Keep Your Eye on the Prize:

Implementing AAC Within the

Broader Context of Communicative
Competence
yec
Springtime sunlight spills onto a sea
of 18 preschool children gathering
around their teacher for circle time.
words that rhyme. One child
interrupts with a tale about his
cat, to which the teacher reminds
A small storm of laughter, squeals, him with eye gaze and a finger to
and child-sized limbs swirls on the her lips that this is not the time for
light blue rectangular rug. A couple his story.
of children situate themselves along
After reading the first page, the
the perimeter, one of whom, Sam,
teacher raises a query, “What
sits in a blue cube chair with a green
rhymes with play?” A few hands
electronic device across his lap.
fly into the air, while one child
“All eyes on me,” directs their blurts out a spoken response.
captain, as she points and begins
“Remember to raise your hand,”
to count by twos the pairs of eyes
the teacher reminds him. He
that linger in her direction. “Two,
immediately raises his hand, and
four, six, eight . . . ”
she calls on him for response.
Among the chatter, many children
“House!” he offers with
shout out numbers as they redirect
enthusiasm.
their attention, a glint of hope for
teacher recognition in their eyes. “House . . . play,” the teacher
muses aloud, “not quite. Who else
The emerging quiet is broken by
has an idea?”
an electronic tenor, “macaroni,”
radiating from Sam’s device; a grin Again hands fly into the air like
spreads across his face. seagulls at the surf. Teacher and
pupils fall into a rhythm as
Laughter erupts from the children.
seemingly familiar as the tide—at
“He said macaroni!” one classmate
least for some of them. Sam,
narrates.
though seated near the group for
The teacher chooses to ignore this the entire activity, does not take
reference to macaroni along with part in the question-answer
the associated laughter, while a routine. One gets the sense that
paraprofessional, seated behind perhaps he is tethered to port
Sam, silently pushes a button on somehow, never quite making it
Laura Segebart DeThorne, PhD, his device, presumably to turn out to the open sea.
Julie Hengst, PhD, and down the volume of its insolence.
Kim Fisher, MEd
University of Illinois, Champaign The teacher flashes all the children
a quick peek at the cover of “The DOI: 10.1177/1096250613485453
Amie King, PhD Cat in the Hat” while explaining http://yec.sagepub.com
Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville today’s group activity: finding © 2013 Division for Early Childhood

Vol. 17, No. 1, March 2014 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 39

 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

Schlosser, 2006; Mirenda, 1997;

Introduction Schlosser & Wendt, 2008; Snell,

E
lectronic technologies are Chen, & Hooever, 2006). However,
playing an increasing role in evidence of successful AAC use is
mediating patterns of social tempered by sobering statistics
interaction within the classroom. regarding limited communicative
This trend includes augmentative functions, barriers to successful
and alternative communication implementation, and system
(AAC) systems, like the device used abandonment (Johnson, Inglebret,
by Sam from the opening vignette. Jones, & Ray, 2006; Lund & Light,
The advent of lightweight smart 2007). One area that remains
tablets with a diversity of particularly challenging is the
communication-oriented successful integration of AAC
applications at a fraction of the systems within sustained social
price of traditional AAC devices interactions for children with
increases the accessibility and speech-language impairments (cf.
potential application of such devices Mellman, DeThorne, & Hengst,
in the classroom. 2010). Given the increasing
AAC in general has proven availability of AAC systems and the
effective for many children in regard documented limitations in regard to
to decreasing challenging behavior, successful implementation across
enabling communication of wants everyday contexts, this article aims
and needs, and supporting speech to highlight the importance of
development (Millar, Light, & integrating AAC within a broad
communication framework. In direct
relation to the Initial Special
Education Professionals in Early
Childhood Special Education/Early
Intervention (Birth to Eight)
Standards (Council for Exceptional
Children, 2007), this article provides
a theoretical framework (Standard I,
ICCKI) to guide special education
practices toward embedding learning
opportunities in everyday activities
(Standard V, ECSES3) by
structuring social environments to
promote successful communicative
interactions (Standard V, ECE5S4)
particularly for children who utilize
AAC (Standard VI, ICC6K4).
The field of communication
sciences and disorders has long
differentiated speech and language
as separate but related processes
that refer to the sensory-motor and
linguistic skills of an individual,
respectively. This stands in contrast
to communication, which refers

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

more broadly to an exchange of activities are accomplished. Thus,

ideas among individuals (cf. Pence communication is also shared by all
& Justice, 2008). To highlight this participants in the interaction and
distinction, consider a child alone in accomplished through their use of a
his or her room repeating lines from wide range of resources (e.g., talk,
a movie. This child is using speech gestures, joint attention).
and language skills, but is not Within any given interaction,
communicating with anyone. In there are multiple ways for
contrast, consider a child who individuals to communicate and
points to a cookie jar and looks to coordinate with others, so successful
his or her mother. This child is communication often depends on
clearly communicating but is not people flexibly shifting the ways they
using speech or language to do so. coordinate with each other during
In our communications with the interaction (Hengst & Duff,

“
caregivers of children who are 2007). For example, when a speaker
largely “nonverbal,” parents often in a conversation stumbles over a
tell us they want their children to word, he or she may substitute
If you think of your own speak so that they can share ideas gestures or actions for the missing
and know what their children are word, or listeners may fill in words
experiences, you have thinking. One mother shared with for the speaker, or in some cases, the
us that in her dreams, she and her word is simply left out and the
probably noticed that the son with limited verbal abilities can conversation goes on without it.
“know each other’s minds.” Among familiar communication
degree of success in your Inherent in these messages from
caregivers is a longing not so much
partners, this happens so smoothly
that, as long as the point gets across
communicative for speech and language, per se, but
for successful communication.
and the conversation continues, we
do not even notice how such success
To help us understand what is was achieved. Successful
interactions depends on involved in supporting successful communication depends on the
communication for all children, coordination of people and resources.
what you are doing, whom including those who use AAC Finally, understood as a social
technologies, we draw here on accomplishment, communication is
you are interacting with, sociocultural and practice theory supported through the shared
approaches to child development histories people bring to their
the resources available to and learning (e.g., Bruner, 1996; interactions with each other (e.g.,
Cole, 1998; Wells, 1999). These best friends, strangers) and to the
you, and the nature of the approaches offer a useful theoretical activities at hand (e.g., playing a
framework that defines video game). In this sense, successful
relationships you have communication as a social
accomplishment, not as an isolated
communication grows out of
repeated opportunities for people to
individual ability or a set of testable work together. If you think of your
built up with people over skills. Seen as a social own experiences, you have probably
accomplishment, we understand noticed that the degree of success in
time. communication as always occurring your communicative interactions

”
within specific activities for specific depends on what you are doing,
purposes (e.g., answering a teacher’s whom you are interacting with, the
question, sharing small talk with resources available to you, and the
friends). Successful communication nature of the relationships you have
is then tied to how well those built up with people over time.

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

Adults readily focus on pointing gesture to select the color

prioritizing communication success he wanted). Here, the
through whatever means are paraprofessional appeared not to
available as they communicate with recognize and value all the resources
others during everyday work and available for communication,
social activities. However, in school making AAC use the end rather
settings during interactions with than seeing it as one of many means
children using AAC devices, there is to successful communication.
a tendency to lose sight of successful In this article, we outline four
communication as the overarching principles, grounded in the
goal. As an example, Mellman et al. framework of communicative
(2010) reported a scenario from her competence, that encourage us all
classroom observations of Alex (a (parents and professionals) to “keep
4-year-old boy who utilized a our eye on communicative success
speech-generating AAC device) in as the ultimate prize.” Specifically,
which a paraprofessional held up the four guiding principles,
two crayons toward Alex and asked summarized in Table 1 are (a)
him which color he wanted. The support social interaction within
paraprofessional specified, “Tell me meaningful activity, (b) share
with your device,” as opposed to responsibility for successful
giving Alex the flexibility to choose interactions, (c) encourage multiple
his form of response (e.g., using a forms of communication, and (d)
draw on shared histories and
prepare for future interactions. In
the sections below, we will describe
each of these principles and apply
them to the opening vignette. Our
goal is to encourage professionals
and caregivers to reflect on their
own communicative practices with
children who use AAC and to foster
successful communication and
participation within classrooms and
communities at large.

Support Social Interaction

Within Meaningful Activity
When taking up a framework of
communicative competence,
consideration of context becomes
paramount. Word production is not
considered an isolated skill but as a
potential message deployed for a
particular communicative purpose.
To highlight the important role of
context (i.e., activity), consider how
Sam’s production of the word
“macaroni” would likely be

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

Table 1
A Summary of the 4 Principles and Guiding Questions Associated With a
Framework of Communicative Competence
Principle Guiding question

1. Support social interaction within What is/are the relevant activities at hand?
meaningful activity
2. Share responsibility for successful How do I collaborate with this child to support
interactions successful communication and participation?
3. Encourage multiple forms of What resources are available to us in this
communication moment to support communication?
4. Draw on shared histories and build for How can we draw on familiarity to support
future interactions current and future communication?

“
perceived and “taken up” very children’s goals? How can we better
differently depending on whether align the children we are supporting
Within the framework of the activity is book reading during
circle time versus a group sing-along
with the activities taking place?” As
an example, one of the teacher’s key
of Yankee Doodle Dandy, with the activities was shared book
communicative lyrics “Yankee Doodle went to interaction during circle time, which
London, just to ride a pony, stuck a included transitioning and engaging
competence, caregivers, feather in his hat, and called it the children in book reading.
macaroni!” In the sing-along, Sam’s Consequently, her responses to the
teachers, therapists, and production would likely be taken up children were shaped by her goal of
as direct participation in the activity, fostering successful interaction and
peers are all seen as whereas during the preparation of participation within that activity. In
book reading, Sam’s production this example, the primary goal is
partners with the child, appeared to be taken up as an act of participation in the circle time
silliness by many of the children and activity, not ensuring “correct device
working together to as a potential disruption by the
paraprofessional. Note that in this
use” or even “making sure everyone
is quiet.”
accomplish activities and book reading versus sing-along
example, the actual word being
For children who use AAC, one
advantage of identifying participation
produced (i.e., macaroni) is not in the activity as the goal is that it
communicate messages. different, but its meaning is maximizes the options for how

”
interpreted differently based on the successful communication can be
activity. Consequently, the guiding accomplished. Looking again at the
question for those of us supporting opening vignette, the children are
a child who uses AAC is “What is/ participating in the activity in a
are the relevant activities at hand?” variety of ways, both verbally and
When thinking about the nonverbally: for example, shouting
relevant activities, it is important to out numbers, looking toward the
note that multiple goals and teacher, and raising their hands. There
activities are always at play. In is no one correct way to participate in
thinking about the opening vignette, the activity. Recognizing the diverse
the guiding question leads us to ask, ways children can participate in the
“What is the teacher trying to meaningful activities at hand (e.g.,
accomplish here? What are the speech, eye gaze, gesture, device use)

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also affords us as caregivers and 1986). Consider the infant who

professionals flexibility in how we babbles “mama,” and the mother
support our children in those who responds excitedly to the
activities, which takes us to the possibility of being called by name.
second principle. Her response helps create shared
meaning and joint activity between
the two of them. Because of the
Share Responsibility for
mother’s response, the interaction
Successful Interactions becomes a conversation! So too
Once the relevant activities are must children with AAC devices and

“
identified, then it becomes clearer their partners go about the
how to support the child’s successful collaborative work of interpreting
When the focus is on participation. Within the framework
of communicative competence,
communicative acts within the
activity, whether the form of that
caregivers, teachers, therapists, and communicative action is a spoken
successful peers are all seen as partners with syllable or a selected symbol.
the child, working together to Recognizing the shared
communication, the form accomplish activities and responsibility for successful
communicate messages. As partners, interactions highlights the need for
is reduced to its proper our actions should be guided by the communication partners of children
question, “How do I collaborate who use AAC to receive explicit
place of being a means with this child to support successful time and training on the relevant
communication and participation?” device(s). Such training often takes
toward an end, rather than Taking the opening vignette as an the form of basic familiarity with
example, Sam selected the word the system, including how to
the end itself. “macaroni” on his device, but it did
not appear to be interpreted as
program it, and how to support its
use. Given enough familiarity with

”
communicative by his teacher within his device, the paraprofessional in
the carpet time activities. Instead, the opening vignette could have
she chose to ignore his production, supported Sam’s participation by
even though when a different child helping him raise his hand and
later spoke out of turn she reminded finding a relevant response to the
that child to raise his hand. When rhyming task on his device.
applied to the opening vignette then, Providing relevant models of
this principle of collaboration leads message-focused AAC use is
us to ask, “What does the child commonly viewed as best practice
bring to the interaction? What do within the recent AAC literature
his or her communication partners (Binger & Light, 2007; Harris &
bring, myself included? How can I Reichle, 2004; Mirenda & Brown,
help align what the child brings to 2009; Romski & Sevcik, 2003),
the expectations of this often referred to as “aided language
community?” stimulation” or “augmented input.”
A framework of communicative A framework of communicative
competence encourages us to assume competence suggests that children
relevant meaning from children’s need to be socialized into using and
actions and respond accordingly, responding to AAC, and this
something that parents are often requires opportunities for them to
willing to do even with the youngest observe AAC being used to
of children (cf. Dunst & Lowe, communicate. In sum, the process of

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

supporting a child who uses AAC of communicative actions. By

can look very different depending communication form, we are referring
on the child and the context. For to the multiple means and modalities
example, an experienced AAC user through which we communicate (e.g.,
in a familiar context may primarily gestures, speech, facial expression,
need a patient and engaged eye gaze, computerized devices).
communicative partner, whereas a When the focus is on successful
beginning communicator may also communication, the form is reduced
require multiple models of device to its proper place of being a means
use with verbal and physical toward an end, rather than the end
prompting. However, the goal is itself. Consequently, the associated
always to provide whatever support question we should ask ourselves is
is necessary to ensure successful “What resources are available to us in
communication and participation this moment to support
within the activity at hand. communication?”
When applied to the rhyming
Encourage Multiple Forms of activity in the opening vignette, this
guiding question leads us to ask,
Communication
“What communicative forms could
For all of us, including children Sam readily use to participate?
who use AAC, successful interactions What additional resources (e.g.,
are contingent on the ability of others pictures, objects) are available in the
to read, recognize, and value all forms immediate environment? What
forms of communication most
readily meet the needs of this
interaction?” By considering all
available resources, it becomes
clearer that Sam’s nonverbal
behavior could be interpreted as
communicative. For example, if he
looks at or points toward the book,
the teacher could acknowledge that
behavior as a response by saying
something like, “Sam, I saw you
look toward the page. I wonder if
you saw the word, day; Day rhymes
with play!”
When valuing all forms of
communication, the AAC system
becomes a critical resource that
should be available to the child
throughout the day. Decisions to
take a child’s device away, leave it
behind, or turn down its volume are
not made without recognition that
communication resources are being
restricted, often in very invasive
ways. Limiting a child’s access to his
or her device fails to value its critical

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

role in facilitating social interaction, but have limitations in speech

restricts his or her opportunities to intelligibility, word finding, and/or
learn how to manage his or her own fluency. When the multimodal nature
“voice,” and runs the risk of limiting of human communication is paired
a child’s willingness to invest in with evidence that AAC may enhance
learning to use the AAC system in speech development (e.g., Romski
the first place. We often find that the et al., 2010), the population of
temptation to limit a child’s access children who may benefit from
to his or her own device becomes access to AAC widens substantially,

“
most pressing when the child is using and concerns that access to AAC
it in a way that is disruptive, such as will negatively affect speech diminish.
when Sam blurted out “macaroni” In sum, requiring any individual to
In addition to drawing on in the opening vignette. However, rely on one form of communication
instead of immediately restricting a is “unnatural” and limits his or her
shared histories, our child’s access to the device, we ability to be a flexible and robust
would encourage caregivers and communicator. Consequently,
current interactions should professionals to consider the device children who use AAC and their
as one of many important communicative partners are
be paving the way for communicative resources within the
interaction and consequently turn to
encouraged to use all available
resources to foster successful
successful future other options for shaping the
interaction, such as reminding him
interaction and participation in the
activity at hand, including their
that it is not time to talk about food familiarity with one another.
interactions. (see revised vignette at the end of

”
this article). Draw on Shared Histories and
In addition to implications for
Build for Future Interactions
device accessibility, recognizing
multiple forms of communication One of the key resources
also diversifies opportunities for communication partners often have
caregivers and professionals to at their disposal, particularly
support Sam’s participation in the caregivers, is familiarity and
group. Device use, though powerful sustained relationship. In addition to
in certain contexts, can be being distributed across people and
burdensome in others (Johnston, resources, communicative
Reichle, & Evans, 2004; Sigafoos & competence is also distributed across
Drasgow, 2001). Recognizing the time. Present interactions are
legitimacy of multiple modalities influenced by memories of the past
allows the AAC user and his or her and plans for the future, which can
partners’ flexibility to use other make familiarity a critical asset. As
communicative forms as the such, our interactions with children
circumstance allows. who use AAC should be shaped by
Recognizing AAC as one of the question, “How can we draw on
many available resources also helps familiarity to support current and
highlight the potential benefits of future communication?”
AAC for children who have already For all of us, familiar
developed, or are expected to communication partners are able to
develop, spoken language. complete our sentences, anticipate
Specifically, there may be clear our needs, and read our seemingly
advantages in using AAC for children idiosyncratic behavior. Such
who have developed spoken language familiarity should be viewed as a

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

resource to draw upon within social an opportunity to teach Sam control

interactions, rather than a form of over his own “voice.” In contrast,
support to extinguish. Applying the by reminding Sam that it is time to
importance of repeated interactions be quiet and helping him learn how
to the opening vignette leads us to to adjust the volume himself, the
ask, “What do we know about Sam paraprofessional and teacher are
that can help us interpret his acknowledging his communicative
behavior? How can we react to this competence and shaping future
situation to help support interactions interactions to be more successful.
in the future?” For example, when In conjunction, if the production of
Sam selected the message “macaroni” macaroni was considered an act of
in the opening vignette, a familiar playfulness, one could build on this
partner might know that this is the social strength by adding goofy
time of day during which Sam tends sound effects and explicit jokes to
to get hungry, and macaroni is one Sam’s AAC messages, or perhaps by
of his favorite foods. Such familiarity returning to the topic of macaroni
should be used to shape the during lunchtime when joking is
interaction. Perhaps the teacher or more consistent with the activity.
paraprofessional might respond by Realizing that our current
saying, “Sam, I know you’re getting interactions are learning
hungry. Only thirty more minutes opportunities for everyone involved
until lunch.” Or perhaps the class challenges us to make more
knows that Sam tends to be a intentional and proactive choices to
prankster. In such a case, the teacher shape future patterns of interaction
or paraprofessional might respond by and to work toward building
saying, “Sam, it’s not time to joke. positive relationships.
We can joke during recess.” In closing, we have revised the
In addition to drawing on opening vignette to be more inline
shared histories, our current with a framework of communicative
interactions should be paving the competence, including all four
way for successful future related principles. Related revisions
interactions. Again turning to the are underlined for quick
opening vignette, the identification. As it did for us, we
paraprofessional’s and teacher’s hope this illustration and the
responses to Sam’s production of associated four principles serve as a
macaroni may have minimized the means to encourage caregivers and
present disruption, but it did not professionals to reflect on their
appear to pave the way for more interactions with children who use
positive future interactions. For AAC so that we can all work
example, by ignoring his production together to achieve the ultimate
(particularly when she did not prize: successful communication.
ignore other children’s disruptions), Springtime sunlight spills onto a
the teacher may have inadvertently sea of 18 preschool children gathering
communicated that Sam’s actions do around their teacher for circle time. A
not matter, are not meaningful, or small storm of laughter, squeals, and
cannot be helped. Along the same child-sized limbs swirls on the light
lines, by controlling the device’s blue rectangular rug. A couple of
volume herself, the paraprofessional children situate themselves along the
may be communicating a similar perimeter, one of whom, Sam, sits in
negative message, as well as missing a blue cube chair next to the teacher,

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 Implementing AAC within the broader context / DeThorne et al.

a green electronic device situated in counting by twos until most in the

his lap. group appear attentive.
“All eyes on me,” directs their The teacher flashes all the
captain, as she points and begins to children a quick peek at the cover of
count by twos the pairs of eyes that “The Cat in the Hat” while
linger in her direction. “Two, four, explaining today’s group activity:
six, eight . . . ” finding words that rhyme. One child
Many children shout out interrupts with a tale about his cat, to
numbers as they redirect their which the teacher reminds him with
attention, a glint of hope for teacher eye gaze and a finger to her lips that
recognition in their eyes. this is not the time for his story.
The emerging quiet is broken by After reading the first page, the
an electronic tenor, “macaroni,” teacher elicits a prompt from the
radiating from Sam’s device; a grin children, “What rhymes with play?”
spreads across his face. A few hands fly into the air, while
Laughter erupts from the one child blurts out a spoken
children. “He said macaroni!” one response.
classmate narrates. “Remember to raise your
The teacher pulls out a “time to hand,” she reminds him. He
be quiet” card, showing it first to immediately raises his hand, and she
Sam and then the rest of the group. calls on him for response.
The card offers a photo of the “House!” he offers with
teacher making the “be quiet” enthusiasm.
gesture with her finger to her lips. “House . . . play,” the teacher
“It’s not time to be silly,” she muses aloud, “not quite. Who else
reminds them all. has an idea?” Again hands fly into
Sam selects “macaroni” on his the air like seagulls at the surf.
device again, and a few children The paraprofessional navigates
release muffled giggles. The to a page on Sam’s device with
paraprofessional, seated behind animals on it and points to three
Sam, reminds him that it’s “time to possible options. She repeats the
count eyes,” and assists him in teacher’s question through a whisper
accessing a selection of numbers on in Sam’s ear and gently ushers his
his device. Sam chooses, “twelve, hand upward.
ten, nine.” Teacher and pupils, Sam
The teacher claims, “Yes I see included, fall into a rhythm as
ten, twelve eyes,” and continues seemingly familiar as the tide.

Authors’ Note
You may reach Laura Segebart DeThorne by e-mail at lauras@illinois.edu

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