The Journal of Sex Research

ISSN: 0022-4499 (Print) 1559-8519 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjsr20

The Role of Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies in

Alcohol-Involved Consensual and Nonconsensual
Sex Among Women of Asian/Pacific Islander and
Women of European Race/Ethnicity

Allyson L. Dir, Arthur R. Andrews III, Sarah M. Wilson, Tatiana M. Davidson &
Amanda K. Gilmore

To cite this article: Allyson L. Dir, Arthur R. Andrews III, Sarah M. Wilson, Tatiana M. Davidson
& Amanda K. Gilmore (2017): The Role of Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies in Alcohol-Involved
Consensual and Nonconsensual Sex Among Women of Asian/Pacific Islander and Women of
European Race/Ethnicity, The Journal of Sex Research, DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2017.1366411

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1366411

Published online: 21 Sep 2017.

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Download by: [Duke University Medical Center] Date: 05 November 2017, At: 01:48
 THE JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH, 00(00), 1–13, 2017
Copyright © The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality
ISSN: 0022-4499 print/1559-8519 online
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1366411

The Role of Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies in Alcohol-Involved

Consensual and Nonconsensual Sex Among Women of Asian/
Pacific Islander and Women of European Race/Ethnicity
Allyson L. Dir
Department of Pediatrics, Section of Adolescent Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine

Arthur R. Andrews III

Department of Psychology, Institute for Ethnic Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Downloaded by [Duke University Medical Center] at 01:48 05 November 2017

Sarah M. Wilson
Mid-Atlantic Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Department of Veterans
Affairs, Durham VA Health Care System
Tatiana M. Davidson
College of Nursing, Medical University of South Carolina

Amanda K. Gilmore
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, National Crime Victims Research and
Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina

Alcohol-involved sexual experiences, including incapacitated sexual assault and alcohol-

involved sex, are major public health concerns among college women. Further, racial/ethnic
diversity among college students is increasing, particularly with regard to increases in college
students of Asian/Pacific Islander (API) race/ethnicity. Of relevance, evidence suggests differ-
ences in sexual assault rates across ethnicities and cultures; however, no known study to date
has examined differences by ethnicity and first language in expectancies and experiences
specifically surrounding alcohol and sex. The current study sought to examine differences in
incapacitated sexual assault, alcohol-involved sex, and heavy episodic drinking, as well as
differences in sex-related alcohol expectancies among native English-speaking college women of
European (EU) race/ethnicity, native English-speaking women of API race/ethnicity, and non–
native English-speaking women of API race/ethnicity (NNES-API). EU reported higher fre-
quency of heavy episodic drinking, alcohol-involved sex, and incapacitated sexual assault
compared to API and NNES-API. In addition, API reported more frequent alcohol-involved
sex and incapacitated sexual assault compared to NNES-API, in part due to API’s stronger
endorsement of sexual disinhibition–related alcohol expectancies (indirect effects: β = −.04,
p = .04, and β = −.07, p = .04, respectively). Findings highlight the important role of
expectancies in acculturation and influence on actual alcohol-involved sex and sexual assault.

Incapacitated sexual assault, defined as nonconsensual sex assault history are at increased risk for significant long-term
that is perpetrated when the victim is too intoxicated to psychological consequences (Lorenz & Ullman, 2016) and
consent, is a major concern on college campuses. One in multiple health risk behaviors, including heavy episodic
five college women experience sexual assault, and at least drinking, risky sexual behavior, sexual revictimization, eat-
50% of these assaults involve alcohol (Fisher, Daigle, ing disorders, and drug abuse (Turchik & Hassija, 2014).
Cullen, & Turner, 2003), likely because perpetrators target Both increased alcohol use and alcohol-involved sex are
individuals who are intoxicated. Individuals with a sexual associated with higher risk of revictimization among sexual
assault victims (Testa, Hoffman, & Livingston, 2010) and
are also prevalent among college students. At least 40% of
Correspondence should be addressed to Allyson L. Dir, Dept. of college students reported heavy episodic drinking (consum-
Pediatrics, Section of Adolescent Medicine, 410 W. 10th Street, Suite ing four or more drinks in two hours) in the past month
1001, Indianapolis, IN 46202. E-mail: adir@iupui.edu
 DIR, ANDREWS, WILSON, DAVIDSON, AND GILMORE

(Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services risky sexual behaviors, including unprotected sex and drug-
Administration, 2014), and 60% to 80% of casual sexual involved sex (Dominicus, Wong, & DeLeon, 2005).
encounters are alcohol-involved sex—or sexual encounters Therefore, while literature has highlighted differences
where alcohol is consumed by one or both partners prior to across groups in consensual sex and sexual assault, less
or during sex (Lewis et al., 2011). Thus, examining heavy research has taken into account how alcohol use may
episodic drinking, alcohol-involved sex, and incapacitated explain some of the differences across groups. Alcohol use
sexual assault together is important. is particularly important to consider due to (a) the preva-
Focusing on college women could inform sexual assault lence of drinking among college students; (b) the link
prevention and intervention strategies among this particular between alcohol use and sex and sexual assault, particularly
population. Although men also experience sexual assault, among the college population; and (c) differences in rates of
rates of sexual assault reporting are higher among women drinking across API and EU. For the current study, we
(Fisher et al., 2003). One in five women experience sexual focused on heavy episodic drinking, defined as consuming
assault while they are enrolled in college (Fisher et al., four or more drinks within a two-hour period (National
2003); moreover, there has been recent heightened political Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2004).
and public pressure to reduce sexual assault on college Perpetrators may target API and EU similarly based on
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campuses (White House Council on Women and Girls, their alcohol use or they may target these populations dif-
2014). ferently due to global differences in alcohol use among
With regard to the population of college women, the these populations.
ethnic makeup of college campuses is evolving, and there
has been an increase in the Asian/Pacific Islander (API)
Alcohol, Incapacitated Sexual Assault, and
population on U.S. college campuses in recent years
Alcohol-Involved Sex
(Institute of International Education, 2014). Research on
this population is warranted, considering U.S.-born API Alcohol use is a common factor linked to both sexual assault
high school students have the highest college enrollment and sex among college students. Between 60% and 80% of
rate of any ethnic group aside from those of European college sexual encounters involve alcohol (Lewis et al., 2011),
(EU) race/ethnicity (Snyder & Dillow, 2013). There is evi- and alcohol use, particularly heavy episodic drinking, is one of
dence for differences in rates of alcohol use and sexual the most robust predictors of sexual assault victimization
assault among women of API race/ethnicity and EU race/ (Lorenz & Ullman, 2016). Alcohol use increases risk of sexual
ethnicity; however, to date, no study has examined how assault victimization by decreasing perceptions of risk for
beliefs about the effects of alcohol on the sexual experience assault (Testa, Livingston, & Collins, 2000); reducing threat
(i.e., sex-related alcohol expectancies) may differentially perception (George et al., 2009); and narrowing the perceptual
influence heavy episodic drinking and alcohol-involved field, due to the detriment of higher-order cognitive processes
sex and incapacitated sexual assault among these groups. such as judgment and future thinking (Cue, George, & Norris,
It is possible that perpetrators target potential victims based 1996; Gidycz, McNamara, & Edwards, 2006). Perpetrators
on ethnicity and alcohol-involved factors. Thus, this study also may target individuals who are intoxicated due to reduced
sought to examine the role of heavy episodic drinking and risk perception, threat perception, and ability to fight back. In
sex-related alcohol expectancies in the risk for incapacitated addition, incapacitated sexual assault generally has more harm-
sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex among EU and API ful outcomes than sexual assault that does not involve alcohol,
college women. including higher levels of victim injury, assault severity, and
Due to a number of cultural factors, rates of endorsing substance misuse following the assault (Abbey, Clinton-
sexual assault differ across racial/ethnic groups, particularly Sherrod, McAuslan, Zawacki, & Buck, 2002, 2003;
those of API race/ethnicity (Koo, Nguyen, Andrasik, & Kilpatrick, Resnick, Ruggiero, Conoscenti, & McCauley,
George, 2015). For example, while some studies have 2007). Another important explanation for the link between
shown that those of EU and those of API race/ethnicity report alcohol use and alcohol-involved sex and sexual assault is
similar rates of sexual assault experiences during college sex-related alcohol expectancies.
(Crisanti, Frueh, Gundaya, Salvail, & Triffleman, 2011;
Gilmore, Granato, Wilson, & George, 2016), recent large-
Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies
scale studies show that API women report lower rates of
precollege sexual assault and college sexual assault compared Alcohol use and alcohol-involved sex can also be facilitated
to EU women (Cantor et al., 2015; Krebs, Lindquist, Warner, by sex-related alcohol expectancies, or common myths, beliefs,
Fisher, & Martin, 2007). With respect to rates of consensual or expectations regarding the effects of alcohol on the sexual
sex among API and EU, evidence is mixed. Among college experience (George & Gilmore, 2013), such as beliefs that
students, there is evidence that Asian race/ethnicity is asso- alcohol lowers sexual inhibitions (e.g., more likely to have
ciated with later onset of sexual debut (Meston, Trapnell, & sex on a first date), increases sexual risk behaviors (e.g., more
Gorzalka, 1996) and more conservative sexual attitudes likely to have unprotected sex), and enhances the sexual experi-
(Ahrold & Meston, 2010); however, there is also evidence ence (e.g., more likely to enjoy sex; Dermen & Cooper, 1994).
that EU and API college students report comparable rates of Sex-related alcohol expectancies are associated with likelihood

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 ALCOHOL-INVOLVED SEX, RACE/ETHNICITY, AND LANGUAGE

of engaging in alcohol-involved sex, such that those who one recent study found that EU college women experienced
endorse stronger sex-related alcohol expectancies are more more severe sexual assault compared to API college
likely to engage in sex on days that they are also drinking women, in part because EU women engaged in more fre-
(Patrick, Maggs, & Lefkowitz, 2015). Experimental studies quent heavy episodic drinking compared to API women
also show that participants who believe that they are drinking (Gilmore et al., 2016); however, the study did not specifi-
alcohol report greater sexual arousal if they also endorse stron- cally examine incapacitated sexual assault and also did not
ger sex-related alcohol expectancies (George, Stoner, Norris, examine sex-related alcohol expectancies or alcohol-
Lopez, & Lehman, 2000). Even further, sex-related alcohol involved sex. Another study showed that among college
expectancies are linked to sexual assault risk. Women who women who had not experienced incapacitated sexual
have experienced incapacitated sexual assault endorse stronger assault, API women had fewer drinking problems than EU
alcohol expectancies and report more frequent drinking com- women; however, among those who had a history of inca-
pared to nonvictims and victims of nonincapacitated sexual pacitated sexual assault, API women reported more drinking
assault (Benson, Gohm, & Gross, 2007; Marx, Nichols- problems than EU women (Nguyen, Kaysen, Dillworth,
Anderson, Messman-Moore, Miranda, & Porter, 2000). Brajcich, & Larimer, 2010). This suggests that heavy epi-
sodic drinking may put API women at an even higher risk of
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experiencing incapacitated sexual assault and alcohol-

Alcohol Use Across Race/Ethnicity
involved sex, but these outcomes were not specifically
There are also important differences in rates of alcohol use examined. Taken together, while there is some evidence
among API and EU that may contribute to differences in that lower rates of heavy episodic drinking among API
alcohol-involved sex and sexual assault. API engage in less may serve as a protective factor against sexual assault
heavy episodic drinking compared to EU (Cacciola & Nevid, (Gilmore et al., 2016), heavy episodic drinking among
2014; Scholly, Katz, & Kehl, 2014), which could serve as a API women in particular may increase their vulnerability
protective factor against sexual assault among API. Still, in to sexual assault. Thus, further research is needed to deter-
the United States, Asian Americans report higher rates of mine what may be protective factors among this group. The
problem drinking compared to other racial/ethnic groups current study fills a gap in the literature by examining
aside from Europeans and Native Americans (Grant et al., prospective associations between heavy episodic drinking
2004), suggesting that alcohol-related risks are important to and the risk for incapacitated sexual assault among API and
target with this population. One explanation for differences in EU college women.
alcohol use among EU and API is that some Asian ethnicities There is even less known about differences in alcohol-
are at a higher risk of experiencing more negative physical involved sex among API and EU women. One study found
effects from alcohol due to genetic variants affecting alcohol that college students who identified as White reported enga-
metabolism that are more common in some groups (Luczak, ging in sex while intoxicated or high more in the past month
Glatt, & Wall, 2006). Another explanation is that cultural compared to those who identified as Asian (Schwartz,
norms influence drinking patterns, and thus unique cultural Weisskirch, Zamboanga, & Davis, 2011), but it is unclear
norms regarding alcohol use across race/ethnicity and culture whether these were consensual behaviors, and results did
also contribute to group differences in drinking rates (Cook, not differentiate between alcohol-related versus other sub-
Bond, Karriker-Jaffe, & Zemore, 2013). To our knowledge, stance-related incidents; thus, further research is needed.
no studies have examined sex-related alcohol expectancies as Examination of both alcohol-involved sex and incapacitated
a mechanism to understand the associations between alcohol sexual assault is important because more frequent heavy
use and alcohol-involved sex and incapacitated sexual assault episodic drinking and alcohol-involved sex have been
among API and EU college women. Given differences in shown to increase risk for sexual assault among college
heavy episodic drinking across race/ethnicity, there may women, and sexual assault victims engage in increased sex
also be differences in sex-related alcohol expectancies, and heavy episodic drinking, putting them at risk for revic-
which in turn may influence differences in risk for incapaci- timization (Messman-Moore & Long, 2003).
tated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex across API and
EU college women. Further, examining the influence of sex-
Culture, Language, and Alcohol-Involved Sex and
related alcohol expectancies across race/ethnicity could
Incapacitated Sexual Assault
inform prevention and intervention for incapacitated sexual
assault and negative outcomes associated with alcohol- To examine explanatory variables that account for racial/
involved sex because expectancies are malleable constructs ethnic differences in alcohol-involved sex and incapacitated
(Dunn, Lau, & Cruz, 2000). sexual assault, language is also an important factor to con-
sider. Many API immigrants and some U.S.-born API iden-
tify a language other than English as their first language
Race/Ethnicity and Incapacitated Sexual Assault and
(Ryan, 2013). First language is frequently an indicator of
Alcohol-Involved Sex
ethnic identity (Kang, 2006) and enculturation/acculturation
There is some evidence for differences in incapacitated among many Asian groups (Suinn, Ahuna, & Khoo, 1992).
sexual assault among API and EU women. For example, In fact, various language variables are often examined as

3
 DIR, ANDREWS, WILSON, DAVIDSON, AND GILMORE

proxies for acculturation, or an individual’s identification Considering the relationship between acculturation and
with cultural norms (Lopez-Class, Castro, & Ramirez, heavy episodic drinking and sex, it is likely that language
2011). As others have noted, first language may be particu- is similarly related.
larly salient as it represents an indicator of the culture in
which an individual was immersed during childhood
Current Study
(Collier, Brice, & Oades-Sese, 2007). While cultural values
and identification may shift over the life span (i.e., accul- The goals of the current study were to (a) examine differ-
turation), first language likely represents an important mar- ences in both incapacitated sexual assault and alcohol-
ker of a person’s earliest cultural environment (i.e., involved sex among college women based on ethnicity and
enculturation). In a study of the relations between heavy first language; and (b) examine mediators of this association,
episodic drinking, race, and U.S. nativity (another proxy for including heavy episodic drinking, sexual assault history, and
enculturation), first-generation Asian immigrants reported sex-related alcohol expectancies. We hypothesized that EU
lower rates of heavy episodic drinking compared with women would report more frequent incapacitated sexual
Whites, whereas second-generation immigrants did not sig- assault and alcohol-involved sex compared to API women.
nificantly differ from Whites, and this was explained by Further, we hypothesized that EU women would more
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language use (Cook et al., 2013). More germane to the strongly endorse sex-related alcohol expectancies compared
purposes of this study, use of a language other than to API women, and that native English-speaking API women
English is associated with lower alcohol use among API (API) would endorse stronger expectancies compared to non-
and other racial/ethnic groups in the United States (Epstein, native English speaking API women (NNES-API). Further,
Botvin, & Diaz, 2001). Taken together, markers of accul- we hypothesized that there would be indirect effects of heavy
turation/enculturation, specifically language, may also be episodic drinking, sex-related alcohol expectancies, and pre-
associated with incapacitated sexual assault, alcohol- vious sexual assault history on the relationship between eth-
involved sex, sex-related alcohol expectancies, and heavy nicity and first language and incapacitated sexual assault and
episodic drinking among college women. Although there is alcohol-involved sex.
evidence for racial/ethnic group differences in sexual assault
among API and EU, the majority of studies do not consider
within-group differences when examining API. Thus, this Method
study attempted to consider some heterogeneity within API
by taking into account first language while also considering Participants
broader racial/ethnic group differences.
In addition to evidence that first language is related to Participants were 524 college women, ages 18 to 22
heavy episodic drinking in Asian Americans (Cook et al., (M = 18.79, SD = 0.86), recruited through the university’s
2013), preliminary evidence suggests first language may psychology subject pool Website and given course credit for
also account for differences in sexual assault among API participation. Potential participants were excluded if they
women (Gilmore et al., 2016). Specifically, a recent study did not identify as female, were not fluent in English, or
found that among API women, differences by first language were under age 18.
(English or non-English) in college sexual assault severity
were mediated by heavy episodic drinking, such that native
Measures
English-speaking API women were at a higher risk of
college sexual assault due to more frequent heavy episodic Race/ethnicity and first language. Self-report
drinking compared to API women who learned English as a measures of race/ethnicity were based on multiple-choice
foreign language (Gilmore et al., 2016). There is also evi- items. For the current study, those who identified as White/
dence for differences in alcohol-involved sex based on Caucasian were classified as EU and those who identified as
acculturation. One study found associations between unique Asian or Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander were classified as
aspects of acculturation and problem drinking and risky API. We compared API to EU because EU was the largest
sexual behavior (i.e., unprotected sex, intoxicated sex) racial/ethnic group represented in the sample. We combined
among East and South Asian college students (Schwartz those who identified as Asian and Native Hawaiian/Pacific
et al., 2011); however, the association between language Islander due to previous literature suggesting similarity in
and alcohol-involved sex in particular was not assessed. In these groups with respect to alcohol-related and sexual-
another sample, alcohol-involved sex was more prevalent related variables measured (see Gilmore et al., 2016).
among API who were more assimilated to U.S. culture Participants also indicated whether English was their first
(Dominicus et al., 2005); however, these findings were language (0 = English was first language [API group] or
published more than a decade ago, and considering the 1 = English was not first language [NNES-API group]).
rise in API international students at U.S. colleges (Cook &
Córdova, 2006), and even the increase in alcohol use among Heavy episodic drinking. One item asked, “How often
API (Le, Goebert, & Wallen, 2009), these results may not be did you have four or more drinks containing any kind of
accurate today, and further research is warranted. alcohol within a two-hour period in the past month?”

4
 ALCOHOL-INVOLVED SEX, RACE/ETHNICITY, AND LANGUAGE

(National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2004), and sexual risk taking (four items, α = .92). Responses range
with response options including 0 (Not in the past month), 1 from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 6 (Strongly agree), with higher
(Once in past month), 2 (2–3 times/month), 3 (Once a week), 4 mean scores indicating stronger endorsement of expectancies.
(Twice a week), 5 (3–4 times/week), 6 (5–6 times/week), and 7
(Every day).
Analytic Approach
Alcohol-involved sex. One item assessed for the Multiple models were constructed to test potential mediators
frequency with which individuals had consumed alcohol of racial/ethnic and first-language differences across frequency
prior to or during sexual activity (as used previously in of alcohol-involved sex and experiences of incapacitated sexual
Bird, Gilmore, George, & Lewis, 2016). Response options assault during college. First, a baseline model was constructed
ranged on a 5-point scale (0 = Never, 1 = About a quarter of with attempted or completed incapacitated sexual assault since
the time, 2 = About half the time, 3 = About three-quarters college and alcohol-involved sex as outcome variables
of the time, 4 = Always). (Figure 1). Race/ethnicity and English as a first language were
examined as predictors. Age was also included as a control
Incapacitated sexual assault during college. covariate, given that prior results suggest it significantly predicts
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Incapacitated sexual assault was assessed through items on sexual assault in college (Gilmore et al., 2016). Race/ethnicity
the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., 2007). was dichotomously coded with EU as the referent group com-
Specifically, if participants reported experiencing attempted pared with API. English as a first language was coded as the
or completed sexual assault by means of incapacitation (due referent group compared with non-English as a first language.
to alcohol) during college, incapacitated sexual assault was Because only 22 EU women identified as non–native English
coded as Present. speakers, they were omitted from analyses; thus, the first lan-
guage variable tested differences among API participants only
Adolescent/adult sexual assault severity before (0 = API, 1 = NNES-API). Following this model, mediators were
college. The Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss et al., added according to the time frame in which they occurred. First,
2007) was revised for this study to allow participants to sexual assault severity prior to college was added as a precollege
endorse coerced sexual experiences after their 14th birthday mediator between race/ethnicity, language, and the two sexual
but before entering college. Behaviorally specific questions outcomes (Figure 2). Finally, four additional mediators were
assessed sexual assault experiences (sexual contact, added as in-college mediators of alcohol-involved sex and
attempted penetration, and completed penetration) by incapacitated sexual assault (Figure 3): heavy episodic drinking,
perpetration tactic (verbal coercion, incapacitation, threats sexual disinhibition drinking expectancies, sexual enhancement
of physical force, and physical force). Participants indicated drinking expectancies, and sexual risk drinking expectancies.
the number of times that each perpetration tactic was used No variable was missing more than 10% of responses. All
for each sexual assault experience (0, 1, 2, or 3 or more models were analyzed using path analyses with theta parame-
times). Sexual assault incidence and level of rape terization and probit regression to conduct mediation analyses
completion were determined using a 63-point scale (Davis with the dichotomous outcome of incapacitated sexual assault
et al., 2014) for each time point to determine sexual assault during college. As the baseline model was fully saturated and
severity. The scoring procedure takes into account both the mediation models were not, model fit statistics are presented
frequency and severity of experiences by multiplying the for mediational models only. The following recommendations
frequency of experiences (0, 1, 2, or 3) by the victimization by Hu and Bentler (1998) were used as assessments of adequate
experience (1 = Sexual contact by verbal coercion, model fit: comparative fit index (CFI) ≥ .95, root mean square
2 = Sexual contact by incapacitation, 3 = Sexual contact error of approximation (RMSEA) ≤ .06. Missing data were
by force, 4 = Attempted or completed rape by verbal estimated using multiple imputation with imputation iterations
coercion, 5 = Attempted or completed rape by and weighted least squares estimation, which has been demon-
incapacitation, 6 = Attempted or completed rape by force) strated to optimally reduce bias associated with missing data in
and summing the total number of experiences (possible similar models (Schafer & Olsen, 1998). As such, pooled para-
range: 0 to 63, with 0 indicating no sexual assault history). meter and model fit estimates from the five imputed data sets are
This severity score has adequate convergent validity as presented. All other analytic assumptions were met.
indicated by being significantly correlated with
relationship abuse, relationship violence, somatization,
depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder Results
(Davis et al., 2014).
Preliminary Results
Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies Questionnaire Across the sample, 46.57% identified as EU (n = 244)
(SRAEQ). The SRAEQ (Dermen & Cooper, 1994) is a and 53.43% (n = 280) identified as API. Among API, 20.8%
13-item scale that assesses three domains of sex-related were native English speakers (API; n = 109) and 32.53%
expectations linked to drinking alcohol: sexual disinhibition were non–native English speakers (NNES-API; n = 171).
(four items, α = .89), sexual enhancement (five items, α = .92), The majority of women were heterosexual (n = 500,

5
 DIR, ANDREWS, WILSON, DAVIDSON, AND GILMORE

95.4%), first-year students (n = 335, 63.9%), and not in a Mediation Model 1: Precollege Sexual Assault Severity
sorority (n = 416, 79.4%).
In the first mediational model, precollege sexual assault
Across the sample, 48 women (9.2%) reported experiencing
severity was added as a mediator and indicators of model fit
incapacitated sexual assault during college and 83 (16%) women
provided mixed support (χ2mean(1) = 5.82, p = .02;
reported any lifetime history of incapacitated sexual assault;
CFImean = .97; RMSEAmean = .10). Pre-college sexual assault
significantly more EU women (n = 56) reported incapacitated
severity positively predicted both frequency of alcohol-
sexual assault than API women (n = 24; χ2 = 20.22, p < .001).
involved sex (β = .22, p < .01) and incapacitated sexual
There were no differences in lifetimes rates of incapacitated
assault during college (β = .24, p < .01). In addition, API
sexual assault across NNES-API (n = 13) and API (n = 11;
reported lower severity of precollege sexual assault (β = −.17,
χ2 = 0.55, p = .46). Significant differences were seen for fre-
p = .03) relative to EU, but did not significantly differ from
quency of alcohol-involved sex across all three groups, with EU
NNES-API (β < .01, p = .96). In examining indirect effects,
women engaging in alcohol-involved sex most frequently (EU
precollege sexual assault appeared to explain a significant
versus API: t = 7.51, p < .001; API versus NNES-API: t = 2.97,
portion of differences in alcohol-involved sex (coeffi-
p < .01). EU women reported more frequent heavy episodic
cient = −.04, p = .01) and incapacitated sexual assault (coef-
drinking compared to API and API-NNES women (t = 9.87,
ficient = −.04, p = .004) across EU and API. No indirect
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p < .001). Native English-speaking API women reported stron-

effects involving language differences were significant (p
ger sexual disinhibition and sexual risk alcohol expectancies
values > .05). The direct effects involving race/ethnicity and
compared to NNES-API women (t = 2.60, p = .01 and
language on incapacitated sexual assault during college and
t = 2.25, p = .03, respectively; see Table 1).
alcohol-involved sex remained significant (p values < .05).
See Figure 2 and Table 3 for results.
Baseline Model
In the baseline model, age predicted both frequency of Mediational Model 2: During College Drinking Behavior
alcohol-involved sex (β = .10, p = .004) and incapacitated and Expectancies
sexual assault during college (β = .15, p = .01). API In the full model with heavy episodic drinking and the three
reported a lower frequency of alcohol-involved sex sex-related alcohol expectancies added as in-college media-
(β = −.20, p = .001) and incapacitated sexual assault during tors, the model evidenced good fit (χ2mean(4) = 9.72, p = .05;
college (β = −.12, p = .04) relative to EU. NNES-API CFImean = .99; RMSEAmean = .05). Heavy episodic drinking
reported lower frequency of alcohol-involved sex (β = .45, p < .01), sexual disinhibition expectancies (β = .24,
(β = −.15, p = .003) and reported less incapacitated sexual p = .01), and sexual enhancement expectancies (β = .14,
assault during college (β = −.35, p = .03) compared with p < .01) positively predicted alcohol-involved sex. Sexual
API (see Figure 1 and Table 2). risk expectancies negatively predicted alcohol-involved sex

Table 1. Demographics and Study Variables

European, Native English Asian/Pacific Islander, Asian/Pacific Islander, Non–Native

(EU) Native English (API) English (NNES-API)
(n = 244) (n = 109) (n = 171)

Age, M (SD) 18.65 (0.72) 18.82 (0.95) 18.98 (0.95)

Sexual orientation, n (%)
Bisexual 7 (2.9) 1 (1.0) 9 (5.3)
Lesbian 2 (1.0) — 1 (1.0)
Questioning 2 (1.0) 1 (1.0) 3 (1.75)
Heterosexual 233 (95.5) 107 (98.2) 158 (92.4)
Relationship status, n (%)
Single 105 (43.03) 55 (50.46) 61 (34.36)
Dating (single) 55 (22.54) 23 (2.11) 49 (28.7)
In a relationship 83 (34.02) 30 (27.53) 61 (34.46)
Married 1 (0.4) — —
Precollege sexual assault severity, M (SD) 5.21 (10.19)a 2.33 (5.84)b 2.50 (7.49)b
Incapacitated sexual assault, M (SD) 36 (14.34)a 9 (8.26)b 3 (1.75)c
Alcohol-involved sex, M (SD) 0.68 (0.95)a 0.30 (0.67)b 0.18 (0.51)c
Heavy episodic drinking, M (SD) 1.50 (1.67)a 0.78 (1.36)b 0.51 (1.12)b
Sex-related alcohol expectancies, M (SD)
Sexual disinhibition 2.59 (1.23) 2.59 (1.32)b 2.62 (1.25)
Sexual risk 2.27 (1.45) 2.61 (1.58) 2.36 (1.44)
Sexual enhancement 2.59 (1.43) 2.67 (1.49) 2.39 (1.35)

Note. Superscripts a,b,c denote values that are unique from other groups (e.g., significant differences in sexual disinhibition expectancies across all groups).

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 ALCOHOL-INVOLVED SEX, RACE/ETHNICITY, AND LANGUAGE

Ethnicity Alcohol-Involved
(API versus EU) Sex

First Language
Incapacitated
(API versus Sexual Assault
NNES -API)

Figure 1. Baseline model with language and ethnicity predicting intoxicated consensual sex and incapacitated sexual assault during college. All shown paths
are significant with p values < .05. Gray lines represent negative relations between variables.

Table 2. Baseline Model Showing Direct Effects on Incapacitated Sexual Assault and Alcohol-Involved Sex
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Alcohol-Involved Sex Incapacitated Sexual Assault

Variable/Path β SE β SE

Age 0.10** 0.15 0.15** 0.14

Race/ethnicity −0.20** 0.22 −0.12** 0.24
First language −0.15** 0.55 −0.35* 0.37

Note. For race/ethnicity, 0 = European, 1 = Asian/Pacific Islander; for first language, 0 = Asian/Pacific Islander, 1 = Nonnative
English, Asian/Pacific Islander.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

Ethnicity
(API versus EU)
Alcohol-Involved
Sex

Pre-college Sexual
Assault

Incapacitated
First Language Sexual Assault
(API versus
NNES -API)

Figure 2. Mediational path with precollege sexual assault severity as a mediator. All shown paths are significant with p values < .05. Age is included as a covariate but
not shown for display purposes. Solid lines represent significant mediational paths and dashed lines represent significant paths that are not directly involved in the
mediational path. Gray lines represent negative relations; black lines represent positive relations. χ2mean (1) = 5.82, p = .016, CFImean = .97, RMSEAmean = .10.

(β = −.14, p = .03). Heavy episodic drinking (β = .26, p < .01) expectancies (p values > .05). NNES-API reported lower sex-
and sexual disinhibition expectancies (β = .41, p = < .01) ual risk expectancies (β = −.16, p = .01) and lower sexual
positively predicted incapacitated sexual assault during col- disinhibition expectancies (β = −.17, p = .01) compared with
lege. Sexual risk and sexual enhancement expectancies were API. NNES-API and API did not significantly differ in heavy
not significantly related to incapacitated sexual assault during episodic drinking or sexual enhancement expectancies
college (p values > .05). API reported less heavy episodic (p values > .05). In testing indirect paths, several were sig-
drinking (β = −.25, p < .01) and higher sexual risk expectancies nificant. Sexual assault severity before college and heavy
(β = .17, p = .01) compared with EU. EU and API did not differ episodic drinking accounted for a significant portion of the
significantly across the other two sex-related alcohol differences in alcohol-involved sex across API and EU

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 DIR, ANDREWS, WILSON, DAVIDSON, AND GILMORE

Table 3. Direct Effects in Final Model With Heavy Episodic Drinking, Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies, and Precollege
Sexual Assault Severity as Mediators on Alcohol-Involved Sex and Incapacitated Sexual Assault

Variable/Path β SE

Predictors to outcome
Ethnicity → Alcohol-involved sex n.s. 0.22
First language → Alcohol-involved sex n.s. 0.55
Ethnicity → Incapacitated SA −0.01 0.24
First language → Incapacitated SA −0.28* 0.37
Predictors to mediator
Ethnicity → HED −0.25** 0.18
Ethnicity → Sexual disinhibition Exps 0.07 0.16
Ethnicity → Sexual enhancement Exps 0.01 0.16
Ethnicity → Sexual risk Exps 0.17** 0.18
First language → HED −0.13 0.22
First language → Sexual disinhibition Exps −0.17** 0.19
First language → Sexual enhancement Exps 0.02 0.18
First language → Sexual risk Exps −0.16** 0.01
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Precollege to in-college mediators

Precollege SA severity → HED 0.12** 0.01
Precollege SA severity → Sexual disinhibition Exps 0.13** 0.01
Precollege SA severity → Sexual enhancement Exps 0.20** 0.01
Precollege SA severity → Sexual risk Exps 0.19** 0.01
Mediators to outcome
HED → Alcohol-involved sex 0.45** 0.05
Sexual disinhibition exps → Alcohol-involved sex 0.24** 0.14
Sexual enhancement exps → Alcohol-involved sex 0.14** 0.08
Sexual risk exps → Alcohol-involved sex −0.14* 0.14
HED → Incapacitated SA 0.26** 0.06
Sexual disinhibition exps → Incapacitated SA 0.41** 0.11
Sexual enhancement exps → Incapacitated SA N/S 0.08
Sexual risk exps → Incapacitated SA N/S 0.12

Note. For race/ethnicity, 0 = European, 1 = Asian/Pacific Islander; for first language, 0 = Asian/Pacific Islander, 1 = Nonnative English,
Asian/Pacific Islander. HED = heavy episodic drinking. Model fit: χ2mean (4) = 9.72, p = .045, CFImean = 99, and RMSEAmean = .05.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

(p values < .05). Heavy episodic drinking accounted for a three factors may explain these associations: sex-related
significant portion of the differences in alcohol-involved sex alcohol expectancies, heavy episodic drinking, and previous
across API and EU (coefficient = −.11, p < .01). Heavy sexual assault history. Overall, these results both replicate
episodic drinking also accounted for a significant portion of previous findings and add novel findings, suggesting similar
the differences in incapacitated sexual assault across the same patterns across both incapacitated sexual assault and alco-
two groups (coefficient = −.06, p = .01). Sexual disinhibition hol-involved sex. Taken together, these findings highlight
expectancies accounted for a significant portion of the differ- the important role of expectancies in risk for incapacitated
ences in alcohol-involved sex and in incapacitated sexual sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex and in particular,
assault (coefficient = −.07, p = .04) across API and NNES- how differences in expectancies partly explain differences in
API. No other indirect path was significant. The differences in alcohol-involved sex across not only those of API and EU
alcohol-involved sex across ethnicity and language were no but also among those of API who are native and non–native
longer significant. The difference in incapacitated sexual English speakers. These findings highlight the important
assault during college between API and NNES-API remained role that language, ethnicity, and potentially acculturation
significant (β = −.28, p = .03). The difference between API and plays in the risk process.
EU in incapacitated sexual assault during college was no When examining race/ethnicity and risk for incapaci-
longer significant (β = −.01, p = .89). See Table 4 and tated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex, both of these
Figure 3 for results from the full model. outcomes were associated with heavy episodic drinking, as
expected. Compared to EU women, API women reported
less frequent incapacitated sexual assault and less severe
Discussion precollege sexual assault histories. Differences in precol-
lege sexual assault severity explained racial/ethnic differ-
The current study examined differences in rates of inca- ences in current endorsement of incapacitated sexual
pacitated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex across assault, which is consistent with previous findings
race/ethnicity and language. The study also examined how (Gilmore et al., 2016; Koo et al., 2015; Nguyen et al.,

8
 ALCOHOL-INVOLVED SEX, RACE/ETHNICITY, AND LANGUAGE

Table 4. Indirect Effects of Precollege Sexual Assault Severity, Heavy Episodic Drinking, and Sex-Related Alcohol Expectancies
in Final Model Predicting Alcohol-Involved Sex and Sexual Assault

Alcohol-Involved Sex Incapacitated Sexual Assault

Mediators β SE β SE

Precollege sexual assault severity

First language < 0.01 0.06 < 0.01 0.03
Ethnicity −0.12* 0.06 −0.02 0.04
Heavy episodic drinking
First language −0.06 0.03 −0.03 0.06
Ethnicity −0.11** 0.15 −0.06** 0.06
Sexual disinhibition Exps
First language −0.04* 0.11 −0.07* 0.09
Ethnicity 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.07
Sexual enhancement Exps
First language < 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.02
Ethnicity < 0.01 0.05 < 0.01 0.01
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Sexual risk Exps

First language 0.02 0.08 0.08 0.06
Ethnicity −0.02 0.08 −0.03 0.06

Note. For race/ethnicity, 0 = European, 1 = Asian/Pacific Islander; for first language, 0 = Asian/Pacific Islander, 1 = Nonnative English, Asian/
Pacific Islander. HED = heavy episodic drinking. Model fit: χ2mean (4) = 9.72, p = .045, CFImean = .99, and RMSEAmean = .05.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

Ethnicity
(API versus
EU)

Heavy
Episodic
Drinking

Alcohol-
Involved Sex
Pre-college
Sexual Assault

Incapacitated
Sexual Sexual Assault
Enhancement
Expectancies

Sexual Risk
Expectancies

Sexual
Disinhibition
Expectancies
First Language
(API versus
NNES)

Figure 3. The full mediational model with recent heavy episodic drinking and sex-related alcohol expectancies as in-college mediators. All shown paths are
significant with p values < .05. Age is included as a covariate but not shown for display purposes. Solid lines represent significant mediational paths and dashed
lines represent significant paths that are not directly involved in the mediational path.

2010). API women also reported less frequent alcohol- Regarding alcohol and sex risk among API women
involved sex compared to EU women, which is a novel across language, differences were found for incapacitated
finding. According to the mediational model, differences in sexual assault but not for heavy episodic drinking. Despite
incapacitated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex were similar levels of precollege sexual assault and heavy episo-
in part due to API women reporting lower rates of heavy dic drinking, NNES-API reported less frequent incapaci-
episodic drinking. tated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex compared to

9
 DIR, ANDREWS, WILSON, DAVIDSON, AND GILMORE

API women. This suggests that API women who are native identification with their heritage culture is low and identifi-
English speakers are more likely to engage in sex while cation with U.S. college culture is high (Chae et al., 2008).
intoxicated compared to API who are not native English In our study, NNES-API women had higher sexual disin-
speakers. Our results explain this disparity through differ- hibition expectancies than EU women. This is not consistent
ences in sex-related alcohol expectancies. Specifically, API with the idea that expectancy endorsement is directly linked
women more strongly endorsed beliefs that alcohol makes to acculturation; however, it may be the case that sexual
one more sexually disinhibited. This difference in expectan- disinhibition is considered more or less desirable depending
cies explained the disparity across language in rates of on culture. If some API cultures consider sexual disinhibi-
incapacitated sexual assault and alcohol-involved sex. tion to be undesirable or unappealing, then this may account
Thus, it appears that compared to NNES-API, native for stronger sexual disinhibition beliefs coupled with lower
English-speaking API women are more likely to engage in rates of alcohol-involved sex among NNES-API.
sex while intoxicated due to beliefs regarding the sexually As an alternative explanation, differences in sex-related
disinhibiting effects of alcohol on sex. We surmise this is alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior may not reflect
likely related to acculturation and adaptation of U.S. college cultural differences per se, but they may be a consequence
cultural norms, which we discuss in the next section. of differing degrees of social connectedness that occur
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because of cultural differences. That is, API students who

do not identify as strongly with U.S. college culture may not
First Language and Acculturation
have as many opportunities to socialize with others more
Our findings highlight the important role that language assimilated to U.S. college culture. In turn, they would be
(and by proxy acculturation) may play in heavy episodic exposed less to social settings with heavy episodic drinking
drinking, alcohol-involved sex, and incapacitated sexual where individuals may be targeted for sexual assault.
assault. Expectancies are learned beliefs about a behavior
that are acquired through environmental influence and past
Prevention Implications
experience. Although we cannot determine the development
and acquisition of individuals’ expectancies in the sample, it These results suggest it may be effective to target sex-
is possible that differences in endorsement of expectancies related alcohol expectancies, as well as more global alcohol
between API and NNES-API could be linked to accultura- expectancies among API and potentially other international
tion/enculturation. As discussed in the introduction, lan- students to prevent incapacitated sexual assault and other
guage is an important proxy for enculturation/ negative outcomes associated with alcohol-involved sex.
acculturation. Thus, differences in expectancies could be Alcohol risk-reduction programs and alcohol misuse inter-
linked to two important individual differences: (1) cultural ventions are common on college campuses, and many
identification and (2) acculturation and assimilation to domi- target alcohol expectancies and norms (Dimeff, Baer,
nant U.S. college culture. The process of acculturation Kivlahan, & Marlatt, 1999). There is evidence that expec-
includes both adapting to behaviors and practices of another tancy challenge techniques are effective not only in redu-
culture (i.e., social norms), as well as adapting to values and cing problem drinking (Scott-Sheldon, Terry, Carey, Garey,
beliefs of another culture (Schwartz, Unger, Zamboanga, & & Carey, 2012) but also in influencing sexual victimization
Szapocznik, 2010). Therefore, stronger endorsement of sex- risk. In one motivational interviewing and feedback-based
ual disinhibition expectancies among API compared to intervention among college women, decreases in sexual
NNES-API could reflect more acculturation and adaptation victimization were not directly linked to changes in alcohol
of the social norms of U.S. college culture. This identifica- use but rather likely due to beliefs and expectancies regard-
tion with U.S. college culture could partly explain why API ing drinking (Clinton-Sherrod, Morgan-Lopez, Brown,
may be more likely than NNES-API to have experiences McMillen, & Cowell, 2011). Further research is needed to
that involve both alcohol use and sex, due to U.S. college examine the utility of interventions targeting API and poten-
culture social norms surrounding drinking and sex. tially other international students, such as culturally modify-
Our findings also relate to the “immigrant paradox.” This ing existing Web-based sexual assault and alcohol
term refers to the empirical observation that those who are interventions (e.g., Gilmore, Lewis, & George, 2015) to
more acculturated engage in more health-hazardous beha- target different cultural groups.
viors compared to their less-acculturated counterparts Results have several implications with regard to perpe-
(Alegría et al., 2008). There are two predominant explana- tration of sexual assault. Foremost, our results highlight two
tions for the immigrant paradox: (1) the stress and challenge important realities for college women: (a) sexual assault is
of adapting to a new culture increases risk taking as a experienced both before and during college by a large por-
coping strategy and (2) protective factors from one’s heri- tion of women across race/ethnicity; and (b) incapacitation
tage culture weaken with acculturation and thus risk taking increases risk for sexual assault regardless of race/ethnicity.
increases (Allen et al., 2008). Previous findings among These findings must be interpreted in light of the fact that
Asian college students appear to support the second expla- perpetrators target individuals who are incapacitated
nation, since sexual risk taking and hazardous alcohol use (Abbey, Wegner, Woerner, Pegram, & Pierce, 2014).
are highest among Asian college students whose Given documented sociocultural influences on sexual

10
 ALCOHOL-INVOLVED SEX, RACE/ETHNICITY, AND LANGUAGE

assault perpetration (Franklin, Bouffard, & Pratt, 2012), operationalizations of acculturation to create a gold stan-
there may be elevated risk of sexual assault for native dard measure, in part to better understand the immigrant
English-speaking API and EU college women, assuming paradox (Allen et al., 2008; Schwartz et al., 2010). This
they may have more opportunity to engage in typical U.S. study was cross-sectional in nature, and therefore causa-
college social settings where these influences are present. tion cannot be determined. In addition, similar to previous
Moreover, given our documented association between sex- studies, this research was conducted with a U.S.-based
related alcohol expectancies and incapacitated sexual sample, and research with API samples outside of the
assault, it is important to underscore the relationship United States is needed to fully examine cultural differ-
between sex-related alcohol expectancies and assault perpe- ences in alcohol expectancies and alcohol-involved sex
tration (Abbey et al., 2014). Although sex-related alcohol and sexual assault. Finally, the study considered those
expectancies do not cause one to be assaulted, perpetrators who identify as EU and API broadly and thus did not
may share these expectancies and/or target those with stron- take into account cultural identity, as there are likely
ger expectancies. It is likely that risk for both sexual assault group differences (Schwartz et al., 2011).
victimization and perpetration is increased by underlying
cultural myths about alcohol’s enhancing effects on sex.
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Further research is needed to understand how perpetrators Conclusion

may target individuals based on race/ethnicity, language, or
acculturation, as well as the role of alcohol in targeting In conclusion, EU women reported higher frequency
individuals. of heavy episodic drinking, alcohol-involved sex, and
incapacitated sexual assault compared to API and
NNES-API. In addition, API reported more frequent
Limitations alcohol-involved sex and incapacitated sexual assault
compared to NNES-API, in part due to API’s stronger
Despite the novelty of these findings, there are some endorsement of sexual disinhibition-related alcohol
limitations. For one, utilizing a sample of all women limits expectancies. Findings highlight the important role of
our understanding of differences in incapacitated sexual expectancies in acculturation and influence on actual
assault and alcohol-involved sex across ethnicity and first alcohol-involved sex and sexual assault.
language in men, including differences in rape myths and
attitudes (Bhanot & Senn, 2007). In addition, although the
rates of incapacitated sexual assault in the current sample References
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