Coastal Landscapes

Suggested Case Studies/exemplification

Case Exempifies Case Study Detail Notes

Study

Cornwall 1.Rocky coastline Bedruthan steps, Cornwall

Geology: Middle Devonian Slates an Staddon Grits (Old resistant sandstone)

Northumberland 1. Coastal plain (sandy coast) Bamburgh Beach, Northumberland

Baltic Sea 1. Concordant coastline Long spits of sand form lagoons behind
2. Haff coastline e.g. Coronian lagoon

Dalmatian 1. Concordant coastline Formed by faulting and rising sea levels since the end of the last ice age
coast, 2. Dalmatian coastline

Croatia

West 1.Discordant Coastline Rock strata meets the coast at 90 degrees in parallel bands
2.Rias
Cork, Weaker rocks (limestones) have been eroded creating long, thin bays (rias) in-between the mudstones and old
Ireland red sandstones
Especially resistant rocks remain as detached islands, such as Clear Island

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Jurrasic 1.Marine erosion dominated Located on the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site (awarded by UNESCO in 2001)
coastline
coast: Mouth of the cover has strong seaward dipping Portland limestones
2. Concordant coastline
3. Resistant Limestone
Easier to erode Wealden sediment (deposited c.124 million years ago) around can be found either side of
coastline the bay
4. Seaward dip Steeply dipping chalk forms that back of the cove (73 million years ago)
5. Folding

Sea eroded through limestone creating a cave through which you can see the Lulworth crumple, an excellent
6. Discordant coastal features
example of folding (limestone and shale strata folded due to African and European Plate colliding 30
7. Clay coastline million years ago)
unconsolidated. not resistant)
At Kimmeridge Bay, unconsolidated Kimmeridge Clay (exposed at low tides) erodes easily
Comprised of layers of mudstones, thin shales and resistant yellow-brown dolomites
8. Natural Arch

Natural arch (Durdle door) hard Portland Limetone exploited by erosion of weaknesses between vertical
layers of rock
Wealden beds behind more easily eroded
9. Sedimentary chalk
headland
10. Stack & stump sequence The Foreland is a sedimentary chalk headland, South of Studland
Erosion and weathering (chalk is a limestone vulnerable to weathering) formed features including Old Harry -
a stack , as well as a cave, arch and other features.
11. Jointing
12. Cliff formation
Durlston Head - made of Portland and Purback limetone. Created steep cliffs (e.g Peveril Point)
13. Rockfall at St Oswalds bay The limestone is jointed, and so is more easily exploited

Occurred April 2013 (see below)

Eden 1.Coastal plain (estuarine An example of a Special Area of Conservation (SAC)

estuary of coast) Restoration of the salt marsh from bare mudflat has taken place, providing ecosystem services including:
2. Importance of vegetation
Fife, Wildlife benefits: high tide refuge for waders; breeding sites for a range of birds; feeding ground for geese;
Scotland fish spawning / nursery; marine invertebrate habitat; specialist plants; Insect / amphibian habitat; or as part of
the
wider estuarine function: shoreline stability; sediment accretion; wave attenuation, flood, storm and coastal
protection; nutrient/organic matter source; absorbing excess water run-off; pollution trap and water filtration;
recreation, education and leisure.

Lands 1. Rocky coastline Eroded only 10 cm in one century

End, UK 2. Resistant granite coastline

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South 1. Longshore drit Dominant wind and wave direction from the west to the east determine direction of LSD
Coast of
England
Pembrokeshire 1. Landforms of coastal Pembrokeshire coast is 420km long and inclcies 60 Geological Conservation Sites, 40% has been granted SSSI
coastline,
erosion status
Castlemartin
2. Marco-tidal coastline
Various geology- mostly sedimentarty inc. sandstone and mudstone, whilst periods of volcanism led to
intrusive and extrusive igneous deposits

Landforms of erosion: found mostly along the concordant streets of coast at Castlemartin due to faults in
limestone here though macro-tidal so no wave cut notches present
Caves present in limestone cliffs at Stackpole Head
Natural arches: Green Bridge of Wales - carboniferous limestone and, at its base, thinly bedded rock strata
have been cut out along joint planes. 24 metres high and 20 metres across. The limestone strata dip inland
(northwards)
Stacks: Stack Rocks, 36m above mean sea level
Blowholes: Devils´s cauldron It is a 45 metre deep shaft, 55 metres at its greatest width, which is exposed to
the sea by an arch 18 metres high and 21 metres wide
Vertical cliffs due to limestone (e.g. South Pembrokeshire- 45/50m high)
Wave cut platform present in Manorbier bay, exposed Old Red Sandstone- tilted by compression
Coastal 1. Examples of coastal Swash-aligned beaches:
deposition
deposition Bay head beach: Morfa Harlech (Wales)

Drift aligned beaches:

Spit: Orford Ness (Suffolk)
Recurved spit: Spurn Head (Holderness coastline)
Tombolo: Lindisfame (Northumberland), or Loch Eriboll (Scotland)
Cuspate forelands: Dungeness (Kent)

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St 1. Chalk coastline 29/30th April a 90m area of cliff failed
2. Mass moveent- Rockfall
Oswalds Removed part of coastal path and left a large fan of debris which extended onto the sea (a talus cone)
Bay, Porus chalk was started after preceding rainfall (antecedent conditions), increasing pore water pressure and
Dorset decreasing stability
Chalk 95% calcium carbonate- susceptible to carbonation and solution opening weaknesses and fissures in
the rock (creating solution hollows)
Intense folding led to a 115 degree seaward dip- encouraging a sliding motion
Conjugate joints also encouraged slippage
120m tall- steep cliffs have more stress
Lack of vegetation on cliff face, exposure to full force of south-westerly waves and winds also has an impact-
creating slight undercutting

Aldborough, 1. Mass movement- topple NE facing

Holderness Avering 20m high cliffs
Comprising of Skipsea Till and Withernsea Till
Topple movements are sudden and frequent
Stepped cliff profile

Nefyn Bay, 1. Mass movement- Jan 2001, a period of heavy rain led to a translational landslide (which degraded into a mud flow) due to
2001 translational and flow weak geology (clay, silt and glacis-fluvial outwash deposits) plus seepage erosion due to juxtaposition of
sands over a less permeable clay layer
2 cards swept of the cliff leading to 1 fatality

Holbeck 1. Mass movement- rotational 1993 landslide- 1million tonnes of cliff failed cutting the 60m high cliff back by 70m
Hall, slide Created semicircular promontory 200m wide
North Causes: 140mm rainfall in the 2 months previously, pore water pressure build up, poor drainage and the
Yorkshire geology (Glacial Till resting on Scalby Mudstone and Moor grit- old sandstones)
Destroyed Holbeck Hall hotel at top of cliff

Emergent 1. Landfroms on emergent Raised beaches and relict/fossil cliffs e.g. Westward Ho! in Devon, beach 5m above current sea level; in
coastlines
coastlines Western Scotland, terraces are found at 8m, 15m and 30 metres above present sea level.
Fossil caves in King´s Caves in Arran, an islands of the West Coast of Scotland (sandstone)

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Submergent 1. Landforms on submergent Rias: e.g. Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire
coastlines coastlines
Estuaires e.g. River Thames
Fjords: e.g. Milford Sound, New Zealand,
Fjards: e.g. Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland
Dalmatian coasts e.g .Croatia

2013 1. Coastal flooding Cause: Succession of major storms inc. storm Xavier due to low pressure weather system brought by powerful
North Sea 2. MEDC Storm surge jet stream across the Atlantic
storm 5-6 December 2013intense low pressure (976mb deepening to 968mb) (A 1 millibar reduction in air pressure
surge allows sea level to rise by 10mm.)
Shape of the coastline (North Sea funnels storm surges towards London and Amsterdam), reduction in depth
towards the south and strong Northerly winds increased heigh of surge

UK Impacts: Strong winds (gusts of over 200km/hr in Scotland), mean elevations attained were 4.96–5.53 m in
3. Impacts of flooding
Lincolnshire, 5.16–6.11 m in North Norfolk
Social impacts: Coastal flooding (14000 homes affected) and forced evacuation, Hemsby (Norfolk) cliff erosion
meant several properties collapsed into the sea, bridges were shut (e.g the Humber Bridge) and2 people died
Hull and along the Humber estuary 2010 residences flooded
There was localised cliff slippage, collapse and subsidence of sea walls and promenades and extensive
damage to access ramps, chalets and beach huts on the soft rock cliffs between Weybourne and Happisburgh
Vegetated dunes in North Lincolnshire (Fig. 2B) and North Norfolk were severely cut back
The Thames Barrier was closed to protect London
Economic impacts: Cost of damage was calculated at £100 million,

Netherlands impacts: Storm surge of 3.74m above the mean sea level on the Frisian coast (In Germany, but
right on the Dutch boarder)

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Phillipines 1. LEDC coastal flooding 167,000 hectares of coastland - about 0.6% of the country’s total area -- projected to flood
(LEDC) Water levels projected to rise between 7.6 and 10.2 cm each decade.
High level of poverty and inequality (90% of wealth is controlled by 15% of the population).
Natural ecosystems in Manila bay e.g. mangroves and sea grass have been destroyed by pollution, over
exploitation and siltation.
2. Socio-economic impacts of Estimated losses of $6.5 billion a year without adaption costs.
flooding Urban areas around Manila Bay, such as Cavity City and Las Pinas, are estimated to be destroyed with a 1m
rise in sea level.
2.3 million people could be affected, 62% of them in Metro Manila.
San Fernando is also threatened, by 2012 some estimates suggest the city will lose 300 buildings, and
283,000m2 of beach.
Property loses are estimated at $2.5 million and there will be social amenity losses of schools, churches and
beach.
130 fishermen earn $12 a week- alternative employment will be hard to find (welfare loss of $168,000 a year)

3. LEDC coastal management Small breakwaters of rip rap constructed to protect government buildings and infrastructure for e.g. San
Agustin, at a cost of $21,000

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Bangladesh 1. LEDC Storm surge Vulnerable area-low lying land (1-3m), river discharge from Ganges and Brahmaputra, delta made of
(LEDC) 2. Factors affecting flood risk unconsolidated sediment, shape of Bay of Bengal concentrates wave energy further north
3. Climate change and flood
2007 category 4 storm Cyclone Sidr -heavy rain, strong winds (223km/hr), storm surge (6m high)
risk
Eye of the storm crossed the coasts near Sundarbans mangrove forest around 9.30pm on 15 November
Coastal districts/offshore islands had highest impacts
US$ 29.6 million damage to roads, embankments, sluice gates and riverbank protection
Destroyed more than 7000 shrimp farms in Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerat and Patuakhal- estimated loss of $36
million
One quarter of the biomass cover (2500 sq. km) of Sundarbans mangrove forest damaged

Generally mitigation measures a success- only 3,000 dead (embankments, early warning systems)

Problems of coastal defences included: Embankments and Polders did not provide the enough heights to
prevent overtopping of cyclone storm surge. Many trees are planted in the surface layer of embankments
and polders, and were then blown down breaking embankment. Maintenance for the structures has scarcely
been executed. Illegal habitation on the structures. Cyclone shelter capacities were inadequate for the
population of the service area. Without shelters, many livestock animals died during the disaster. Many people
neglected cyclone warnings, which resulted in many deaths.
The Sunderbans forests helped reduce some impacts, but 71% of Bangladeshes coastline is now retreating by
as much as 200m a year . One cause of this is for shrimp farming (accounting for 25% of mangrove forest loss
globally)

Chittagong A Coastal Climate Resilient infrastructure Project (2012) supported by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) aims
to ´climate-proof´ the area. The project involves:
-Improving road connections, raising embankments too 60cm above normal flood levels
4. Coastal management
-Creating new market areas with sheds on raised platforms
-Constructing 25 tropical cyclone shelters, taking account of sea level rise
-Training in climate resistance and adaption measures

A Environmental Assessment and Review framework was used, rather than EIA as its a series of small projects
Positives- poverty alleviation (10%), environmental enhancement e.g. tree planting
May 2015 the IFDA (International Fund for Agricultural Development) a UN agency rated progress as
satisfactory
Disturbance of people and habitats during construction, 200 household relocated

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Kiribati 1. Contemporary sea level Kiribati consists of 33 islands (32 atolls and one raised coral island)
change 100% of the population live less than 1km from the coast
In some places, sea level is rising by 1.2 cm a year (four times faster than the global average)
It could disappear within the next 50 years
Rising sea levels are causing salt water intrusion and affecting the nations ability to grow crops
In 2014 the president purchased 20KM2 of land in one of the Fijian Islands
The government has announced a ´migration with dignity´ policy to allow people to apply for jobs in nearby
countries such as New Zealand
The population are likely to become ´environmental refugees´

Akosombo 1. Cuases of coastal recession Constructed primarily for the generation of HEP, and also used for fishing, transportation, farming and tourism
Dam, Approximately 99.5% of the river drainage basin is blocked by the dam
Ghana Reduction of fluvial sediment supply from the Volta Rive
Impacts/responses:
Construction of dam has accelerated shoreline retreat
In 1965, coastal defences built in the region of Keta to attempt to halt recession
Keta Sea Defence constructed between 2001-2002 (included offshore breakwater and seven headland
groynes as well as beach nourishment).
Evidence in 2006 suggested groynes were not long enough and beach material was being lost
Togo and Benin down the coast are likely to suffer negative impacts from about 71 million m3/a to a little as 7
million m3/a Constructed on the Volta river in 1964

The Nile 1. Causes of coastal recession Aswan High Dam completed in 1968,
delta Problems:
River discharge fell (35 billion cubic meters to 10 billion cubic meters) and sediment fell from 130 million
tonnes to 15 million tonnes due to water withdrawals for industry, cities and farming behind the dam,
sediment being trapped by the reservoir and the dam
Increased erosion rates
Surface salt crust in Kafr el-Sheikh (used to wash off during floods)
Now 25-80% farmers profits spent on fertilisers
Heavier demand of water use upstream, predicted 70% decrease in the amount of Nile water reaching the
Delta (responsible for 60% of the countries food supply and densely populated (4,000 people per square
mile))
Future: Heavier demand of water use upstream, predicted 70% decrease in the amount of Nile water reaching
the Delta, I m rise in sea level will cause 20% of the Delta to be lost
Area is responsible for 60% of the countries food supply

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Californian 1. Causes of coastal recession 1,250 miles of diverse ocean coastline inc. sandy coasts and rocky cliffs
Coastline 21 major rivers
85% of the coastline experiences erosion
Coastal development has been accompanied by significant investments in public infrastructure, including
roads, airports, and harbours.
Retreating in response to continuous sea level rise over the past 18,000 years
El Niño events acerbate the problem as they bring large storm waves due to elevated sea levels (e.g.
2006/2007 Winter beach erosion on 29 beaches along the California, Oregon and Washington coasts was 76
percent above normal)
Reduction in rainfall during El Niño means the coastal rivers produce little sand

The 1. Coastal erosion 97% of inhabited islands are experiencing coastal erosion
Maldives Maldives holds a range of coastal ecosystems including coral reefs, seagrass beds, lagoons, beaches, and
(LEDC) small areas of mangrove.
Maldives depends entirely on the coastal and marine ecosystems as the asset base of the national economy.
Tourism, the largest contributor to GDP, is based wholly on the health and attractiveness of Maldives’s coastal
features
Some development activities, such as harbour dredging and land reclamation, permanently change the natural
environment and substantially damage habitats
Construction of new artificial islands such as Hulhumalé means isolated islands are ignored
2. Coastal conflict Sustainable management of traditional income sources such as fishing and resources such as mangroves are
overlooked to protect areas important for tourism
3.Sustainable management Mangroves for the Future (MFF) - endorsed by the Government in 2011
Working in small atolls including Baa Atoll, Noonu Atoll and Haa Dhaal / Haa Alif Atolls
4.Soft engineering
5.ICZM Ensures at least one ICZM model in each province
Educates on the importance of maintaining mangrove swamps

Deltawerken/ 1. Flood prevention Constructed after 1953 North Sea Flood in which 8,361 people in the Netherlands died and 9% of farmland
Deltaworks, 2. Megaproject flooded
Netherlands 3. Hard engineering
Completed 1997, cost of $5bn
(MEDC)
Comprised of laying 13 dams, including barriers, sluices, locks, dikes and levees within and around the Rhine-
Meuse-Scheldt delta
Provides flood protection, drinking water and irrigation
Successful: Risk of flooding reduced to 1 in 4,000 years
Except for the Oosterschelde and Westerschelde, all the estuaries were closed.
Channels, streams and coves became silted up and mud flats and shallows caved in. Saltwater fish died (saline
water become fresh) and birds moved away. Gradually, other species replaced them.
Isostatic rebound is causing the Netherlands to sink and so dikes may need to be strengthened and raises
barriers currently open, closed.

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Varela, 1. Coastal Erosion Rapid rates of coastal erosion
Guinea 2. Coastal Flooding Loss of trees and infrastructure, as well as a tourist resort built in 1980´s
Bissau Caused by rising sea levels (10cm since 1950) and loss of mangrove forests, especially around Kabrousse,
(LEDC) which act as natural barriers
Biodiversity is at risk (e.g. marine turtles and manatees depend on mangrove forests and sea grass beds
which have been shrinking)
Coastal activities which provide a large source of income are now under threats (e.g. tourism, fishing and
commerce)

3. Coastal management Pilot site for United National Adaption to Climate Change in West Africa project (UNESCO, 2012)
4. Soft engineering Encouraging implementation of ICZM, inc. Mangrove restoration and afforestation

Thames 1. Flood defences Build in 1984

Barrier Protects 1.3 million people and £275 billion worth of property from North Sea storm surges and
(MEDC) exceptional high tides
Successful but will need to be increased by 2070, which is 40 years later than planned according to Thames
Estuary 2100

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Holdernes 1. Sub-aerial processes One of Europe's fastest eroding coastlines 1m a year, average 4km lost since Roman times
s (MEDC) dominated coastline Average annual rate of erosion -2 metres per year.
2. Coastal erosion
Causes: bedrock is made up of till (unconsolidated boulder clay) and waves have a long fetch over the north
sea- NE direction, small beaches offer little protection as waves destructive, sea level rise a further threat
This material was deposited by glaciers around 12,000 years ago.

Skipsea: Series of Gabon cages built by the local landowner

3. Factors affecting coastal
recession Groynes are locally effective, acceptable visually and development of low lying land has now been possible
Gabions protect only small area, erosion occurring either side at Skipsea.

Hornsea: Holiday resort with a promenade and hotel frontage. Groynes repaired at a cost of 5.2 million. Old
sea wall has been raised slightly. Sand dunes in the south beach were planted with trees.
2. Coastal management

Mappleton: 1991 a scheme costing 2.1million, supported by EU funding, was put in place including 2 rock
groynes and rip rap. Blocks of granite were imported from Norway for the sea defences.
Cliff between the two groynes has been stabilised through landscaping and vegetation cover.
Substantial beach has been retained.
Groynes have been attributed to causing increased erosion at Great Cowden, 3km down the coast.

Withernsea: A resort town, protected by groynes and a sea wall. A curved sea wall has been built. Rip rap and
beach nourishment also protect the wall, a total cost of 6.3million.
Will hold the line, protecting seasonal jobs at the resort and halt falling house prices.
Costs have limited the length of the sea wall and rocks have reduced access to the beach. Views are limited.
There is a problem of wave noise.

Spurn Head: After a series of storms, the damage was to costly to manage so left unmanaged from 1995
Growing costs of annual protection were saved. The community of lifeboat men had to move out in 2012.

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Happisburgh 1. Coastal erosion Village in North Norfolk, population of 2400, sparsely populated and high levels of rural deprivation
(MEDC) 30 properties disappeared since 2000
After an CBA, it was decided that the ‘no active intervention’ approach would be used, however work to
2. Coastal management
move the existing granite sea defences a hundred yards back towards the crumbling cliffs should give the
village a little more time
3. Coastal conflict Residents of Beach Road have all lost their homes
By 2105 shoreline will recede by a further 200m. This would mean:
50 more homes lost, caravan site lost and other property loses including the village church totalling £6 million
Losers: House values are very low so residents cant afford to move
Government provided £5000 to residents to assist with the with £1000 for relocation
Campaigning by CCAG (Coastal Concern Action Group) to raise support for residents
Received £3million as part of Pathfinder
Rising costs of hold the line avoided

Blackwater 1.Soft engineering Managed realignment began in 2002 by Essex Wildlife Trust (owners)
Estuary Arae of international wildlife importance
(MEDC) Problem of ´coastal squeeze´ due to old sea wall
3.5 km sea wall built 300-400 year ago very expensive to maintain
CBA showed not worth maintaining since soil quality and land value was low
5 breaches in the wall made, opening up 80 hectares of land for flooding
Creeks dug behind to promote formation of saltmarsh habitat
These mudflats and salt marshes will provided sustainable protection for the future, absorbing higher seas
and storm surges
Habitat created for Brent geese and lapwigs as well as marine invertebrates
2. Coastal conflict West Mersea oyster fisherman concerned about hydrodynamic impacts which could increase sedimentation
RSPB concerns of food risk and habitat change

Thursaston, 1.Soft engineering Little human development; Low value land

(MEDC) SSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest)
Cliffs susceptible to erosion (weak sandstone and boulder class, bedding layers have seaward dip,
susceptible to sub-aerial weathering and mass movements)
Introduction of drainage pipes
2. Unsuccessful coastal Cliff erosion continued and drainage pipes fell out
management

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Thailand 1. Impacts of coastal erosion Reliance on tourist beaches which are being rapidly eroded
(LEDC) According to the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Thailand loses about 5-20m of shore each
year along its 2,677km coast.

In 2012, constant pounding by waves battered a seawall to pieces at Surin Beach in Phuket

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