COVER PAGE

AN ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY AND

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL SCREENING OF MEDICINAL PLANTS

USED FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF MALARIA IN

GOKWE SOUTH RURAL DISTRICT, MIDLANDS PROVINCE, ZIMBABWE

MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED BIOSCIENCES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
By

Isabel.M. Bonomali

R178259R

A dissertation in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor

of Science in Applied Biosciences and Biotechnology Honors Degree

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APPROVAL FORM

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “An ethnobotanical survey and
ethnopharmacological screening of medicinal plants used for the management
and control of malaria in Gokwe South Rural District, Midlands Province,
Zimbabwe, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Bachelor of
Science Honors Degree in applied Biosciences and Biotechnology at Midlands
State University, is a record of the original research carried out by Isabel M.
Bonomali R178256R under my supervision and no part of the dissertation
has been submitted for any other degree or diploma. The assistance and the help
received during the course of this research have been duly acknowledged.
Therefore, I recommend, that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation
requirements.

Name of supervisor ………………………………………………………

Signature ……………………………………………………….

Chairperson signature ……………………………………………………….

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ABSTRACT
The number of people in the world at risk of malaria, in 2019 there were estimated 229 million
cases of malaria worldwide.Malaria remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Africa
and other developing countries.According to the latest World malaria report, released on 30
November 2020, there were 229 million cases of malaria in 2019 compared to 228 million
cases in 2018.According to DHIS2 data, approximately 310,000 malaria cases were reported
in 2019, equivalent to an incidence rate of 22 cases per 1,000 population. This represented a
19% increase in the number of cases reported in 2018 (Zimbabwe). Five forms of parasites
affecting human beings cause this disease and they belong to genus Plasmodium. Of these,
Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum are the most important and have developed
traits of resistance to the drugs available for the malaria. The latter is the deadliest form and it
predominates in Africa. The purpose of the study is to survey ethnobotanical plants and herbs
with anti-malaria compounds that can be used in modern medicine research. To obtain such
knowledge on traditional ways of treating and privation of malaria, and document it so that it
can be used by medicinal researches and other scientific study on malaria diseases. After
identification of ways and methods used, there was a collection was collection of herbal plants
used in the region for identification and authentication by the National Botanist Garden Harare.
Isolation of plant extracts by solvent extraction and testing for the presents of phytochemical
compounds then are known for antimalaria activity. Same technique for sampling plant
diversity applied include belt transect and quadra sampling distance. Each method was applied
where necessary, it could provide accurate estimates of cover, density, and frequency so as to
reduce bias in the research. Ethnobotanical survey and antimalarial plant diversity observation
showed the relativeness of plant from same family like Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae,
and Rutaceae. This highlighted that most derived plant species of the same ancestry tracing
back the phylogenetic tree, have similar plant metabolites that exact similar functions just as in
quinine discovery. As seen in the plant diversity tables, the variation of these antimalarial herbs
in plot area is influenced by soil type, geographic region, and prevailing climatic conditions.
Various plots from varied geographical areas with varying soil types exhibited different plant
diversity. Phytochemical analysis conducted on the six plant extracts revealed the presence of
constituents which are known to exhibit medicinal as well as physiological activities. Analysis
of the plant extracts revealed the presence of phytochemicals such as phenols, tannins,
flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, and alkaloids

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the Lord Almighty God for His continuous guidance throughout my
studies. This work would not have been successful without the tireless effort of my parents and
academic supervisors Dr W. Pote, Dr G. Dowo, and Ms B Shopo. I would like to thank the
Department of Applied Biosciences and Biotechnology, for all the assistance they offered me
from my first day of enrolment at M.S.U. A special thanks goes to the staff of Biochemistry
and biotechnology Lab especially Mr Mabugu and my former colleagues for their assistance
during my lab work for my project. Gratitude is also extended to the following friends and
classmates P. Moyo, Z. Nhengu, Y. Gombe, P. Mhaka and A. Chiponda. Lastly, I would like
to thank my family for funding for this project and the completion of my studies and always
being there for me.

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACT’s - Artemisinin-based combination therapies
ERAR- Egyptian Rheumatology and Rehabilitation
MLZ-Mlalazi
MJI- Majerimani
MGI- Magobiyani
MFI- Mafungautsi
WHO- World health Organisation?
CDC- Centre of Disease Control and Prevention
Spp- Species

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Table

Table of Contents
APPROVAL FORM .................................................................................................................. 2
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... 4
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... 5
Table ......................................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 1.1 plasmodium falciparum life cycle ............................................................................ 10
Figure 1.2 Structures of terpenoidal and steroidal alkaloids. ..................................................... 13
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................................................................................................... 14
1.3 JUSTIFICATION .................................................................................................................. 14
1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 15
1.6 Main objectives ..................................................................................................................... 16
1.6.1 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 16
1.6.2 Outcome measuring ........................................................................................................ 16
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................... 17
figure 2.1 map of incidence and mortality in Zimbabwe ........................................................... 18
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................... 24
3.1.1 Area of study ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.2 GEOLOGY AND SOIL TYPE........................................................................................ 24
3.1.3 Climatic conditions ......................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Measuring Forest Tree Species Diversity ............................................................................ 25
3.2.1 Species Richness ............................................................................................................. 25
3.3 Phytochemical analysis of antimalarial herbs or plants used in Gokwe South Rural District
Midlands, Zimbabwe ................................................................................................................... 26
3.3.1 Preparation of Extract...................................................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening .............................................................................. 27
3.3.3 Quantitative Determination of Secondary Metabolites ..................................................... 28
Chapter 4......................................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Results................................................................................................................................... 30
Sample Collection ....................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of 6 herbal plants used in Gokwe South for malarial
treatment.................................................................................................................................. 33

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 4.3 Plant biodiversity ............................................................................................................... 36
Table 4.3.2 Majerimani forest plant biodiversity ...................................................................... 36
Table 4.3.3 forest plant biodiversity ......................................................................................... 37
Table 4.3.4 Mafungautsi forest plant biodiversity ..................................................................... 38
Comparison of the 4 different woodlands plant diversity table .................................................. 38
4.4.1 plant clustering composition in terms of occurrence in plots ............................................ 39
Figure 4.4.1 cluster composition relationship among 4 woodlands in Gokwe South .................. 40
4.4.2Shannon wier index comparison of the 4 different forestry plant diversity ....................... 40
Figure 4.4.3 plant richness across the area ................................................................................ 41
Chapter 5......................................................................................................................................... 42
5.1 Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 42
5.2 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 47
Reference list............................................................................................................................... 50
Index table................................................................................................................................... 55

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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
The number of people in the world at risk of malaria, in 2019 there were estimated 229 million
cases of malaria worldwide. The estimated number of malaria deaths stood at 409 000 in 2019.
Children aged under 5 years are the most vulnerable group affected by malaria and in 2019,
they accounted for 67% (274 000) of all malaria deaths worldwide, (WHO 2020). The WHO
African Region carried a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden. In 2019,
the region was home to 94% of malaria cases and deaths. According to the latest World
malaria report, released on 30 November 2020, there were 229 million cases of malaria in
2019 compared to 228 million cases in 2018. The estimated number of malaria deaths stood at
409 000 in 2019, compared with 411 000 deaths in 2018.

Five forms of parasites affecting human beings cause this disease. All the parasites belong to
the genus Plasmodium: Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale,
Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium knowlesi. Of these, Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium
falciparum are the most important. The latter is the deadliest form and it predominates in
Africa. Resistance of P. falciparum to chloroquine and pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine,
conventionally used antimalarial drugs, is already widely distributed in many endemic areas.
As a result, artemisinin-based combination therapies have been rapidly and widely adopted as
first-line antimalarial treatments since the mid-2000s. The emergence of artemisinin resistance
has also recently been confirmed in the Greater Mekong. In 2013, the WHO Global Malaria

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Programme has recently launched the Emergency response to new antimalarial drug
artemisinin resistance (ERAR) "Global Plan Containment," which aims to prevent the spread
of artemisinin resistance while also stopping the emergence of novel resistance. However, an
inadequate understanding of a mechanism of artemisinin resistance and the lack of reliable
genetic markers to monitor artemisinin resistance make it difficult to survey the spread of
resistance. This has necessitated many countries to revise their treatment policy and adopt an
effective medicinal plant compound

Approximately 15 million people belonging to the five countries in the low-transmission

Southern African sub region (Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and South Africa)
are at some risk of malaria and 10 million people are at high risk. Anopheles arabiensis is the
major vector for malaria. Malaria is the biggest tropical disease in the world. In nearly 100
countries, it is endemic and about 2,400 million people are at risk (Kager 2002). About 50% of
the Zimbabwean population is at risk of contracting malaria each year.

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Figure 1.1 plasmodium falciparum life cycle
When an Anopheles spp mosquito feeds on another person's blood, anticoagulant saliva is
injected along with sporozoites, which migrate to the liver and mature into schizonts and start
a new cycle. In Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale a dormant stage called hypnozoites
can persist in the human liver (if untreated) and can cause relapses by invading the bloodstream
weeks, or even years later. As a result, an infected mosquito spreads the disease from one
human to the other ("acting as a vector"), while infected humans pass the parasites on to the
mosquito. The mosquito vector, unlike the human host, is immune to Plasmodium parasites.
The malaria parasite life cycle involves two hosts (figure 1.1). Resistance to antimalarial drugs
and the absence of vaccines are major challenges in controlling malaria (Midzi et al., 2004,
Kurth et al., 2009, Mayer et al., 2009). RTS, S/AS01 (RTS, S) is the first and, to date, the only
vaccine to show that it can significantly reduce malaria, and life-threatening severe malaria, in
young African children. It acts against Plasmoduim falciparum, the deadliest malaria parasite
globally and the most prevalent in Africa. Among children who received 4 doses in large-scale
clinical trials, the vaccine prevented approximately 4 in 10 cases of malaria over a 4-year
period. compound. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) is a combination of two

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or more drugs that work against the malaria parasite in different ways. This is usually the
preferred treatment for chloroquine-resistant malaria. Examples include artemether-
lumefantrine (Coartem) and artesunate-mefloquine. Other common antimalarial drugs include
Atovaquone-proguanil (Malarone), Quinine sulfate. (Qualaquin) with doxycycline (Oracea,
Vibramycin, others) and Primaquine phosphate. Htut (2009)

However, these drugs are not effective enough in eradicating the resistance traits of
plasmodium parasites, hence the need to diversify our study and research on other ways and
forms that constitution in eliminating the parasites. More research on the vector, parasite
mutations and resistance, also on plants metabolites that are already in use to cure or treat
severe malaria can help modify and improve health standards of Zimbabwe. The identified
active compounds of malaria can be a breakthrough in history that can help in creation of new
malarial drugs. The majority of people, especially in rural areas, use traditional plant-based
medicines to combat malaria which is of ethnopharmacological relevance

The alarming spread of drug resistance, (WHO 2020) as well as a small number of effective
medicines now available highlight how significant it is to discover new antimalarial
compounds. The present study by Sachdeva, (2020) has investigated the anti-malarial
behaviour of many diversified plants with ethyl acetate and methanol (CQ)-sensitive (3D7) and
CQresistant (Dd2 and INDO) strains of Plasmodium falciparum in culture using the
fluorescence-based SYBR Green assay. In Zimbabwe, about 10% of more than 5,000 plant
species have medicinal properties and are used as traditional medicines. The main health
network in poor communities in Zimbabwe relays on traditional medicine as it is the cheapest
and easiest available care route. In many indigenous communities, plants have been an
important part of life, and Africa is no exception. Most of Africa's biodiversity plays an
important role for human society's cultural evolution (Mugabe and Clark, 1998).

Apart from other ethnobotanical uses, plants are especially important in their ethnomedical
uses and among the many diseases traditionally treated with medicinal plants, malaria ranks as
the single most important condition treated with herbal remedies. Due to either limited
availability or affordability of pharmaceutical medicines in many tropical countries, about 80%
of the rural population in Africa depends on traditional herbal remedies (WHO, 2002; Zirihi et
al., 2005). Although there is widespread use of traditional herbal remedies in the management
of malaria (Gessler et al., 1995), scientific understanding of the plants is, however, largely
unexplored (WHO, 2002) and since then there has been a total of 200 different plant species

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(from 71 families) and still counting, used for conventional malaria treatment, found in
different parts of Ethiopia discovered and documented. Distribution and consumption pattern
of anti-malarial plants showed considerable heterogeneity across various geographic settings.
Western and southwestern areas of the world have a greater variety of anti-malarial species.
therefore, there is a need to collect ethnobotanical information on antimalarial plants which is
essential for further evaluation of the efficacy and safety of the plants as antimalarial remedies.
Historically, the majority of antimalarial drugs have been derived from medicinal plants or
from structures modelled on plant lead compounds (Klayman, 1985). As a result, over the past
two decades, progress into alternative anti-malarial drugs has intensified (Petros Z 2011).
Medicinal plants have been the subject of several studies in the past aimed at developing
alternative anti-malarial drugs in various parts of the world (Ntie-Kang F, 2014).

As a result, various anti-malarial compounds with major molecular differences, such as

quinines and triterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, quassinoids, limnoids, alkaloids, lignans, and
coumarins have been found. Quinine and artemisinin, the drugs of choice for treatment of
malaria, were either obtained directly from plants or developed using chemical structures of
plant derived compounds as templates (Basco et al., 1994; Kayser et al., 2003). Alkaloids are
defined as nitrogen-containing organic constituents, optically active, and possess nitrogen
heterocyclic structural unit that occur mainly in plants. Alkaloids are derived from the
secondary metabolism of amino acids. These biosynthetic pathways are long, intricate, stereo
chemically precise, energy consuming, and are assumed to be of evolutionary benefit.
Alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts with acidified water, alcohol, or alternatively
they are soluble in organic water. Approximately 5000 alkaloids of all types are known to occur
in 15% of all land plants, more than 150 families, and they comprise the largest single class of
secondary metabolites (Acamovic et al., 2004). Several of the earliest isolated pure compounds
with biological activity were alkaloids. Several alkaloids having varying terpenoidal backbone
and others are mainly aromatic compounds for example colchicine, cassane-type diterpenes,
indoloterpene, and bisindolomonoterpenic alkaloids, have been isolated recently from
medicinal plants (Caesalpinia minax, Polyalthia oliveri, and Strychnos nux-vomica) and shown
to possess good antiplasmodial activity (Trease and Evans, 2002). Alkaloids are most known
for their main function of protection. For example, aporphine alkaloid liriodenine produced by
the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. Alkaloids have a wide range of
pharmacological activities which include antimalarial (e.g., quinone and quinine). Alkaloids
provide lead compounds for the development of synthetic drugs fig 2.

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Recent study showed isolated two new diterpene alkaloids, caesalminines A (1) and B (2),
possessing a tetracyclic cassane-type diterpenoid skeleton with γ-lactam ring from the seeds of
Caesalpinia minax (Fabaceae). Compounds 1 and 2 exhibit antiplasmodial activity with IC50
values of 0.42 and 0.79 μM. (Sachdeva, C. etal. 2020)

Figure 1.2 Structures of terpenoidal and steroidal alkaloids.

Source https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2020/8749083/fig2/

This study was to collect comprehensive data from traditional healers and local people on
medicinal plant-based remedies commonly used to treat malaria in order to document their
methods of preparation and administration, together with information on how the healers
conceptualize and diagnose malaria to contribute to the overall documentation of anti-malarial
plant species used by traditional healers in Zimbabwe. Secondly was survey in clinics and
hospital the frequency occurrences of malaria cases in the local area of Gokwe south district.
In addition, the collecting of six most mentioned used malaria herbs where to be taken in lab
for extraction of the plant or herb compounds to test the presence of anti-malarial compounds
for the use in future malaria drugs. Documentation of Traditional Medicine and plants
traditionally used for the prophylaxis and treatment of malaria in Zimbabwe constitutes an
important step not only in preserving the local traditions and indigenous knowledge but also in
improving access to and participation in improving traditional malaria control interventions by

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the communities. It could facilitate future research on the safety and efficacy of medicinal
plants and could provide a starting point for identifying single chemical entities with
antimalarial activity which could lead to the development of standardized phytomedicines.
Because the drug-resistance of Plasmodium falciparum and the resistance of Anopheles
mosquitoes to insecticides are widespread, the search for new antimalarial drugs is increasingly
important. So far only a limited number of studies (e.g., Vundule and Mharakurwa, 1996;
Lukwa et al., 1999; Lukwa et al., 2001, Kraft et al., 2003, Kazembe et al., 2012) have been
conducted in Zimbabwe on traditional healers‫ ׳‬use of medicinal plants for the treatment of
malaria.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Malaria epidemiology is still poorly understood in small areas and particularly in epidemics in
highlands of Africa, with low transmission rate and also with acute illnesses over years
(Brooker et al., 2004). Sporadic epidemics of highland malaria occurred among 79% of
children under 5 years old and 37% of adults and caused the deaths of approximately over half
of the Gokwe Southern District Midlands, infected population. According to the Ministry of
Health and Child Welfare of Zimbabwe (MOHCW, 2008), 54 of the 59 rural districts in
Zimbabwe have malaria levels which vary from very high and seasonal to sporadic. Trees and
shrubs in southern central Zimbabwe (38%), followed by herbs (21%) and climbers (3%), are
the primary sources of the medicinal plant species. Extensive use of trees and shrubs in south-
central Zimbabwe in preparation of herbal medicines is linked to their vulnerability to
extinction. There is the danger of over-exploitation of plant species as most of them are
obtained from the wild. Therefore, there is a need for determining the economically and
medicinally important plants in this community and planning for their preservation. Further,
here is knowledge gap on toxicity and side effects of these plant herbs used to treat and prevent
malaria. Studying the phylogenetic trees and relatedness of these plant can help preserve the
endangered species by using some other alternative antimalarial herbs, since most closely
related plant share some reserved motif and domains of their genome that could serve the same
function.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION
The study is significant because it aimed to detect the presence of antimalarial compounds in
six antimalarial herbs identified through phytochemical analysis, as well as provide new
improved preservation methods for local people in Gokwe District and other Zimbabwe

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residents to protect their valuable medicinal plants. Many ethnic groups in rural Africa e.g.,
Zimbabwe have much elaborated plant knowledge (Barrow, 1996). Most knowledge on
medicinal plants is transferred orally in many communities (Fratkin, 1996) and there is
therefore the danger of losing this precious cultural heritage. Therefore, the study was to obtain
such knowledge and document it so that it can be used by medicinal researchers and in other
scientific studies on malaria disease. In view of the rapid loss of natural habitats, traditional
community life, cultural diversity and knowledge of medicinal plants, an increasing number of
ethnobotanical inventories need to be established (Van Wyk et al., 2002). Hence, the research
identified environmental-economic factors related to high malaria transmission rates.
Knowledge on people’s behaviour, education levels, methods used by the local population to
control malaria, hospital attendance behaviour as well as how the residents use the environment
is very important as a guide on how to formulate effective and important malaria control
programs targeted at this population. The findings of this study will therefore assist policy
makers in planning malaria control and preventive measures.

1.4 Research Questions

The main research question of the study is what are the herbal and plant species used in the
treatment of Malaria in Gokwe South District.

❖ What herbal plants are used by local people to treat malaria and how are they
administered to the patient?

❖ Symptoms that are used by traditional healers to diagnose malaria.

❖ What are the preventive and curative interventions in reducing malaria morbidity in an
area of intense perennial malaria transmissions.?

HYPOTHESIS

NULL HYPOTHESIS: There are significant secondary metabolites in the plants or herbs used
by local people of Gokwe southern district that have antimalarial activities.

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ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS: There is no significant evidence of secondary metabolites
in the medicinal plants or herbs used by local people in Gokwe south district that have
Antimalarial activities.

1.6 Main objectives

❖ The goal is to conduct plant diversity on ethnobotanical survey and conduct a
phytochemical analysis of six most maintained antimalarial plant found in Gokwe South
District

1.6.1 Specific objectives

❖ To collect informative data on antimalarial plant herbs used in Gokwe through
questionnaire survey.

❖ To collecting and identification of all anti-malarial herbs and plants used in the Gokwe
south rural district midlands, Zimbabwe

❖ To conduct a statistical analysis of the plant diversity t test to find if there is any interaction
between geographical plot area and soil type in influencing plant frequency occurrence of
plant and determine future conservation methods

1.6.2 Outcome measuring

The study outcome measure is to ensure that all identified and documented plants and herbs
have active antimalarial compounds that can be used in field of medicine to develop vaccines
and drugs against malaria in Zimbabwe or even at the global level. After identification and
authentication, the new identified plants with active antimalarial compounds, their specimen
should be deposited in the National Botanic herbarium in Harare for further research in align
with the other species of the same family. The diversity of the plant of study should be
addressed and labelled endangered species should be protected by the local authority and
Government. People should be educated on preservation and consumption of these herbs and
also improvement on the ways of prevention of malaria epidemic. There should be a botanic
garden that grow and culture these specific plant herbs locally and nationwide so as to prevent
overexertion of the plants and the herbs. For positive or significant of the research there should
be a decrease or non-records of the prevalence of the disease and administration of the new
developed drugs from these plants.

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CHAPTER 2

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Malaria is a serious and sometimes fatal disease caused by a protozoa of genus Plasmodium
that commonly infects a certain type of female mosquito which feeds on human blood. People
who get malaria are typically very sick with high fevers, shaking chills, and flu-like illness.
Four kinds of malaria parasites infect humans: Plasmodium falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale,
and P. malariae (WHO 2020). Furthermore, Plasmodium falciparum, a form of malaria that
naturally infects locals in Zimbabwe's Gokwe Southern District Midlands, is the most prevalent
and deadly malaria parasite found in Africa's southern areas. P falciparum malaria is most
likely to result in severe infections and if not promptly treated, may lead to death It is believed
that malaria disease may be transmitted from animal to human (“zoonotic” malaria) especially
in Southeast Asia. Although malaria can be a deadly disease, illness and death from malaria
can usually be prevented. Globally, the World Health Organization estimates that in 2019, 229
million clinical cases of malaria occurred, and 409,000 people died of malaria, most of them
children in Africa (figure 2.1 and figure 2.2). Because malaria causes so much illness and death,
the disease is a great drain on many national economies. Since many countries with malaria are

17
already among the poorer nations, the disease maintains a vicious cycle of disease and poverty.
Lack of resources and political instability can prevent the building of solid malaria control
programs.

figure 2.1 map of incidence and mortality in Zimbabwe

source Centre of Disease Control and Prevention:
https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/countries/zimbabwe/annual-report/pmi.html

Figure 2.2 Demographic structure and population census on malarial past and prevailing
cases that were expected and observed year 2020

In addition, inadequate armoury of drug in widespread use for the treatment of malaria,
development of strains resistant to commonly used drugs such as chloroquine, and the lack of
affordable new drugs are the limiting factors in the fight against malaria parasites on that
continent. Malaria is typically found in warmer regions especially in tropical and subtropical
countries. Higher temperatures allow the Anopheles mosquito to thrive. Malaria parasites,

18
which grow and develop inside the mosquito, need warmth to complete their growth before
they are mature enough to be transmitted to humans, CDC (2021).

Large areas of Africa and South Asia and parts of Central and South America, the Caribbean,
Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Oceania are considered areas where malaria transmission
occurs. However, malaria does not occur in all warm climates. For example, malaria has been
eliminated in some countries with warm climates, 12 countries have eliminated malaria of these
4 were certified as malaria free by the World Health Organization (WHO) between 2007 and
2013 (Armenia, Morocco, Turkmenistan, and the United Arab Emirates). An additional 8
moved into the WHO’s prevention-of-reintroduction phase after sustaining at least three years
of zero local malaria transmission (Argentina, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Iraq, Georgia, the
Kyrgyz Republic, Oman, the Syrian Arab Republic, and Uzbekistan); and 5 interrupted local
transmission (Azerbaijan, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Sri Lanka, and Turkey). The WHO European
Region reported zero indigenous cases for the first time in 2015, in line with the goal of the
Tashkent Declaration to eliminate malaria from the region by 2015, (Abeyasinghe, etal 2012).
While a few other countries have no malaria because Anopheles mosquitoes are not found
there. In Africa south of the Sahara, the principal malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae,
transmits malaria very efficiently CDC (2021).

The natural history of malaria involves cyclical infection of humans and female Anopheles
mosquitoes (figure 2.3). The parasites in humans develop and multiply first in liver cells, then
in the red blood cells. In the blood, successive broods of parasites (the ring stage trophozoites
mature into schizoits) invade and kill red cells, releasing daughter parasites (merozoites) that
continue the cycle by invading other red cells. The blood stage parasites are those that cause
the symptoms of malaria. Gametocytes are certain forms of blood stage parasite of
plasmodium, which occurs in both males and female’s form. If gametocytes are female’s
ingested by a female Anopheles for example Anopheles arabiensis (figure 2.3), the
gametocytes mate and begin a cycle of growth and multiplication in the mosquito's guts
(Anopheles arabiensis)

The parasites' multiplication in the mosquito is known as the sporogonic cycle. A parasite
called a sporozoite migrates after 10-18 days to the mosquito's salivary glands.

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Figure 2.3 Parts of the Anopheles arabiensis
Medicinal plants are currently in considerable significance view due to their special attributes
as a large source of therapeutic phytochemicals that may lead to the development of novel
drugs. Out of more than 5000 plant species growing in Zimbabwe, about 10 percent of these
have medicinal properties and are used as traditional medicines (Maroyi, 2021) .Most of the
phytochemicals from plant sources such as phenolics, flavonoids, and also quinine have been
reported to have positive impact on health, cancer and malaria prevention (Harborne, 1999).
The plants which have been selected for medicinal use over thousands of years constitute the
most obvious choice of examining the current search for therapeutically effective new drugs
such as anticancer drugs and antimalarial drugs, Dewick (1996). According to World Health
Organization (WHO), medicinal plants would be the best source to obtain variety of drugs.
About 80% of individuals from developed countries use traditional medicines, which has
compounds derived from medicinal plants. Nevertheless, much about these plants is known
therefore there is still need to investigate more about them and to better understand their
properties, safety, and efficiency Muthuselvam (2009). Most plants used in medicinal practise
(medicinal herbs) contain some organic compounds which provide definite physiological
action on the human body and these bioactive substances include quinine, tannins, alkaloids,
carbohydrates, terpenoids, steroids and flavonoids Mann, (1978) and Edoga etal (2005). These
phytochemical compounds are synthesized by primary or rather secondary metabolism of
living plant. Secondary metabolites are chemically and taxonomically extremely diverse
compounds with obscure function. They are widely used in the human therapy, veterinary,
agriculture, scientific research and countless other areas Vasu etal (2009). A large number of
phytochemicals belonging to several chemical classes mostly quinine, quinone, tannis and

20
alkaloids have been shown to have inhibitory effects on all types of microorganisms in vitro
even malarial pathogens. The phytochemicals can be derived from barks, leaves, flowers, roots,
fruits, seeds (Criagg etal 2001). Knowledge of the chemical constituents of plants is desirable
because such information will be value for synthesis of complex chemical substances Parekh
and Chanda (2007.,08), Mojab etal (2003). In this study, ethnobotanical survey was conducted
on antimalarial herbs in addition qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis were
carried out in six mostly used plants in Gokwe Southern District Midlands, Zimbabwe. These
plants are Cassia abbreviata (Murumanyama), Zanthoxylum chalybeum (Mukundanyoka),
(Zumbani), Elephantorrhiza rubescens (Ndorani), Dicoma anomala (Chifumuro), Pterocarpus
angolensis (Mubvamaropa). Extraction of medicinal plants is a process of separating active
plant materials or secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, saponins,
steroids, and glycosides from inert or inactive material using an appropriate solvent and
standard extraction procedure.

Plant materials with high content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids were found to possess
antioxidant properties, and hence are used to treat age-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s
disease, Parkinsonism, anxiety, and depression (Abubakar and Haque, 2020). Several methods
were used in the extraction of medicinal plants such as maceration, infusion, decoction,
percolation, digestion and Soxhlet extraction, superficial extraction, ultrasound-assisted, and
microwave-assisted extraction. In addition, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), paper chromatography (PC), and gas
chromatography (GC) were used in separation and purification of the secondary metabolites
(Abubakar and Haque, 2020). The choice of an appropriate extraction method depends on the
nature of the plant material, solvent used, pH of the solvent, temperature, and solvent to sample
ration. It also depends on the intended use of the final products.

The phenolic compounds are one of the largest and most ubiquitous groups of plant metabolites
(Singh, etal 2007). They possess biological properties such as antiapoptosis, antiaging,
anticarcinogen, antiinflammation, antiatherosclerosis, cardiovascular protection and
improvement of endothelial function, as well as inhibition of angiogenesis and cell proliferation
activities (Han, etal 2007). Natural antioxidant mainly come from plants in the form of phenolic
compounds such as flavonoid, phenolic acids, tocopherols etc. (Ali, etal 2008). Tannins bind
to proline rich protein and interfere with protein synthesis. Flavonoids are hydroxylated
phenolic substances known to be synthesized by plants in response to microbial infection and
they have been found to be antimicrobial substances against wide array of microorganisms in

21
vitro. Their activity is probably due to their ability to complex with extracellular and soluble
proteins and to complex with bacterial cell wall (Marjorie, 1996). They also are effective
antioxidant and show strong anticancer activities (Salah, etal 1995). The plant extracts were
also revealed to contain saponins which are known to produce inhibitory effect on
inflammation (Just, etal 1998). Saponins has the property of precipitating and coagulating red
blood cells. Some of the characteristics of saponins include formation of foams in aqueous
solutions, hemolytic activity, cholesterol binding properties and bitterness (Sodipo, etal 2000).
Alkaloids have been associated with medicinal uses for centuries and one of their common
biological properties is their cytotoxicity (Nobori, etal 1994). Several workers have reported
the antispasmodic and antibacterial (Okwu, etal 2004) properties of alkaloids.

In this study the crude extraction method was used, of these solvent Ethanol (0.654), Methanol
(0.762), Water (1.000). Solvent used in extraction are classified according to their polarity,
from ethanol which is the least polar to water the most polar (Abubakar and Haque, 2020). The
solvent used for the extraction of medicinal plants is also known as the menstruum. The choice
of solvent depends on the type of plant, part of plant to be extracted, nature of the bioactive
compounds, and the availability of solvent (Abubakar and Haque, 2020). In general, polar
solvents such as water, methanol, and ethanol are used in extraction of polar compound,
whereas nonpolar solvents such as hexane and dichloromethane are used in extraction of
nonpolar compounds (Pandey and Tripathi Google scholar).

Water is the most polar solvent and is used in the extraction of a wide range of polar compounds
(Das etal 2010). Advantages of using water as a solvent is that it dissolves a wide range of
substances and it is cheap, nontoxic, non-flammable, also highly polar. However, it promotes
bacterial and mild growth and it may cause hydrolysis. A large amount of heat is required to
concentrate the extract in water solvent (Abubakar and Haque, 2020). On the other hand,
alcohol solvents like ethanol and methanol are also polar in nature, miscible with water, and
could extract polar secondary metabolites. Yet, these solvent unlike water there are self-
preservative at a concentration above 20%. There are nontoxic at low concentration, and small
amount of heat is required for concentrating the extract (Tiwari, etal 2011). Nevertheless,
alcohol solvents do not dissolve fats, gums, and wax and there are flammable and volatile.
Ethanol has been known as a good solvent for polyphenol extraction and is safe for human
consumption and methanol has been generally found to be more efficient in extraction of lower
molecular weight polyphenols (Diem et al., 2021).

22
Extraction of the six medicinal plants in the study was done using the most common and easy
way of plant extraction known as Maceration. This is an extraction procedure in which coarsely
grinded plant material, either leaves or stem bark or root bark, is placed inside a container and
the menstruum is poured on top until the plant material is completely covered. The container
is then closed and kept for at least three days (Pandey and Tripathi 2014). The content is stirred
periodically, and if placed inside bottle it should be shaken time to time to ensure complete
extraction. At the end of extraction, the micelle is separated from marc by filtration or
decantation. Subsequently, the micelle is then separated from the menstruum by evaporation
in an oven or on top of water bath (Ingle etal (2017), Azwanida (2015)) This method is
convenient and very suitable for thermolabile plant material.

Species diversity is measured through a combination of species richness and species evenness
(the relative abundance of each species). Species richness is the number of species present in
the forest. For small datasets it can be counted manually. For larger datasets one way is to use
the Excel COUNT function. Species richness and evenness can be combined to find the
Shannon Index which is the single indicator mostly used in ecology.

23
CHAPTER 3

3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1.1 Area of study

The study area is in the Gokwe South District (fig 4.1 A and B), which falls under the Midlands
Province of Zimbabwe. Figure 4.1 below shows the location of Gokwe South District in
Zimbabwe.

Fig 3.1 Zimbabwe map showing Gokwe south location and imbibe the wards in Gokwe South
District: source https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc6852592#

3.1.2 GEOLOGY AND SOIL TYPE

Kalahari sand covers the bulk of the protected Mafundawotsi teak forests. The Gokwe Southern
areas soil type comprise of deep sands, unconsolidated and well-drained tertiary sands of
Aeolian origin. The underlying geology is of sedimentary rocks overlying Karoo basalt and
sedimentary deposits. These underlying formations are only exposed along rivers where the
sands have been eroded. The dominant KS soils are uniform physically and chemically
(Anderson et al., 1993; Nyamapfene, 1991). The extremely low occurrence of silt and clay
particles (< 10 percent) is due to the absence of any weather resistant minerals (Lockett,
1979). The soils are also highly infertile. Permeability is rapid and there is very little runoff.
High permeability and low fertility severely constrain the potential of the soils for dry land
crop production.

24
The valley soils along drainage lines are different and much more varied. This results from
differences in the parent material of reworked Kalahari sand, basalts, sedimentary and alluvial
deposits. The common soil type in the valleys is locally known as “Chidhaka”, literally
meaning brick red loam soils. This type of soil is moderately well drained, deep, loamy sand
highly favoured for agriculture and plant diversity.

There are three major soil colour divisions that can be recognised. These are the darker, finer
and more fertile red loamy sands; the pale, coarse, loose, infertile white or grey sands and the
intermediate buff sands (Calvert, 1986). The red loamy sands are the least extensive and are
found adjacent to valleys and ridges where relief is relatively marked. The pale sands are
associated with depressions and flatter areas where drainage is less free. The relatively
extensive buff soils are intermediate between the two, in some places apparently overlying pale
sands and in others red sands.

3.1.3 Climatic conditions

The dominant climatic characteristic in Gokwe Southern District, Midlands Zimbabwe is a
short and erratic rainfall season from mid-November to mid-March. The dry season ranges
from April/May to October/November. The average annual rainfall for the region is about 600
mm in Gokwe south district and for Mafungabusi forest near Gokwe in Chief Njelele village
in ward 3 area of the region is about 680 mm (Anderson et al., 1993). There is considerable
year-to-year variation, such that in some low rainfall years the average annual rainfall is below
300 mm and in high rainfall years above 800 mm. Mean annual temperature in the region is
approximately 21.50C. Mean monthly temperatures in the hot and cold months are about 300C
and 170C, respectively (Nyamapfene, 1991)

3.2 Measuring Forest Tree Species Diversity

3.2.1 Species Richness

Calculating the total number of species present in the forest using EXCEL
1. Type ‘=count (‘and select the area values of your species, where the area is >0 then
close the bracket with ‘)’
Species Evenness
calculate the percentage area of the most dominant species:
1. Calculate the total area of all the species: Total Area = sum(range)
2. Calculate the percent cover of all the species: Percent = species area/total area*100

25
 3. Sort your data, the values correspond to the area and percent cover of the most
dominant species.
Species richness and evenness using the Shannon Index
1.The scientific formula is:
𝜋

𝑆𝐼 = − ∑ 𝑃𝑖. ln 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

2.Calculate the Shannon Index using Excel

Measure the total forest area (A) and the area of each species (SA) in the forest, either using a
forest survey data collected. NB USE SAME MEASUREMENT UNITS, as the proportion
will be used to calculate the Shannon Index
3. Calculate the proportion of each species (P). This is the area of each species divided by
total area (P=SA/A)
4. Take the natural log (ln) of the proportion of each species; multiply by -1 (-ln(P))
5. Sum the values of -P*ln(P) to give the Shannon Index.

3.3 Phytochemical analysis of antimalarial herbs or plants used in Gokwe

South Rural District Midlands, Zimbabwe

3.3.1 Preparation of Extract

Cassia abbreviata Oliv (barks), Zanthoxylum chalybeum (backs), Pterocarpus angolensis DC
(barks), Elephantorrhiza rubescens Gibbs (roots), Dicoma anomala Sond (roots), lippia
javanica leaves and twigs, powder was extracted with ethanol and methanol solvents. 50 gm of
dried powder of fruit was suspended in 200 ml of water, ethanol and methanol solvents.
Extraction was done using Maceration apparatus for 4 days at a specific temperature for each
solvent but further, the extract was preserved in refrigerator in glass bottle throughout the
experiment (i.e., for both quantitative and qualitative analysis). (Image 1).

26
Figure 3.2 plant extract of six antimalaria herbs

3.3.2 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening

Test for Tannins: To 1 ml of extract, 2 ml of 5% ferric chloride was added. Formation of dark
blue or greenish black indicates the presence of tannins.

Test for Saponins: 2 ml of extract, 2 ml of distilled water were added and shaken in a
graduated cylinder for 15 min lengthwise. It resulted in the formation of 1 cm layer of foam
that indicated the presence of saponins.

Test for Alkaloids: To 2 ml of extract, 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added.

Then few drops of Wagner’s reagent were added. Presence of brownish to yellowish precipitate
indicates the presence of alkaloids.

Test for Flavonoids: To 2 ml of extract, 1 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide was added. Presence

of yellow colour indicates the presence of flavonoids.

Test for Quinones: To 1 ml of extract, 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was added.

Formation of red colour indicates presence of quinones.

Test for Phenols: 2 ml of distilled water followed by few drops of 10% ferric chloride was
added to 1ml of the extract. Formation of blue or green colour indicates presence of phenols.

27
Test for Terpenoids: 0.5 ml of the extract was treated with 2 ml of chloroform and conc.
sulphuric acid. Formation of red brown colour at the interface indicates the presence of
terpenoids.

3.3.3 Quantitative Determination of Secondary Metabolites

Estimation of Alkaloids: Alkaloids were determined using Harborne method 7. Five grams of
the sample was weighed into a 250 ml beaker, 200 ml of 10% acetic acid in ethanol was added
and covered and allowed to stand for 4 h. This was filtered and the extract was concentrated on
a water bath to one quarter of the original volume. Concentrated ammonium hydroxide was
added drop wise to the extract until the precipitation was complete. The whole solution was
allowed to settle and the precipitate was collected and washed with dilute ammonium
hydroxide and then filtered. The residue is the alkaloid, which was dried and weighed.

Estimation of Flavonoids: The total flavonoid content in the sample was estimated by the
method of Chang 8. A volume of 0.25 ml of the sample was diluted to 1.25 ml with distilled
water. 75 μl of 5% sodium nitrite was added and after six minutes 0.1 5 ml of aluminium
chloride solution was added. 0.5 ml of 0.1M NaOH was added after 5 min and made up to 2.5
ml with distilled water. The solution was mixed well and the absorbance was read at 510 nm
along with standard quercetin at 5 - 25 μg concentration. The results are expressed as mg of
flavonoids as quercetin equivalent / gm of dried sample.

Total Phenolic Content (TPC): Total phenolic content of extract was determined according
to the Folin-Ciocalteau method of Slinkard and Singleton with some modifications. Briefly,
0.1 ml of extract (200, 600 and 1000 µg/ml), 1.9 ml distilled water and 1 ml of Folin-
Ciocalteau’s reagent were seeded in a tube, and then 1 ml of sodium carbonate was added. The
reaction mixture was incubated at 25 °C for 2 h and the absorbance of the mixture was read at
765 nm. The sample was tested in triplicate and a calibration curve with six data points for
catechol was obtained. The results were compared with catechol calibration curve and the total
phenolic content of sample was expressed as mg of catechol equivalents per gram of extract.

Total Tannins Content (TTC): Tannins - phenolics were determined by the method of Peri
and Pompei 10. 1 ml of the sample extracts of concentration 1mg/ml was taken in a test tube.
The volume was made up to 1ml with distilled water and 1 ml of water serves as the blank. To
this 0.5 ml of Folin’s phenol reagent (1:2) followed by 5ml of 35% sodium carbonate was
added and kept at room temperature for 5 min. blue colour was formed and the colour intensity
was read at 640 nm. A standard graph (gallic acid - 1 mg/ml) was plotted, from which the

28
tannin content of the extract was determined. The total tannin content was expressed in mg/g
of extract.

Total Saponins: The fruit extract was ground and 20 g of extract put into a conical flask and
100 ml of 20% ethanol is added to the sample 11. The sample is heated over a hot water bath
for 4 h with continuous stirring at about 55 ºC. The mixture is then filtered and the residue re-
extracted with another 200 ml of 20% ethyl alcohol. The combined extracts are reduced to 40
ml over a water bath at about 90 ºC. The concentrate is then transferred into a 250 ml separating
funnel and 20 ml of diethyl ether is added to the extract and vigorously shaken. The aqueous
layer is recovered while the diethyl ether layer is discarded and the purification process is
repeated. 60 ml of n-butanol is added and the combined n-butanol extracts is washed twice
with 10 ml of 5% sodium chloride. The remaining solution is then heated in a water bath and
after evaporation; the samples are dried in the oven to a constant weight and values are
expressed as mg/g of extract.

Calculated results of the quantitative analysis were obtained from the calibration curve
y = 50x + 7.75 with R = 0.9894,

w/w=QE or GE (gallic/quacenitin) (μg/mL) equivalent

=V-total volume of sample

=D-diffusion factor

=W-sample weight

where x is the absorbance and y is the concentration of gallic acid solution

(μg/mL) expressed as mg GAE/g

29
Chapter 4

4.1 Results
4.1.1 Survey results

Plant collection, identification and authentication

Sample Collection

Figure 4.1Plant collection and plant pressing.

The study was undertaken between April and May 2021 and was entirely ethnobotanical,
including actual botanical surveys. The traditional uses of anti-malarial plants in Gokwe south
district midlands Zimbabwe were collated. Number of medicinal plants namely, Carissa
bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Brenan, Carissa edulis, Bidens Pilosa, Dicoma anomala Sond,
Julberanadia globiflora were collected from Gokwe South rural midlands local forestry and
local herbalists from randomly selected communities in the area were interviewed on their
methods of treatment of malaria. Following the interviews, many herbal plants were mentioned
as anti-malaria herbs that they utilized in their practice. They all administered their methods of
using the herbs in conjunction for increased efficacy, as well as their method of preparing the
herbs. Several plants were identified to be popular among herbalists (ref to index table 2). Some
of them were chosen at random for the phytochemical investigation and gathered from the local
forest with the assistance of the herbalist. Additionally, their leaves were gathered for botanical
identification. The identification and authentication were carried out at the National Botanic
Gardens in Harare, Zimbabwe, used of image comparison on plant net App and expect
determination (Mrs B. Shopo and Dr Dowo).

30
Figure 4.2 percentage of highest ten mostly maintained plants species by respondents

Following the collection of questionnaire data from local and traditional healers, the statistical
results reveal these percentages of species expressed as a of the total number of respondents
who answered to the same plant herb use. Collected on the basis of a questionnaire and a data
survey, 52 of 173 named plants were identified. The (figure 4.1) show that Cassia abbreviate
(13%), Dicoma anomal (12%), Zanthoxylum chalybeum (13%), Elephanttorrhiza goetzei
(12%), and Lippia javanica (12%) are all present. In Gokwe, these are the most commonly used
plant species against malaria. They are used in various ways to treat and prevent mosquito bites
that transmit P. falciparum (ref index table). Some of these plants have been shown to have
effective mosquito repellent effects when burned in charcoal. The smoky flame they emit repels
the malaria vector. These are generally known as munhuwe-nhuwe, which is rubbed on the
skin as a mosquito repellent, chionyeni, and zumbani, which are burned to make smoke. Some
people recommended using cow dung to keep mosquitos away. However, as a result of
government malaria efforts, most people are given mosquito nets to protect themselves against
mosquito bites.

31
Figure 4.3 A and B showing the antimalarial herbs natural habitat

The natural habitats of these 52 antimalarial species included trees (47 percent), shrubs (33%),
climbers (4%), and herbs (16 percent). Of the 52 identified species, 21% are utilized for
prevention and 79% for therapy. The most commonly utilized plant parts are leaves (48%),
followed by roots, and the least commonly used antimalarial herd parts are some tubers (7%)
from wild onion discovered near river banks and river pumpkin (chinhanga) a bulbar (3%) also
found near river banks.

After undertaking a plant diversity analysis of all antimalarial herbs utilized in the Gokwe
district, the Fabaceae family was found to have the most antimalarial plants, with eight species,
followed by Asteraceae, and finally Zingiberaceae and Verbenaceae. The Fabaceae family
accounts for 17% of antimalarial plant species, followed by Asteraceae (6%), Euphorbiaceae
(4%), Cucubitacea (4%), Chrysobalanaceae (2%), and Moringaceae (2%), with each family
accounting for only one plant speciesOnly seven of the 52 plant species utilized for malaria
treatment were not identified, with Matemera, Muchecheni, and muparure being among them
ref index table 3.

32
 4.2 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of 6 herbal plants used in Gokwe
South for malarial treatment.
4.2.1 Qualitative and quantitative analysis of 6 herbal plants

Figure 4.4 A: phytochemical result of quinones results in ethanol solvent

Figure 4.4 B: phytochemical result of Alkaloids results in ethanol and methanol solvent

Table 4.2.1: Qualitative Phytochemical analysis for the water, methanolic and ethanolic
extract of the 6 plants
Cassia Zanthoxylum Pterocarpus Elephantorrhiza Dicoma lippia
abbreviata chalybeum angolensis rubescens anomala javanica

Alkaloids +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ ---

Phenols +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Tannin ++ +++ +++ +++ + ++
Flavonoids ++ +++ --- --- +++ ++
Quinones +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Saponins +++ --- ++ +++ --- ---
Terpenoids +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++

Key table 4.2.2

Non ---
Low +
medium ++
high +++

33
 The qualitative investigation of the six herbal plants in table 4.1 shows the observational determination
of the presence of six phytochemical substances that are thought to inhibit Plasmodium pathogen. Each
phytochem's colour shift was monitored as an indicator. The intensity of colour change ranged from
low to medium to high, and where no colour change was seen, there was no indicator level (—).

Table 4.2.3 Quantitative Phytochemical analysis for the ethanolic extract of the 6 plants

ETHANOL Standard Cassia Zanthoxylum Pterocarpus Elephantorr Dicoma lippia

extract abbreviata chalybeum angolensis hiza anomala javanica
rubescens
Alkaloids mg/g 40.10 ± 1.55 31.74 ± 1.60 28.60 ± 1.36 22.70 ± 1.38 14.11 ±0.56 ---
Phenols (mgGAE/g) 34.80 ± 0.95 39.70 ± 1.80 29.46 ± 1.60 38.50 ± 1.35 25.45 ±1.85 30.25±1.74
Tannin (mg/g) 39.28 ± 1.62 40.62 ± 1.21 38.91± 1.26 39.33 ± 1.96 37.45 ±1.64 38.55±1.89
Flavonoids (mgQCE/g) 39.17 ± 0.88 41.08 ± 1.01 --- --- 37.98 ±0.45 39.60±0.75
Quinones (mgGAE/g) 43.15 ± 1.78 42.81 ± 1.96 37.98 ± 1.70 35.10 ± 1.25 34.66 ±1.85 33.15±1.96
Saponins (mgGAE/g) 24.15 ± 1.80 --- 19.40 ± 1.78 26.98 ± 1.05 --- ---
Terpenoids (mg/g) 33.095 ± 0.75 36.05 ± 1.24 29.38 ± 1.20 30.85 ± 1.42 28.18 ±1.60 25.17±1.98

The quantitative analysis of ethanol indicates that ethanol has some solvent mechanism as
methanol, since methanol has polar and non-polar characteristics that dissolves both polar and
non-polar compounds had the same quantitative range. Cassia abbreviate had the same
alkaloids 40.10 1.55 mg/g, 34.80 0.95 mgGAE/g phenols, and 43.15 1.78mgQAE/g flavonoids,
but it had a higher flavonoids 39.17 0.88 mgQCE/G, indicating that it is an excellent solvent
for flavonoids phytochemical extract. Dicoma anomala had the fewest alkaloids of any plant
extract, while Lippia javanica had no alkaloids or saponins. Zanthoxylum chalybeum was found
to contain no saponins in 50% of the tested herbal plants. Also, the quantite of terpenoids was
low as compared to other phytochemical, with Zanthoxylum chalybeum having the highest
content i.e 36.05± 1.24.

Table 4.2.4 Quantitative Phytochemical analysis for the methanolic and extract of the 6
plants

METHANOL Standard Cassia Zanthoxylum Pterocarpus Elephantorr Dicoma lippia

Extract Abbreviate chalybeum angolensis hiza anomala javanica
Oliv DC. rubescens G Sond
ibbs
Alkaloids mg/g 40.10 ±1.55 38.50 ± 1.80 32.94 ± 1.86 29.65 ± 1.08 17.19 ±1.35 ---
Phenols (mgGAE/g) 37.95 ± 1.07 40.65 ± 1.20 32.74 ± 1.88 40.94 ± 1.70 27.80 ±1.07 33.44±1.67
Tannin (mg/g) 40.28 ± 1.62 42.62 ± 1.41 39.82± 1.26 41.33 ± 1.42 38.55 ±1.44 39.58±1.79
Flavonoids (mgQCE/g) 31.98 ± 1.15 42.65 ± 0.96 --- --- 40.20 ±0.98 40.66±0.74
Quinones (mgGAE/g) 44.95 ±1.42 44.08 ± 1.60 34.17 ± 1.15 38.75 ± 1.94 35.87 ±1.65 33.28±1.22
Saponins (mgGAE/g) 26.43 ± 1.21 --- 21.98 ± 1.27 29.05 ± 1.70 --- ---
Terpenoids (mg/g) 35.15 ± 1.65 37.48 ± 1.64 30.25 ± 1.65 32.70 ± 1.76 29.42 ±1.18 27.10±1.23

34
 Methanol had the highest extract phytochemical quantitative values of all the
solvents, followed by ethanol, while water had the lowest. Cassia abbreviate had
the highest antimalarial phytochemical ex tract quantities; alkaloid 40.10 1.55
mg/g, quinones 43.15 1.78 mgGAE/g, followed by Zanthoxylum chalybeum with
alkaloids 38.50 1.80 mg/g, flavonoids 44.95 1.42 mgGAE/g and (42.65 0.96
mgQCE/g, in methanol extract there was a lower quantite of flavonoids t han the
exact had higher saponins (29.05 1.70 mgGAE/g), Pterocarpus angolensis (40.65
1.20 mgGAE/g), and Elephantorrhiza rubescens (40.94 1.70 mgGAE/g) phenols.

Table 4.2.5 Quantitative Phytochemical analysis for the water and extract of the 6
plants in (mg GAE/g) and (mg QCE/g) calibrate curve
Water Standard Cassia Zanthoxylum Pterocarpus Elephantorr Dicoma lippia
Extract abbreviata chalybeum angolensis hiza anomala javanica
rubescens
Alkaloids mg/g 11.40 ± 0.21 10.25 ± 0.34 9.48 ± 0.97 6.65 ± 0.86 4.04 ±0.22 ---
Phenols (mgGAE/g) 13.67 ± 1.17 14.15 ± 1.44 12.40 ±1.55 15.18 ± 1.92 10.21 ±1.60 11.96±1.50
Tannin (mg/g) 16.78 ± 1.34 16.09 ± 1.95 13.28 ± 1.83 15.15 ± 1.47 14.48 ±1.45 15.55±1.74
Flavonoids (mgQCE/g) 10.01 ± 0.35 15.20 ± 0.78 --- --- 13.15 ±0.76 14.80±0.75

Quinones (mgGAE/g) 16.40 ±1.30 15.98 ±1.25 12.60 ± 0.81 13.07 ± 1.41 13.44±1.08 11.15±1.25
Saponins (mgGAE/g) 7.85 ± 1.68 --- 5.56 ± 1.88 9.35 ± 1.45 --- ---

Terpenoids (mg/g) 10.38 ± 1.38 11.94 ± 1.01 6.05 ± 1.15 8.40 ±1.90 4.29± 1.85 4.16±1.87

Water only being a polar solvent had the least composition of phytochemicals with lippia javanica
having 11.15±1.25 mgGAE/g quinones, 4,16±1.87 mg/g terpernoids and non-alkaloids and Dicoma
anomala 13.44±1.08 mgGAE/g quinones and 4.04 ±0.22 mg/g alkaloids.

35
4.3 Plant biodiversity

Plant diversity survey in Mafungautsi forest

Figure 4.3.1 Plant diversity survey in Mafungautsi woodland

Table 4.3.1 Mlalazi village biodiversity

(MZL MLZ MLZ MLZ
Plot 1) (Plot 2) (Plot 3) (Plot 4)
Taxa_S 29 23 28 30
Individuals 330 284 247 252
Dominance_D 0.06663 0.09537 0.06738 0.1868
Simpson_1-D 0.9334 0.9046 0.9326 0.8132
Shannon_H 2.956 2.708 2.947 2.344
Evenness_e^H/S 0.6631 0.652 0.6803 0.3475

Plant diversity surveys were conducted in four different sites, with Mlalazi being one of the
forests surveyed in this study for species diversity of malarial herds. In this forest, the
predominant soil type is a greyish, deeply infiltrated, unfertile soil. It's a sandy soil with a lot
of hefty drainages gullies. The areas' geographical morphology is made up of granitic
mountainous rocks with a lot of land degradation of land topography due to river rejuvenation
and river bank turbulences floods that wash away all the fertile soil plot 4 had the most plant
taxa (30) in this geographical area, with black clay soil and grey sandy soil, while plot 1 had
the least. According to the sequence of plot 1 to plot 4, their species richness was 0.9334,
0.9046, 0.9326, and 0.813. The plot's species evenness ranged from 0.66 to 0.34, with 0.66
being the most even.

Table 4.3.2 Majerimani forest plant biodiversity

36
 MJI Plot MJI Plot MJI Plot MJI Plot
1 2 3 4
Taxa_S 39 35 36 36
Individuals 416 309 347 280
Dominance_D 0.07511 0.0998 0.11 0.1235
Simpson_1-D 0.9249 0.9002 0.89 0.8765
Shannon_H 3.057 2.855 2.78 2.694
Evenness_e^H/S 0.5453 0.4965 0.4476 0.411

In Ward 19, there is a woodlands area along the Mufure River called Majerimani or Banana,
with a wide variety of Banana trees due to the high-water tables of the geographical terrain.
The area is also very fertile with alluvial red loam sandy soil, which is referred to as Chidhaka
by locals. Following the largest forest in Gokwe District, termed Fungates woodland in Ward
3, it has the most antimalarial herb diversity. The most species taxa discovered were 39. The
species dominance in this area ranged from 0.075 to 0.1235, while the species richness was
0.9249 for plot 1, 0.89 for plot 3, and 0.8765 for plot 4. Magobhiyani forest plant biodiversity

Table 4.3.3 forest plant biodiversity

MGI MGI MGI MGI

Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4
Taxa_S 23 28 27 35
Individuals 292 333 264 281
Dominance_D 0.1927 0.2116 0.1746 0.05209
Simpson_1-D 0.8073 0.7884 0.8254 0.9479
Shannon_H 2.144 2.236 2.323 3.186
Evenness_e^H/S 0.3711 0.3342 0.3779 0.6915

Magobiyani is a forest near Gawa Clinic in Ward 32 that has a variety of plant herbs of interest,
and it just so happened to be rich in antimalaria metabolites. However, due to geographical
considerations such as climatic conditions, soil type, terrain, and others, the botanical diversity
of these plants was limited. Species of Dichrostachys cinerea thrive in this environment. A
number of malarial herbs were discovered in the area, with a species diversity index of 0.8073
in plot 1, 0.7884 in plot 2, 0.8254 in plot 3, and 0.9479 in plot 4. Each plot has a respectable
number of distinct plant species, with the largest number being 333 in plot 2 and the lowest
being 264 in plot 3.

37
Table 4.3.4 Mafungautsi forest plant biodiversity
MFI MFI MFI MFI
Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4
Taxa_S 36 41 42 37
Individuals 244 385 436 305
Dominance_D 0.1027 0.06152 0.07187 0.0976
Simpson_1-D 0.8973 0.9385 0.9281 0.9024
Shannon_H 2.906 3.149 3.13 2.957
Evenness_e^H/S 0.5081 0.5687 0.5446 0.52

Mafungautsi is the largest forest in the savanna regions of Gokwe District, with the most
antimalarial plant species documented by this study. Having 37 taxonomic species, it likewise
had the most species taxa records in plot 4 as Majerimani plot 1. Plant evenness was 0.5081 in
plot 1, 0.5687 in plot 2, 0.5446 in plot 3, and 0.52 in plot 4 across the quantrads assessed. This
forestry's biodiversity index ranges from 2.906 to 3.13.

Comparison of the 4 different woodlands plant diversity table

Mlalazi Majerimani Magobhiyana Mafungautse

total Total total Total
Taxa_S 40 50 47 51
Individuals 1113 1352 1170 3635
Dominance_D 0.06168 0.06947 0.09819 0.05525
Simpson_1-D 0.9383 0.9305 0.9018 0.9447
Shannon_H 3.091 3.204 2.906 3.32
Evenness_e^H/S 0.5498 0.4926 0.3892 0.5423

The assessment of all four geolocations revealed a big and diverse plant variety. In these
forests, each plot area represented a quadrat of a different soil type, and each plot had the same
soil type with the same plot number in each forest region. The plot study at the foresty level
revealed a deviation in plant diversity and species richness as a result of the dominant soil type.
Plots with rich fertile soil, such as plot 1 with alluvial red loam soil near the river bank,
demonstrated a high level of plant diversity in Wards 19, 32, and 15. This was not the case in
Mapfungautsi forest plot 1. The soil type in this plot area suited a few plant species near river
banks in Mafungabutsi foresty, allowing only ground plant growth such as grass, weeds, river
pumpkins “chinhanga,” and untongaabafana herb that grows in swamps and river dumbs near
Sangwe river. The geographical location has an effect on antimalarial herb plant diversity at
the foresty level, according to the findings. Despite the effect of geographic morphology, the

38
Mafungautsi forest had the highest reported taxonomy, species richness, and species diversity,
with the most individuals (3635) in all plots. The average plant evenness across all plots of
these four forests was 0.493. The total biodivercity of all the forests explored was 3.091 for
Mlalazi forest, 3.204 for Majerimani forest, 2.906 for Magobiyani forest, and 3.32 for
Mafungautsi woodland.

4.4.1 plant clustering composition in terms of occurrence in plots

The cluster composition tree shows who the 4 woodlands where related in terms of the taxa
richness and plant diversity across all the replicate plot quadrats that where survey. The figure
supports the hypothesis divert t test that was illustrated by the results in table 4-7 (ref index
table 4-7). Only Mlalazi and Majerimani from ward 19 show a significant level of relationship
among there plant diversity across the area. The areas had a significant level of relatedness of
with p value (0.0597). Mlalazi plot 1 and Majerimani plot 2 had same taxa richness (taxa s
value 23). Mafungautsi is far related to these village woodland areas, being the designated area
with little people settling in the plant habitant, it had a large diversity of plant and taxa found

in its quadrats. Its composition was far below 5% significant sharing about p (2.6727ₑ-19) with

Magobiyana (ref index table 6)

39
Figure 4.4.1 cluster composition relationship among 4 woodlands in Gokwe
South

4.4.2Shannon wier index comparison of the 4 different forestry plant

diversity

40
Figure 4.4.2 the diversity index of all plot quandrats
As shown by figure 4.4.2, these wasn’t evenness in how the plant diversity was spread across
the area, the abundance and evenness of the plant range between 2.7 to 3.4 for each area. Most
plant herb species where in Mafungautsi and Majerimani. Error bar shows there is no standard
error of data overlapping or interaction between the species occurrence across the area.

Figure 4.4.3 plant richness across the area

41
Chapter 5
5.1 Discussion
This explorative study was conducted in Gokwe Southern District midlands of Zimbabwe. The
villages of Chemisonde, Masiwa, Magobiyani, Kanda, Neva, Mandava, Majerimani/Banana,
Mateta1 in ward 19, Gawa Clinic and Muguvhu in ward 32, Svisvi, Gaye, Dehwa in ward 13
are located in Headman Nhlalambi area governed by Chief Nemangwe, and Mafumo,
Dzawande, Mashure, Musere, forest in ward 15, Gokwe centre in ward 3 under Chief Njelele
rule is where the research took place. Except for Ganye and Gokwe centre, other areas have a
poorly built road network and infrastructure. The inhabitants are Ndebele and Zezuru in
ethnicity, and the major language spoken is Shona, a dialect of Ndebele. Subsistence farming
is the main source of income, with only minimal help from agricultural extension officers. This
anti-malarial plant study's ethnobotanical fieldwork took place between mid-May and June
2021. We manage to interview 160 household, we had 20 focus group discussion with families,
cow herders, and on our third day of the survey there was a meeting in Banana shopping centre
of ZINATA Community meeting which was attended by all Sabukes from ward 19 and their
traditional healer from their villages. We were able to visit and conduct semi-structured
interviews with all of the traditional healers and Sabukus. Female traditional healers made up
around 35% of the attendance. A random survey with open-ended semi-structured interviews
was used to collect data on bio-data, herbal anti-malarial medications, vernacular plant names,
and methods of preparation and administration of these anti-malarial treatments. Table 2. After
consultation with the local Chiefs, Sabukus and the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers
Association (ZINATHA). A total of 20 traditional healers were initially identified with the help
of Community ZINATHA Chairperson Sabuku Mlalazi, and with the help of Sabuku Kanda
family, village community caretaker, and two traditional healers from Mlalazi village, I and
my colleague decided to conduct the research in the five forests of five different wards located
in Majerimani village (Chidhaka area), Dehwa, each forest had four quadrants that were 500
m2 by 500 m2 in size. (Ref index Table 1).

Traditional African medicine remains the major health facility quickly accessible and
affordable to the rural communities in Africa. Government clinics are few and are not easily
accessible, the nearest Gawa clinic in Gokwe is located in ward 32 about 7 km from Mlalazi
Primary School. The roads are sandy and poorly maintained, which makes it difficult to travel

42
with vehicles since rivers and surface run off from nearby streams promotes gullies and huge
pot holes in the road. The shortest route to the clinic is through rocky and mountainous area
and local people face difficulties to carry their sick patient through that way since they only
use carriages, cannons and their livestock as means of transport. The villages settlement is
poorly resourced, community health workers in the villages are usually few in number like in
wards 19 and 32 under health care of Gawa clinic with more than 10 villages have 1 community
health worker, ward 31 and 17 under health care of Nyaradzi clinic also have 1 community
health worker. Most of the time the clinics run out of commercial drugs and mosquito nets
while traditional herbal medicines and mosquito repellent are quick and constantly available at
the time of need.

Gawa Clinic is operated by four people, including the clinic's head director, Mr R. Fambisa
(RGN), and his colleagues, Nurse Mrs E. Majoni, Mr E. Ndambani (GHC), and N. Nduna
(EHT). According to Mr. Emmanuel Ndombani, who has worked at Gawa Clinic for over ten
years, the demographic structure of the most afflicted sex is men who get significant mosquito
bites when traveling to rivers at night for fishing and early morning to sell their agricultural
products at marketplaces. However, the prevalence of malaria mostly from pregnant women is
significant, and the cases are severe. The most afflicted age group is 8-30 years old, which has
the largest number of recorded malaria cases, followed by babies aged 0-5 years old, while the
elderly aged 45 years and above have the least number of malaria cases in their records. The
majority of malaria cases were reported in the Nyaradza Clinic communities of Mutindiziri,
Mharadze, Mxochiwa, Majerimani, Tavaena, and Mateta. All those villages are near water
sources like stream, rivers and gullies where mosquito breeding is promoted and high. Highest
outbreaks of the diseases are high in April and may (ref chat 3) and September-December when
temperature rises in these areas. Persisting factors of knowledge gap, accessibility, mobility,
environmental factors like weather and infrastructure, less health education on malaria
prevention has been the major downstream of improving and eradicating malaria in rural areas.
Most people use the mosquito nets for fishing and making kraal for their livestockes. Image 3

43
Mosquito nets used to make shelter for livestock and plant

About 95 percent of the Gokwe village community's population is impoverished, relying only
on farming, and just a minority group have completed their secondary school. The educational
system is inadequate, and most schools are located in remote areas away from other people. To
get to a nearby school, children might travel a great distance (15 km). This resulted in the
majority of high school and primary school dropouts in Headman Nhlalambi's ward 19. Locals
there have little or no understanding about malaria transmission and prevention. Former studies
have shown that more than 1200 medicinal plants from 160 families are used worldwide to
treat malaria or fever (Willcox and Bodeker, 2004) and still many anti-malarial plant species
remain to be discovered. In this present study we manage to documented plants 52 plant herbs
used to treat malaria and prevention against mosquito by local people and traditional healers
from Gokwe Southern District.

Phytochemical analysis conducted on the six plant extracts revealed the presence of
constituents which are known to exhibit medicinal as well as physiological activities. Analysis
of the plant extracts revealed the presence of phytochemicals such as phenols, tannins,
flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, steroids, terpenoids, and alkaloids.

44
Secondary metabolites, some of which exhibit antiplasmodial activity, have been isolated from
same six of the examined plants of this study in other phytochemical analytic study. The
published phytochemical examinations of these indicated the similar phytochemical
compositions as was observed in our study, indicating that there is little promise for
antiplasmodial and antimalarial chemicals in these plants. Some of these plants are in the same
plant family as Aristolochia albida, which has been utilized by traditional healers to treat
malaria in Zimbabwe. Ntie-Kang et al analysed a few properties of these plants that have
antiplasmodium and antimalarial properties with known molecular structures from African
medicinal plants (2014). Alkaloids, terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarines, phenolics, xanthones,
quinones, steroids, and lignans were among them. They found that African flora has significant
promise for the development of malaria phytomedicines. This speculative conclusion was
backed by the survey and phytochemical lab work conducted on a few mentioned plants that
were administered to malaria sick patients in Gokwe by traditional healers and the ZINATA
community.

The more promising plants identified through this ethnobotanical survey and phytochemical
study are discussed briefly below in terms of their known photochemistry, other traditional
uses, and related medicinal species. Cassia abbreviata bark contains 4-methoxyflavan
(Volkeret al., 1998), flavan-3-ols (afzelechin and epiafzelechin), and proantho-cyanidin dimers
(proguiboergtinidins). Proanthcyanidin trimers and other similar chemicals have been isolated
from the root bark, leaves, and twigs (Erasto et al., 2003; Mongolo and Mafoko, 2013).
Kiplagat et al. (2012) extracted from the root bark an antiplasmodial flavanone (5-hydroxy-
40,8-dimethoxyflavanone) and a 3-methoxyflavan (40,7-dihydroxy-4-methoxyflavan).

Cassia abbreviata bark is also used to cure sexually transmitted infections in Gokwe, and
published materials from (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2001) also suggest that it is utilized in other
parts Zimbabwe for some purpose. Other evidence supporting these claims came from
(Ndlovu., 2013) who suggested the use of the same plant species to treat bovine
Dermatophilosis, bilharzia, skin illness, cough, pneumonia, fever, abdominal pain, headache,
and snakebite (Erasto et al., 2003). Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk reported in 1962 that bushmen
in the Kalahari (Botswana and South Africa) used cassia abbriviata for dysentery, diarrhoea,
acute abdominal discomfort, and toothache. Mongalo and Mafoko published a review on
Cassia abbreviata's ethnomedicinal usage, toxicity, phytochemistry, probable propagation
techniques, and pharmacology in 2013.

45
Cassia fistula L. is another species in the Cassia genus that has traditionally been used to treat
malaria in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Brazil. After activity-guided fractionation,
the leaves with the most active extracts revealed bioactive phytol (a diterpene alcohol), lutein
(a xanthophyll), and di-lineolylgalactopyranosyl-glycerol as antiplasmodial chemicals (Grace
et al., 2012). All six plants were used to extract alkoloids, quinones, terpernoids, and
flavonoids. Antiplasmodial alkaloids and a chromone were isolated from theroots of
pterocarpus angolensi (Lam Irwin and Barneby (synonym Cassia siamea), used traditionally
in Indonesia (Oshimi et al.,2009). The stem bark of this pterocarpus angolensi species yielded
the antiplasmodial compound emodin (6-methyl-1,3,8-trihydroxyanthraquinone) and lupeol (a
triterpenoid). The leaves also yielded antiplasmodial alkaloids (Morita et al., 2007.
Zanthoxylum chalybeum root and barks are used traditionally in the Democratic Republic of
Congo and quinones with antiplasmodial activity were isolated from these two plants parts.
These authors also isolated same terpenes from Sarracenia alata (Kayembe et al., 2012).

In Kenya, all parts of Zanthoxylum chalybeum are used to treat malaria, but the roots are
considered to be the most effective. From the ethyl acetate extract of the root, Oketch-Rabah
et al. (2000) identified an antiplasmodial 10-butene-coumarin. There was identified
antiplasmodial alkaloids from the methanolic extract of the dicaoma anomala root
in 2013 and antiplasmodial coumarins also, by Nyanga and colleagues. About 500 herbaceous
plants in the genus Aristolochia are commonly utilized in traditional medicine (Wu et al.,
2004). There were some plant species of the same genue among the 52 species that were
surveyed in this study. According to previous research, these plant species genera contain
aristolic acid and derivatives, terpenoids, aristolactams, aporphines, protoberberines,
isoquinolines, benzylisoquinolines, amides, flavonoids, lignans, biphenylethers, coumarins,
tetralones, terpenoids, benzenoids, steroids, and other compounds (Kuo et al., 2011).

Zimbabwe has made substantial progress in reducing malaria incidence compared to levels
recorded a decade ago with Gokwe South District have less than 1 case per 1000 population
(fig). However, in more recent years, the annual number of reported malaria cases has
fluctuated (ref to: chat 6). Zimbabwe is undergoing a surge of malaria cases since
epidemiological week 10 (week ending on 8 March 2020). In week 15 (week ending on 12
April) a total of 35 311 malaria cases and 25 deaths were reported. Of the reported cases 3 359
cases (9.5%) were from the under five years old. As of 23 April 2020, the cumulative figures
for malaria are 170 303 and 152 deaths. The cumulative CFR is 0.1%. (WHO, 28 April 2020).

46
The lack of financial assistance and inflation in our country's economy have had a significant
influence on the WHO malarial region's journey to zero malaria.

At the national level, the yearly number of confirmed malaria cases fell by 41% from 316,431
in 2017 to 186,556 in 2019, and by 2020, Zimbabwe had a 5% reduction in malaria cases.
Approximately 5 instances were reported in the Gokwe centre area last year, accounting for
only 2% of all malaria cases. From 1 January to 26 April 2020, more than 236,365 malaria
cases and 226 deaths have been reported. During the week from 20 to 26 April, a total of 33,171
malaria cases and 21 deaths were reported representing a 220 per cent increase in cases
compared to similar period in 2019. (OCHA, 7 May 2020)

Despite all the financial problems and knowledge gaps, CDC Zimbabwe is determined to
support PMI/Zimbabwe’s efforts to further reduce malaria transmission. The PMI/CDC
Resident Advisor works closely with USAID employees as part of the PMI interagency team
to offer well-designed and technically sound assistance for the Government of Zimbabwe's
malaria prevention and control activities. Entomological monitoring, vector control
[insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor residual spraying (IRS), malaria in pregnancy,
case management, pharmaceutical and supply chain management, surveillance, monitoring and
evaluation, operational research, and social and behavioural aspects

5.2 Conclusion
Qualitative biochemical estimations which were conducted to detect the presence of different
phytochemicals in the six dried plant Cassia abbreviata Oliv (barks), Zanthoxylum chalybeum
(backs), Pterocarpus angolensis DC (barks), Elephantorrhiza rubescens Gibbs (roots), Dicoma
anomala Sond (roots), lippia javanica leaves and twigs extracts obtained by using different
solvents i.e., methanol, ethanol and distilled water. Our results highlights that all the extracts
formed by using different solvents from these plants contains phytochemicals like saponins,
flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids and tannins. These findings indicate that there are promising
second metabolic chemicals that can be utilized in antimalarial medicines to inhibit
Plasmodium falciparum. Saponins, flavonoids, and alkaloids, on the other hand, were
discovered to be lacking in the extracts of Lippia javanica, Elephantorrhiza rubescens Gibbs,
and Dicoma anomala Sond. Ethnobotanical survey and identification of plant diversity
observation showed their relativeness of plant from same family like Apocynaceae,
Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Rutaceae showing that most derived plant species of the same
ancestry by the tree of phylogenetic have similar plant metabolites that exact similar functions

47
just like quinine discovery. As seen in the plant diversity table, the variety of these antimalarial
herbs is influenced by soil type, geographic region, and prevailing climatic conditions. Various
plots from varied geographical areas with varying soil types exhibited different plant diversity.
Even with certain soil types, some plant species were not found in some places. Knowledge
gaps, a lack of government economic subsidies, inadequate settlement sites and roods, and
poverty continue to be key contributors to the continuation of malaria illness in the Gokwe
District.

5.3 recommendation
Many of these plant herbs are being over exploited in Gokwe South, such as Lippia javanica a,
Elephantorrhiza Gibbs, Moringa, and Pterocarpus angolensis, but with knowledge of plant
biosystematics and the relationship between these trees and herbs, the local people and
government should establish an antimalaria plant preservation program, and the nation should
be encouraged to plant the majority of these trees and the world. Also, the government should
promote methods of teaching people about the danger of specific plant herbs, such as jatropha
spp seed, which is used as a malaria treatment and is thought to have the greatest concentration
of ricin and hence is extremely poisonous. The adverse effects following consumption of
jatroph spp seeds include vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and burning sensation in the
throat. Further research should be conducted to determine the impact of these plant herds on
human health. The government should increase funding to enhance infrastructure in these
distant areas and establish additional clinics with a larger number of workers. The Convention
on International Commerce in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an
agreement between countries across the globe to ensure that international trade in wild plants
and animals does not endanger their existence. With the alarming emergence of COVID 19,
lippia javanica is the plant species that has piqued many people's curiosity for its efficiency in
curing illness symptoms. The plant has been over-cultivated and sold locally and
internationally, resulting in a decline in species availability in regions such as Gokwe South.
Serious steps should be taken to protect such plants, and plant botanical gardens should be
established in each location, from the district level to the regional level, to cultivate all medical
plant species as well as those that are labelled endangered. Lack of Plasmodium falciparum
parasite and lab equipment to test for antimalarial inhibition of the six phytochemically analysis
herb had been the major sit back of this study future research show test for these six herb

48
species to observe there Plasmodium falciparum inhibition properties in both in vivo and
invitro and drug design new antimalarial drugs the government should allow rules release of
biologically modified vectors and educating people.They should provide ethical clarity
modifying mosquitoes vectors that transmit malaria, particularly female Anopheles
mosquitoes, the release of modified male mosquitoes that impregnate female Anopheles
mosquitoes with nonviable offspring and infertile female Anopheles mosquitoes in the
environment in the effort to reduce Plasmodium falciparum transitions vector

49
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Midzi, S., Tavarez, V., Munyaradzi, R., Chisanga, S., Nesta, M., Musgrove, Cariari, L.,
Adipamide, J., Mutombo, S., Sibasa, C., Ngwenya, N., Gauci, K’aunté, J., Makluba, K.,
O’Connell, T., Root, G., 2004. Zimbabwe Roll Back Consultative Mission (Reaping):
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Ntie-Kang F, Amoah OP, lingo LL, Nduom JC, Sipp W, Maze L.M. The potential of anti-
malarial compounds derived from African medicinal plants, part II: a pharmacological
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Heidelberg New York Tokyo: 291-304.

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World Health Organization (WHO), 2020. World Malaria Report 2020

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ved=2ahUKEwjyrvLGhJ3zAhXQRkEAHeZTA4oQFnoECBUQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2
Fwww.who.int%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fmalaria%2Fworld-malaria-reports%2Fworld-
malaria-report-2020-briefing
kiteng.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3Deda98467_9&usg=AOvVaw2PRiZDYShKcD3R9zRTwEM8

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Assessment of in vitro and in vivo antimalarial efficacy and GC-fingerprints of selected
medicinal plant extracts. Experimental Parasitology. 219. 10.1016/j.exppara.2020.108011.

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from ivy, α- hederin, β-hederin and hederacolchiside A1, as compared to their action on
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53
H. Abdulelah and B. Zainal-Abidin, “In vivo anti-malarial tests of Nigella sativa (black seed)
different extracts,” American Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 46–
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54
Index table
Table list

Key informant questionnaire

55
 ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS USED FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND
HEALTH WORKER INFORMANTS QUETIONNAIRE
CONTROL OF MALARIA PLANTS QUESTIONNAIRE FOR GOKWE SOUTH DISTRICT

This questionairre is a primary means to collect data on Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the management and control of malaria plants from the
HEALTH SERVICE community of Gokwe South. Data is collected at the district level on social, economic, demographic of malaria cases.

Data gathering for all components is through interviews with the respondents. ALL of the questions below are required.
Informed Consent
Please read the following consent form prior to starting the interview:

My name is ISABEL M BONOMALI and I am a student at Midlands State University and i am studying BSC in BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIOSCIENCES.
I am here to collect information on DEMOGRAFIC and population statistics information of malaria . This will allow the documentation of statistical
prevelance of malarial this will be useful for research purposes for control and creation of new malaria vaccines or drug.

Your participation in this interview is not mandatory and it will not affect or guarantee anything in any future programmes. However, please note that your
participation is of great value to this study because it will help us understand the value and usefulness of anti-malaria herbs and plants in your community.
If you do not understand any of the questions, please say so and I will explain it. You may ask me questions at any point during the interview.
The information you provide me will be used by the Midlands State University (MSU).
After the interview if you want to correct or delete the information you provide today, please contact me 0772623042.
Do you have any questions? May I start the interview?

1. INTERVIEWER INFORMATION, GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND ACTIVITY INFORMATION

1.1. Interviewer information

1.1.1 Name of interviewer 1.1.4 Questionnaire Number

1.1.2 Interviewer organization 1.1.5 Interview date

Sex of the interviewer
1.1.3 |____|
1 = Male, 2 = Female
1.2. Geographic information
Code Name
1.2.1 Country
1.2.2 District
1.2.3 CLINIC NAME OR HOSPITAL

2. CONSENT STATEMENT

Have you read the informed consent to the interviewee? (informed consent statement is found above in blue) 1 = Yes, 0 = No 2.1.1 |____|

Please have the interviewee who is answering the questions sign the informed consent statement
(below).
2.1
"I fully understand the information that I was given regarding the use and disclosure of my personal data
2.1.2
mentioned institution and I give my consent to it"
|____________________________|
If the interviewee​ is unable or unwilling to sign, please explain why in the comments box at end of section, and interviewee's signature
ask the interviewee to read (or repeat in case of illiteracy) the informed consent statement found above

INFORMANT PERSONAL INFORMATION

3

3.1 INFORMANT CODE

3.2 MARITIAL STATUS 1=Married 2=Single 3= Divorced 4= Widowed |___|

3.3 AGE : 1=18-25years 2=26-34years 3= 35-44years 4=45-65years 5=above 65years |___|

3.4 SEX 1=Male 2= Female |___|

3.5 OCCUPATION 1= NURSE 2=LAB TECHNICIAN 3=DOCTOR |___|

3.6 LEVEL OF INFORMATION CLEARENCE 1=GENERAL 2= MEDIUM 3= ALL LEVEL ACCESS |___|

3.7 ETHNIC GROUP 1= Shona 2=Ndebele 3=Tonga 4= Other |___|

3.8 CLINIC OR HOSPITAL NAME

3.9 CLINIC OR HOSPITAL LOCATION

3.10 WHERE WAS THE INTERVIEW CONDUCTED

3.11 WAS AN INTERPRETOR USED? 1= YES 2= NO |___|

4
SECTION B
4.1 HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN WORKING AT THE HOSPITAL OR CLINIC 1= 0-1yrs 2= (1-4yrs ) 3=(5-9yrs ) 4= 10+yrs |___|

4.2 FOR THAT TIMELINE YOU HAVE BEEN WORKING HERE HAVE THE MALARIA CASES INCREASED/DECREASE 1=INCREASED 2= DECREASED |___|
IF YES HOW OFTEN 1=SEASONAL 2=OCCASSIONAL 3=ALL YEAR
4.2.1
ROUND
4.3 FROM WHICH DISTRICT AREAS DO YOU RECEIVE MOST MALARIA CASES

4.3.1
DURING WHICH TIME OF THE YEAR ARE MOST MALARIA PATIENTS RECEIVED
4.4 WHAT MEDICINAL DRUGS ARE USED TO TREAT MALARIA PATIENTS GO TO TABLE 1
4.4.1 WHICH AGE GROUP IS MOST AFFECTED BY MALARIA 1= 0-5years 2= 6-18years 3=19-39 4=above 40 |___|
4.4.2 ARE DRUGS USED IN MALARIA TREATMENT THE SAME THROUGHOUT DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS 1= Ye s 2=No |___|
4.4.3
ARE THERE NEW DRUGS NOW BEING USED TO TREAT THE MALARIA PATIENTS 1=YES 2=NO |___|
4.5 IF YES ,ARE THESE ANTI-MALARIAL DRUGS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN THE PREVIOUS DRUGS 1= Yes 2=No |___|

5.0 COMMENTS / OBSERVATIONS

General comments, additional clarification to questions in form, additional comments by beneficiaries, observations by enumerator

DATA VERIFICATION EXERCISE

Name

Supervisor Information Tittle Si gnature

56
Signature

I, the above mentioned data collection supervisor, have verified this information.
What is the prevalence rate of Malaria Patients in that district?
❖ What are the operational problems which, if solved, could enhance malaria control activities in Gokwe district.?
❖ How define the demographic of respondents in terms of gender, education, marital status, socio-economic conditions with relevance on malarial transmission and prevalence.?
❖ What are the preventive and curative interventions in reducing malaria morbidity in an area of intense perennial malaria transmissions.?
 general informant questionnaire
ETHNOBOTANICAL SURVEY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS USED FOR THE MANAGEMENT
GENERAL LEVEL INFORMANTS QUETIONNAIRE
AND CONTROL OF MALARIA PLANTS QUESTIONNAIRE FOR GOKWE SOUTH DISTRICT

This questionairre is a primary means to collect data on Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the management and control of malaria plants from the
household community of Gokwe South. Data is collected at the household level on social, economic, demographic of anti-malaria plants.

Data gathering for all components is through interviews with the respondents. ALL of the questions below are required.

Informed Consent
Please read the following consent form prior to starting the interview:

My name is ISABEL M BONOMALI and I am a student at Midlands State University and i am studying BSC in BIOTECHNOLOGY AND
BIOSCIENCES. I am here to collect information on Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used for the management and control of malaria .
This will allow the documentation of the Ethnobotanical anti-malarial plants and also this will be useful for research purposes for creation of new
malaria vaccines or drug.

Your participation in this interview is not mandatory and it will not affect or guarantee anything in any future programmes. However, please note
that your participation is of great value to this study because it will help us understand the value and usefulness of anti-malaria herbs and plants in
your community. If you do not understand any of the questions, please say so and I will explain it. You may ask me questions at any point during the
interview.
The information you provide me will be used by the Midlands State University (MSU).
After the interview if you want to correct or delete the information you provide today, please contact me 0772623042.
Do you have any questions? May I start the interview?
1. INTERVIEWER INFORMATION, GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND ACTIVITY INFORMATION

1.1. Interviewer information

1.1.1 Name of interviewer 1.1.4 Questionnaire Number

1.1.2 Interviewer organization 1.1.5 Interview date

Sex of the interviewer
1.1.3 |____|
1 = Male, 2 = Female
1.2. Geographic information
Code Name
1.2.1 Country
1.2.2 District
1.2.3 Community

2. CONSENT STATEMENT

Have you read the informed consent to the interviewee? (informed consent statement is found above in blue) 1 = Yes, 0 = No 2.1.1 |____|

Please have the interviewee who is answering the questions sign the informed consent
statement (below).

2.1 "I fully understand the information that I was given regarding the use and disclosure of my personal data
mentioned institution and I give my consent to it" 2.1.2
|____________________________|
If the interviewee​ is unable or unwilling to sign, please explain why in the comments box at end of
interviewee's signature
section, and ask the interviewee to read (or repeat in case of illiteracy) the informed consent statement
found above

INFORMANT PERSONAL INFORMATION

3

3.1 INFORMANT CODE

3.2 MARITIAL STATUS 1=Married 2=Single 3= Divorced 4= Widowed |___|

3.3 AGE : 1=18-25years 2=26-34years 3= 35-44years 4=45-65years 5=above 65years |___|

3.4 SEX 1=Male 2= Female |___|

3.5 OCCUPATION 1= Employed 2=Vendor 3=Other specify |___|

3.6 LEVEL OF EDUCTAION 1= did no attend school 2=primary 3=Secondary 4= High school 5= Tertiary |___|

3.7 ETHNIC GROUP 1= Shona 2=Ndebele 3=Tonga 4= Other |___|

3.8 CHIEF AND WARD NUMBER

3.9 VILLAGE

3.10 WHERE WAS THE INTERVIEW CONDUCTED

3.11 WAS AN INTERPRETOR USED? 1= YES 2= NO |___|

4
SECTION B
4.1 HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN LIVING IN THE AREA 1= 0-1yrs 2= (1-4yrs) 3=(5-9yrs) 4= 10+yrs |___|

4.2 HAVE YOU USED ANY ANTIMALARIA HERBS OR PLANTS BEFORE 1=Yes 2= No |___|
4.2.1 IF YES HOW OFTEN
4.3 FROM WHERE DO YOU COLLECT YOUR ANTI-MALARIA HERBS AND PLANTS

4.3.1
DURING WHICH SEASON DO YOU COLLECT THE ANTI-MALARIAL HERB AND PLANTS
4.4 GO TO TABLE 1
CAN YOU LIST ALL THE ANTI-MALARIAL HERBS AND PLANTS YOU KNOW
4.4.1 1= TREE
TYPE OF ANTI-MALARIA PLANTS 2= FRUIT 3= SHRUB 4=VEGETABLE 5= TUBERS |___|
4.4.2 1= IS
IF VEGETABLE OR TUBER WHERE FOREST 2= MOUNTAIN 3=FIELD 4= RIVER BANKS
IT FOUND |___|
4.4.3
IF A TREE OR SHRUB WHERE IS IT FOUND 1=FOREST 2=MOUNTIANS 57 3= FIELD 4= RIVER BANKS |___|
4.5 ARE THESE ANTI-MALARIAL HERB AND PLANTS EASY TO FIND/ ALWAYS AVAILBALE IN THE ENVIRONMENT 1= Yes 2=No |___|

4.6 FOR WHAT PURPOSE DO YOU EAT THESE PLANTS 1= FEVER 2= APPETITE 3= OTHER |___|
 Table 1 survey data set of informants
Scientific name Genus Common name prevention use Medicinal use total number of respondents
18-25 YRS 26-34 35-44 45-65 Above 65
Cassia abbreviata Oliv Cassia Murumanyama 169 6 30 51 49 30
Pterocarpus angolensis Pterocarpus mubvamaropa 170 12 23 32 41 24
Zanthoxylum chalybeum Zanthoxylum mukundanyoka 170 4 9 10 15 22
Citrullus lanatus terminalia sericeamususu 80 12 15 23 45 50
Lannea edulis Lannea machisa 50 12 15 23 45 50
Zantedeschia albamaculata Zantedeschia undongaabafana 43 0 0 3 23 20
unidentified Unideantified mutemera 59 1 5 15 28 10
unidentified Unideantified muparure 77 9 7 17 34 10
unidentified Unideantified muchekesani 84 14 10 26 29 5
Carissa bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Brenan Carissa muruguru 15 14 10 26 29 5
Carissa edulis Julberanadia globiflora
mutondo 97 21 19 28 59 9
Bidens pilosa Annona stenophyllamurorobush 26 1 0 10 10 5
Dicoma anomala Sond. Dicoma chifumuro 154 5 10 17 21 15
Julberanadia globiflora Julberanadia mutondoshungu 55 0 9 15 19 12
unidentified Unideantified muzemuze 35 0 3 10 15 7
unidentified Unideantified mutarira 8 0 0 0 5 3
diospyros mespiliformis diospyros mushumha 147 25 45 28 34 15
Gymnosporia buxifolia (L.) Szyszyl. Gymnosporia Muzhuzhu 156 23 21 50 45 17
Parinari curatellifolia Parinari Muchakata 21 0 1 9 10 1
unidentified Unideantified muzavani 29 49 23 25 26 20
Combretum hereroense Combretum Mutechani 39 3 5 9 15 7
Faurea saligna Harv Faurea musesetu 17 0 1 4 9 3
Zantedeschia albomaculata Zantedeschia mufanawembudzi 55 19 27 42 57 10
Faidherbia albida (Delile) A. Chev Faidherbia nyamatshani 33 12 15 23 45 50
Catunaregam taylorii Catunaregam chirovaduri 13 14 29 21 39 10
Allium canadense L Allium chionyeni 11 17 20 29 53 9
Tapinanthus oleifolius Tapinanthus musimboti 67 19 24 32 49 30
Euclea divinorum Euclea Munyenya 5 0 0 0 3 2
Diospyros Mespiliformis Acanhospermumchidhongi
hispidum 15 0 1 4 10 0
Boophone distichea Boophone mudzepete 117 0 0 3 5 2
unidentified Unideantified mukati 98 26 43 32 43 12
Elephanttorrhiza goetzei elephanttorrhizaNdorani 147 12 27 30 34 15
Ormocarpum kirkii s.moore Ormocarpum Kapurupuru 27 19 21 35 32 20
Myrothamnus mufandichimuk
Phaseolus vulgaris flabellifolius a 47 4 7 9 10 17
Cassia abbreviata Cassia mamatshani 73 2 14 32 49 4
Macaranga capensis Macaranga murungerunge 23 23 29 32 53 23
Ledebouria cooperi Ledebouria chinhanga 65 20 34 32 45 12
Jatropha curcas L Jatropha jatirofa 23 23 29 45 36 15
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiber tsangamidzi 56 26 43 32 43 12
Moringa oleifera Moringa Moringa 17 29 34 40 42 15
Strychnus Madagascariensis PseudolachnostylisMushozhowa 53 20 34 32 45 12
Senna didymobotrya Senna munhuwenhuwe 57 29 34 40 42 15
Securidaca longepedunculata Securidaca mufufu 83 12 19 23 45 15
unidentified Unideantified mahohoma 21 25 34 40 37 20
Ziziphus mucronata Ziziphus Muchecheni 19 15 21 23 30 14
Fadogia homblei Fadogia Masibanda 43 15 21 23 30 14
Lannea discolor Lannea Mugan'gacha 31 29 30 35 37 20
Datura stramonium Datura zavazava 59 5 12 13 20 9
Grewia flavescens Juss. Grewia Mububunu 63 10 12 16 15 10
Lippia javanica Lippia Zumbani 149 23 29 45 37 15
Ampelocissus africanus Ampelocissus Muzambiringa 72 9 15 17 21 10

58
Table 2 Plant administration
How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

drunk
water
extra
vernoni treatmen All
Asterac vernoni mahoh ct of diarrhoea he
a t/prevent leaves ward
eae a oma boile in infants rb
gladra ion s
d
leave
s

chew
/boil
the
diospyr
leave Increase All
Ebenac os diospyr mushu treatmen leaves/f tre
s and red blood ward
eae mespilif os mha t ruit e
drunk cells s
ormis
water
extra
ct

soak
and
drunk
Pteroca
water All
Fabace rpus Pteroca mubva treatmen darks/r tre
extra N/A ward
ae angole rpus maropa t oots e
ct s
nsis
(war
m/col
d)

All
boil ward
Julbera antimalaria,
Muton leave s
Fabace nadia Julbera treatmen antimacrobi tre
doshun leaves s and exce
ae globiflo nadia t al and e
gu drink pt
ra antifunga
water ward
32

soak
Allium and All
Amaryll chionye preventio he
canade Allium tuber drunk N/A ward
idaceae ni n rb
nse L water s
extra

59
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

ct
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Boopho
water All
Amaryll ne Boopho mudze treatmen he
tuber extra snake bites ward
idaceae distiche ne pete t rb
ct s
a
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
War
water reduced
Anacar Lannea Mugan' treatmen tre d 19
Lannea roots extra blood
diaceae discolor gacha t e and
ct pressure
15
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and Analgesic,
Carissa drunk antiviral
bispino water and diuretic All
Apocyn Murug treatmen root/lea tre
sa (L.) Carissa extra activities; ward
aceae uru t ves e
Desf. ex ct lignans and s
Brenan (war sesquiterpe
m/col nes [23]
d)

drunk
water
War
Julbera extra
d 19,
Apocyn Carissa nadia Muton treatmen ct of tre
leaves N/A 15
aceae edulis globiflo do t boile e
and
ra d
13
leave
s

60
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

soak
and
drunk ward
Zanted
Undong water Body and 19,
Aracea eschia Zantede treatmen he
aabafa tuber extra heart pains 15
e albama schia t rb
na ct and sick and
culata
(war 13
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Annona
water Increase All
Asterac Bidens stenoph treatmen leaves/r tre
muroro extra red blood ward
eae pilosa ylla t oots e
ct cells s
bush
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
ward
Dicoma water
Asterac Chifum treatmen he 19
anomal Dicoma tuber extra malaria
eae uro t rb and
a Sond. ct
15
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil
Gymno the
Villa
sporia leave
celastra Gymnos Muzhu treatmen leaves/r tre ge
buxifoli s and N/A
ceae poria zhu t oots e 19,
a (L.) drunk
15
Szyszyl. water
extra
ct

Chryso chew Constipatio

Mucha treatmen leaves/r tre War
balanac Parinar Parinari /boil n and d 19,
i kata t oots the e
eae toothache 15
leave

61
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

curatell s and and

ifolia drunk 13
water
extra
ct

soak
and
drunk
Combre
water All
combre tum Combre Mutech treatmen leaves/r tre
extra N/A ward
taceae hereroe tum ani t oots e
ct s
nse
(war
m/col
d)

drunk
water
extra
terninal termina All
cucubit treatmen ct of tre
ia lia mususu leaves N/A ward
acea t boile e
sericea sericea s
d
leave
s

soak
and
drunk
Zanted
Mufana water All
cucubit eschia Zanted treatmen he
wembu bulber extra N/A ward
acea alboma eschia t rb
dzi ct s
culata
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and War
Euclea drunk d 19,
dioscor Munye treatmen leaves/r shr
divinor Euclea water N/A 15
eaceae nya t oots ub
um extra and
ct 13
(war

62
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

m/col
d)

soak
and
Acanho drunk
Diospyr
spermu water All
Ebenac os Chidho treatmen he
m roots extra N/A ward
eae Mespili ngi t rb
hispidu ct s
formis
m (war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Macara
water cough and All
Euphor nga Macara murung treatmen tre
roots extra menorrhagi ward
biaceae capensi nga erunge t e
ct a s
s
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil
the War
Jatroph
leave d 15,
Euphor a Jatroph treatmen respiratory shr
jatirofa leaves s and 32
biaceae curcas a t diseases ub
drunk and
L
water 19
extra
ct

Faidher boil
bia leave All
Fabace Faidher nyamat treatmen leaves/ tre
albida s and Antifeedant ward
ae bia shani t Piece e
(Delile) drink s
A. Chev water

Elepha soak
elephan and Reduce ward
Fabace nttorrhi Ndoran treatmen tre
ttorrhiz roots drunk blood sugar 13,
ae za i t e
a water content 15
goetzei
extra

63
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

ct and
(war 19
m/col
d)

boil ward
Ormoc
treatmen leave 19,
Fabace arpum Ormoca Kapuru leaves/r stomach shr
t/prevent s and 13
ae kirkii s. rpum puru oots pains ub
ion drink and
moore
water 15

boil
Myroth
Phaseol Mufand leave All
Fabace amnus treatmen Abdominal he
us ichimuk leaves s and ward
ae flabellif t pain relief rb
vulgaris a drink s
olius
water

soak
and
drunk
Cassia water All
Fabace mamat treatmen tre
abbrevi Cassia roots extra N/A ward
ae shani t e
ata ct s
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk War
Senna Munhu water d 19,
Fabace preventio leaves shr
didymo Senna wenhu extra Eye sores 15
ae n /roots ub
botrya we ct and
(war 13
m/col
d)

soak
and
Ledebo drunk All
Hyacint Ledebo chinha treatmen he
uria bulber water Diarrhoea ward
haceae uria nga t rb
cooperi extra s
ct
(war

64
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Gonorrhoe
leucas water
Lamiac Machis treantme a and he War
martini leucas roots extra
eae a nt bilharzias, rb d 15
censis ct
diarrhoea
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
ward
Cassia water
Legumi Murum treatmen darks/r tre 15
abbrevi Cassia extra N/A
nosae anyama t oots e and
ata Oliv ct
19
(war
m/col
d)

Strychn boil
us Pseudol leave All
Logania Musho treatmen leaves/r Abdominal tre
Madag achnost s and ward
ceae zhowa t oots pains e
ascarie ylis drink s
nsis water

boil
Tapina
treatmen leave All
Loranth nthus Tapinan musim leaves/r tre
t/prevent s and N/A ward
aceae oleifoli thus boti oots e
ion drink s
us
water

boil
Moring leaves/r leave All
Moring Moring Moring treatmen tre
a oots/da s and N/A ward
aceae a a t e
oleifera rks drink s
water

Securid soak All

Polygal Securid treatmen leaves/ tre
aca mufufu and Earache ward
aceae aca t Roots e
longep drunk s

65
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

eduncul water
ata extra
ct
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Faurea water All
Proteac Musese treatmen Abdominal tre
saligna Faurea leaves extra ward
eae tu t pains e
Harv ct s
(war
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Ziziphu
water All
Rhamn s Muche treatmen leaves/r tre
Ziziphus extra Fever ward
aceae mucron cheni t oots e
ct s
ata
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil
the
Catuna leave All
Rubiace Catunar chirova treatmen shr
regam leavns s and N/A ward
ae egam duri t ub
taylorii drunk s
water
extra
ct

chew
Fadogi /boil
the All
Rubiace a Masiba preventio leaves/r shr
Fadogia leave Tansels ward
ae homble nda n oots ub
s and s
i
drunk
water

66
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

extra
ct

soak
and
drunk
Zantho
Mukun water All
Rutace xylum Zanthox treatmen darks/r tre
danyok extra N/A ward
ae chalybe ylum t oots e
a ct s
um
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil
the
Datura leave All
Solanac Zavazav treatmen leaves/r he
stramo Datura s and N/A ward
eae a t oots rb
nium drunk s
water
extra
ct

chew
/boil
the
Grewia
leave All
Tiliacea flavesc Mubub treatmen leaves/r Venereal shr
Grewia s and ward
e ens unu t oot diseases ub
drunk s
Juss.
water
extra
ct

drunk
water
War
extra
treatmen d 19,
unident unident Unidea Mutem ct of toothache, tre
t/prevent leaves 15
ified ified ntified era boile sore eyes e
ion and
d
13
leave
s

67
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

drunk
water
extra
treatmen All
unident unident Unidea Mupar ct of Gonrrhoea, tre
t/prevent leaves ward
ified ified ntified ure boile syphilis e
ion s
d
leave
s

drunk
water
extra
treatmen All
unident unident Unidea muche ct of tre
t/prevent leaves N/A ward
ified ified ntified kesani boile e
ion s
d
leave
s

chew
/boil
the
War
treatmen leave
unident unident Unidea Muzem shr d 19
t/prevent leaves s and N/A
ified ified ntified uze ub and
ion drunk
15
water
extra
ct

soak
and
drunk
treatmen water All
unident unident Unidea Mutarir tre
t/prevent leaves extra N/A ward
ified ified ntified a e
ion ct s
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil Aphrodisiac
treatmen All
unident unident Unidea muzava the and to he
t/prevent leaves ward
ified ified ntified ni leave reduce rb
ion s
s and birth canal
drunk

68
 How Reported Distr
plant
Scientif Comm plant its biological/ Ha ibuti
preventi
Family ic Genus on part admi pharmacol bit on in
on/treat
name name used nister ogical s ward
ment
ed activities s

water
extra
ct

soak
and
drunk Contracepti
treatmen water ve All
unident unident Unidea shr
mukati t/prevent leaves extra pneumonia ward
ified ified ntified ub
ion ct and snake s
(war antidote
m/col
d)

soak
and
drunk
Lippia treatmen water All
Verben Zumba he
javanic Lippia t/prevent leaves extra malaria ward
aceae ni rb
a ion ct s
(war
m/col
d)

chew
/boil
the
Ampelo
leave cli All
Vitacea cissus Ampelo Muzam treatmen leaves/r
s and N/A mb ward
e african cissus biringa t oots
drunk er s
us
water
extra
ct

soak
and
Zingibe drunk War
r water Abdominal d 15,
Zingibe tsanga treatmen he
officina Zingiber tuber extra pains and 32
raceae midzi t rb
le Rosc ct infertility and
oe (war 19
m/col
d)

69
Diversity t test tables

Table 4.4.1 plant diversity in 4 areas

TABLE 4.4.1 MJI vs MFI

Shannon index

Majerimani Mafungautse

H: 3.204 H: 3.3198

Variance: 0.00098013 Variance: 0.00029924

t: -3.2377

df: 2226.4

p(same): 0.0012228

Simpson index

D: 0.069473 D: 0.05525

Variance: 1.1661E-05 Variance: 1.9405E-06

t: 3.8564

df: 1820.7

p(same): 0.00011906

TABLE 4.4.2 MLZ vs MJI

Shannon index

Mlalazi total Majerimani

70
 H: 3.0907 H: 3.204

Variance: 0.00076378 Variance: 0.00098013

t: -2.714

df: 2463.2

p(same): 0.0066929

Simpson index

D: 0.061681 D: 0.069473

Variance: 5.4426E-06 Variance: 1.1661E-05

t: -1.884

df: 2299.9

p(same): 0.059691

TABLE 4.4.3 MLZ vs MFI

Shannon index

Mlalazi total Mafungautse

H: 3.0907 H: 3.3198

Variance: 0.00076378 Variance: 0.00029924

t: -7.0281

df: 2059.2

p(same): 2.8346E-12

Simpson index

D: 0.061681 D: 0.05525

71
 Variance: 5.4426E-06 Variance: 1.9405E-06

t: 2.3668

df: 1971.4

p(same): 0.018038

TABLE 4.4.4 MGI vs MFI

Shannon index

Magobhiyana Mafungautse

H: 2.9064 H: 3.3198

Variance: 0.001472 Variance: 0.00029924

t: -9.8231

df: 1671.8

p(same): 3.521E-22

Simpson index

D: 0.098194 D: 0.05525

Variance: 2.0261E-05 Variance: 1.9405E-06

t: 9.114

df: 1400.7

p(same): 2.6727E-19

72