
no limitations as to applications is applied and a renewal of the project for completely recyclable houses mainly
form of level-cycling after demolition is ensured, leading promoted by Ojima Laboratory at Waseda University.
to level-cycling concrete structures from which recycled Due to the strong need to promote structures that reduce
structural aggregate and cement materials are produced. environmental impact by reducing waste, completely
At Level 2, resource-conserving and life-considering recyclable concrete is considered to be an essential ma-
design, which permits the use of recycled materials as terial for such structures.
component materials for equivalent products with no
limitations as to applications by processing to a high

Table 3 Properties of structures derived from lifecycle design.

Order of Design contents Design aims
dependence of lifecycle de- for developing Building elements Example of building elements Utilization after replacing
of building sign design contents
1. Long life Structural frame Reinforced concrete beams, Same as the left
Reduce de- Column and wall etc.
Building A sign 2. Resource Structural infill Dynamic core, Air conditioning unit, Same as the left
saving Electronic units, Water supply unit
3. Maintenance Composed units Concrete Unit, Non-structural wall, Same as the left
Flame B Maintenance quality for structural frame Sub-member, Concrete club, etc.
design Composed units Air condition unit
4. Upgrade Same as the left
for structural infill Part of water supply unit
5. Level-cycle Reinforced concrete col-
Unit C Reuse design reuse Beams and column Concrete Unit, Non-structural wall, umn and beam
6. Down-cycle of concrete Sub-member, Concrete club, etc. Non-structural wall,
reuse Sub-member
7. Revel-cycle Original aggregate
Material D Recycle recycle Concrete constitu- Coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate, Cementitious materials
design 8. Down-cycle tion materials Cementitious materials, etc. Low quality recycled
recycle aggregate, Additives

Table 4 Classifications of design levels and concrete types by life cycle design.
Reduce Maintenance Recycle design Conditions of recycling Properties of products
Design design design
level Long-life Maintain Level cycle Down cycle Property of
A1 quality B3 D7 D8 original material Property of crushing Type Application
Prior selection
Level 1 ● ● ● --- and surface im- Simple crushing for Level-cycle con- Aggregate for struc-
provement of collecting aggregate crete (recyclable) tural concrete
aggregate

Level 2 ● ● ● ● No way Highly crushing for Level-cycle con- Aggregate for struc-
collecting aggregate crete (recycling) tural concrete

Simple crushing for Down-cycle con- Aggregate for

Level 3 ● ● --- ● No way collecting crusher non-structural con-
run crete crete,
Road subbase
Level 4 ● ● --- --- No way Simple crushing for Disposing Waste
disposing concrete
14 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

Table 5 Examples whereby a type of concrete that enables level cycle recycle.
Types Definition
Cement Recovery Type -
Concrete whose binders, additives and aggregates are all made of cement or cementitious materials, and all of
Completely Recyclable
these materials can be used as raw materials of cement.
Concrete
Aggregate Recovery Type- Concrete whose aggregate surfaces are improved by emulsion-type coating agent without excessively reducing
Completely Recyclable the mechanical properties in order to reduce the bond strength between aggregate and the matrix and thereby
Concrete permitting easy recovery of original aggregate.

lifecycle design technique described in the previous

section. As the degree of inclusion of the essential func-
tions in the design objectives increases, the occupied area
generally increases, resulting in increases in the volume
ratio of the colored portion of the stereoscopic index. The
form of Level 1, which shows an ideal structure, is
conical, representing a structure designed taking into
consideration the environment and equitability between
generations while achieving structural safety. This can be
recognized as an index for a stable condition. Conversely,
(d) the form of Level 4 is poorly balanced, giving an
impression of instability.

6. Toward a veritable recycle-oriented

society
As stated above, conventional concrete recycling through
low-quality recycled aggregate has yet to be marketable,
whereas recycled aggregate having qualities equal to
normal aggregate can be used for general structural
concrete, though with drawbacks related to the cost.
Promotion of recycling is essential for establishing a
recycling-oriented society. However, it is difficult for
low-quality products to achieve marketability simply
Fig. 12 Cement recovery-type completely recyclable because they are recycled, as illustrated by this example.
concrete applied to completely recycle house. The authors consider that recycling technology should
fulfill the following principles.
5.5 Evaluation of the fulfillment of lifecycle de- 1. Recycling should be of high quality.
sign requirements 2. Recycling should be repeatable.
In order to retain the essential functions of structures for The former means that recycled products are not
a long time, an index is necessary at least for the user and marketable unless they are of a quality that satisfies users,
purchaser of the structure, with which the design objec- and recycling is not a viable proposition in spite of the
tives representing the essential functions can be recog- accurate description as a "recycled product." Low quality
nized. A system of performance evaluation/indication is of recycled products should be considered to indicate the
therefore important. Recent proposals include BEES for immaturity of the recycling technology and the need for
evaluating the degree of environmental impact technology improvement or new technology develop-
throughout the entire lifecycle of materials by NIST and ment to achieve quality recycled products.
CASBEE, a comprehensive environmental evaluation The latter means that, if a recycled product has to be
system incorporating the effects of environmental load dumped in a landfill after use with no chance of recycling,
factors other than physical performance of buildings. then the recycling is no better than producing waste of
Figure 13 shows a stereoscopic index expressing the the following generation, contradicting the formulation
degree of inclusion of the design objectives in the indi- of a recycling-oriented society. Such a product also
vidual design factors. These are configured by the su- burdens the purchaser with the responsibility of waste
perposition of individual design factors, serving as an disposal. Potential purchasers will hesitate to purchase
index to the degree of inclusion of the design objectives, the product the moment they realize this pitfall, pre-
as well as a simple tool for expressing the essential venting the recycling loop from closing (Old Maid rule).
functions of structures. Accordingly, to be repeatable, recycling must aim for the
Figure 14 shows four typical forms of mass hierarchy reproduction of the same product in the original sense of
of design levels in the implementation models by the the word to form a loop.
 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005 15

A) Reduce design A) Reduce

B) Maintenance design Downgrade B) Maintenance

Levelgrade C) Reuse
C) Reuse design
Upgrade
D) Recycle
D) Recycle design

a) Set the design aim b) Selection of the grade variation c) Generation of conbination patterns d) Composition of mass hierarchy

Fig.13 Stereoscopic index expressing degree of design objectives in individual design factor.

a) Level-cycle recyclable b) Level-cycle recyclable c) Down-cycle recycled d) Disposal concrete

concete (Level 41) concete (Level 42) concrete (Level 43) (Level 44)
Fig.14 Example of mass order of dependences in some design levels.

Care should be exercised regarding so-called cascade when evaluating and developing recycling technology.
recycling, mixed/compound recycling, recycling into
other industries, and byproduct utilization, as these tend 7. Concluding remarks
to be unrepeatable. When a product utilizing a byproduct
is repeatedly recycled, the byproduct as a material will Recycling technology for concrete has significantly de-
become useless, ending up as waste. What is a truly veloped in recent years, making the material sufficiently
recycling-oriented society? Humans live on a cycle of recyclable. Though problems remain regarding the cost,
resource use in which they take various resources from distribution, and system, the prospect appears to be fa-
nature into their society, obtain benefits from them for a vorable.
given period by processing and using them, and return Through many years of research and development of
them back to nature as waste when their cease to be concrete recycling and investigation of the difficulties
useful. Once taken into human society, the resources are and problems of recycling practice, the authors learned
altered or modified and by the time they are returned to that the two principles above-mentioned are vital for
nature for final disposal, their state has changed to a recycling to be a viable proposition. This approach to
certain extent. Just one or two recycling phases represent recycling has long been practiced for electric steel, alu-
a short stay of resources in human society, which ends up minum, and paper and has been adopted for various types
with disposal (return) to nature. True recycling should of products including PET bottles recycled into PET
eliminate such return of resources to nature. Unrepeat- bottles, and the reuse and recycling of materials for
able recycling merely extends their stay on the human automobiles and electrical appliances. Efforts for
side without contributing to the basis for a truly recy- closed-loop recycling have also begun in the fields of
cling-oriented society. The only acceptable case for this glass, gypsum board, and other construction materials.
type of cycle is the use of resources in such a way that the This trend will eventually prevail in all fields in the fu-
product returned to nature does not represent an envi- ture, leading to a society in which materials recyclable in
ronmental load. closed loops or disposable in a nature-friendly form
A recycling-oriented society in the true sense of the banish those that are not, as illustrated by chlorofluoro-
word is a society that continues to use resources, once carbons, which are being driven out of the market.
they are taken from nature into the society, without re- In this sense, the greatest challenge for mankind is the
turning them unless they do not represent an environ- formulation of a recycling system for carbon dioxide gas
mental load. In such a society, the intake of resources and other greenhouse gases, which account for the vast
from nature is minimized and products and materials that majority of waste on earth.
cannot be recycled repeatedly are rejected. While this
vision may be overly idealistic, it should be kept in mind
16 F. Tomosawa, T.Noguchi and M. Tamura / Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 3, No. 1, 3-16, 2005

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