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Borobudur's significance
Dr Uday Dokras
What were the ideas, religious aspirations and building- techniques which contributed
to the creation of Borobudur, an ancient Mayahana Buddhist monument and the largest
such monument in the entire world. Its original purpose is not clearly known, but today it
fulfills several important functions; acting as a shrine to Lord Buddha, a place of pilgrimage
for devout Buddhist worshippers and as a major tourist attraction and source of revenue for
the Indonesian government. During Vesak (Buddha’s birthday), held on the night of the first
full moon in May, an elaborate and colourful multi-day festival is held at Borobudur and it
ends with an enchanting candlelit procession to Borobudur from another nearby closely-
related ancient temple called Candi Mendut.Regarding tourism, the monument in fact
receives over 2 million visitors every year, 80% of which are domestic tourists. It's the single
most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.

“…There are things known and things unknown, and in between are the doors…” Jim
Morrison

Early History

As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian

vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, c. 800 CE.
The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a
series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics
and politics. Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along
the equator in Southeast Asia. The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island
and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. The area of
Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity
of cultures, ethnicities, and languages.

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Example of Rice Terraces in Indonesia//Megalithic statue found in
Tegurwangi, Sumatra, Indonesia, 1500 CE
The Indonesian archipelago was formed during the thaw after the Last Glacial Maximum.
Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New
Guinea and Australia. Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead
believing their souls or life force could still help the living. Ideal agricultural conditions, and
the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages,
towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. These kingdoms (little more
than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and
tribal religions. Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect
for wet rice cultivation. Such agriculture required a well-organized society, in contrast to the
society based on dry-field rice, which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does not
require an elaborate social structure to support it.
Buni culture clay pottery flourished in coastal northern West Java and Banten around 400
BCE to 100 CE. The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of
the Tarumanagara kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing
numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java.
Early kingdoms -Hindu Buddhist

8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument, Sailendra dynasty, is the largest Buddhist temple in the world/1600-
year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district
of Jakarta

Indonesia like much of Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture. From the 2nd
century, through the Indian dynasties like the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola in the

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succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of
Southeast Asia.
References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in
Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE. In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief
of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.
According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called
Nagapuram. The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung
Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the
1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island. There is also
archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century,
and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time.
South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the
4th and 5th centuries and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were
found in Java and Borneo.
A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. Seven
rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in Kutai, East
Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River known as the Yupa inscription or "Mulavarman
Inscription" believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Indonesia, the plinths
were written by Brahmins in the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script of India recalling
of a generous king by the name of Mulavarman who donated a huge amount of alms to
Brahmin priests in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura
Kingdom located in present East Kalimantan Province, believed to be the oldest and first
Hindu kingdom of Indonesia.

Tarumanagara and Sunda

One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE.
Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century king, Purnawarman,
established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located
near Bogor. And other inscriptions called the Pasir Awi inscription and the Muncul
inscription. On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint
of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads,
"Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This
inscription is written in Pallava script and in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years.
Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and
drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions,
Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic
project.
India (Bharat) Connect
There were several trade routes between India and the Far East. One route started from
Bharukaccha to the coast of Suvarnabhumi and Yavadvipa- a term for modern Jāvā island-
Derivable forms: yavadvīpaḥ (यवद्वीपः).Yavadvīpa is a Sanskrit compound consisting of the
terms yava and dvīpa (द्वीप). The next route started from Masulipatam and went across Bay
of Bengal to the Eastern Peninsula.

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Indian Boat, From Rajrajeswar Temple, Kototlpur, Hooghly, West Bengal, 1694 CE. Photo by Partha
Sanyal. Second map is from the paper “Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats
to Trading Ships” (2016).

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This was the most direct route for Yavadvipa (Java), Suvarṇadvipa (Sumatra ), Champā
(Annam) and Kamboja (Cambodia). As this route was through the high seas, a special type of
ship known as colandia was required.
Ptolemy informs us about another route, which was generally adopted by the traders of
Kalinga. The ships starting from Polura (modern Gopalpur), near the mouth of the Ganjam,
crossed the Bay of Bengal for the Eastern Peninsula in the Far East.
For the traders of Mathura, Kausambi, Vārāṇasi and Campa the most convenient port was
Tamralipti. From Tamralipti the ships sailed on the open sea for Suvarnabhumi and other
countries like Yavadvipa, Campā and Kamboja.
When a regular sea-route between India and China became popular, the port of Tamralipti
(Tamluk in West Bengal) became the most suitable port for a trader from China trading with
North India. A trade mission from Funan, for India, in the 1st c. CE, actually landed on the
port of Tamralipti.
Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga
Kingdom was established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese account. The
name of this kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga, which suggest
the ancient link between India and Indonesia. Sadhabas (or Sadhavas) were

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ancient mariners from the Kalinga region, which roughly corresponds to modern Odisha,
India. They used ships called Boitas to travel to distant lands such as South-East Asia to carry
out trade.The early hours of Kartik Purnima (the full moon day in October and November)
was considered an auspicious occasion by the Sadhabas to begin their long
voyages. Coconuts, earthenware, sandalwood, cloth, lime, rice, spices, salt, cloves, pumpkins,
silk sarees, betel leaves, betel nuts, elephants, precious and semi-precious stones were the
main items of trade. Even women went on voyages as well and were known as Sadhabanis -
Odia navigators were instrumental in
spreading Buddhism and Hinduism in East and Southeast Asia. In addition, they
disseminated knowledge of Indian architecture, epics such as the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata, Brahmic scripts writing system and Sanskrit loan words which are present
in many Southeast Asian languages from different language families such
as Khmer, Thai, Cham, Balinese etc.Maritime trade declined only in the 16th century, with
the decline of the Gajapati Empire.

The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE) around
centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra and Sailendra that dominated
southeast Asia based in Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in
the world. The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known
due to the scarcity of evidence. By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states
dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian
states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of
the Muslim trading empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian
archipelago.
Mataram

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Sewu temple in Special Region of Yogyakarta//Prambanan in Java was built during the Sanjaya
dynasty of Mataram Kingdom; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia.
Mataram Empire
Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom, was an Indianized
kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th
centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by the Sanjaya dynasty.
The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok. An
eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based
in the Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move. The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya,
left inscriptions in stone. The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of
Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of
the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.
In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and
architecture. A rapid increase in temple construction occurred across the landscape of its
heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable temples constructed in
Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. The Empire had become the
supreme power not only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern Thailand,
some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia.
Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion,
the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was
Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion.
The Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist
dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. The hostility between them
didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by
Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh,
Java. Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result. Yet
the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then
descended to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali.
Srivijaya-Sriwijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime
Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a
result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with
it.Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang. Srivijaya was
not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to
which the citizens own allegiance. Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society
centred on a royal heartland. It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far
beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of

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Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the
trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca.

The territory of the Srivijaya empire. Historically, Srivijaya was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia//The

depiction of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the first king of Srivijaya

By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the
Straits of Melaka. Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of
Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca
and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It
remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture
throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Mahayana
Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the
reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire
attacked Srivijaya cities. A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan
hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive
agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the
11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms,
first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of
Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late
13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last
inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya
ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then
to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the
Malay peninsula.
Singhasari and Majapahit

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Archaeological remains in Trowulan, the capital city of the Majapahit

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Expansion of the Majapahit empire extended to much of the Indonesian archipelago until it
receded and fell in the early 16th century/ Modern illustration of Gajah Mada, a powerful
military leader, credited with bringing the empire to its peak of glory
Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states. The
Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and
under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a golden age in Indonesian
history, when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra,
and Bali from about 1293 to around 1500.
The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of
the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in
1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he
sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to
pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in
1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit
founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari
kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

Gajah Mada, a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the
empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the Majapahit
navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom. Although the Majapahit
rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their
focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade
that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders
and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power
began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca.
Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of
courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island
of Bali at the end of Majapahit power.
So how was Borobudurbuilt and why ?

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Gunavarma, its supposed architect and chief visualizer, was an Indian monk from Jibin
(ancient Gandhara). He traveled to Java from Sri Lanka around the beginning of the 5th
century A.D. Not long after his arrival, the Javanese king Po-duo-jia suffered from a foot
injury caused by an arrow in a war. Gunavarma healed the king's injury and won his trust and
friendship. Showing respect and gratitude to Gunavarma, King Po-duo-jia decided to rule his
kingdom with Buddhist belief.
As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were
ordered to abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma and
even to receive the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma
helped King Po-duo-jia to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya.
However, we may surmise that Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially
invited to China by Emperor Wen of the Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song.
We describe these below. About 9 years after Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa
back to the South, Emperor Wen of the Song decided to implement the belief as his political
ideology. In the 9th month of the first year of the Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan
and Huicong persuaded the emperor to send letters to the Javanese king and Gunavarma,
respectively, inviting Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks Fachang, Daochong and Daojun
etc., were despatched to bring Gunavarma to China.
Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also
arrived in 433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka
was a letter sent by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and
to implement the cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert
in promoting the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have
been invited by Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for
Emperor Wen, Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva
pratimoksa.
Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.
The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri
Lanka for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and it
is likely that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that in 2
succession of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka
It is clear from all that we have seen that Borobudur cannot be reduced to one, singular
element. This is because at the very least it encompasses within itself several, some say
three, principle concepts that are inextricably intertwined. They all contribute to a
detailed and nuanced understanding of the monument. Such an understanding would be
difficult to achieve if just one of them were to be considered in isolation. Borobudur is a
mandala that prescribes a path for salvation, its architectural class is that of a stupa – the
most evolved of all Buddhist concepts, and it represents the cosmos within which all of us
sentient beings exist. The brilliant planners and architects of this monument succeeded at
getting these three to create a seamless, stunning, meaningful, organic whole; a whole

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that embodies complex spiritual metaphors with ease and ensures that all its parts coexist
in perfect harmony.

According to his plan the 3 elements organically flows into the one next to it. Indeed the
entire building pulsates as one organic whole with flexible transitions throughout.
Everything that happens in the cosmic world, its spiritual realm of enlightenment, is a
transition. There are no sharp changes, you cannot leap or take sudden shortcuts. This
principle is reflected in Borobudur’s architecture. The architect has ensured that there are
no sharp divisions in the monument. The whole is recognizable in the details and the
details in the whole, much like the concept of Indrajala.24 Wherever there are horizontal
divisions: in the terraces, galleries or ambulatory, they are sewn together by the ingenious
use of ornaments, especially stupa shaped ones.

As much is known about Borobudur since its discovery in 1814 more needs to be known.
This terraced, pyramid-like structure made of andesite stone found amply in this volcanic
region, was built in Central Java in the late 8th or early 9th century A.D. by a king of the
Shailendra Dynasty. Exactly what kind of a building is Borobudur, what does it signify,
what does its name mean, why was it made, who was it made for and who ended up using
it are only some of the many questions that abound in any Borobudur study. Decoding
Borobudur entails finding its place in this mystery and thereby understanding the spiritual
background that led to its construction, iconographic program and symbolism. Over years
of study, various theories about how the religious sanctuary of Borobudur can be
interpreted have been propounded. Most influential amongst these are – Borobudur is a
stupa, a mandala, a representation of the universe or a prasada. While each of these
theories has been advanced individually, this has not been done at the cost of
contradicting the other theories. Let us see how some of these concepts fit together to
make a whole.

Paul Mus (see table below) was the first scholar to prescribe to the idea of structural
dualism in the concept of Borobudur. His work represents a deep analysis of the ideas,
religious aspirations and building techniques which contributed to the creation of this
large Buddhist edifice. Published at Hanoi in French in 1935, it is a survey of the
Buddhist religious and philosophical concepts in the background of earlier religious
and metaphysical traditons in India, as revealed in the text of the Ved as and
Upanishads. Several investigations into the design of this stupa concludes that its
architectural form is manifold embracing several concepts and this can be interpreted in
several ways.
(1) a Stupa
(2) a Mandala, and
(3) representative form of a Cosmic Universe

The vast archipelago of over 13,000 islands became the nation of Indonesia only in 1949 and
only a few of its major islands were ever settled or much influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism
or Islam).

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Sometime before the 5th century AD, the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism spread
southward from the mainland of southeast Asia to the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and a
few others in the archipelago currently called Indonesia. (It is misleading to think of all of
Indonesia as either an ancient empire or the province of any particular religion. The vast
archipelago of over 13,000 islands became the nation of Indonesia only in 1949 and only a
few of its major islands were ever settled or much influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism or
Islam).

There are no archaeological remains of temples in the Indianized states of Java prior to the
end of the 7th century as the early Hindu structures were built of wood and have long since
decayed in the moist tropic climate. The first stone temples, Shiva shrines constructed during
the 8th century, are found high on the Dieng plateau, the name Dieng meaning 'the place of
the gods'. The greatest concentration of Javanese sacred architecture, however, lies on the

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plain of Kedu, some 42 kilometers north-west of the present city of Yogyakarta. Here stands
the beautiful Hindu temple complex of Prambanam and the world famous Hindu/Buddhist
temple of Borobudur.

Borobudur’ initial construction was planned and conducted by Hindu builders

sometime around 775 AD
Borobudur, a name deriving from an expression meaning 'Mountain of accumulation of
merits of the ten states of Bodhisattva' is commonly thought of as a Buddhist structure, yet its
initial construction was planned and conducted by Hindu builders sometime around 775 AD.
The enormous first and second terraces were completed by a declining Hindu dynasty,
construction was then halted for some years, and later, from 790 to 835 AD, the Buddhist
Sailendra dynasty continued and finally completed the great stupa. The huge stone mass
might have then been permanently abandoned, for it was difficult to adapt to the needs of
Buddhism. However, leaving in evidence such an obvious manifestation of Hinduism was
probably not deemed politically correct and thus the unfinished Shiva temple was
transformed into the world's largest Buddhist stupa.

After 832 AD the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya began to reunify central Java and soon
reappropriated the Buddhist monuments built by the Sailendra. Although the Sanjaya were
themselves Hindu, they ruled over a Buddhist majority and thus, while some Hindu
modifications and ornamentations were done on Borobudur, the stupa remained a place of
Buddhist use.

During the 10th and 11th centuries there was a transfer of power from central Java to the
east, and the great stupa fell into decline. For centuries the site lay forgotten, buried under
layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. In 1815 Europeans cleared the site, in the early
1900's the Dutch began its restoration, and a US$21 million project begun in 1973 completed
the work.

Hindu Design Characteristics

The Borobudur stupa is a massive, symetrical monument, 200 square meters in size, sitting
upon a low sculptured hill. The monument represents a Buddhist cosmological model of the
universe organized around the axis of mythical Mt. Meru. Starting at the eastern gateway,
pilgrims circumambulate the stupa, always in a clockwise direction. Walking through nearly
five kilometers of open air corridors while ascending through six square terraces and three
circular ones, the pilgrim symbolically spirals upward from the everyday world to the
nirvanic state of absolute nothingness. The first six terraces are filled with richly decorated
relief panels in which the sculptors have carved a textbook of Buddhist doctrines and a
fascinating panorama of 9th century Javanese life. Upon the upper three terraces are 72 small
stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha (these statues are usually headless; relic
hunters stole many of the heads, others are in museums). Crowning the entire structure is a
great central stupa. Representing Nirvana, it is empty.

Historical Perspective of Southeast Asia, history of Southeast Asia from prehistoric times
to the contemporary period.

Early society and accomplishments

Origins

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Knowledge of the early prehistory of Southeast Asia has undergone exceptionally rapid
change as a result of archaeological discoveries made since the 1960s, although the
interpretation of these findings has remained the subject of extensive debate. Nevertheless, it
seems clear that the region has been inhabited from the earliest times. Hominid fossil remains
date from approximately 1,500,000 years ago and those of Homo sapiens from approximately
40,000 years ago. Furthermore, until about 7000 BCE the seas were some 150 feet (50
metres) lower than they are now, and the area west of Makassar Strait consisted of a web of
watered plains that sometimes is called Sundaland. These land connections perhaps account
for the coherence of early human development observed in the Hoabinhian culture, which
lasted from about 13,000 to 5000 or 4000 BCE. The stone tools used by hunting and
gathering societies across Southeast Asia during this period show a remarkable degree of
similarity in design and development. When the sea level rose to approximately its present
level about 6000 BCE, conditions were created for a more variegated environment and,
therefore, for more extensive differentiation in human development. While migration from
outside the region may have taken place, it did not do so in a massive or clearly punctuated
fashion; local evolutionary processes and the circulation of peoples were far more powerful
forces in shaping the region’s cultural landscape.
Technological developments and population expansion
Perhaps because of a particular combination of geophysical and climatic factors, early
Southeast Asia did not develop uniformly in the direction of increasingly complex societies.
Not only have significant hunting and gathering populations continued to exist into the 21st
century, but the familiar cultural sequences triggered by such events as the discovery of
agriculture or metallurgy do not seem to apply.

Influence of China and India

Between approximately 150 BCE and 150 CE, most of Southeast Asia was first influenced by
the more mature cultures of its neighbours to the north and west. Thus began a process that
lasted for the better part of a millennium and fundamentally changed Southeast Asia. In some
ways the circumstances were very different. China, concerned about increasingly powerful
chiefdoms in Vietnam disturbing its trade, encroached into the region and by the end of the
1st century BCE had incorporated it as a remote province of the Han empire. For generations,
the Vietnamese opposed Chinese rule, but they were unable to gain their independence until
939 CE. From India, however, there is no evidence of conquests, colonization, or even
extensive migration. Indians came to Southeast Asia, but they did not come to rule, and no
Indian power appears to have pursued an interest in controlling a Southeast Asian power from
afar, a factor that may help to explain why only the Vietnamese accepted the Chinese model.

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China
China under the Han emperor Wudi (c. 100 BCE) and (inset) at the end of the Chunqiu
(Spring and Autumn) Period (c. 500 BCE).

Yet, in other ways the processes of Indianization and Sinicization were remarkably similar.
Southeast Asia already was socially and culturally diverse, making accommodation easy.
Furthermore, indigenous peoples shaped the adaption and adoption of outside influences and,
indeed, seem to have sought out concepts and practices that enhanced rather than redirected
changes already underway in their own societies. They also rejected some components: for
example, some of the vocabulary and general theories related to the Indian notions of
social hierarchy were borrowed but much of the specific practices were not, and neither
Indian nor Chinese views of women as socially and legally inferior were accepted. In the later
stages of the assimilation process—particularly in the Indianized areas—local syncretism
often produced exuberant variations, which, despite familiar appearances, were expressions
of local genius rather than just inspired borrowings.

Still, Chinese and Indian influences were anything but superficial. They provided writing
systems and literature, systems of statecraft, and concepts of social hierarchy and religious
belief, all of which were both of intrinsic interest and pragmatic significance to Southeast
Asians of the day. For elites seeking to gain and retain control over larger and more complex
populations, the applications of these ideas were obvious, but it would also seem that the
sheer beauty and symbolic power of Hindu and Buddhist arts tapped a responsive vein in the
Southeast Asian soul. The result was an imposing array of architectural and other cultural
wonders, at first very much in the Indian image and hewing close to current styles and later in
more original, indigenous interpretations. The seriousness and profundity with which all this
activity was undertaken is unmistakable. By the 7th century CE, Palembang in southern
Sumatra was being visited by Chinese and other Buddhist devotees from throughout Asia,
who came to study doctrine and to copy manuscripts in institutions that rivaled in importance
those in India itself. Later, beginning in the 8th century, temple and court complexes of
surpassing grandeur and beauty were constructed in central Java, Myanmar, and Cambodia;

16
the Borobudur of the Śailendra dynasty in Java, the myriad temples of the Burman dynastic
capital of Pagan, and the monuments constructed at Angkor during the Khmer empire
in Cambodia rank without question among the glories of the ancient world.

Kyaiktiyo (Golden Rock) pagoda, a historic Buddhist pilgrimage destination in eastern

Myanmar (Burma)./Ruins of ancient Buddhist shrines and pagodas, Pagan, Myanmar.

Rise of indigenous states

In the realm of politics, Indian influence accompanied the rise of new political entities,
which, since they do not readily fall under the Western rubric of “states,” have been
called mandalas. The mandala was not so much a territorial unit as a fluid field of power that
emanated, in concentric circles, from a central court and depended for its continued authority
largely on the court’s ability to balance alliances and to influence the flow of trade and
human resources. Such a conception of political organization already had surfaced among
Southeast Asians, but Indian civilization provided powerful metaphors for the change
underway and for ways of extending it. The mandala was the predominant form of the
Southeast Asian state until it was displaced in the 19th century.

Between approximately the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE, mandala polities
appeared throughout Southeast Asia in the major river valleys and at strategic landfalls for
sea traffic—generally, locations where routes for local and international trade crossed. These
communities took different forms, depending on their physical setting. For example, walled
and moated settlements predominated in much of the mainland but do not seem to have been

17
constructed in insular Southeast Asia. Yet they served similar purposes to and frequently
shared characteristics with mandalas in the same immediate region. Mandala sites have been
located in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Irrawaddy river valleys; along the coasts of central
Vietnam, western and northern Java, and eastern Borneo; and on the Isthmus of Kra. One of
the most intriguing sites, called Oc Eo, is in the Mekong delta region of southern Vietnam.
This port settlement, which flourished between the 1st and 6th centuries CE amid a complex
of other settlements connected by canals (some up to 60 miles long), was not only an
extraordinarily rich emporium dealing in articles from as far as Rome and inner Asia, but it
was also a local manufacturing centre producing its own jewelry, pottery, and other trade
goods. Almost certainly it also fed itself from wet-rice agriculture practiced in the
surrounding delta. Little is known, however, about the nature of state structure in Oc Eo,
although it seems to have been one of—and perhaps was prime among—an assemblage of
local mandala-type principalities.

After the 6th century there emerged a number of larger and more powerful mandala states,
principally in Cambodia, Myanmar, Sumatra, and Java. Often designated kingdoms or
empires, these states nevertheless functioned and were structured upon the same principles
that had governed their predecessors. They were, in some respects, unstable and prone to
fluctuation because of shifting relations with outside powers and constant internal struggles
for the position of overlordship, but they also were remarkably durable. No two states were
exactly alike, each occupying a particular ecological niche and exploiting a particular
combination of opportunities to survive by trade, agriculture, and war. The cultural impact of
their courts long outlasted their political grasp and continued to inform their societies until
modern times.

Perhaps the outstanding example of this durability is Srivijaya, the great Sumatran trading
empire that dominated much of Southeast Asian commerce from about the 7th to the 13th
century. Srivijaya does not appear to have been heavily urbanized or to have had a
continuously occupied capital during its roughly 700 years of existence, nor does it seem to
have possessed boundaries and clearly delineated territories. Its armies, while they could be
mustered and quickly dispatched overseas, were weapons of limited use. Instead, Srivijaya
maintained its authority in a shifting and extremely varied trading world largely by means of
a shrewd brand of cultural and economic politics that involved, among other things, offering
a protective and mutually beneficial trading environment to all comers and maintaining a
courtly culture from which the idiom of overlordship issued grandly and convincingly.
Srivijaya was ruled by a formula supple enough to attract trade from all quarters and to
exploit it at the same time.

LEFT Angkor Wat///Ruined temples at the Angkor Thom complex, Angkor, Cambodia.

18
Angkor Wat, Angkor, Cambodia
Whatever the achievements of Srivijaya, the Khmer (Cambodian) state that flourished in
the Tonle Sap region roughly between the 9th and mid-13th centuries is widely regarded as
the most impressive of the concentrically arranged ancient Southeast Asian states. This
admiration largely stems from the state’s extensive architectural remains, including the
renowned Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat temple complexes. In many respects, however, the
Angkorian imperial achievement was singular. Though informed by the mandala paradigm,
the Khmer carried it further and shaped it more distinctively than other Southeast Asians
before or since.

At its zenith, Angkor may have supported a population of one million in a relatively small
area, with an elite apparatus and a population of bondsmen far greater than any of
Cambodia’s neighbours. In achieving this, however, the Khmer state surrendered the
flexibility and balance critical to the mandala pattern and eventually fell victim to its own
brittleness. Other concentric states in early Southeast Asia rose and fell; the Khmer proved
unable to revive theirs once it had fallen.

Khmer empire c. 1200.

The classical period

Components of a new age
By about 1300 much of Southeast Asia had entered a period of transition from ancient times.
No single factor can account for the disruption, which lasted longer in some places than in
others. The Mongol attacks of the second half of the 13th century and the disintegration of
Khmer and Srivijayan power undoubtedly were of significance, but less dramatic changes,
such as slowly changing trade patterns and political competition, may also have played an
important role. Whatever the case, the shifts were not of a type or severity to bring about
major disruptions; they instead paved the way for the coalescing of what can best be termed a
classical age. In this period the major civilizations of Southeast Asia achieved a broader
influence and greater coherence than before. They integrated rival political and cultural forms
into their own, and the patterns they established were widely imitated by smaller powers that
were drawn into their orbit. Regional and international trade reached a high level of
development, bringing greater well-being to larger numbers of Southeast Asians than ever
before. It also was an age of great change and challenges—especially in the form of new and
often foreign religious, political, and economic influences—and one of constant warfare. But
it was a measure of the confidence and balance of the era that these influences were absorbed

19
and digested with little difficulty, leaving more than a millennium of creative synthesis
essentially undisturbed until as late as the end of the 18th century. Many Southeast Asian
civilizations can be said to have reached their definitive premodern shape during this
“golden” age, which also is modern scholarship’s best source of information on the
classical cultures of the region before the ravages of 19th- and 20th-century colonialism.

State and society

There were five major powers in Southeast Asia between the 14th and 18th
centuries: Myanmar under the rulers of Ava (1364–1752), especially the Toungoo
dynasty during most of that period; an independent Vietnam under the Later Le
dynasty (1428–1788); the Tai state of Ayutthaya, or Ayudhia (1351–1767); Majapahit,
centred on Java (1292–c. 1527); and Malacca (Melaka) centred on the Malay
Peninsula (c. 1400–1511). Particularly with the waning of Indian influence (the last known
Sanskrit inscription dates from the late 13th century), each power had developed in
distinctive ways: more than ever, what constituted being “Javanese” or “Burman,” for
example, was taking focus, and the Vietnamese, too, sought to clarify what was their own as
opposed to what was Chinese. Remarkably enough, the process by which this was
accomplished was characterized not by elimination or purification but by absorption. The
syncretic powers developed in earlier periods had by no means weakened. The Tai,
comparative newcomers, absorbed much of Khmer civilization during this period and,
beginning with their written language, shaped it to their requirements. The Burmans absorbed
Mon civilization in a similar fashion, and the Javanese of Majapahit could not help but make
adjustments with the Malay and other cultures of the archipelago that they came to dominate.
Even the Vietnamese, who had decided after several generations of struggle to adopt the
outlines of a Confucian state that they had inherited from China, in the late 14th and early
15th centuries not only modified that model but also absorbed important influences from
the culture of the Cham, an Indianized people whose kingdom, Champa, they had decisively
(though not finally) defeated in 1471. This integrative approach may not have represented a
conclusive departure from the behaviour of the ancient mandala states, but it does seem to
have sustained larger and more far-reaching states, as well as richer and more complex elite
cultures.

Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.

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Malacca empire in 1500

At the same time, however, a galaxy of smaller states appeared, some of them very powerful
for their size and all of them ambitious. These states were especially numerous in insular
Southeast Asia, where Aceh, Bantam (Banten), Makasar (Makassar), and Ternate were only
the most prominent of many such Islamic sultanates; on the mainland, Chiang
Mai (Chiengmai), Luang Prabang, and Pegu at various times during the period were powerful
enough to be taken seriously. They both imitated and contributed to the court cultures of their
larger neighbours and made alliances, war, and peace with many powers. Above all, these
states participated in a dynamic and prosperous trade, not merely in exotics or high-value
goods (such as gems and metal items) but in such relatively mundane goods as salted dried
fish, ceramics, and rice. While institutions of servitude were structured somewhat differently
from those of the West, there was no mistaking that a lively trade in human beings prized for
their labour or craftsmanship took place. The proliferation of states and the rapid growth of
an accompanying intricate web of local cultural and commodity exchange laid the foundation
for both greater local autonomy and increased regional interdependency.

The dynamics of regional trade brought change to most Southeast Asian societies during this
period. These changes were by no means uniform; the effect on hill tribes subject to periodic
raiding, for example, was understandably different from that on
coastal communities suddenly wealthy from trade. In some instances the alterations must
have been dramatic: the native sago diet of many inhabitants of the Moluccas (Maluku)
region, for example, was displaced by one based on rice brought from Java, more than 1,500
miles to the west. Yet it does seem that some changes were felt widely, especially in the
larger states. Perhaps the most important was that, while old ideas of kingship
and sovereignty were cultivated, in reality much power—and in some places critical power—
had fallen into the hands of a merchant class. The royal courts themselves often dabbled in
trade to an unprecedented degree. It perhaps is not accurate to say that kingship as an
institution was weakening, but the courts, particularly in insular Southeast Asia, became more
complicated centres of elite power.
Urbanization was another development of importance. Although some societies, notably that
of the Javanese, seem not to have been affected, the growth of large and densely populated
centres was a widespread phenomenon. By the 16th century some of these rivaled all but the
very largest European cities. Malacca, for example, may have had a population of 100,000
21
(including traders) in the early 16th century; in Europe only Naples, Paris, and perhaps
London were larger at that time. Finally, Southeast Asians during the 16th and 17th centuries
appear to have enjoyed good health, a varied diet, and a comparatively high standard of
living, especially when compared with most of the population of Europe of the same period.

Religion and culture

New religions appeared in Southeast Asia, accompanying the currents of trade and often
entwined with social changes already underway. Gradually, in most areas, these religions
filled the gaps left by weakening local Hindu-Buddhist establishments and beliefs, and by the
mid-18th century the region had assumed something much like its modern
religious configuration. On the mainland, Theravada Buddhism, which had been making
inroads in Cambodia since the 11th century, underwent revitalization, the result especially of
royal patronage and direct contact with Theravada monasteries in Sri Lanka. Both the
general idiom and many precepts of Theravada already were familiar in Indianized societies,
making this a gentle, nearly silent revolution that despite its subtlety was no less important. In
Ayutthaya and the other Tai kingdoms and in the Mon-Burman states, Theravada Buddhism
buoyed the kingship and introduced a vigorous intellectual leadership; it also spread broadly
among the populace and thus played an important role as a cohesive social and cultural force
from which the people of modern Thailand and Myanmar later were to draw much of their
sense of identity.

The First written records of the Borobudur are from 732 CE and that year a Hindu Nobleman
Sanjay installed a Kingdom called Mataram of Medang on the Kedu Plain and in 775 he
began construction of a Hndu temple- a monument to commemorate the introduction of
Hinduism to Java ( by his efforts?). A plateau created by the confluence of the Progo river
provided the site.

Ten years later this Hindu Kingdom was replaced by the BUDDHIST Shailendra Dynasty a
Vassal of the Srivijay Empire and thus changed the fortunes of the earlier Hindu Temple that
now began to be converted into a Buddhist Stupa which got completed after 50 more years.

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 Outline
drawing during the time of Raffles circa

According to the Canggal Inscription the Sanjay Dynasty founded by the original designer
of Borobudur the then Hindu temple appears to have been founded in 732 by Sañjaya. The
Canggal inscription was discovered in Canggal village, Southwest from the town
of Magelang. This inscription was written in south Indian Tamil Pallava letters and tells
about the erection of a linga (symbol of Shiva) on the hill in Kunjarakunja area. This area is
located at a noble island called Yawadwipa (Java) which is blessed with abundance of rice
and gold. This inscription tells that Yawadwipa was reigned by King Sanna, whose long
period of reign was marked with wisdom and virtue. After king Sanna died, the kingdom fell
into disunity. Confusion was widespread due to loss of a ruler and patron. Amidst
this, Sanjaya ascended to the throne. According to this inscription, he was the son
of Sannaha, who is described as the sister of King Sanna. Sanjaya was a king who mastered
holy scriptures, martial arts, and also military prowess. He conquered neighboring areas
around his kingdom and his wise reign blessed his land with peace and prosperity for all his
subjects.
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents
an edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Medang. The
inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java),
which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines". Yawadwipa ("Java island"),
and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity
after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna)
ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military
prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.

23
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land
of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage
on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan,
a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same
historical person.

Ancient Javanese Canggal inscription dated 732 edicted by King Sanjaya of Medang i Bhumi
Mataram kingdom. The inscription was discovered in Kadiluwih, Salam, Magelang Regency,
Central Java. Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta. RIGHT-The Carita
Parahyangan

Indiae Orientalis, 17th century map by by Nicolaes Visscher II

24
Carita Parahyangan (Tale of Parahyangan) is a manuscript consisting of 47 leaves
of lontar palm leaf measuring 21 by 3 cm (8.3 by 1.2 in); each leaf contains four lines, written
in Old Sundanese script in archaic Sundanese languageis a text contained in a single
manuscript written around the late 16th century, registered as Kropak 406 from the former
collection of the Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences), now in the Perpustakaan National (National Library)
in Jakarta. It was identified as early as 1882 by Holle as the "Carita Parahyangan", the name
derived from Parahyangan highlands in West Java, originated from Sundanese words which
means "the abode of hyangs (gods)". Since that time the manuscript has received much
scholarly attention.

According to this book from later period which mainly tells the history of Sunda Kingdom,
Sanjaya was instead the son of King Sanna and Sannaha. This relationship of King Sanna and
Sanjaya was not provided in the Canggal inscription. It also mentions that King Sanna was
defeated by his cousin, King Purbasora of Galuh, and so, he had to retreat to Mount Merapi.
Later, Sanjaya reclaimed Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java, Central Java, East Java,
and Bali. He was also involved in battle with Malayu and Kalingga (against their king Sang
Srivijaya).

Apart from minor differences, the main theme of Carita Parahyangan corresponds to Canggal
inscription. This story suggested the links of the dynasty with West Java.

Peaceful co-existence and cooperation.

Relation with Shailendra: During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence
and cooperation.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
The Sañjaya dynasty was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra dynasty, which
emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan inscription.
CONVERSION to BUDDHISM
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism. The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.

25
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogya

The Shailendra dynasty : Śailēndra, derived from Sanskrit combined

words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the Mountain", also
spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that
emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The
Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism with the glimpses of Hinduism,
and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the
colossal stupa of Borobudur.
The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of
maritime Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of
intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the
ruling family of both the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and
the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra.
The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old Javanese,
and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old Malay
has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the
other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The
use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event
described in any given inscription.

Sojomerto Inscription mentions the family of Dapunta Shailendra, the ancestor of the Shailendra
Dynasty.// The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's
posture or royal ease) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal
court.

26
The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725) discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java,
is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist
before converting to Mahayana Buddhism.
This inscription concluded that the family of Dapunta Selendra is settled at the north coast of
Central Java, speak Old Malay and that they are Shivaist Hindus.
The discovery of this inscription has led to the development of theories proposing a Sumatran
origin of the Sailendras, also with the possibility of their initial establishment at the north
coast of Central Java before moving inland to Kedu Plain.
Just like the Sojomerto inscription, some of Sailendra's inscriptions of the later period—
although discovered in Central Java—are also written in Old Malay instead of Old Javanese,
which suggested Sumatran connections. The name 'Selendra' mentioned in this inscription as
"Dapunta Selendra" is suggested as the ancestor of the Sailendras. The title 'Dapunta' is
similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, which suggested the
Srivijayan connection to Sailendra family. The family was first settled in Central Java
northern coast around Batang and Pekalongan regency, they were initially Hindu Shivaist. At
a certain point of time they moved southward and established themselves in Kedu Plain and
later probably converted to Mahayana Buddhism.
Another interpretation suggests that the family was probably a native Javanese family,
but having Srivijayan connection. This ruling family was probably a local ruler but somehow
subjugated by Srivijayan through invasion and served as Srivijayan vassal.
The early Sailendras were probably belongs within Srivijaya's mandala sphere of influence.
Previously known through Kota Kapur inscription (686 CE) that Srivijaya launched series of
military campaign against Bhumi Java, which also corresponds to the fall
of Tarumanagara kingdom in West Java.

Indian Origins

According to R.C. Majumdar in, ANCIENT INDIAN COLONIESIN THE FAR EAST VOL.
II SUVARNADVIPA- PART I Political History, 1933, the Shailendra dynasty that
established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga (modern Odisha) in
Eastern India. This opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further
describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves
in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the
Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.
(See alsoJ.L. Moens, “Çrīvijaya, Yāva en Kaṭāha.” TBG 77: 317-487.)

27
The Borobudur Temple
The religion of Buddhism is one of India's most successful exports. The religion developed
in the Indian subcontinent, and over time spread across nearly all of Asia. That's pretty
common knowledge, but did you know where Buddhism went first? After leaving India, one
of the first places to adopt Buddhism wasn't in China or Japan; it was Indonesia. As a result,
Indonesia has some of the oldest Buddhist monuments in Asia, as well as some of the most
spectacular. The crown jewel of these is the Borobudur Temple a stunning example of a
mix of traditional Hindu and Indonesian architectures.

History of the Temple

In many of today’s arbitrary texts the story of the Borobudur Temple begins with
the Shailendra Dynasty. I say arbitrary because of the flippant cut and paste style of writing
with no deep research. So. this then was a ruling family who concentrated their power in
central Java in the eighth century CE, and grew to control all of Java and parts of Sumatra.

Some scholars think that the Shailendra came to Indonesia from India, while others think
they were native to the island. Regardless, they clearly had some cultural connections to India
and were major proponents of Mahayana Buddhism, which they actively spread across
Indonesia.

Their biggest achievement was the Borobudur Temple, which was built over roughly 120
years from the eighth through ninth centuries. What they accomplished was an engineering
marvel for the time; the 95-foot tall step pyramid is made of locally sourced stone set without
mortar.
For centuries, Borobudur was a major pilgrimage site, attracting the faithful from as far away
as India and China. It seems to have been very popular, but then was inexplicably abandoned
in the 15th century. We don't know why Borobudur was left to be reclaimed by the jungle,
but it remained lost for roughly 400 years before the colonial governor of British Java
decided to have it excavated.

The excavations freed Borobudur from the jungle but also left it open to looters. Finally, in
the 1960s a massive campaign was launched by the Indonesian government and UNESCO to
save and restore the site. Statues were taken out of private collections, stones were returned,
and piece by piece Borobudur was cleaned, rebuilt, and reopened to the public. It is currently

28
a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a stunning example of Indonesian architecture, but it has
also reclaimed its role as a Buddhist pilgrimage site.

Hindu Design Elements

They say that Borobudur Temple was built in 750 AD by an architect named Gunadharma,
from the Syailendra dynasty. This temple is the largest Buddhist temple monument during
the Ancient Mataram Kingdom reign.

Borobudur Temple is located in Magelang, Central Java province. Magelang is surrounded

by many active volcanoes, such as: Mount Merapi, Mount Sumbing, and Mount Merbabu.

Mount Merapi, Magelang, Central Java

In 1006 AD, Mount Merapi had erupted. So the Borobdur temple was allegedly buried in
lava and disappeared from civilization. Since then no one knows the existence of the
temple because many people around the temple also died and some were displaced.

There are several things that led to the emergence of the number 1006 which in the
inscriptions or old manuscripts is called the pralaya (great disaster), the disaster is
considered to be related to the history of the eruption of Merapi and makes it considered as
a truth.

One of them is the discovery of the Pucangan Inscription dating to 1041 AD. Believed by
H. Kern in Een Oud-Javaansche steeninscriptie van Koning Er-Langga (1913), the
inscription made by King Airlangga of the Kahuripan Kingdom revealed that a pralaya had
occurred in the Ancient Mataram Kingdom in 928 Saka or 1006 AD.

Another historical clue, which shows the cause of the burial of Borobudir Temple is the

29
Calcutta inscription. In the Calcutta Inscription that reads Awama which means sea of milk
says that possibility. The word Awama is then interpreted as Merapi's lava which then
allows Borobudur to be buried in cold lava.

According to some geology researches, an earthquake accompanied the volcanic eruption

and damaged the Borobudur Temple which was built in the 9th century. This tectonic
activity was followed by the eruption of Mount Merapi whose eruption was expected to
bury the Borobudur temple.

After the eruption of Mount Merapi, the Ancient Mataram King at that time, Mpu Sindok,
moved the capital and ordered the people to move to East Java. Since then the Borobudur
temple has been abandoned. After a long time buried by volcanic ash, bushes and wild
trees began to grow, until the temple resembled a small hill. At the same time, no one
made a pilgrimage to Borobudur.

F.C. Wilsen Sketch/The ruins of Borobudur temple when it was first discovered
In 1811-1816 the island of Java was under British rule. Thomas Stamford Raffles who is a
Governor is very interested in the history of Java. He collected ancient Javanese antique
arts and wrote notes on Javanese history and culture, and he deliberately toured the island
of Java searching for historical inscriptions.

30
He arrived in Semarang in 1814, he received news about a large monument in the forest
area of Bumisegoro, Magelang, Central Java. Raffles was very interested, but was unable
to attend because he was on duty. He also sent H.C. Cornelius to investigate the monument
in question.

H.C. Cornelius finally investigated it by bringing 200 of his subordinates to cut down trees
and dig the soil that covered the temple. But at that time the land was considered prone to
landslides, so that excavation was not optimal, then he gave a sketch of the Borobudur
temple to Sir Thomas. Although Sir Thomas Raffles is considered to be very meritorious.

In 1835 Java was controlled by the Dutch, Governor General Hartmann continued the
work of Sir Thomas Stamford Rafless. He was interested in researching and caring for the
Borobudur Temple. Unfortunately he did not write a note with what he did, but the temple
cleansing continued. In 1842 Hartmann discovered the main stupa but its contents were
empty.

Next, a Dutch engineer named F.C. Wilsen, an expert in engineering, examined the
monument and drew a relief sketch of Borobudur. Until the research continued by J.F.G
Brumund to examine in more detail the monument and combine the reliefs that have been
drawn in F.C. Wilsen, he completed his research in 1859.

The Borobudur temple begins to restored under the supervision of a Dutch engineer,
Theodoor van Erp on 1902. The major restoration performed until 1960s, before it’s
opened to public as tourism attraction. This temple was included in the UNESCO list in
1991 as a Cultural Heritage Site of Indonesia.

Another reason why big temple like Borobudur forgotten is socio-cultural factor. Since
time has changed, Sanskrit that used to be the language of Ancient Mataram Kingdom was
no longer spoken, whereas the inscription that shows the location of Borobudur is written
in Sanskrit. Thefore, no one knows about the location Borobudur and there's no
comprehensive research about it before Dutch colonial period.

Other socio-cultural factor is religious changing. The locals who lived surrounding
Borobudur mostly converts to Islam or Catholics, so they are no longer visit Borobudur
temple, which is a Buddhist temple to make a pilgrimage, therefore this temple becomes

31
forgotten.

Borobudur means Barha Buddha is located in Central Java. The temple consists of nine
stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated
with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72
Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. It was constructed based on previous
births of Lord Buddha as described by Aryasura.

The Art of the Tjandis

"Between circa the 7th and 15th centuries, hundred of religious structures were
constructed of brick and stone in Java, Sumatra and Bali. These are called candi. The
term refers to other pre-Islamic structures including gateways and even bathing places,
but its principal manifestation is the religious shrine."
— Soekmono, R. "Candi:Symbol of the Universe".
As far back as in 1893 in their book Tjandi Parambanan op Midden-Java na de
ontgraving, Authors, Groneman and Cephas ( Leiden Brill Publisher) concluded that the
design of the Stupa was based on the Hindu Tjandi hence the title of their book.Candi or
Tjandi arises from Sanskrit चण्डिकागृह (caṇḍikāgṛha, “temple of Durgā”) as in चण्डिका
(caṇḍikā, “common flax, linseed”) + गृह (gṛha, “house, home”).
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design
follows Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult
of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple demonstrates
the influences of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The
temple was restored in 1911.

Angkor Wat of Cambodia on the one hand meaning "Temple City" adorns a site measuring
162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). It was originally constructed as
a Hindu temple[ dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, and still retains all the
original characteristics of a Vishnu temple including the direction it faces regardless of the
fact that it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th
century as such it is also described as a "Hindu-Buddhist" temple today- which is of no
consequence to the design elements originally and earlier formed.

The Temple Complex-So this all begs the question: What makes Borobudur so special? The
complex itself is very impressive and noted particularly for an immense amount of artwork.
There are over 500 statues of the Buddha spread across the site, and the walls of the pyramid
are covered in reliefs of the life and teachings of Buddha. In fact, there are roughly 2,520
square meters of reliefs at Borobudur. That means that if you took all these reliefs off the
walls and laid them out, you could completely cover half of a football field.

Tjandi or Candi as a temple is known in Indonesia is a word not of Indonesian but Sanskrit
origin and is found in Java from the 8 th to 14 th
century A.D., consisting of a square base, a cella-like temple, and a prominent pyramidal roof
structure; a small room in the base contained the urn with the ashes of the prince in whose me
mory the structure was erected. A sepulchral design found also in Hindu Lands of those times
(BHARAT).

32
The Dutch alsp prefer to refer to it as Tjandi. In 'De onverklaarde tempel reliefs op het
hoofdgebouw van Tjandi Kedaton', Bijdragen totde Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde121:438-
66.,Kamasan art in museum collections: 'Entangled' Histories of Art Collecting in
Bali,Tjandi is another word for Candi in Dutch. The first modern dictionary of Indonesian
words or language was published during the 5th Indonesian Language Congress on 28
October 1988 and contained approximately 62,000 entries. The dictionary was compiled by a
team led by the Head of the Language Center, Anton M. Moeliono, with chief editors Sri
Sukesi Adiwimarta and Adi Sunaryo.Known as the Kamus Besar Bahasa
Indonesia (KBBI ; lit. 'Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language') is the
official dictionary of the Indonesian language compiled by Language Development and
Fostering Agency and published by Balai Pustaka. This dictionary is the primary reference
for the standard Indonesian language because it is the most complete and accurate Indonesian
dictionary ever published by publishers who have patent rights from the government of
the Republic of Indonesia under the auspices of the Indonesian Ministry of Education,
Culture, Research, and Technology. It is also considered canonical to measure which words
have been formally incorporated into Indonesian.

According to it a candi is a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesia, mostly built during

the Zaman Hindu-Buddha or "Hindu-Buddhist period" between circa the 4th and 15th
centuries.
The Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia defines a candi as an ancient stone building used for
worship, or for storing the ashes of cremated Hindu or Buddhist kings and priests. Indonesian
archaeologists describe candis as sacred structures of Hindu and Buddhist heritage, used for
religious rituals and ceremonies in Indonesia. However, ancient secular structures such as
gates, urban ruins, pools and bathing places are often called candi too, while a shrine that
specifically serves as a tomb is called a cungkup.

A sculpture of Ganesha protected with a cungkup at the Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II

Museum, Palembang// Cungkup used to shade a bedug at The Great Mosque of Central Java

Cungkup on the other hand is an Indonesian square building with a roof made to shade or
protect something, usually a grave, inscription, or nameplate. Though they are also used to
shade other important objects. The cungkup has also been thought to have inspired the tiered-
roof style of Javanese mosques, this theory is supported by the fact that cungkup aren't tiered,
with the Giri Cungkup in East Java as the only known exception.
There are a couple traditional patterns that are often used accompanying cungkup. Some
examples would be the cape flower patterns which is thought to be a sign to welcome people

33
to the location, that's why the pattern is usually carved into doorways. Cape flower patterns
also have vines and leaves accompanying them to complete the pattern. There's also a
jasmine flower pattern which is thought to be a sign of politeness in Palembang traditions.
The Malay people see the jasmine flower pattern as holy since jasmine flowers are often used
in religious rituals. Lots of these patterns are local and have different meanings in different
places.
Cemeteries

Traditionally, Islamic graves in Indonesia are characterized by three things, which are a
grave, a tombstone, and a cungkup. Cungkup are generally built for people who were highly
respected in their communities since cungkup are meant to protect the grave. Some notable
graves with Cungkup built for them are Sukarno's grave in Blitar, Tuanku Imam Bonjol's
grave in Minahasa, and W.R. Supratman's grave in Surabaya. The construction of cungkup
are usually found in the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi, though they are not fully
exclusive to these places.
Inscriptions

Cungkup are also built for inscriptions if it's outside, this is so it doesn't get damaged by the
weather among other things. Usually inscriptions shown in a museum will have a cungkup
dedicated to it if it isn't protected by a glass case.
Nameplates for office buildings and other important buildings usually have a cungkup
protecting it. This serves as a protection for the nameplate since they are susceptible to
weather damage and rust.

Ganesh under a Cungkup

In Hindu Balinese architecture, the term candi refers to a stone or brick structure of single-
celled shrine with portico, entrance and stairs, topped with pyramidal roof and located within
a pura. It is often modeled after East Javanese temples, and functions as a shrine to a certain
deity. To the Balinese, a candi is not necessarily ancient, since candis continue to be
(re-)built within these puras, such as the reconstructed temple in Alas Purwo, Banyuwangi.
In contemporary Indonesian Buddhist perspective, candi also refers to a shrine, either ancient
or new. Several contemporary viharas in Indonesia for example, contain the actual-size
replica or reconstruction of famous Buddhist temples, such as the replica of Pawon
and Plaosan's perwara (small) temples. In Buddhism, the role of a candi as a shrine is
sometimes interchangeable with a stupa, a domed structure to store Buddhist relics or the

34
ashes of cremated Buddhist priests, patrons or benefactors. Borobudur, Muara
Takus and Batujaya for example are actually elaborate stupas.
In modern Indonesian language, the term candi can be translated as "temple" or similar
structure, especially of Hindu and Buddhist faiths. Thus temples of Cambodia (such as
the Angkor Wat), Champa (Central and
Southern Vietnam), Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and India are also called candi in Indonesian.

Prambanan temple compound. The towering candi prasada (temple towers) are believed to
represent the cosmic Mount Meru, the abode of gods.
Hindu 2 Celled Shrines of the Candi – or चण्डिकागृह (caṇḍikāgṛha, “temple of Durgā”)
refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower
above it, and a portico. The term Candi is given as a prefix to the many temple-mountains
in Indonesia, built as a representation of the Cosmic Mount Meru, an epitome of the universe.
However, the term also applied to many non-religious structures dated from the same period,
such as gapura (gates), petirtaan (pools) and some of habitation complexes. Examples of
non-temple candis are the Bajang Ratu and Wringin Lawang gates of Majapahit. The "Candi
Tikus bathing pool" in Trowulan and Jalatunda in Mount Penanggungan slopes, as well as the
remnants of non-religious habitation and urban structures such as Ratu Boko and some of
Trowulan city ruins, are also considered candi.
In ancient Java, a temple was probably originally called prāsāda (Sanskrit: प्रासाद), as evidence
in the Manjusrigrha inscription (dated from 792 CE), that mentioned "Prasada Vajrasana
Manjusrigrha" to refer to the Sewu temple. This term is in par with Cambodian and Thai
term prasat which refer to the towering structure of a temple.
From Hindu perspective, the term candi itself is believed was derived from Candika, one of
the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death. This suggests that in
ancient Indonesia the candi had mortuary functions as well as connections with the afterlife.
The association of the name candi, candika or durga with Hindu-Buddhist temples is
unknown in India and other parts of Southeast Asia outside of Indonesia, such
as Cambodia, Thailand, or Burma.
Buddhist Interpretation
Another theory from Buddhist perspective, suggested that the term candi might be a localized
form of the Pali word cedi (Sanskrit: caitya) — which related to Thai word chedi which refer
to a stupa, or it might be related to the Bodhisattva Candī (also known as Cundī or Candā).
Funerary pyres: Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to store
the ashes of cremated deceased kings or royalty. This is in line with Buddhist concept
of stupas as structures to store Buddhist relics, including the ashes and remains of holy
Buddhist priests or the Buddhist king, patrons of Buddhism. The statue of god stored inside

35
the garbhagriha (main chamber) of the temple is often modeled after the deceased king and
considered to be the deified person of the king portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the
concept of devaraja. The example is the statue of king Airlangga from Belahan temple
in Pasuruan portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.
The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu
Shastra. The temple layout, especially in Central Java period, incorporated mandala temple
plan arrangements and also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was
designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model
of Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.

36
37
2 of the author’s 200 odd books dealing with Temple Structure and their antecedents
To the RIGHT Map showing maximum concentration of Candis in which part of Indonesia

38
Structure elements

The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka), body
(Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka).(LOWER RIGHT PICTURE)
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less
holy to the holiest realms. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the
concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan
and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements;
commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is

39
arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own
terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or
the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones:
1. Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans,
animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way
of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the
realm of bhurloka.
2. Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis,
ascetics, and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle
courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka.
3. Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also
known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized
the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned
with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube
structure. While stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of
Buddhist ones.

The Realm of existence concept of the Design element of the Stupa

Loka (Sanskrit: लोक) is a concept in Indian religions, that means plane or realm of existence.
3 lokas of HINDUISM

Vishvarupa of Vishnu as the Cosmic Man with the three realms: heaven - Satya to Bhuvar
loka (head to belly), earth - Bhu loka (groin), underworld - Atala to Patala loka (legs).
The most common arrangement of lokas in Hinduism are into three parts.
The scholar Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows:
The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special
connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not
simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of
religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own.
Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is,

40
coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist
independent of a spatial notion, an 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological
conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds
consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe."
3 lokas
There is a cosmological view in Buddhism called Trailokya.In early Buddhism, based upon
the Pali Canon and related Agamas, there are three distinct realms:- First the Kama Loka, or
the world of sensuality, in which humans, animals, and some devas reside, the second
is Rupadhatu Loka, or the world of material existence, in which certain beings mastering
specific meditative attainments reside, and the third is Arupadhatu Loka, or the immaterial,
formless world, in which formless spirits reside. Arahants, who have attained the highest goal
of Nirvana have unbound themselves from individual existence in any form, in any realm,
and cannot be found here, there, or in between, i.e., they are found in no loka whatsoever.
We do not know what the design of the unfinished Hindu temple before the Borobudur was,
but one can make a suggestive guess that it may have been a 3 layered structure like the one
in Hindu Cosmology and the Buddhist design took inspiration from it.

Buddhist spatial cosmology, which describes the arrangement of the various worlds within the
universe/ The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist
cosmology. The highest point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood.

Ambiance

Barabuḍur : sketch of a history of Buddhism based on

archaeological criticism of the texts, Paul Mus ;
(translated from the French by Alexander W.
Macdonald). Indira Gandhi National Centre for
the Arts : Sterling Publishers, 1998.

41
Borobudur temple is located 17.4 km from the nearest city of Magelang and about 40km to the
northwest of the city of Yogyakarta, in Central Java.

Opinions of historians and archaeologists on the real name of Borobudur differ greatly.
Raffles named it Boro Bodo, which means ‘the name of the district’ (Boro) and
‘ancient’ (Bodo).
1. The manuscript Negarakrtagama canto 77 (LXXVII) written by Mpu Pra- panca
in the 14th century mentions the domain of a Vajradhara or Vajrayana-
Buddhism sect named Kabajradaran Akrama in Budur. This place is most likely
the present-day Borobudur (Pigeaud, 1962; Soekmono, 1976).

42
 2. De Casparis (1950), on the basis of Dasabhumika Sutra, argued that Borobudur
was built with 10 stages or dasa bhumi, and is named in relation to Kamulan i
Bhumisambharabhudhara, which is mentioned in the inscriptions of Sri
Kahulunan, dating back to the mid-8th century.

3. Kamulan is a Sanskrit word, which means a root, origin, sacred place or shrine to
worship ancestors.

4. Bhumisambhara is interpreted as a barrow, hill or the level of the building that is

identified with the temple called Borobudur. On the basis of the statements of de
Casparis, Kamulan i Bhumisambharabhudhara can be interpreted as the temple
of the Sailendra dynasty people located in Borobudur, which was built with 10
stages.

5. Borobudur Temple was built on a hill surrounded by several mountains, such as

the Menoreh, Sumbing, Sindoro and Merbabu Mountains and Mount Merapi,
and bordered by the Progo and Elo rivers. Borobudur could be linked to
Kunjarakunjadesa in South India. Sands and andesite fractions lay the
foundation of the hill where the Borobudur Temple is located.

6. The temple was built as a stepped pyramid or punden berudak structure with six-
square terraces and topped with three circular courtyards It lies between two rivers
(the Progo and the Sileng) and rather unfortunately, between two twin volcanoes
(Merapi-Merbabu to the north-east and Sundoro-Sumbing to the north-west).

7. The monument was built on a slightly elevated area and lies at 265m above sea level.
The surrounding verdant ‘Kedu Plain’ is a highly fertile agricultural area and is
known as ‘the garden of Java.’.Sitting atop a hill, Borobudur’s foundation is
composed of non-homogenous materials.

It rises from a base that is approximately a 373 feet square, with a central stupa about
115 feet above the ground level1. Stairways cutting through the middle of each of it’s
four sides face the cardinal directions. Rocks roughly 9 inches X 41 inches X 9 inches in
dimension are used throughout the structure. A great manifestation of the Buddhist
Doctrine, amongst other things Borobudur features 1460 narrative reliefs, 1212
decorative reliefs, 324 ratnas (jewels ornaments), 1740 triangular ornaments, 100
gargoyles and 32 lions.2The body of the entire monument is usually spoken of in three
parts (1) base (2) galleries (3) terrace.

While the base of Borobudur is broadly a square, it is not a perfect quadrangle. There are
zigzag indentations at each of its four corners. The rather plain looking upper surface of
the base is approximately 23 feet wide 3 and forms a walkway around the monument.
However, this foot was added after the monument was completed. The original base, just
above the ground, featured 160 relief panels all around. Each one of these measured 7 ½
feet X 2 ½ feet and depicted a scene from the Mahakarmavibhanga, a Buddhist text about
the doctrine of Karma (Cause and Effect) and consequently, Heaven and Hell.
43
This original base and its decorations, the so-called hidden foot, were discovered only
in 1885 and there are multiple theories about why these beautiful panels, some
incomplete and some even disfigured were covered. The more prevalent school of
thought believes that this embellished base had to be covered when it proved too narrow
to support the monument on top and probably collapsed. A contrarian viewpoint believes
it was covered deliberately as it corresponds to kamadhatu – the realm of desire, best left
behind when approaching the more evolved spiritual experience of Borobudur.

The second part of Borobudur consists of four levels of galleries with walkways almost
six and a half feet wide through each one of these. Since the monument is shaped like a
pyramid, each successive level is smaller than the one below. The first gallery is a walk
of 360 meters while the second, third and fourth galleries constitute walks of 320 meters,
288 meters and 256 meters respectively. A complete circuit of all four galleries therefore
covers 1.2 km or 3/4th of a mile. Multiple circuits of each gallery in order to enable
detailed viewing of all relief panels in fact make for a 3-mile long walk. Bound by a main
wall on one side (to the right when circumambulating) and a fairly high balustrade on the
other, these galleries house most of the relief panels of Borobudur. The balustrades are
tall enough to block one’s view of the sylvan environs around. As devotees follow the
reliefs clockwise, always entering from the east, their journey is enlivened by frequent
changes of direction due to the zigzag shape of corners, which prevents them from
obtaining a view of the corridor extending for any great distance.At the corners one finds
antefixes, panels topped by triangular ornaments.

The temples of ancient Java is notable with the application of kala-makara as

both decorative and symbolic elements of temple architecture. Kala is the giant
head, often took place on the top of the entrance with makaras projected on
either sides of kala's head flanking the portal or projecting on top corner as
antefixes. Kala-makara theme also can be found on stairs railings on either
sides. On upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara
downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level
of stairs with its bodies forming the stair's railings. These types of stairs
decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. Makara's
trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while
in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or
parrots. Waterspouts shaped like makaras(crocodiles) are placed on the lowest
level while upper levels exhibit face similar to kala (demon). 4 Walking these
galleries must have been akin to watching moving pictures in a theatre today – a
plethora of reliefs surrounding you, telling enchanting stories in an enclosed space
for the time it takes to walk 3 miles!

The first gallery features tales from the Lalitavistara 5 (historical Buddha’s life story)
spread over 120 reliefs, and Jatakas and Avadanas (tales of previous incarnations of
people who became Buddhas) spread over 500 reliefs. With four sets of relief panels
progressing simultaneously – two large ones, one above the other on the main wall, and
two smaller ones on the balustrade, there is almost too much to take in all at once.
However, the countenance of the subjects is pleasant and sometimes even humorous, so it

44
is a not anoverwhelming experience. Decorative pilasters and ornate scrollwork, each one
unique in its own right, divide the scenes for easy viewing. Interestingly enough, the
backs of Buddha niches (these Buddha niches appear throughout on the balustrades and
we will discuss them in detail shortly) on the lower balustrade are decorated with a
crowning motif representing a jewel while those in the upper galleries are decorated with
small stupas.

The second gallery houses 100 panels of Jatakas and Avadanas on its outer wall. On it’s
inner wall, with 128 panels starts what can be considered the primary theme of Borobudur
reliefs, the tale of Sudhana, a pilgrim who visits several kalyanamitras or personages in
search of the truth. This tale is based on the Buddhist text Gandavyuha.6 Sudhana’s story
continues on the third gallery with 176 relief panels and culminates with 156 panels of the
fourth gallery with Bhadracari, tale of Sudhana’s vow to bodhisattva Samantabhadra.

Extensive as this display of sculpture is, Borobudur’s sculptural plan of galleries is not
nearly exhausted. 432 Buddha images appear inside aforementioned niches on the five
balustrades. These measure 3 ½ feet in height and look outwards from each of the four
cardinal directions. There were 104 such statues on the first and second levels, 88 on the
third, 72 on fourth and 54 at the very top. However, several of these are now missing. We
will return to a detailed account of the hand mudras (gestures) of these Buddhas and what
they imply in a while.The third part of Borobudur, its terrace, is distinctly different in feel
from the confined galleries below. Upon getting here, the enclosed space suddenly opens
up to offer fabulous views of the countryside around, setting the devotee free. It would
not be an overstatement to say that the transition to this spacious, uncluttered area is
dramatic. Unfettered by high walls, this part has three concentric, nearly circular terraces
featuring seventy-two stupas in total, each with a Buddha image enclosed. The lowest
terrace has thirty-two stupas,middle one twenty-four and the highest, sixteen. Stupas on
the lowest and middle terrace have latticed, diamond shaped openings from which life-
sized Buddhas within can be viewed while on the highest terrace, these openings are
square shaped. All seventy-two Buddha images here display the same gesture,
the dharmachakra mudra (turning the wheel of Dharma gesture). These stupas are 11 feet
and 12 ½ feet in diameter. In the center of the entire monument, almost crowning it as it
were is a large stupa 52 ½ feet in diameter. Only fragments of the original central stupa
remain, though they give an idea of the simple carved horizontal bands it once possessed,
and the tall spire containing a 13 tiered parasol which once surmounted the entire
monument.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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(Gandavyuhasutra, ed. With intro by P.L. Vaidya, Buddhist Sanskrit texts, 5 (Darbhanga:The Mithila Institute,1960).
English translation Thomas Cleary, trans. Entry into the Realm of Reality: The Text: the “Gandavyuha,” the Final Book of
the “Avatamsaka Sutra” (Boston: Shambhala,1989).
This stupa is not perforated like the others and therefore what it houses, cannot be viewed
from the outside. It has two unconnected hollow chambers inside. An unfinished statue of
the Buddha in bhumisparsha mudra (touching the earth gesture) clearly blocked out is
supposed to have been found inside it. But this fact is disputed. Some scholars believe
that this statue corresponds to the arupadhatu realm (which we will discuss soon) and was
intentionally left unfinished. Others consider it as nothing more than a filler for the stupa.
Whatever the case, currently this image sits in a small museum on Borobudur grounds.

Usually religious art is a dimension of religious culture of the times. Therefore an

adequate method of its interpretation ought to consider such religious culture and
practices as might have been prevalent when the piece of art was created. One could also
turn to Foucault’s notion of heterotopia, a concept in human geography for describing
places and spaces of otherness, which are neither here nor there and are simultaneously
physical and mental – such as the space of a phone call or the moment you see yourself in
the mirror. It can also be a single real place that juxtaposes several spaces, for instance, a
Persian garden is a heterotopia because it is a real space meant to be a microcosm of
different environments with plants from around the world.8 Our task is therefore to
understand what the religious culture and practices might have been prevalent in Java of
Ca. 800 and what heterotopia was Borobudur at its creation.

Religious sanctuaries in their layout and decor aim to provide tangibly, a vision of the
problems of mankind. Most important amongst these is the relation of Mankind with the
world of Holy. This ‘meeting’ of Ultimate Reality and Man is a mystery recognized by
various religions in different yet essentially identical ways. According to Kempers, two
mysteries occur in such sanctuaries, the micro-mystery of “God meeting his flock” and
the macro-mystery of the sanctuary in itself being a symbol representing this mystery in
action.

Borobudur, a Stupa

The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist monuments starting from
the Mauryan Empire period (3rd century BCE), continuing with the Gupta Empire period (5th
century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE. It is probably the best preserved group
of Buddhist monuments in IndiaThe Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone
structures in India, and an important monument of Indian Architecture. It was originally
commissioned by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE. Its nucleus
was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned
by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, which was intended to honour
and shelter the relics. The original construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka,
whose wife Devi was the daughter of a merchant of nearby Vidisha. Sanchi was also her
birthplace as well as the venue of her and Ashoka's wedding. In the 1st century BCE, four
elaborately carved toranas (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade encircling the entire
structure were added. The Sanchi Stupa built during the Mauryan period was made of bricks.
The composite flourished until the 11th century.

46
Its nucleus is a hemispherical brick structure built over the sacred relics of the Buddha, with a
raised terrace encompassing its base, and a railing and stone umbrella on the summit,
the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolizing high rank. The original Stupa only had about
half the diameter of today's stupa, which is the result of enlargement by the Sungas. It was
covered in brick, in contrast to the stones that now cover it.
According to one version of the Mahavamsa, the Buddhist chronicle of Sri Lanka, Ashoka
was closely connected to the region of Sanchi. When he was heir-apparent and was
journeying as Viceroy to Ujjain, he is said to have halted at Vidisha (10 kilometers from
Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker. She was called Devi and later gave
Ashoka two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahendra, and a daughter Sanghamitta. After Ashoka's
accession, Mahendra headed a Buddhist mission, sent probably under the auspices of the
Emperor, to Sri Lanka, and that before setting out to the island he visited his mother at
Chetiyagiri near Vidisa, thought to be Sanchi. He was lodged there in a sumptuous vihara or
monastery, which she herself is said to have had erected

Plan of the monuments of the hill of Sanchi, numbered 1 to 50.

Both Sanchi and Borobudur are located on Hills. They resemble each other. During the later
rule of the Shunga,in the 2 nd Century CBE, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to
almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three
superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of
the dharma, the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant
for circumambulation, which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone
pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade. The railings around Stupa 1 do
not have artistic reliefs. These are only slabs, with some dedicatory inscriptions. These
elements are dated to circa 150 BCE, or 175–125 BCE. Borobudur was constructed between
about 778 and 850 ce, under the Shailendra dynasty. The main difference between the two is
that Borobudur is a Mahayana Buddhist temple, while the Great Stupa of Sanchi is a
Theravada Buddhist shrine. This means that the layout and iconography of the two buildings
are slightly different.
47
In Sanchi, the great stupa of India, built over the relics of the Buddha, is a hemispherical
dome surrounded by a square railing. There are two gateways in the railing which are
supported by four pillars that feature sculptures of Elephants, Lions, and Yakshi. The entire
gateway is covered with vast reliefs, scenes and decorations of nature. Throughout the stupa,
there are various Jatakas and miracles of the Buddha illustrated. Jatakas are Buddhist moral
tales relating edifying events of the former lives of the Buddha. Borobudur it is less of a
dome and more of a multi level square building. Ascending into the levels represents for
sending through the three worlds or realms of Buddhism until ultimately reaching nirvana.
Borobudur focuses more on the realms where as the great stupa at Sanchi focuses on the life
of the Buddha himself. Both sites had been abandoned and excavated many years later. Both
sites depict scenes of the Buddha, an example is the scene of the temptation when the Buddha
was confronted with the seductive daughters of Mara and with his army of demons. Having
resisted the temptations of Mara, the Buddha finds enlightenment. Both sites are relic
chambers of the Buddha.
Amongst other things, Borobudur is a representation of the Universe and the device
deployed to achieve this effect by the architect is the stupa. This is because in
Borobudur’s symbolism we find several critical features of a stupa’s function. For
instance, a stupa recalls the life and previous existences of the historical Buddha and
other personages. This element is found in the reliefs of Borobudur. A stupa stands for the
Buddhist doctrine, as does Borobudur with its numerous symbols and reliefs that stamp it
as a “Shining Tower of the Law”10. A stupa is the most abstract and therefore the most
exact symbol of the Holy. In the case of Borobudur, this understanding can be applied to
the main stupa on top. Finally, a stupa seeks to represent the Universe with the terraced
cosmic mountain Mt. Meru in its center. Borobudur with its terraced structure recalls the
same. It is also worth noticing that the stupa motif is repeated 1+16+24+32+1472 times
all over Borobudur. In addition, some distinguishing features of earlier stupas, like Sanchi
and Bharhut, can also be observed in Borobudur’s construct. For instance, the most
important part of the entire structure, the central stupa at the top, bears the traditional
hemispherical shape. The pathway to this central stupa (galleries) is studded with tales
from the biography and previous lives of the historical Buddha. In addition, traditional
motifs and architectural elements like the railings, gateways, lotus flowers, Buddha
images, the pinnacle and sunshades, the yakshas, nagas and lions appear in abundance.

48
Thus various elements of the earlier stupas may be seen in Borobudur. They were just
applied and continued in a manner that is both original and elegant.11

Questions about the Stupa Theory

Right from 1905, when

Foucher first advanced the Stupa theory, many scholars have subscribed to it.12However
what is not obvious, and what is an essential part of any typical, traditional stupa is
the anda or the hemispherical body covering the base. This missing feature has led to
debates about the theory of Borobudur being a stupa. Proponents of the theory argue that
this element can be identified in the central stupa on top. However the issue is that the
central stupa, while clearly visible from the terrace, is too small in proportion to the rest
of the monument – it can only be seen by walking away and looking at the monument
from a certain distance. Getting any closer only makes it sink below the outline of the
balustrades. This central stupa therefore does not lend itself to being regarded as the
dominant architectural element.
To solve this problem, Mus was the first to suggest that the silhouette of Borobudur with
its stupas and stupa motifs resembles a hemispherical dome and hence it should be
considered a stupa anda. This perspective however requires a good amount of squinting
and some imagination to work. That there isn’t a stupa anywhere that resembles
Borobudur is a definite damper for those who believe the stupa theory.

On the other hand, Woodward pointed out, “..it is not the outer form of the stupa which
provides the greatest number of clues for our understanding of these matters but the inner
workings”. 13 This can allude among other things to the early accounts of the central
stupa that state it has two hollow chambers inside”14, as is the case with a traditional
stupa. No relics however were discovered from this space. Alternatively if the unfinished
Buddha supposedly found in the central stupa was a part of the intended plan, it could
have been the means to establish the Buddha’s presence in the structure.

What the stupa theory does provide us with is the understanding that pathways through
the galleries of Borobudur were designed to perform a pradikshana, even though the
central stupa was not visible through the gallery and was therefore not the focus of the
circumambulation. Most scholars agree that this ritual was probably performed by a wide
variety of people at Borobudur. While few have suggested that access to the upper levels
of Borobudur might have been restricted, 15 they are usually proponents of the view that
Borobudur offered experiences of a far more esoteric nature, which could be actualized
only by the initiated few.

49
Borobudur, a Mandala

Another major theory, one we will focus on, is based to a large degree on the ground plan

and aerial view of Borobudur. This theory

subscribes to the view of Borobudur as a mandala. Heinrich Zimmer was one of the first
proponents of this theory in 1926. In the scheme of Buddhist cosmos, humans seeking
enlightenment must move from its violent and unconscious periphery to the sacred center.
This concept has been rendered in the architectural construct of Borobudur with galleries
that lead-up from the periphery of the monument to the central stupa on top. As Kempers
suggests, Borobudur is a ‘dynamic space’, which by its very nature forces anyone
entering to proceed in a certain direction. It invites the participation of an individual
seeking enlightenment or spiritual progress by offering him a predetermined path for the
same.16
What is a Mandala?

The word mandala is composed of two elements – manda (core) and la (a container).
Since a mandala is regarded as a microcosm of the Universe, all gods find a fixed place
here: the highest god sits in the center and various other gods are found elsewhere as his
manifestations. Each of these gods is represented by a portrait or a single syllable that
stands for its innermost essence.17

It becomes rather obvious upon observing the galleries and terraces of Borobudur that it
is in fact, a mandala. Another giveaway is the presence of four stairways running straight
through the middle of each side of the quadrangle, to reach the central stupa. These
stairways look like the standard four entryways into a mandala. In itself, this is a very
strong piece of evidence in favor of the mandala argument.

While there are multiple mandala theories, a common thread running through nearly all of
them is that they equate the Buddhas in the niches of galleries and latticed stupas of the
terraces with the Buddha figures in the panchajina (five Buddha mandala) on the basis of
the mudras displayed. However, this belief can be a double-edged sword, as we will see
shortly.

50
Let us now proceed to the mandala theory in detail. We will first see how on purely
technical grounds, Borobudur can be considered a mandala. From there we will look at
what kind of a mandala might it be; if it can be identified as one. Finally by using its
architectural class – the stupa, as discussed above, we will recognize it as a replica of the
cosmos.

How is Borobudur a Mandala?

Technically speaking, the concept of a ‘core’ and ‘container’ as described above can be
interpreted for Borobudur in multiple ways. According to Wayman, one Borobudur sub
mandala is composed of its galleries: the fifth gallery (the low balustrade that surrounds
the platform near the tip of the monument, top of the fourth gallery) is the core and
remaining four galleries are its container. Another sub mandala is composed of its
terraces: seventy-two smaller stupas are the containers for the core that is the central
stupa. The main mandala however is composed of the central stupa along with the
seventy-two stupas as the core with the galleries as its container.

If this is the case then the dynamic, predetermined passage provided by the galleries with
their stories and consequent teachings that keep getting more spiritually complex with
every passing level are meant to engage and encourage devotees to make their way
towards the main stupa and the spiritual significance it embodies. That is also the reason
why multiple spiritual guides, in particular bodhisattvas like Maitreya, Manjushri and
Samatabhadra are found in the fourth gallery, just before entry into the core. Spiritual
guides or bodhisattvas play a central role in helping a devotee choose the right spiritual
path in order to achieve his spiritual goal. The relation between a devotee seeking
enlightenment and a bodhisattva helping him in this goal is summarized thus, using the
example of Sudhana and Sumantabhadra:

“First of all, the person must have the right circumstances of life, which are called the
four reasons: 1) he should be in this family; 2) taken in hand by spiritual guides; 3) be
compassionate toward living beings; 4) have zest for austerities. And he should have one
or the other power to generate that Thought (of enlightenment) 1) his own power,
whereby he craves the perfect Enlightenment: through his own force (of character); 2)
another’s power, whereby he craves it by the way of another’s power; 3) the power of a
(deep-seated) cause, whereby he generates the Thought through the mere hearing in the
present life of praises of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas by reason on having formerly
cultivated the Great Vehicle; or 4) The power of praxis, in the course of which he has for
a long time been following a path of virtue, seeking out high – minded persons and
listening to the Law.” 18

Because the fourth gallery ends with Sudhana’s study of Sumantabhadra and since
traditionally Mara appears at dusk, what Wayman refers to as the fifth gallery is
metaphorically, twilight. Thus the sub-mandala of galleries symbolizes twilight. Moving
from here into the night, and explaining the significance of the seventy-two stupas found

51
here, Wayman draws a parallel between the location of Mt. Meru at the center of the
universe and the system of thirty-six decanates. Seventy-two is of course, the double of
thirty-six, the number of star groups north and south of the ecliptic. Borobudur also is
situated very near the equator and the zodiacal stars north and south of the ecliptic can be
viewed with equal clarity here.19 Thus the sub-mandala of terraces symbolizes the night.
This highly metaphorical interpretation obviously bases itself on the idea of metaphorical
night, the traditional time of Enlightenment and movement of the devotee from twilight to
such a night/time.

Another explanation for the number seventy-two is rooted in Tantra. Taking the thirty-
seven elements of the universe with Lord Mahavairocana as one and thirty-six remaining,
number thirty-six can be considered twice – once as the ideal world of the Vajradhatu-
mandala and again as its reflection in the natural world of Karunagarbha-mandala to lead
us to seventy-two. This means that seventy-two + one Buddhas in those stupas realize the
whole system.

What kind of a Mandala?

To answer the interesting, albeit complicated question of just what sort of a mandala
Borobudur is, scholars turn to the Panchajina mandala model and draw parallels from
there to the Buddha figures found in Borobudur. In a Panchajina mandala, Buddha
Vairocana sits in the middle and displays the dharmachakra mudra (turning of the wheel
gesture). In Borobudur, the seventy-two Buddha figures sitting inside the latticed stupas
on the terraces also display this gesture. Around Vairocana are four directional Buddhas,
each displaying a specific gesture 1) Akshobhaya in the east in the bhumisparsha mudra
(earth touching gesture) 2) Ratnasamabhava in the south displaying the vara mudra (boon
granting gesture) 3) Amitabha in the west, displaying the dhyana mudra or (meditation
gesture) and 4) Amoghasiddhi in the north, displaying the abhaya mudra (fear not
gesture). In Borobudur, the Buddhas in the niches on the balustrades display exactly these
four mudras for the corresponding cardinal directions.
Additionally, Kala and makaras guard the four gateways to the monument just as they
guard mandala entry points. It must be noted that there are versions of the mandala theory
where the Buddhas are given different names than the ones mentioned above, but the
structure of the argument essentially remains the same: the Buddhas of Borobudur display
the correct mudras for the correct directions.

Questions on Mandala Theory

52
As was mentioned before, adherence to the Panchajina theory is a double-edged sword as
a sixth Buddha is also found in the monument making it depart from the standard five
Buddha pattern. This is the sixth Buddha located in the niches of what Wayman calls the
fifth gallery. On all four sides of the gallery, this Buddha displays the same
gesture, vitarka mudra (gesture of instruction). This of course becomes the main issue in
terms of pegging the mandala type down since there are six gestures and six Buddhas,
something that isn’t observed in any known mandala to date. Another complication is that
if indeed the unfinished Buddha image in bhumisparsha mudra was found in the central
stupa, then the “wrong” Buddha is in the center of the mandala.
While several arguments and explanations have been expounded by scholars to address
these issues, the argument for Borobudur as a mandala will stand to gain a lot from the
identification of a known mandala with the same arrangement, or a known text that can
be linked to. It must be noted here that while there exists a debate on what tantric text
Borobudur was based on, it is quite certain that tantric texts did exist in Borobudur Java.
Miksic points out to the fact that a tremendous variety of mandalas existed in
Borobudur’s time and at least 3500 mandala designs were known. Also, famous tantric
practitioners like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra spent time in Java. They taught the use of
two particular mandalas – the Vajradhatu mandala (Diamond World) and Dharmadhatu
mandala (Matrix World). 20

53
In fact, even without the knowledge of a known tantric text, scholars such as Robert A.F.
Thurman state that the mandala principle can be seen in several Mahayana texts including
the Gandavyuha.

“For the Universal or Messianic Vehicle, expresses the ideal of the ‘perfection of the
Buddhaverse.’ Such a cosmic transformation is possible because of the infinite non-dual
presence, in every atom and subatomic energy, of the truth-and beatific bodies; it is
actualized by the activities of countless emanation-bodies of the Buddha, ceaselessly
helping beings throughout the universe.”21

Thus from several perspectives: technical, religious, art historical, historical and
philosophical, it can be argued that Borobudur was built to represent a Buddhist mandala
and that probably did serve some of the functions of one in the time it flourished.

Borobudur and the three cosmic realms

Borobudur is a mandala in that its various galleries featuring personages teach important
life lessons and offer guidance to those seeking spiritual salvation. Stutterheim believes
that the relief panels of Borobudur were used as foci for meditation. He (and several other
scholars subsequently) also stressed that Borobudur’s structure metaphorically interprets
the Buddhist cosmological thought which divides the universe into three
realms: Kamadhatu (realm of desire), Rupadhatu (realm of forms)
and Arupadhatu (realm of formlessness), with Mt. Meru in the center. First and outermost
of these realms, the Kamadhatu is what human beings are born into. It features all kinds
of hells, violence and unsavoriness. Rupadhatu consists of evolved beings living in
heavens where there is no desire, only meditation. Inhabitants of Arupadhatu are the most
spiritually evolved beings. They do not possess a form and are ethereal bodies spread
over four heavens corresponding with the four highest degrees of meditation. In the
architectural structure and decoration of Borobudur, Kamadhatu can be identified in the
Mahakarmavibhanga-based reliefs of the original base and probably even the entire outer
region of the building. This is what the devotee is born into, this is what he wants to
escape, and this is where he is before entering the sphere of Rupadhatu, which
corresponds to the four galleries. Here he is spiritually guided with the aid of a plethora of
images (rupa) and proceeds slowly but surely towards Arupadhatu, represented by the
three circular terraces and the main stupa. This vacant and open area offers the highest
level of spiritual awakening having nearly no reliefs and in that sense being arupa
(formless). The central stupa can be envisioned as Mt. Meru with a shaft in the very
center. Upon getting here, the devotee reaches what is comparable in spiritual terms to the
concept of Nirvana of Hinayana.

Borobudur, symbolizing the Cosmic Universe

Kempers succinctly paraphrased Borobudur as a monument that represents the Holy; its
descent into the Universe, the Universe being pervaded, and the ascent of
Man.22According to him, the descent of the Holy is depicted in Borobudur by the
Buddha figures studded all over the terraces and galleries and the ascent of man is

54
symbolized by the relief panels in the galleries. This brings us to the theory that
Borobudur represents the cosmos where such interpenetration is a regular, constant
occurrence.

An important element of the cosmos is

the cosmic, terraced mountain Meru. Borobudur too in its construct is a terraced pyramid.
Additionally, the location of Borobudur suggests that it was intended to represent Mt.
Meru because just like Meru is supposed to be surrounded concentric rings of alternating
seas and mountain ranges, topographically Borobudur is surrounded by a ring of
mountains. Casparis further points out that Borobudur rises from the midst of a plain of
rice fields that during certain parts of the growing seasons look not unlike a vast
lake.23 Thus one would not be wrong to assume that basis its general shape and location,
Borobudur was meant to represent the cosmic mountain at the center of
the Chakravala cosmos.
Borobudur’s circumambulation route represents the bodhisattva path by which the
devotee ascends towards spiritual enlightenment and Buddhahood. The same route also
represents the descent of the already enlightened Buddhas in niches who meet the devotee
every step of the way, at each level of his or her ascent. These niche Buddhas however
are no longer visible from upper platforms and terraces. This can be a metaphorical way
of letting the devotee know that he or she has evolved spiritually and literally moved to
higher things – from a world of illusion to the world of enlightenment.

Notes:

1. Soekmono, R “Chandi Borobudu,” 15

2. Kempers, Bernet A.J “Ageless Borobudur,” 172
3. Soekmono, R “Chandi Borobudu,” 15
4. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Majestic Mysterious Magnificent,”42
5. Krom, N.J. “The Life of the Buddha on the Stupa of Barabudur
According to the Lalitavistara”
6. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Majestic Mysterious Magnificent,” 44
7. Chemburkar, Swati “Monument, Memory, and Meaning: Heterotopia
at Borobudur, Indonesia,” 1. (Marg: A Magazine of the Arts, Sep2012,
Vol. 64 Issue 1, p12, 14p
Item: 82830016).

55
 8. Kempers, Bernet A.J “Barabudur: A Buddhist Mystery in Stone,” 110-
111 in Gómez, Luis O. “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a
Buddhist monument.” Vol. 2. Asian Humanities Pr, 1981.
10. Kempers, Bernet A.J “Barabudur: A Buddhist Mystery in Stone,” 113 in Gómez, Luis
O. “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument.” Vol. 2. Asian
Humanities Pr, 1981.

11. Kempers, Bernet A.J. “Ageless Borobudur: Buddhist mystery in stone, decay and
restoration, Mendut and Pawon, folklife in ancient Java,” 147

12. Gómez, Luis O. “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument.” 7-8

13. Woodward, Hiram W “Barabudur as a Stupa,” 122 in Gómez, Luis O. “Barabuḍur,

history and significance of a Buddhist monument.” Vol. 2. Asian Humanities Pr, 1981.

14. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Golden tales of the Buddhas,” 50

15. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Golden tales of the Buddhas,” 27

16. Kempers, A. J “Ageless Borobudur: Buddhist mystery in stone, decay and

restoration, Mendut and Pawon, folklife in ancient Java,” 178

17. Kempers, A. J “Ageless Borobudur: Buddhist mystery in stone, decay and restoration,
Mendut and Pawon, folklife in ancient Java,” 180

18. Wayman, Alex “Reflections on the Theory of Barabudur as a Mandala”, 152-153 in Gómez,
Luis O “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument.” Vol. 2

19. Wayman, Alex “Reflections on the Theory of Barabudur as a Mandala”, 153-154 in Gómez,
Luis O “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument.” Vol. 2

20. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Majestic Mysterious Magnificent”, 50

21. Thurman, Robert A. F. “Mandala: The Architecture of Enlightenment,” in “Mandala: The

Architecture of Enlightenment”, ed. Denise Patry Leidy and Robert A.F. Thurman, 128

22. Kempers, Bernet A.J. “Barabudur: A Buddhist Mystery in Stone”, in Gómez, Luis O.
“Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument,”112

23. Casparis, J. G de “The Dual Nature of Barabudur,” 70 in Gómez, Luis O “Barabuḍur, history
and significance of a Buddhist monument. Vol. 2”

24. Kempers, Bernet A.J “Ageless Borobudur,” 149

56
References:

1. Gómez, Luis O ed, “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist

monument.” Vol. 2. Berkeley, 1981
2. Kempers, Bernet A.J. “Ageless Borobudur: Buddhist mystery in stone, decay
and restoration, Mendut and Pawon, folklife in ancient Java,” Wassenaar,
1976
3. Miksic, John N “Borobudur: Golden tales of the Buddhas,” Boston, 1990
4. Miksic, John N et al.“Borobudur: Majestic Mysterious Magnificent”,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia : Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan & Ratu
Boko, 2010.
5. Kandahjaya, Hudaya. “A study on the origin and significance of
Borobudur”Graduate Theological Union, ProQuest, UMI Dissertations
Publishing, 2004. 3129398.
6. Gifford, Julie A. “Picturing the path: The visual rhetoric of Barabudur” The
University of Chicago, ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing, 2004.
3149326.
7. Chemburkar, Swati “Monument, Memory, and Meaning: Heterotopia at
Borobudur, Indonesia,” 1. (Marg: A Magazine of the Arts, Sep2012, Vol. 64
Issue 1, p12, 14p
Item: 82830016).
Photographs:

All photographs from Miksic, John N et al.“Borobudur: Majestic Mysterious Magnificent”,

except,

Photo 8, which is from Wayman, Alex “Reflections on the Theory of Barabudur as a

Mandala” in Gómez, Luis O “Barabuḍur, history and significance of a Buddhist monument” and
Photo 10 which is from the website http://dulichduyenhai.vn/bali-jakarta.

57
At the time, we had been gradually traversing the island of Java, Indonesia from
west to east and had reached the city of Yogyakarta, the cultural centre of Java.

While staying in Yogyakarta, we heard tales of a colossal, ancient Buddhist

monument, constructed from over 2 million stone building blocks, perched upon a
small hilltop and surrounded by a lush, fertile plain.

The monument had been abandoned and lost in the jungle for hundreds of years
but following its rediscovery in 1814, it had been gradually restored to much of its
former glory.

This sounded to us like a very mysterious and fascinating place to visit. It piqued
our curiosity.

From the moment we learned of its existence, it seemed that we were inexorably
destined to set foot upon this ancient monument and experience its raw energy and
magnificence for ourselves.

So it was that we came to discover the wonders of Borobudur, the largest Buddhist
monument in the entire world.

.the galleries
The Bodhisattva was once reborn as a woodpecker. One day he met a lion who had a
bone caught in his throat and was suffering horribly.
The woodpecker propped open the lion's mouth with a bit of wood and walked into it

58
to remove the bone. The lion thanked him and they went their separate ways. It happened later that
the woodpecker was unable to find anything to eat, and in his search, he came upon the lion who
was feasting on the flesh of an antelope. Although the woodpecker was very hungry, the lion would
not share any of his meal. This saddened the woodpecker, but he did not take revenge, for good
deeds do not necessarily occasion any reward other than the pleasure of doing someone else a good
turn. (a story told in the panels of Borobudur)

Ascending the eastern stairway to the first gallery, pilgrims follow the journey of the Buddha through
his five hundred earthly reincarnations.
These texts provide a traditional version of the Buddha's life, along with legends that describe his
youth until his Enlightenment and first sermon at Sarnath. The panels are the Buddhist equivalent of
Christian gospels. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein, "The future Buddha can be reborn as a king; he can
be reborn as an animal; he can be reborn as a monk – all
kinds of possibilities. But each time that he is reborn, he
practices charity, self-denial, all kinds of good deeds. So
five hundred times is the Buddha reborn, and each time he
commits an act of generosity, wisdom, fairness or love.
Repetition is essential. Five hundred times the message has
to be repeated, repeated, repeated. And in all these
existences, he accumulates all the merits, all the wisdom, all
the insight that he needs to come well-prepared into his last earthly existence, which is the existence
as the Prince Siddhartha, who becomes the Buddha."

The Buddha was born Prince Siddhartha to a royal family in India in the 6th century BC. He lived,
like other princes, a life of luxury in sumptuous surroundings, shielded from the misery of the world
by his parents.
Yet, there was dissatisfaction in his life, and
against his parents' wishes, Siddhartha left the
confines of the palaces.

On the first exposed gallery of Borobudur, the

reliefs chronicle the experiences of the young
prince as he traveled for the first time beyond the
palace gates. Once outside, Siddhartha
encountered the harsh realities of the world. He
saw sickness and death, and he realized that life
is suffering. Determined to find a release from
anguish, Siddartha began his quest for
Enlightenment, eventually coming to understand
that all misery is caused by unfulfilled desire.
Only by extinguishing desire, did he achieve Enlightenment and become the Buddha.

"But the interesting thing about the story of the Buddha at Borobudur,"
says Fontein, "is that, unlike all the other life stories of the Buddha that
are retold all over the Buddhist world, this story stops at the moment
that the Buddha reaches supreme Enlightenment and wants to share the
content, the insight that he has gained, rather than enter Nirvana. So he
goes to Deer Park in Benares, and he sets in motion the wheel of the
law. He starts to preach. And what does he preach? He preaches the
story that is then shown on the next galleries of Borobudur, the journey
of a young disciple named Sudhana."

The panels of the next three tiers are devoted to the quest of young Sudhana, the son of a rich Indian
merchant, who is attracted by the Buddha's wisdom and sets off in search of truth and Enlightenment.
He is the Everyman character who serves as a role model for all who wish to learn the teachings of
the Buddha.

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 "This young man visits fifty-three teachers, and they are from
all walks of life," adds Fontein, "because it is believed that the
flame of supreme Enlightenment lives in everybody, in all
sentient beings, be it animal or human. He visits a ship's captain,
a banker, nuns, monks, two kings, night goddesses, even the
god Shiva is among them. Each one of them gives him a little
piece of the truth, but none of them can teach him the entire
truth.

Now it's very clear

that the longer he is on his pilgrimage, the holier the
atmosphere of the story gets and the wiser the teachers
are. And then, at a certain moment, he reaches a stage
where only the two most enlightened beings – who
already themselves have attained Enlightenment but
who have postponed their entry into Buddhahood and
Nirvana to wait for all human beings to follow them –
can serve as his teachers. And in the end, he is taken by
the hand and led into the world of Buddhas. It is at that moment that the pilgrim, having achieved
Supreme Knowledge and Ultimate Truth, suddenly finds himself in the splendorous world of the
Buddhas."
Lundquist, John M. “Borobudur: The Top Plan and the Upper Terraces.” East and West 45, no. 1/4
(1995): 283–304. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757214.

Murthy, K. Krishna. “Borobudur Stūpa: A Unique Metempsychosis of Buddhist Religious Ideas

into Architectural Terms.” The Tibet Journal 19, no. 1 (1994): 48–53.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/43302263.

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