Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation

Introduction: Early Indian Development

 India has a rich history of cultures and civilizations dating back to the Old Stone
Age.
 Multiple groups migrated and adapted to various ecological zones, resulting in
diverse cultures and pluralistic beliefs.
 Settlers in the Indus region reached a mature stage of living during the
Bronze Age.

Focus of the Chapter: From Stone Age to Indus Civilization

This chapter explores Indian history from the first human settlement in the Stone Age
to the decline of the Indus Civilization, including the Neolithic cultures.

Sources of Information

 Archaeological sources are crucial for understanding this historical period,

including sites, geological sediments, animal bones, stone tools, and
artifacts.
 Although the Harappans used a script, it remains undeciphered.
Faunal(animal) and floral(plant)[charred seeds, pollens and phytoliths ]
sources help understand Stone Age people's interactions with the environment.
 Human genes, specifically mitochondrial DNA (mt-DNA) studies, provide
insights into prehistoric migrations.
 Language, represented by Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Tibeto-
Burman language families, evolved during various migration phases in India.

Pre-historic India

 Prehistoric times, also known as the Stone Age, refers to the period before the
development of script.
 The Stone Age encompasses the entire South Asia region, including India,
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bangladesh.

Human Ancestors and Migration

 Human ancestors likely evolved in Africa and later migrated to different

parts of the world.
 Homo erectus was the earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of
Africa.
 Recent investigations indicate human ancestors were present in India
between two million and one million years ago.

Stone Age Division

  The period before script invention is divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and
Iron Age.
 The cultures are named based on materials used(for example, painted grey ware
culture or Iron Age culture), geographical regions(indus), or the first
identified site(harappa).
 The Old Stone Age, or Palaeolithic, is the earliest age and divided into Lower,
Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic cultures.

Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages

 The period after the Old Stone Age is the Mesolithic Age, followed by the
Neolithic Age.
 The Neolithic Age witnessed animal and plant domestication and the
development of food production.
 Classification of cultures is based on stratigraphy, chronology, and lithic
evidence.

Chronology of Lower Palaeolithic

 Recent research suggests that the lower Palaeolithic began around two million
years ago and continued for up to 60,000 years.

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

 Human ancestor species Homo erectus is believed to have lived in India during
the Lower Palaeolithic.
 The first Palaeolithic tools were identified at the Pallavaram site near Chennai
in 1863 by Robert Bruce Foote.
 Numerous Palaeolithic sites have been identified and excavated across India since
then.

Significance of Lithic Tools

 Prehistoric studies rely heavily on lithic tools, which are vital for identifying
prehistoric sites.Human ancestors crafted stone tools (Hand axes, cleavers,
choppers and the like were designed in this way by flaking off the
chips)from large blocks and pebbles, demonstrating cognitive skills.
 These tools were used for hunting, butchering, processing food, and obtaining
plant foods.

Palaeolithic Industries
  Palaeolithic cultures are categorized into Early, Middle, and Late Acheulian
Industries.
 Early Acheulian tools include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers, and
flake tools.

Geographical Distribution of Acheulian Tradition

 The Acheulian tradition is absent in the Western Ghats, coastal areas, and
northeastern India due to heavy rainfall.
 Central India and the southeastern part (near Chennai) have Acheulian sites with
rich resources.

Distribution of Lower Palaeolithic Tools

 Lower Palaeolithic tools are found in most parts of India, except in few regions
like the Ganges valley, southern Tamil Nadu, and the Western Ghats.
 Important Palaeolithic sites include Athirampakkam, Pallavaram, Gudiyam near
Chennai, Hunsgi valley, Isampur in Karnataka, and (Bhimbetka in Madhya
Pradesh,sohan in punjab,bellan valley in up,didwana in
Rj,nagarjunaconda in AP GIVEN IN NCERT)

Hominin and Animal Fossils

 India has limited evidence of hominin(human ancestor) fossils, with the

Narmada human cranium being one of the few finds.
 Animal fossils, such as giant tusked elephants, wild cattle, and extinct
horse-like animals, provide insights into the paleo-environment of India.

Way of Life

 People of the Lower Palaeolithic culture hunted animals and gathered roots,
nuts, and fruits for sustenance.
 They lived in open-air locations, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters, as
evidenced in Bhimbetka and Gudiyam.
 These human ancestors, belonging to Homo erectus, had a less complex
language culture, possibly using limited sounds, words, and sign language.
They exhibited intelligence in crafting tools.

Middle Palaeolithic Culture

Chronology

 Around 400,000 years BP(before present), changes occurred in lithic technology

and the species of human ancestors diverged and Homo erectus existed during
this period.
  Some of the Middle Palaeolithic tools are attributed to behavioural
modernity. Anatomically modern humans are said to have emerged
around 3,00,000 years ago.
Chronology

 Middle Palaeolithic culture in India is dated between 3,85,000 and 40,000

BCE (BC).
 No hominin(immediate ancestor of human) fossil bones of this species have
been found in India.

 Middle Palaeolithic in India was first identified by H.D. Sankalia at Nevasa, and
several sites have been discovered since.
 Recent findings date Middle Palaeolithic at Athirampakkam dated to
around 3.85-1.72 lakh years BP.
 Indian Middle Palaeolithic may be as old as African Middle Palaeolithic.

Industries and Tool Types

 Tool types include hand ax`es, cleavers, choppers, chopping tools,

blades,scrapers, borers, points, projectile points, and knives.
 Flake industry was prevalent, and scrapers were used for wood and skin
working.

Distribution

 Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in river valleys like Narmada, Godavari,
Krishna, and Yamuna,(belan valley,south of tungabhadra,didwana,bhimbetka
ncert)

Ways of Life and Main Characteristics

 Occupied open-air, cave, and rock shelter sites.

 Were hunter-gatherers.
 Key features include- smaller tools, reduced use of hand axes, core preparation
techniques, and Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw materials.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture

 The cultural phase that followed the Middle Palaeolithic is called Upper
Palaeolithic.
 This period is marked by innovation in tool technology and increased
cognitive capability of humans.
 The modern humans, who first evolved in subSaharan Africa, sometime
before 300,000 years ago, migrated to and occupied various parts of Asia
around 60,000 years ago.
  They probably replaced the earlier populations. There is a possibility that
these new groups were responsible for the Upper Palaeolithic culture of
India

Lithic Tools and Industries

 Characterized by blade and bone tool technologies.

 Microliths (tiny stone tools)were introduced made from silica-rich materials.
 Bone tools(for the first time added by me) and faunal remains found in
Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh.
 Marks the beginning of flint industry

Chronology

 The Upper Palaeolithic culture is represented in India between 40,000 years and
10,000 years BP.
Distribution

 Used caves and open-air spaces for living.

 Sites include Meralbhavi in Karnataka, Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh,
Godavarikhani in Telangana, Baghor I and Baghor III of Son Valley in
Madhya Pradesh and Patne in Maharashtra are some of the Upper
Palaeolithic sites of India.

 Sri Lanka has evidence of microliths and hominin fossils.

Artifacts and Findings

 Incised ostrich eggshell, shell, and stone beads found at various sites in
India(AP,MH) and Sri Lanka.

Ways of Life and Main Characteristics - Upper Palaeolithic Culture

Art and Ornaments

 Evidence of art in the form of paintings unique.

 Beads and ornaments found.
 Advanced lithic blade industry.
 Bhimbetka Green Paintings-Some green paintings in Bhimbetka dated to the
Upper Palaeolithic based on style and archaeological evidence.

Mesolithic Culture

Distribution
  Mesolithic sites found throughout India in diverse eco-zones: coasts, hills, sand
dunes, deltaic regions, lakes, forests, hills, mountains, rocky terrains, and
coastal environments.
 Notable sites include Paisra (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani
Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Damdama (Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu
(Andhra), and Kibbanahalli (Karnataka).
 Rock shelter sites like Adamgarh and Bhimbetka.
 Coastal sites in Mumbai, Teri sites in Thoothukudy district (Tamil Nadu), and
Vishakapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) with microlithic evidence.

Climate

 After the Ice Age, global warming led to increased mobility and occupation of
various eco-zones.
 Established monsoon patterns and varying rainfall.
 Evidence of freshwater lakes in some regions like Didwana in western Rajasthan.
 Indications of a dry deciduous forest during the Mesolithic period.

Chronology

 Mesolithic culture dates vary worldwide, with pre-agricultural origins in some

areas.
 In India, Mesolithic cultures emerged around 10,000 BCE.
 In certain Indian regions, including Kerala and Tamil Nadu, it continued until
1000 BCE, marking the beginning of the Iron Age.
 Sri Lanka saw the appearance of microliths about 28,500 years BP.

Economy

Occupations

 Main occupations included hunting, gathering plant food, and fishing.

 Early stages did not involve agriculture; domestication of animals occurred
at the end of the Mesolithic period.
 Rock paintings in Central India depict hunting, trapping, fishing, and plant food
collection.
 PLANT CULTIVATION(7000BC)-sambhar salt lake in RJ
Faunal Evidence

 Faunal evidence shows hunting of various animals like cattle, gaur, buffalo,
porcupines, deer species, gazelle, and more.
 Tools like spears, bows and arrows, and traps were used for hunting.
 Bhimbetka paintings illustrate hunting activities, often involving men and
women together.
 Use of fire for possibly roasting food.

Domestic Animals
  Domestic animal bones (cattle, sheep, goats, pig, dog) found at various sites at
Kanewal, Loteshwar and Ratanpur, and from Adamgarh and Bhimbetka in
Madhya Pradesh sites.
 Camel bones discovered at Kanewal.
 Earliest evidence of domestication of animals(dog)-5000BC-adamgarh in MP
and bagor in RJ

Camps and Houses

 Highly mobile lifestyle; people moved in search of food.

 Made temporary huts, used caves and rock shelters.
 Circular huts with postholes and burnt clay lumps found; reed impressions
visible.
 Traces of oval and circular huts and possible wattle daub are found in Chopani
Mando and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh and Bagor and Tilwara in RJ

Burials

 Mesolithic people buried their dead(unique), indicating their beliefs and

humane relationships.
 Human skeletons and burial goods found at various sites like
mahadha,damdama,sarai nahar in UP, including one where a man and a woman
were buried together found at Mahadaha.

Art

 Limited evidence of art in India in comparison to europe, including geometric

engravings on chert stone, bone objects from Bhimbetka, and a human tooth
with a geometric design.
 Rock paintings depicting hunting, trapping, fishing, and dancing found in rock
shelters in Madhya Pradesh and Central India.
 Sites like Bhimbetka, Raisen, Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh, and South Mirzapur
in Uttar Pradesh feature these paintings.
 Haematite, an iron-rich stone, found; suggests people may have decorated
themselves with flowers and leaves.

Hunter and Gatherers of the Historical Period

 Some groups continued to use microlithic tools in later periods despite the
development of Neolithic, Iron Age, and historical periods.
 They may have become marginalized as urban populations acquired more wealth.
 Groups in remote forested areas and the Andaman region likely continue this way
of life.
 Many such groups existed in the 19th and 20th centuries, as documented in Edgar
Thurston's "Castes and Tribes of Southern India."
 Describing them as primitive is incorrect; they are people who prefer hunting and
gathering.
  Tamil Nadu had microlithic hunter-gatherers during the peak of the Indus
Civilization.
 The Andhra-Karnataka region had agro-pastoralists during the Neolithic period.

Characteristics of Mesolithic Cultures

 Lived Semi-permanent and temporary settlements.

 Occupancy of caves and open grounds.
 Burial practices.
 Artistic skills.
 Geographical spread.
 Cultural continuity observed in many parts of India.
 Use of microlithic tools for hunting smaller animals and birds.

Early Neolithic Cultures and the Beginning of Agriculture

Introduction

 Neolithic period marked the beginning of agriculture and animal

domestication.
 Early evidence of Neolithic culture in Fertile Crescent (Egypt, Mesopotamia),
Indus region, Ganges valley, and China.
 Between 10,000 BCE and 5000 BCE Agriculture led to cultural
developments, large villages, pottery, permanent residences, known as the
Neolithic revolution.
 The introduction of domestication of animals and plants -> production and
supply of a large quantity of grains and animal food.
 The fertile soil deposited by the rivers enhanced the growth of agriculture,
generating a surplus of grains. Surplus food production played a major
role in the rise of early civilisations.
 Large villages came to exist and pottery developed. Permanent residences
were built. Hence, the cultural developments of this period are called
Neolithic revolution.

Neolithic Cultures in India

 Neolithic cultures in India are regionally diverse and emerged at different times.
 North-Western India had early Neolithic evidence.
 North-Eastern India saw Neolithic cultures much later, around the early historic
period.

The Neolithic Culture of North-Western India

 The Neolithic culture of north-western India is the earliest to have evidence of
plant and animal domestication in India.
  Sites like Mehrgarh, Rana Ghundai, Sarai Kala, and Jalilpur in present-day
Pakistan provide early evidence.
 Mehrgarh's Period I (c. 7000-5500 BCE) featured cultivation of barley,
wheat, and domestication of sheep, goats, and cattle. Semi-nomadic, pastoral
lifestyle.The people belonging to this age did not use pottery, but cultivated
sixrow barley, emmer and einkorn wheat, jujube and dates, and also
domesticated sheep, goat and cattle. They built their houses with mud and
buried the dead. They used ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise,
lapis lazuli and sandstone.

 Period II (c. 5500-4800 BCE) and Period III (c. 4800-3500 BCE) introduced
pottery, terracotta figurines, glazed faience beads, ornaments, and long-
distance trade.
 Badakshan abandoned after the rise of the mature phase of the Indus
Civilization.

The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir

 Contemporary with the Harappan civilization, the Burzahom site revealed

pit houses, domestication of sheep, goat, and cultivated plants.
 People traded with the Harappan civilization, used handmade pottery,
stone tools, and megalithic culture.
 They used handmade pottery. They used tools such as stone axes, chisels,
adzes, pounders, maceheads, points and picks. Awls were used for stitching
skins into clothes to beat the weather. Scrapers were used for working the skins.
 Two phases of Neolithic culture have been identified. They are termed aceramic
and ceramic phases. Aceramic phase did not have evidence of ceramics.
Ceramic phase shows evidence for the existence of pottery. In the ceramic
phase, people built mud houses. They used copper arrowheads. They also
used black ware pottery, beads of agate and carnelian and painted pottery.
A burial at this site produced wild dog bone and antler horn. An engraving of a
hunting scene is depicted on a stone here with dog and sun. Seeds of wheat,
barley, common pea and lentil have been recovered from the excavations.
people domesticated animals include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl.
Bones of wild animals such as red deer, Kashmir stag, ibex, bear and wolf
suggest that they hunted animals. There is evidence of menhirs and the use of
redware pottery and metal objects in the megalithic culture. The use of lentil
suggests that contacts had been established with Central Asia. These people had
interactions with Harappan Civilisation.

The Neolithic Culture of Ganges Valley and Central India

 Lehuradeva(UP) shows early evidence of rice cultivation (c. 6500 BCE) with
cord-marked pottery.
 Koldiwa, Chirand, Senuwar, and Mahagara are important Neolithic sites in
this region.These sites have evidence of domestivcation and cultivation and
pottery.
 Cultivation of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, and domestication of cattle, sheep, goat,
pig, and fowl.
  Used cord-impressed pottery, microliths, bone and antler tools, and
terracotta objects.

The Neolithic Culture of Eastern India

 Neolithic sites in Bihar and West Bengal (Birbhanpur, Chirand) show similarities
with East and South-East Asian Neolithic complexes.
 Tools include pointed butt celts, chisels, and shouldered axes.

Neolithic Culture of South India

 Found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and north-western Tamil Nadu.

 Over 200 Neolithic sites identified, near granite hills with water sources.
 Some sites feature ash mounds in the center with habitation around them.
 Sites in river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, and Kaveri.
 Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and
Hallur in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in
Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the major Neolithic sites
in South India.
 Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in
Karnataka feature ash mound sites

 Evidence of habitation, houses, burials, and ash mounds in various sites.

Neolithic Culture of North-Eastern India

Introduction
 In north-eastern India, Neolithic culture emerged relatively late, dating from
2500-1500 BCE or even later.
 Sites in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh reveal the
presence of Neolithic cultures.
 Typical tools include shouldered axes and splayed celts.
 Shifting cultivation, cultivation of yams and taro, stone and wooden memorials
for the dead, and Austro-Asiatic languages are prominent features, indicating
cultural similarities with South-east Asia.
The Indus Civilization (Harappan Civilization)

Nomenclature, Phases, and Chronology

 The Indus Civilization, appearing in the north-western part of India and Pakistan
in the third millennium BCE, is also known as the Harappan Civilization.
 It had a gradual development, with Neolithic villages in the region dating back to
around 7000 BCE (e.g., Mehrgarh).
Phases of the Harappan culture:
 Early Harappan: 3000–2600 BCE
 Mature Harappan: 2600–1900 BCE
 Late Harappan: 1900–1700 BCE
 The urban phase was most prominent during the Mature Harappan period and
began to decline in the Late Harappan period.
Explorations and Excavations

 The site of Harappa was first visited in the 19th century by Charles Mason and
Alexander Burnes.
 Alexander Cunningham visited the site in the 1850s, but the significance of the
site and civilization was not fully recognized until Sir John Marshal became
Director General of ASI.
 Mortimer Wheeler conducted excavations in the 1940s.
 After the partition of India, many Harappan sites went to Pakistan, prompting
explorations and excavations in Indian sites like Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi
Garhi, and Dholavira.
 Subsequent explorations and excavations since the 1950s contributed to a better
understanding of the Harappan Civilization.

Geographical Area and Settlements

 The Indus Civilization and contemporary cultures covered an area of

approximately 1.5 million square kilometers in India and Pakistan.
 The boundaries of this civilization included Sutkagen-dor in the west (on the
Pakistan-Iran border), Shortugai in the north (Afghanistan), Alamgirpur in the
east (Uttar Pradesh, India), and Daimabad in the south (Maharashtra, India).
 The core area of the civilization was in regions spanning Pakistan, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, and Haryana.

Early Beginnings

 The Indus region, particularly Mehrgarh, is one of the early areas where
agriculture and animal domestication began, but there is limited knowledge
about continuity between the Neolithic cultures in the region and the later urban
civilization.
  The early Harappan phase witnessed the development of villages and towns
across the region. In the Mature Harappan phase, urban centers flourished.

Planned Towns

 Major cities in the Harappan period included Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan),

Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, and Surkotada (Gujarat,
India), Kalibangan (Rajasthan, India), Banawali, and Rakhigarhi (Haryana,
India).
 Harappan towns featured fortifications, well-planned streets and lanes, and
efficient drainage systems, indicating the influence of civic authorities in town
planning.
 Construction materials included baked and unbaked bricks, as well as stones. The
towns followed a grid pattern.
 Houses were primarily made of mud bricks, and some had multiple floors, with a
central courtyard and rooms surrounding it.
 The citadel area in Mohenjo-Daro contained important structures used by the
public or select residents. A building was identified as a warehouse, and the
Great Bath was a significant feature with associated rooms.
 Granaries were present, and buildings used gypsum mortar to make the bricks
watertight.

Subsistence and Economic Production

 Agriculture was a crucial source of subsistence for the Harappans. They

cultivated a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas,
sesame, and various millets.
 The adoption of a double cropping system and the use of ploughs for agriculture
were notable practices.
 The Harappans used both canal and well irrigation techniques to support their
agricultural activities.
 Archaeobotanists study ancient agriculture and its relationship with the
environment.
Animal Domestication

 Pastoralism was another economic activity for the Harappans. They domesticated
animals such as sheep, goats, and fowl.
 They were knowledgeable about other animals like buffalo, pigs, and elephants,
but they were not familiar with horses.
 The Harappans had a breed of cattle known as Zebu, often depicted in their seals.
They also consumed fish, birds, and evidence of boar, deer, and gharial has
been found at Harappan sites.

Craft Production

 Craft production played a vital role in the Harappan economy, with a focus on
bead and ornament making, shell bangle production, and metalworking.
 Materials used for crafting included carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, metals such
as copper, bronze, and gold, as well as shell, faience, terracotta, and burnt clay.
  Beads and ornaments were crafted in various designs and were exported to
Mesopotamia, where evidence of these artifacts has been found.
 Certain Harappan sites specialized in the production of specific craft materials, as
mentioned in the table.
Material Site or Source
 Shell Nageshwar and Balakot
 Lapis lazuli Shortughai
 Carnelian Lothal
 Steatite South Rajasthan
 Copper Rajasthan and Oman
 Pottery

 Harappans used a variety of well-fired pottery for their daily needs.

 Pottery types included dish-on-stands, storage jars, perforated jars, goblets, S-
shaped jars, plates, dishes, bowls, and pots.
 Harappan pottery featured deep red slips and black paintings, with motifs like
pipal leaves, fish-scale designs, intersecting circles, zigzag lines, horizontal
bands, and various floral and faunal patterns.
 The pottery was well-baked and finely decorated.
 Metals, Tools, and Weapons

 The Harappan civilization belonged to the Bronze Age and had knowledge of
making copper and bronze tools.
 Various tools were used for agriculture and craft production, including chert
blades, copper objects, and bone and ivory tools.
 Tools encompassed points, chisels, needles, fishhooks, razors, weighing pans,
mirrors, and antimony rods, typically made of copper.
 Weapons included arrowheads, spearheads, celt, and axes, but the Harappans did
not have knowledge of iron.

Textiles and Ornaments

 The Harappans used textiles for clothing and wore metal and stone ornaments.
 They were aware of cotton and silk and adorned themselves with carnelian,
copper, and gold ornaments.
 Some ornaments featured etched designs and were exported to Mesopotamia.
 Faience, stoneware, and shell bangles were also used for personal adornment.

Trade and Exchange

 Trade and exchange activities were significant contributors to the Harappan

economy.
 The Harappans maintained close trade relations with the Mesopotamians and
various cultures in India.
 Harappan seals, materials, and inscriptions have been found in Sumerian sites in
Oman, Bahrain, Iraq, and Iran, confirming trade contacts.
 The term "Meluhha" in cuneiform inscriptions referred to the Indus region,
indicating its significance.
  The Harappans traded carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and various wood
types with Mesopotamia, and they also interacted with different regions of
India to acquire raw materials.
Weights and Measures

 The Harappans developed standardized weights and measures due to their

involvement in commercial transactions.
 Cubical chert weights with a binary system of ratios (1:2:4:8:16:32) have been
discovered at Harappan sites.
 They used a measuring scale where one inch equated to approximately 1.75 cm.
Seals, Sealing, and Scripts

 Harappans frequently used seals made from materials such as steatite, copper,
terracotta, and ivory.
 The Harappan script remains undeciphered, with about 5,000 texts documented,
including the longest text with approximately twenty-six signs.
 Some scholars suggest the script may be Dravidian in origin, and the seals may
have been used for identity marking or ownership on transported materials.
Arts and Amusement

 Evidence of the artistic nature of the Harappans can be seen in terracotta

figurines, painted pottery, and bronze sculptures from Harappan sites.
 Notable art objects include the "Priest king" of steatite, dancing girl of copper,
and stone sculptures.
 Amusement items such as toy carts, rattles, wheels, tops, marbles, and hopscotch
suggest the recreational activities of the Harappan people.
Faith and Belief System

 The Harappans worshiped nature and revered the pipal tree.

 Some terracotta figures, possibly representing a mother goddess, indicate their
religious beliefs.
 Fire altars were identified at Kalibangan.
 Burials were conducted elaborately, and evidence of cremation is reported,
suggesting a belief in an afterlife. Burials included pottery, ornaments, jewelry,
copper mirrors, and beads.

Polity

 Uniformity in pottery, seals, weights, and bricks suggests the existence of a polity
during the Harappan civilization.
 Labour mobilization implies the presence of a political system.
 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro may have had a city-state-like polity, and uniformity
in cultural materials and measurement units points to central authority in
Harappan times.
Authorship and the Making of Indian Culture

 One school of thought suggests that the authors of the Harappan Civilization
spoke Dravidian languages.
 Archaeological evidence indicates the movement of Harappan people to the east
and south after the decline of their civilization.
  The decipherment of the script is crucial to provide a definite answer regarding
their language.

Contemporary Cultures of the Indus Civilisation

 The Indus region was home to diverse groups, including pastoralists, farmers, and
hunter-gatherers.
 The population of the time was mixed, with communities of hunters-gatherers,
pastoralists, and farmers spread from Kanyakumari to Kashmir and Gujarat to
Arunachal Pradesh.
 The cultural and ecological knowledge of these groups contributed to Indian
culture.
 While the Indus Civilization flourished in the northwestern part of India, various
cultures were developing in different parts of the subcontinent.
Decline

 The Indus Valley Civilization began to decline around 1900 BCE.

 Factors contributing to the decline include changes in climate, reduced trade with
Mesopotamia, drought leading to the drying of rivers and water resources,
invasions, floods, and shifting river courses.
 Over time, the people migrated to the southern and eastern regions from the Indus
Valley.

Summary

 The history of India dates back to prehistoric times, approximately 2 million

years ago.
 Various groups of people settled in India over the millennia, adapting to their
environment and contributing to India's cultural diversity.
 These groups laid the cultural foundations of India from the Mesolithic times
onward.
 India's pluralistic culture today is the result of the combined contributions of
these diverse groups.
 The complex processes associated with Indian history are reflected in the diverse
languages and cultures of India.
 The first urbanization in India emerged with the Indus Valley Civilization around
2600 BCE, while other cultures existed contemporaneously across India.