Cogent Psychology

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Factors associated with the homicide profile of

a prison population: Analysis of the Peruvian
national census, 2016

Nadia Castillo-Caciano, Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez & Rodrigo Vargas-

Fernández

To cite this article: Nadia Castillo-Caciano, Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez & Rodrigo Vargas-
Fernández (2022) Factors associated with the homicide profile of a prison population:
Analysis of the Peruvian national census, 2016, Cogent Psychology, 9:1, 2145753, DOI:
10.1080/23311908.2022.2145753

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Castillo-Caciano & Visconti-Lopez, Cogent Psychology (2022), 9: 2145753
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2022.2145753

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Factors associated with the homicide profile of
a prison population: Analysis of the Peruvian
national census, 2016
Received: 25 July 2022 Nadia Castillo-Caciano1, Fabriccio J. Visconti-Lopez2 and Rodrigo Vargas-Fernández1*
Accepted: 06 November 2022
Abstract: To determine the factors associated with the homicide profile of the
*Corresponding author: Rodrigo
Vargas-Fernández, Faculty of Health prison population in Peru. A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted on the
Sciences, Universidad Científica del data of inmates surveyed in the First National Prison Population Census of 2016. The
Sur, Lima, Peru
E-mail: jrodrigovf1803@gmail.com dependent variable was committing intentional homicide which was constructed
from the Peruvian Penal Code and the International Classification of Crime for
Additional information is available at statistical purposes. To determine the factors associated with the homicide profile,
the end of the article
a generalized linear model of the Poisson family with logarithmic link function was
used and crude and adjusted prevalence ratios were estimated. A total of 57,866
inmates were included, of whom 6.60% had committed intentional homicide. In
addition, some sociodemographic, mental health, social and family environments,
and crime characteristics we found to increase the probability of inmates commit­
ting intentional homicide. Almost 7 out of 100 inmates committed intentional
homicide. Although our findings are based on a prison population, the associated
factors reported in our study could be useful for the implementation of strategies to
reduce the homicide rate in Peru and for judicial decision-making.

Subjects: Mental Health; Population Health; Epidemiology

Keywords: Homicide; Prison; Prisoners; Factors; Epidemiologic; Cross-Sectional Studies;
Peru

1. Introduction
Homicide is a social problem, defined as illegal assault on a person with the intention of causing
death or serious harm, and is divided into intentional or negligent homicide according to the
intention to commit the crime (UNODC, 2019). Involuntary manslaughter occurs incidentally, while
intentional homicide is premeditated. Intentional or involuntary homicide is a public health
problem that has a negative impact on mental health, and the economic and socio-occupational
situation of the families of homicide victims (UNODC, 2019). In addition, homicide perpetrated with
intent generates an increase in premature deaths because the victims are usually killed in early
stages of life such as adolescents and young people; Martinez-Schnell & Waxweiler, 1989). This
problem leads countries to strengthen prevention against homicide by the enforcement of laws
and criminal justice, citizen security technologies, identification of risk factors, promotion of
cultural changes, strategies to reduce violence and increasing evidence-based strategies related
to the perpetrators.

Although the sustainable development goal 16.1 seeks to reduce violence and deaths related to
violent acts (Bali Swain & Yang-Wallentin, 2020) around the world, in 2017, the rate of intentional
homicides was 6.1 victims per hundred thousand inhabitants (UNODC, 2019). In Latin America and

© 2022 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.

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the Caribbean (LAC), the proportion of homicides increased from 29% to 39% between 2000 and
2017, being the region with the highest homicide rate in the world (Alvarado & Muggah, 2021).
These high homicide rates in LAC may be influenced by government inefficiency and acts of
corruption that increase socioeconomic inequalities and increase the risk of committing homicide
in the population due to the lack of development of citizen security and economic policies, and
training of police personnel in the countries (Chainey et al., 2021). Therefore, prevention programs
consistent with the economic and social limitations of this region have been developed and are
linked to the control of risk and protective factors, integrated strategies to reduce violence,
reintegration, mediation or negotiation with the perpetrators, the promotion of cultural changes
and improvement of the judicial system (Cano & Rojido, 2012).

South America had one of the highest rates of homicide victims (24.2 per 100,000 inhabitants)
around the world in 2017, with Colombia, Brazil and Venezuela being the countries with the
highest homicide rates (UNODC, 2019). In Peru, there was an increase of 650 homicides between
2011 and 2015, which may be influenced by the high prevalence of criminality and citizen
insecurity coupled with inefficient government policies (Consejo Nacional de Política Criminal,
2017). The increase in the number of homicides generates an increase in the number of inmates
in prisons, who often live in unfavorable conditions (overcrowding, scarcity of disease prevention
and treatment programs; Hernández-Vásquez & Rojas-Roque, 2020) and can generate a high
burden of disease and problems of reintegration into society. This is even more notable, when
inmates who commit some type of intentional homicide have a custodial sentence of not less than
six years or more than 20 years, or among those with a life sentence (De la República, 2017), which
translates into prolonged stay in these centers. Therefore, Peruvian government institutions pro­
posed to implement strategies to prevent citizen security problems through the National Citizen
Security Plan 2019–2023, which seeks to strengthen criminal investigation and implement tech­
nologies for police investigations (MININTER, 2018) and reduce the crime rate (such as intentional
homicide) that generates a negative impact on the economic and social development of the
country.

Several authors have evaluated the risk factors of the homicide profile in various regions of the
world. The main factors are the age group of 18–49 years, male sex compared to female sex, low
educational level or illiteracy, alcohol consumption, illicit drug trafficking, use of weapons and the
place where the homicide occurred, all of which increase the probability of committing intentional
homicide (Fatoye et al., 2010; Gutiérrez, 2016; Koch et al., 2011; Orellana et al., 2014; Tardiff, 1985).
Within the homicide prevention programs developed in various countries around the world, knowl­
edge of the risk and protective factors of homicide allows the creation of strategies to reduce
violence and the negative consequences of homicide in society (Kim & Merlo, 2021). Although
homicide is a prevalent and persistent problem in the countries that make up LAC, there is little
scientific evidence on the factors associated with homicide in this region. This is especially of note
taking into account that people residing in LAC have a high prevalence of illiteracy, poverty, and
violence (Müller, 2018). In Peru, the homicide rate is increasing and research on this social problem
is still scarce since the only information available on the prison population is the First National
Prison Population Census (PCNPP-acronym in Spanish). Therefore, the objective of the present
study was to determine the factors associated with the homicide profile using the 2016 PCNPP.

2. Materials and methods

This was an analytical cross-sectional study of the data obtained from the PCNPP 2016, which was
conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI-acronym in Spanish)
together with the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, and the National Penitentiary Institute
(INPE-acronym in Spanish) in April 2016 (Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, 2016a).
The PCNPP collected statistical information on demographic characteristics, criminal behavior,
living conditions within prisons and the performance of institutions among adults confined in
penitentiary centers (Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, 2016a). The inmates’ infor­
mation was collected through face-to-face surveys on electronic devices (Tablets) by INEI trained

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staff in each of the penitentiary establishments. The census survey consisted of 173 questions
validated by the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, the Ministry of Culture and the INEI. The
interviewers received prior training before performing the census, and a pilot test was carried out
in 30 inmates from the Lima and Huacho penitentiary establishments. The results of this pilot test
allowed sensitizing the prison population and evaluating the understanding of the questions and
establishing the approach and the type of language that should be used during the interview.
Security protocols were carried out together with the INPE within the penitentiary centers to
safeguard the interviewers and the information of the electronic devices (Instituto Nacional de
Estadística e Informática, 2016a).

The dependent variable was committing intentional homicide. This outcome variable was con­
structed from the variable “CRIME_SPECIFIC” of the PCNPP database, which reports the crimes for
which inmates were prosecuted or sentenced. Based on the intentionality of the crime, our variable
was categorized as “1”, when the inmate was prosecuted or sentenced for intentional homicide,
and “0”, when the inmate committed other types of crimes (i.e., non-intentional homicide, aggra­
vated robbery, abortion, among others). The selection of crimes that make up intentional homicide
was based on the International Classification of Crime for Statistical purposes (ICCS; Muhson,
2013) and the specifications of the Peruvian Penal Code (De la República, 2017). Thus, category
“1” (intentional homicide) included crimes such as aggravated homicide-murder, simple homicide,
patricide, serious injury (followed by death), femicide and homicide by violent emotion, while
crimes that did not correspond to this definition were excluded.

The independent variables were selected based on their use in previous studies in the literature (Fatoye
et al., 2010; Gutiérrez, 2016; Koch et al., 2011; Orellana et al., 2014; Tardiff, 1985). These included
sociodemographic characteristics: sex (male, female), age (in years), marital status (single, married/
cohabiting, separated/widowed/divorced), educational level (no education, primary, secondary, higher),
work before imprisonment (yes/no), and previous imprisonment (yes/no); mental health characteristics:
diagnosis of depression before imprisonment (yes/no), diagnosis of anxiety before imprisonment (yes/
no), consumption of alcohol before imprisonment (yes /no), and drug use before imprisonment (yes/no);
family and social environment characteristics: possesion of children (yes/no), physical abuse in childhood
(yes/no), had best friends who committed crimes (yes/no), and family history of imprisonment in
a penitentiary center (yes/no); and finally, the characteristics of inmates during the crime: drug and
alcohol use six hours before the crime (yes/no), use of weapons at the time of committing the crime (yes/
no) and the place the crime was committed (public street/home).

The statistical program Stata 17 (Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas, USA) was used to perform
the analyses of the present study. Population characteristics were described using absolute frequencies
and proportions. The distribution of the proportions of committing an intentional homicide at the
departmental level was carried out with the QGIS program. A bivariate analysis was performed between
the dependent variable and sociodemographic, mental health and family and social characteristics using
the chi-square test. Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) were determined along with their 95%
confidence intervals (CI) using a generalized linear model of Poisson family and logarithmic link function.
Likewise, the collinearity of the variables entered in the adjusted model was evaluated using the variance
inflation factor, with which no collinearity was observed among the variables. A value p < 0.05 was
considered statistically significant.

3. Results
Out of a total of 76,180 inmates, 18,314 were excluded because of missing data, resulting in a total of
57,866 inmates (75.96% of the total sample) being included in the analysis.

3.0.1. Sociodemographic, mental health, family and social environment characteristics of the
inmates
Of the total number of inmates included in the analysis, the majority were male (94.73%), were between
30 and 39 years old (33.04%), were single (49.79%), had a secondary education (59.31%), had worked

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(95.48%), and had consumed psychoactive substances such as drugs (75.37%) and alcohol (68.77%)
before imprisonment. Only 16.77% had previously been incarcerated, 9.48% had a previous diagnosis of
depression and 8.59% of anxiety before imprisonment. Further details of the characteristics of the
population included are shown in Table 1. Likewise, Figure 1 shows that the highest proportion of inmates
committed intentional homicide in the departments of Lima, La Libertad, the Constitutional Province of
Callao and Cusco.

3.0.2. Characteristics of the inmates during the crime

Regarding the characteristics of the crime, Table 2 shows that 20.23% had used a weapon during
the crime, and firearms being one of the most common tools used by inmates. In addition, 32.58%
of the inmates used psychoactive substances six hours before committing the crime, alcohol being
the substance most consumed by the inmates. Finally, 72.72% of the crimes were committed on
public streets compared to crimes committed at home (27.28%).

3.0.3. Committing intentional homicide according to inmates’ characteristics

Among the inmates, 6.60% had committed intentional homicide. The highest proportions of
intentional homicide were found in inmates between 30 and 39 years old (7.26%), and those
who were separated, widowed or divorced (7.89%), had a primary education (7.83%), had held
a job prior to incarceration (6. 65%), had used drugs before imprisonment (7.17%), had not
previously been incarcerated (7.05%), did not have a family member who was in a prison
(6.86%), and had a best friend who had committed crimes (7.30%) (Table 1).

3.0.4. Factors associated with the homicide profile

In the adjusted analysis, the probability of an inmate committing intentional homicide was
increased by belonging to the age groups of 18 to 29 years (aPR: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.01–1.50), 30 to
39 years (aPR: 1.48; 95% CI: 1.22–1.79), 40 to 49 years (aPR: 1.37; 95% CI: 1.13–1.66), and 50 to
59 years (aPR: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.04–1.57). In addition, being separated, widowed or divorced (aPR:
1.21; 95% CI: 1.06–1.38), not having previously been incarcerated (aPR: 1.52; 95% CI: 1.37–1.68),
using drugs before imprisonment (aPR: 1.53; 95% CI: 1.40–1.67), having a best friend who com­
mitted crimes (aPR: 1.58; 95% CI: 1.45–1.71), not having a family member who was incarcerated
(aPR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.03–1.19), using weapons during the crime (aPR: 4.56; 95% CI: 4.26–4.87),
having consumed alcohol or drugs six hours before the crime (aPR: 1.96; 95% CI: 1.83–2.09) and
having committed the crime in a home (aPR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.66–1.90) increased the probability of
an inmate having committed an intentional homicide, while having a secondary education (aPR:
0.86; 95% CI: 0.78–0.96) decreased this probability (Table 3).

4. Discussion
The present study sought to determine the factors associated with the homicide profile of inmates
held in Peruvian prisons. It was found that approximately seven out of one hundred of the inmates
had been sentenced or prosecuted for committing intentional homicide. This finding is lower than
that reported in the U.S. Department of Justice report, which notes that the proportion of inmates
sentenced for homicide was 1.8% in September 2020 (U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice
Statistics, 2021). Moreover, our finding may be higher than that reported by the Federal Bureau of
Prisons, which describes that inmates who had committed homicide, aggravated robbery, and
kidnapping offenses corresponded to 3.2% of the entire U.S. prison population in 2022, even
though this proportion did not include only inmates who had committed homicide (Federal
Bureau of Prisons. Offenses, 2022). Although this figure includes several crimes and not only
homicide, our result would exceed the proportion described by this institution. On the other
hand, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime provided statistical data on the rate of people
convicted of intentional homicide in various regions of the world in 2020. In this report, the highest
rates of persons convicted of intentional homicide were found in the LAC region (ranging from
0.68 per 100,000 inhabitants in Guatemala to 16.65 in Guyana), while the lowest rates were found
in the European region, with the highest rate reported in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2.38 per 100,000
inhabitants; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Intentional homicide, 2020). These rates

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Table 1. Characteristics of the inmates included in the study

Characteristics Inmates included in Inmates who committed p-
the study intentional homicide value*
Absolute frequency Absolute frequency (%) (n =
(%) (n = 57,886) 3825)
Sociodemographic Characteristics
Sex
Male 54,833 (94.73%) 3615 (6.59%) 0.536
Female 3053 (5.27%) 210 (6.88%)
Age (in years)
18-29 18,007 (31.11%) 1119 (6.21%) <0.001
30-39 19,127 (33.04%) 1389 (7.26%)
40-49 12,275 (21.21%) 831 (6.77%)
50-59 6042 (10.44%) 368 (6.09%)
60 or more 2435 (4.21%) 118 (4.85%)
Marital status
Single 28,823 (49.79%) 1879 (6.52%) 0.006
Married/cohabiting 25,453 (43,97%) 1661 (6.53%)
Separated/widowed/divorced 3610 (6.24%) 285 (7.89%)
Educational level
No education 1459 (2.52%) 111 (7.61%) <0.001
Primary 15,331 (26.48%) 1200 (7.83%)
Secondary 34,330 (59.31%) 2060 (6.00%)
Higher 6766 (1.69%) 454 (6.71%)
Work before imprisonment
Yes 55,271 (95.48%) 3678 (6.65%) 0.038
No 2615 (4.52%) 147 (5.62%)
Previous imprisonment
Yes 9710 (16.77%) 429 (4.42%) <0.001
No 48,176 (83.23%) 3396 (7.05%)
Mental health characteristics
Diagnosis of depression before
imprisonment
Yes 5490 (9.48%) 376 (6.85%) 0.450
No 52,396 (90.52%) 3449 (6.58%)
Diagnosis of anxiety before
imprisonment
Yes 4,973 (8.59%) 314 (6.31%) 0.383
No 52,913 (91.41%) 3511 (6.64%)
Consumption of alcohol before
imprisonment
Yes 39,808 (68.77%) 2637 (6.62%) 0.813
No 18,078 (31.23%) 1188 (6.57%)
Drug use before imprisonment
Yes 43,627 (75.37%) 3126 (7.17%) <0.001
No 14,259 (24.63%) 699 (4.90%)

(Continued)

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Table 1. (Continued)

Characteristics Inmates included in Inmates who committed p-

the study intentional homicide value*
Absolute frequency Absolute frequency (%) (n =
(%) (n = 57,886) 3825)
Familiar and social environment
characteristics
Physical abuse in childhood
Yes 28,923 (50.03%) 1881 (6.50%) 0.313
No 28,963 (49.97%) 1944 (6.71%)
Had best friends who committed
crimes
Yes 36,878 (63.71%) 2693 (7.30%) <0.001
No 21,008 (36.29%) 1132 (5.39%)
Possession of children
Yes 43,631 (75.37%) 2880 (6.60%) 0.906
No 14,255 (24.63%) 945 (6.63%)
Family history of imprisonment in
a penitentiary center
Yes 17,701 (30.58%) 1067 (6.03%) <0.001
No 40,185 (69.42%) 2758 (6.86%)
*p-value calculated by the Chi-square test.

may not be comparable with our findings (proportion), but indicate that in the LAC region a greater
number of inmates have been convicted of intentional homicide, which could indirectly explain the
proportion found in Peruvian prisons. Although our finding is higher than other regions, it is worth
mentioning that there are dissimilar definitions of homicide among the regions, with the greatest
differences established being based on judicial aspects and statistical terms (Handbook of
European Homicide Research, 2012). This problem would result in proportions or rates that could
not be comparable between regions. However, our findings expose a challenge for government
institutions, especially taking into account that the proportions of people convicted of intentional
homicide in 2019 (6.5%) and 2020 (5.9%; Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, 2016b)
were similar to the figure reported in our study. In this sense, evidence-based strategies should be
implemented to address intentional homicide and promote citizen security.

In this study the departments of Peru in which the highest proportion of inmates committed
intentional homicide were Lima and La Libertad, as described in the report of the “Anuario
Estadístico de la Criminalidad y Seguridad Ciudadana 2016–2020”. In this report, the highest
number of charges for committing crimes against life, body and health (which includes homi­
cide) was found in these departments in 2019 (Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática,
2016b). Thus, these departments have a high number of crimes related to homicide, which
could be extrapolated to the high proportions of inmates who have committed intentional
homicide. In addition, the National Police Station Census 2014–2015 reports that the highest
number of victims and the highest homicide rate were found in Lima and Trujillo in 2014
(Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, 2014). Our finding could be attributed to the
fact that in large cities (such as Lima) there are high rates of extortion, aggravated homicide,
drug trafficking and hired killings that promote violent attitudes in the population (Garmendia
Lorena, 2016). Despite the existence of punitive laws against homicide, governments have not
been able to reduce this problem in Latin American cities due to the inefficiency of government
bodies and acts of corruption that increase socioeconomic gaps and the incidence of crime

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Figure 1. Proportion of inmates

who committed intentional
homicide by department level.

(Chainey et al., 2021). Therefore, the main strategies aimed at eradicating crime rates and
homicide should focus on cities with higher proportions of inmates who have committed
intentional homicide because these figures are indicative of citizen insecurity.

In relation to the factors associated with the homicide profile of inmates in Peruvian prisons, our
findings were similar to those reported in studies conducted in Brazil (Orellana et al., 2014), Nigeria
(Fatoye et al., 2010), Germany (Koch et al., 2011), Mexico (Gutiérrez, 201609, and the United States
(Tardiff, 1985), in which age, marital status, drug or alcohol use during the crime, firearm use, and
the family and social environment of the perpetrator were associated with committing intentional
homicide. According to the biomedical literature, physiological, psychopathological, social and
developmental factors interact with each other and increase the probability of committing homi­
cide (Botelho & Gonçalves, 2016). The physiological factors are related to changes in the function­
ing of some areas of the brain structure (limbic system, and temporal and frontal lobes) that
generate less emotional control and inability to assess the impact of their behavior, which are
transformed into attitudes of aggression and violence (Botelho & Gonçalves, 2016).

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Table 2. Characteristics of inmates during the crime, PCNPP 2016

Characteristics Absolute frequency Proportion
Use of weapons at the time of committing the crime (n = 57,886)
Yes 11,713 20.23%
No 46,173 79.77%
Type of weapon used (n = 11,713)
Firearm 9013 76.95%
Edged weapon 2424 20.69%
Others* 189 1.61%
Does not know 87 0.74%
Age at which firearms began to be used (n = 9013)
Median (IQR) 18 (16–21)
Owned the firearm (n = 9013)
Yes 4767 52.89%
No 4246 47.11%
Drug and alcohol use six hours before the crime (n = 57,886)
Yes 18,859 32.58%
No 39,027 67.42%
Psychoactive substance used (n = 18,859)
Alcohol 15,123 80.19%
Inhaled drugs 1801 9.55%
Marijuana 48 0.25%
Cocaine/crack 1768 9.37%
Pills 84 0.45%
Heroin 7 0.04%
Others** 11 0.06%
Does not know 17 0.09%
Place the crime was committed (n = 57,886)
Home 15,789 27.28%
Public street 42,097 72.72%

In relation to developmental factors, it is postulated that exposure to dysfunctional family

dynamics due to the use of psychoactive substances, child abuse and mental health pro­
blems are determinants for the perpetrator to commit homicide (Botelho & Gonçalves, 2016).
In addition, perpetrators who commit homicide tend to commit crimes from an early age
(adolescence) in a continuous or persistent manner, reflecting enhancement of the develop­
ment of maladaptive behaviors at a relatively early age (Farrington et al., 2012).
Psychopathological factors are related to the presence of serious mental disorders in the
perpetrator. It is postulated that when a perpetrator with a serious mental disorder is in
a crisis stage or is not adequately controlled, there is a higher risk of committing a violent
crime, and individuals with psychotic and personality disorders, mental disability and psy­
choactive substance use can commit homicide (Flynn et al., 2014). Particularly, drug or
alcohol consumption is associated with an increased risk of committing homicide due to
the need to maintain a pattern of consumption, loss of self-control and drug trafficking
(leading to violent situations; Graham & Wells, 2001). Finally, social or environmental factors
are based on the existence of a low socioeconomic level, ethnic heterogeneity (racial
problems) and immigration, which lead the individual to a perception of inequality and to
commit criminal acts, including homicide (Bursik, 1988). Therefore, the construction of
strategies and judicial decisions should consider the factors associated with the profile of

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Table 3. Factors associated with the homicide profile in Peru, PCNPP 2016
Characteristics Crude model Adjusted model*
PR (95% CI) p- aPR (95% CI) p-value
value
Sex
Female Ref. Ref.
Male 0.96 (0.84-1.10) 0.536 –
Age (in years)
60 or more Ref. Ref.
50-59 1.26 (1.03-1.54) 0.027 1.28 (1.04-1.57) 0.021
40-49 1.40 (1.16-1.69) <0.001 1.37 (1.13-1.66) 0.002
30-39 1.50 (1.25-1.80) <0.001 1.48 (1.22-1.79) <0.001
18-29 1.28 (1.07-1.54) 0.008 1.23 (1.01-1.50) 0.042
Marital status
Married/cohabiting Ref. Ref.
Single 1.00 (0.94-1.06) 0.975 0.99 (0.93-1.07) 0.874
Separated/widowed/divorced 1.21 (1.07-1.37) 0.002 1.21 (1.06-1.38) 0.004
Educational level
Higher Ref. Ref.
Secondary 0.89 (0.81-0.99) 0.026 0.86 (0.78-0.96) 0.005
Primary 1.17 (1.05-1.29) 0.004 1.03 (0.92-1.15) 0.612
No education 1.13 (0.93-1.38) 0.218 1.07 (0.87-1.32) 0.536
Work before imprisonment
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.18 (1.01-1.39) 0.039 1.13 (0.96-1.34) 0.139
Previous imprisonment
Yes Ref. Ref.
No 1.60 (1.45-1.76) <0.001 1.52 (1.37-1.68) <0.001
Diagnosis of depression before
imprisonment
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.04 (0.94-1.15) 0.449 –
Diagnosis of anxiety before
imprisonment
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 0.95 (0.85-1.06) 0.384 –
Consumption of alcohol before
imprisonment
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.01 (0.94-1.08) 0.813 –
Drug use before imprisonment
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.46 (1.35-1.58) <0.001 1.53 (1.40-1.67) <0.001
Physical abuse in childhood
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 0.97 (0.91-1.03) 0.313 –
Had best friends who committed crimes
No Ref. Ref.

(Continued)

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Table 3. (Continued)

Characteristics Crude model Adjusted model*

PR (95% CI) p- aPR (95% CI) p-value
value
Yes 1.36 (1.27-1.45) <0.001 1.58 (1.46-1.71) <0.001
Possession of children
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.00 (0.93-1.07) 0.906 –
Family history of imprisonment in a
penitentiary center
Yes Ref. Ref.
No 1.14 (1.06-1.22) <0.001 1.11 (1.03-1.19) 0.006
Use of weapons at the time of
committing the crime
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 3.75 (3.54-3.99) <0.001 4.56 (4.26-4.87) <0.001
Drug and alcohol use six hours before
the crime
No Ref. Ref.
Yes 1.97 (1.85-2.10) <0.001 1.96 (1.83-2.09) <0.001
Place the crime was committed
Public street Ref. Ref.
Home 1.67 (1.57-1.78) <0.001 1.78 (1.66-1.90) <0.001
PCNPP: Primer Censo Nacional de Población Penitenciaria, PR: prevalence ratio; aPR: adjusted prevalence ratio; CI:
confidence Interval; Ref.: reference category.
* A generalized linear model with Poisson family with log link function was performed taking into account all variables
with a value of p < 0.05 in the crude analysis.

the homicide offender in order to reduce exposure to traumatic events that generate
persistent criminal behavior.

Likewise, the use of weapons and crimes committed in a home are related to domestic
violence. In particular, the biomedical literature indicates that a history of domestic violence,
especially against women, predisposes to homicide by a partner or spouse (Bailey et al.,
1997). In addition, the presence and use of weapons in the home increases the risk of
committing domestic homicide (Bailey et al., 1997). According to the study by Hanlon et al.
(Hanlon et al., 2016) the majority of homicide perpetrators who commit homicide in the
home have an interpersonal relationship with the victim, suffer from a psychiatric disorder
(anxiety, personality disorder or schizophrenia), have a history of psychoactive substance
and alcohol abuse, and use a firearm to commit the crime. Therefore, the main focus of the
strategies that seek to reduce criminal acts should be aimed at reducing the availability of
firearms to anyone in the informal or illegal market and that psychological therapies be
carried out to help improve the behavior and attitudes of the homicide perpetrator in their
social environment (family, partner, and friends). On the other hand, our study found that
the probability of an inmate being sentenced or prosecuted for committing intentional
homicide decreased according to the level of educational level (secondary education). This
finding is consistent with that reported by a study conducted by Furgan et al. (Furqan &
Mahmood, 2020) in an Asian population, which observed that a higher education reduces the
probability of committing criminal acts (violent crimes) due to an increase in job opportu­
nities, salaries and, consequently, the socioeconomic level of the person. In addition,

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education may develop more responsible and serene attitudes in the individual, which
further reduce the commission of criminal acts (Furqan & Mahmood, 2020). In this sense,
Peruvian policies should prioritize adequate education in all social spheres, especially in
people living in conditions of poverty and who are incarcerated, in order to reduce recidivism
of homicide and decrease violent crime in the Peruvian territory.

The present study has some limitations. Causality between variables cannot be established
due to the lack of temporality of a cross-sectional study. Also, since this is a secondary data
study, there may be errors in the implementation of the census survey by the interviewer
and recall or memory biases on the part of the respondent, since it deals with past events
that occurred at specific times in the inmate’s life, as well as a social desirability bias based
on the questions about harmful habits and crime. In addition, some variables such as
socioeconomic level, area of home residence before imprisonment, and crimes committed
prior to the homicide, were not collected by the census and could contribute to the study of
factors associated with the homicide profile. Finally, the definition of homicide did not
include all crimes typified in the Peruvian Penal Code because the census only collected
information on some crimes that correspond to intentional homicide. However, this study
used the PCNPP as a secondary database that included all persons incarcerated in peniten­
tiary centers at the national level and allowed determining the characteristics of this
population in Peru. Thus, this study presents preliminary findings on the factors associated
with the homicidal profile of the Peruvian prison population. These findings should be further
explored in future longitudinal studies on this social problem.

In conclusion, approximately seven out of every one hundred inmates were sentenced or
prosecuted for committing an intentional homicide in 2016. Likewise, several sociodemo­
graphic, mental health, social and family environments, and crime characteristics increase
the probability of inmates committing intentional homicide. Although our findings are based
on a prison population, they provide an approximation of the risk factors associated with the
homicide profile and will allow the development of strategies focused on improving educa­
tion and citizen security to help reduce the intentional homicide rate, and its negative
consequences on economic and mortality indicators in Peru.

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